Powder Technology 163 (2006) 188 – 195

www.elsevier.com/locate/powtec

Spray-agglomeration of NPK-fertilizer in a rotating drum granulator

J. Degrève a,⁎, J. Baeyens b , M. Van de Velden c , S. De Laet d
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, de Croylaan, 46, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
b
School of Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom
c
Department of Bio-Engineering, Universiteit Antwerpen, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerpen, Belgium
d
BASF-Antwerpen, Scheldelaan 602, 2000 Antwerpen, Belgium
Received 8 January 2004; received in revised form 12 December 2005
Available online 6 March 2006

Abstract

The continuous production of 3 to 4.5 mm NPK-granules is achieved by spraying an appropriate mixture onto recycle or reflux (undersize)
product in a rotating drum. Hot air is used to evaporate the water. An extensive study was performed on an industrial granulator to evaluate mass
and energy balances, to define the average residence time of the reflux-particles and to develop a model for particle growth.
The average residence time was measured from tracer experiments. The mechanism of granulation follows the particle growth principle of
drying and layering. Model equations developed by Nienow for a batch fluidized bed granulation were modified to predict continuous operations.
The model equation defines the thickness of the coating layer in terms of the initial particle size and mass flow rate of the reflux particles, the
mass flow rate of the sprayed mixture, and both the average residence time of the particles and their contact time with the spray. The resulting
equation is

3A 12A2 12A3 30M ð1−eÞtc

þ 2 þ 3 ¼
dp0 2dp0 3dp0 Rs

Predictions using the model equations were compared with experimental findings. An acceptable degree of fitting was obtained for all
operating conditions, although the model underestimates the growth rate of smaller particles.
The use of the model is further illustrated to predict the effects from variations in reflux granulometry, rotational speed of the drum or increased
throughput.
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fertilizer; Granulation; Rotating drum; Modelling

1. Introduction The resulting NPK-paste has a composition of 12−28 wt.%

The BASF-plant in Antwerp (B) produces approximately
1.1 mio tonnes/year of NPK-fertilizer in different formulations
(15−15−15, 20−10−10, etc.) according to the traditional
reaction of phosphate ore with nitric acid to a mixed phospho-
ric/nitric acid and Ca(NO3)2. The subsequent reaction of Ca
(NO3)2 with NH3 and CO2 produces NH4NO3 and CaCO3. The
mixed acid is neutralized with NH3, and inorganic salts are
added to obtain the correct product composition.
H2O and is granulated in rotary drums, followed by screening
and crushing to the commercial grade product. The overall
flowsheet is given in Fig. 1. Undersize and crushed oversize
fractions are recycled to the granulator. The product is further
dried, cooled and evacuated to the silos. Typical particle size
distributions of recycle stream and product are given in Fig. 2.
The rotary drum has dimensions as given in Fig. 3. A ring of
indicated dimensions is included in the drum. The slope is 1%
and the speed 5.2 rpm. Typical operating data are:

• 26 to 30 tph of product of commercial grade 3−4.5 mm;

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +32 16 322367; fax: +32 16 322991. • 28 m3/h of NPK-paste at an average of 20% H2O and density
E-mail address: jan.degreve@cit.kuleuven.ac.be (J. Degrève). of 1620 kg/m3 is fed to the granulator;
0032-5910/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2006.01.019
 J. Degrève et al. / Powder Technology 163 (2006) 188–195 189

Distributor
lAir

Coarse screen
Furnace
Dedusting

Air Dedusting Ele

vat
ore
Fine screen
Rolls crusher
Furnace
Rotary dryer
Reflux belt conveyor

Rotary cooler

Recycle
Granulator Ambient air
(rotating drum) Distributor
NPK-mix Product screen

Reflux
BFHE

Conveyor belt
To silos

Fig. 1. Flowsheet of the NPK-granulation process.

• the reflux stream is approximately 90 tph; 2. Particle growth in the granulator

• the pellets leaving the granulator have a moisture content
below 1.5 wt.%;
• hot air (approx. 50,000 Nm3/h) at 330 °C and additional
secondary, ambient air (approx. 27,000 Nm3/h) leave the
granulator at 105 °C;
• approximately 2 tph of fines are evacuated to the cyclone
dust collectors.
The drum is equipped with lifters (scoops) in the section
ahead of the ring. A total of 84 lifters are present and divided in
4 subsequent rows.
Each lifter is 1122 mm long, 670 mm wide and 270 mm
high.
The position of the lifters is illustrated in Fig. 3: the first 3
sub-sections each contains 24 lifters, positioned at an angle of
15° around the circumference of the drum; sub-section 4 only
contains 12 lifters, at an angle of 30°.
The various flow rates and temperatures were measured for
different operating conditions. Material properties were
extracted from Sandler [1], Perry and Green [2] and Keleti
[3]. Energy and material balances were made over the granu-
lator, and these were found to be satisfied within a 10% margin
2.1. Introduction and preliminary observations
Rotary drum granulation is a commonly used process,
although the efficiency expressed as a percentage of commercial
grade product, is rather low.
Recycling is hence always needed and recycle to feed ratios
of over 5 / 1 are frequent [4]. The recycled material acts as
nucleus for spray deposit.
The mechanism of granulation follows a particle growth
principle: the sprayed mixture wets the surface of the reflux
particles, whereupon growth takes place either through drying
and agglomeration or through drying and layering. Both mecha-
nisms are illustrated in Fig. 4.
Both mechanisms have been described in detail by Nienow
and Rowe [5].
Whereas growth by agglomeration mostly occurs when a
binder is added, layered growth is the result of particle coating
30
25
20
xi (%)

Recycle
of error. Deviations can be attributed to neglecting the fines 15 Product
evacuated to the dedusting, to neglecting heat losses through the 10
drum wall and to neglecting heat losses over the screening/
5
crushing and reflux cycle.
0
The major objectives of the study, subject of the present
0 1 2 3 4 5
paper, were the assessment of a granulator model and its use to dpi (mm)
predict expected product characteristics when altering operating
conditions. The text below summarizes the findings. Fig. 2. Particle size distribution (PSD) of the recycle and product streams.
190 J. Degrève et al. / Powder Technology 163 (2006) 188–195

1.55m 1.55m 1.55m 1.55m 5.8m

NPK-
spray

α
reflux

1
w
A A A B
h

Fig. 3. Dimensions of the rotary granulator (∅ 4.285 m, 12 m long), including hold-up ring (∅ 2.485 m) and lifting scoops of length l = 1.122 m, height
h = 0.27 m and width w = 0.67 m. A single scoop is illustrated. Sections A contain 24 scoops at angle α = 15°; section B contains 12 scoops at angle
α = 30°.

by the feed material, followed by solidification of the material 2.2. The batch fluidized bed granulator model of Nienow
on the particle surface. Theoretical expressions to describe particle
growth by both mechanisms have been presented by Nienow and Nienow developed model equations for an idealized layer-
Rowe [5], based upon earlier work by mainly Smith and Nienow growth in a batch fluidized bed granulator. The resulting
[6,7]. equations relate the rate of particle growth to the initial particle
Kapur [8] also developed equations for the kinetics of size (dp0), to the quantity of particles in the bed (M0), to the bulk
granulation by the crushing and layering mechanism. (ρB) and true particle density (ρp) and to the constant feed rate
Additional phenomena and treatments have subsequently (mb = dMb / dt). The equation is given by
been presented in literature, considering various effects and sys-
tems, e.g. batch and continuous fluidized-bed granulation with

 
ddp dA mb
binder [19]; coalescence, layering and abrasion [9]; binder- ¼2 ¼ ð1Þ
dt dt qp
agglomeration in a drum [4]; growth and attrition for continuous M0 qB
3
dp0 þ 12A
d2
þ 12A2
3
dp0
fluidized-bed granulation [10,18]; coalescence growth [11], and p0
nucleation with a binder liquid [12].
A model by a two-stage auto-layering principle in contin-
uous drums has been presented by Venkataramana et al. [13], The annular volume of the coating surrounding each particle,
whereas the dynamic behaviours of fluidized-bed granulation Vb, is given by :
has been studied by Drechsler et al. [14].
Pictures of halved particles (Fig. 5) revealed a typical layer- Vb ¼ k=6½ðdp0 þ 2AÞ3 −dp0
3
 ¼k=6½6dp0
2
A
structure (onion-ring) thus confirming this auto-layering mech- ð2Þ
anism: the ring-structure is made visual through application of a þ 12dp0 A2 þ 8A3 
dye on the reflux particles. This finding enabled us to assess the
applicability of a modified “onion-ring” model, initially
presented by Smith and Nienow [6,7] for batch fluidized 2.3. Modification of the Nienow et al. approach for continuous
granulation. The mechanism corresponds to the time-dependent granulation in a rotary drum
growth of the particle by application of a coating layer, of
thickness A, as illustrated in Fig. 6. The model equation can be adapted according to the
following procedure.

Fig. 4. Possible mechanisms of particle growth. Fig. 5. Photograph of halved NPK-granule showing the layered structure.
 J. Degrève et al. / Powder Technology 163 (2006) 188–195 191

For a feed rate R of 99 700 kg/h at ρB = 1140 kg/m3, the

average τ was 13.4 min. The particle volume in the drum was
d po previously estimated at 19.8 m3, which would yield an average
residence time of 13.6 min. The experimental value is slightly
smaller probably due to the approximation of Eq. (4-b).
With a residence time of 13.4 min, Eq. (6) calculates the
A hold-up at 11.3%.
The contact time tc of particles and spray is also calculated
Fig. 6. Idealized “onion-ring” layering of the particle. from the known geometry. The spray length is approximately
6 m (by visual observation and because the deposit of NPK on
The hold-up X (representing the percentage fraction of the the ring is minor).
rotary drum filled with material) can be calculated empirically The contact time tc is calculated as follows [16]:
according to Friedman et al. [15]:
tv nOm lj s hv nOm lj s
LX tc ¼ ¼ ð7Þ
s¼ ð3Þ Vtot vv Vq
F
with,
with,
tv: particle falling time (s)
τ: average residence time (min) n: rotating speed (rpm)
L: length of drum (m) Om: total cross sectional area of the lifters per row (m2)
F: feed rate of reflux particles (m3/m2 h) Vtot: total volume of particles in granulator (m3)
X: fraction of rotary drum filled with material (%) Vv: falling velocity of particle of given size (m/s)

The total volume (VGR, in cubic meters)of the drum The velocity vv is calculated for a falling particle, discharged
granulator, with diameter D (m), is : from the lifter at a given height hv in the drum as shown in
Fig. 7. The falling height can assume values between hv1 and
VGR ¼ k=4½D2 L ð4  aÞ
hv2, and an average of both values has been taken into account
The volume occupied by the particles, Vp, can be calculated in further calculations. The falling time tv can be obtained from
by considering a layer of particles retained ahead of the ring and [17]:
a particle layer of gradually decreasing height towards the exit 0 rffiffiffiffiffiffi 1
K2
of the drum (after the ring). B −vv C
1 B K C
Since the ring has a height of 0.9 m, and with the tv ¼ − pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi lnBrffiffiffiffiffiffi1 C ð8Þ
approximation of a horizontal level of particles across the 2 K1 K2 @ K2 A
þ vv
bottom of the drum ahead of the ring (section of 6.2 m long) and K1
a steadily decreasing thickness after the ring (section of 5.8 m
long), the particle volume becomes : 3CD qf gðqp −qf Þ
K1 ¼ K2 ¼ ð9Þ
2
4dp qp qp
ðD=2Þ sinh
Vp f ð6:2 þ 5:8=2Þf19:8 m3 ð4  bÞ
2 It is assumed here that particles behave individually. Possible
cluster formation will increase the falling velocity and reduce
For a reflux feed rate R is expressed as kilograms per hour,
the falling time. Incorporating the contact time in the modified
the Eq. (3) defines the particle hold-up X, since:
R
F¼ kD2  in m3 =m2 min ð5Þ
qB 4 60
thus
Om
Rs
X ¼ kD2  ð6Þ h v2
qB 4 L60

h v1
The average residence time was determined by a peak
addition of 200 kg of colored tracer particles with the reflux
flow. The concentration of the tracer particles at the exit of the
drum was determined by sampling of a 1 l exit mix every 30 s
and by continuous color imaging. The samples taken were also
used to evaluate the size distribution. Fig. 7. Falling particles being discharged from lifters.
192 J. Degrève et al. / Powder Technology 163 (2006) 188–195

100 7
90
6
80
70 5
Basis
60
xicum (%)

Measured 4

xi (%)
+10% large particles
50 Predicted
3 +20% large particles
40 Reflux-feed
+30% large particles
30 2

20 1
10
0
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
dpi (mm)
dpi (mm)

Fig. 10. Sensitivity of PSD with respect to sieve changes.

Fig. 8. Comparison between model-predicted and measured particle growth
(cumulative PSD).
Incorporating the above Eq. (12) into the Nienow et al.
growth equation enables the calculation of the increase in size of model equation yields an expression for the thickness of the
the particles during their passage through the drum. coating layer A in terms of the operating parameters:
The value of Om will be function of the lifter geometry, of the
6Rs k h 2 i M
b
flowability of the powder (angle of repose) and of other relevant NVb ¼ 3 6dp0 A þ 12dp0 A2 þ 8A3 ¼ ð13Þ
powder properties such as density, size and size distribution. kdp0 qB 60 6 qp
Surface properties of the powder might alter its flowability. This
or,
possible effect should be considered separately.
!
The hold-up X has previously been defined in terms of Mb q B 3 s h 2 i
operational geometry and parameters. The total volume of dp0 ¼ 6dp0 A þ 12dp0 A2 þ 8A3 ð14Þ
Rqp 60
particles is given by:

2
If the thickness of the coating layer is very small in
X kD comparison with the initial particle size, or A ≪ dp0, then
Vp0 ¼ XVGR where; VGR ¼ L ð10Þ
4 Vb ≅ πdp0
2
and the equation can be simplified to:
!
Mb q B s
Combining this equation with the previous expression for dp0 ¼ A ð15Þ
hold-up yields: Rqp 10

X The rate of growth of the overall particle diameter is given

k 3 Rs
Vp0 ¼ N dp0 ¼ kD2  VGR ð11Þ by:
6 qB 4 L60
ddp dðdp0 þ 2AÞ dA dA dMb
¼ ¼2 ¼2 ð16Þ
The number of particles is therefore equal to : dt dt dt dMb dt

If the feed rate of NPK-mix to the granulator is constant, i.e.

6Rs for mb(= dMb / dt) = M, the equation becomes:
N¼ 3 ð12Þ
kdp0 qB 60
ddp dA dMb M
dt
¼2
dMb dt
¼
  ð17Þ
Rs qp
From Fig. 6 and Eqs. (1) and (2), the thickness and volume of
60 qB
3
dp0 þ 12A
2
dp0
þ 12A2
3
dp0
the coating layer are known.

which expresses the time evolution of thickness of the coating

layer as:
6

dA 1 ddp 30M

 
5
¼ ¼ ð18Þ
4 Basis dt 2 dt qp 3
þ 12A
þ 12A2
xi (%)

3 +10% large particles Rs q dp0 2

dp0 3
+20% large particles B dp0
2 +30% large particles
1

0
Simplification is again possible for A ≪ dp0 so that:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
dpi (mm)
ddp dA dMb dp0 qB M
¼2 i20 ð19Þ
Fig. 9. Sensitivity of PSD with respect to crusher output.
dt dMb dt Rqp s
 J. Degrève et al. / Powder Technology 163 (2006) 188–195 193

7
The initial batch model of Nienow is hence adapted to the
6
continuous operation of the granulator through inclusion of the
5
flow rate of NPK-mix M, and the reflux flow R.
4

The thickness of the coating layer is obtained by integrat-
ing the evolution equation for t from 0 to tc and for dp from
dp0 to dp0 + A. This results in a cubic equation for the unknown
A:
3A 12A 12A 30M ð1−eÞtc
2 3
þ 2 þ 3 ¼
dp0 2dp0 3dp0 Rs
or, in its simplified form (if A ≪ dp0)
1 dp0 qB Mtc
A ¼ Ddp ¼ 10
2 Rqp s
where ε represents the bed voidage.
Coating only occurs when the particles are in contact with
the NPK-spray, i.e. during a time tc, referred to as the “time of
contact” and previously calculated from the known geometry
and rotational speed of the granulator.
Both the average residence time of the particles (hold-up) in
the drum, and the contact time between the particles and the
NPK-spray are of paramount importance.
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Experimental validation
Data were collected at different operating conditions. The
Illustration of the modelling results is given in Fig. 8, for
experimental data at given reflux and product size distributions,
while the granulator was operating at a reflux flow rate of
95,700 kg/h, a bulk density of 1140 kg/m3 and an average air
temperature of 220 °C.
Although model predictions underestimate the growth of
smaller particles, the prediction of the commercial grade
product (3–4.5 mm) is very fair. The reasons for the discrepancy
at smaller particle sizes may be due to the combined effects of
(i) the fact that terminal velocities were calculated with the same
formula, only valid for the turbulent flow regime; (ii) the fact
that sieve analysis of smaller particle sizes are subject to larger
errors than larger particles; and (iii) neglecting agglomeration of
fines with the layering approach.
6 (undersize) product in a rotating drum. Hot air is used to
5 evaporate the water. Mass and energy balances were assessed,
4 the average residence time of the reflux particles in the drum
Basis
xi (%)
X (%)
5.2 rpm
3 6.2 rpm
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8
ð20Þ dpi (mm)
Fig. 12. Sensitivity of PSD with respect to the rotational speed of the drum.
3.2. Predictive use of the model equations
ð21Þ
The model equations enable the assessment of the effect of
varying operating parameters such as the modification of the
sieves, the reduction of crusher speed, the increase of NPK-
spray or the modification of the rotational speed of the drum.
Although these parameter influences could not be established
by modifying the operations in the continuous BASF-process,
the following examples illustrate the predictive use of the model
equations.
The sieves contribute to 75% of the reflux stream, whereas
the crusher only contributes for 25%. Changes in crusher out-
put therefore hardly affect the particle growth as illustrated in
Fig. 9.
If the sieves are changed to yield larger particles (10% to
30%), model predictions illustrate that more particles of
commercial grade (3–4.5 mm) will be produced. This is
shown in Fig. 10.
Fig. 11 illustrates that operating the rotary drum granulator at
a 20% higher NPK-mix (spray) will only slightly alter the
distribution of particle sizes, with a slight shift toward the larger
size range.
The influence of the rotational speed of the drum is also
predicted. Increasing the speed will produce more particles of
the desired size range. Increasing the speed from the current 5.2
to 6.4 rpm will enable to increase the spray capacity by 20%, as
illustrated in Fig. 12.
4. Conclusions
Experiments were carried out on an industrial rotating drum
granulator used to produce 3 to 4.5 mm commercial grade NPK-
granules by spraying an appropriate mixture onto recycle

3 was determined and a model for particle growth was developed.

+20% NPK-mix
2
The average residence time was measured from tracer
experiments and results confirmed the hold-up fraction of
1
particles in the drum.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The mechanism of granulation follows the particle growth
dpi (mm) principle of drying and layering. Model equations developed by
Nienow for a batch fluidized bed granulation were modified to
Fig. 11. Sensitivity of PSD with respect to NPK-mix increase. predict continuous operations.
194 J. Degrève et al. / Powder Technology 163 (2006) 188–195
The model equation determines the thickness A of the
coating layer in terms of:
– dp0, the initial particle size of reflux particles as determined
by the operation characteristics of sieves and crusher;
– M, the mass flow rate of the sprayed mixture;
– ε, the average voidage of the particle bed in the drum;
– R, the mass flow rate of the reflux stream;
– tc, the contact time of each size range of reflux particles with
the spray;
– τ, the average residence time of the particles in the rotating
drum.
The resulting equation is
3A 12A2 12A3 30M ð1−eÞtc
þ 2 þ 3 ¼
dp0 2dp0 3dp0 Rs
The average residence time was determined from the feed
rate of reflux particles and the effective volume of these
particles in the drum. The contact time was predicted for each
particle size under consideration from the geometry of the drum
(diameter, hold-up ring, dimensions of the lifters), from the
rotational speed, from the spray penetration depth and from the
average path length of the particles as defined by their falling
velocities and falling height.
Predictions using the model equations were compared with
experimental findings. Although the fitting was excellent for the
commercial grade particles for all operating conditions, the
model underestimates the growth rate of smaller particles.
The use of the model is further illustrated to predict the
effects from variations in reflux granulometry, where increasing
the particle size will yield extra granules of commercial size.
Adapting the rotational speed of the drum will enable to
increase the throughput of the granulator.
5. Symbols
A thickness of coating layer (m)
CD drag coefficient (−)
D diameter of the rotary granulator drum (m)
dp diameter of growing particle (m)
dp0 initial diameter of growing particle (m)
F specific feed rate of reflux particles (m3/m2 h)
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
hv particle falling height (m)
L length of granulator drum (m)
lj length of granulator drum with lifters being present
(m)
mb feed rate of reflux (kg/h)
M0 mass of particles initially present in fluidized bed (kg)
Mb mass of material added to growing particles (kg)
N number of solid particles in granulator (−)
n rotating speed (rpm)
Om total cross sectional area of lifters per row (m2)
R reflux feed rate to granulator (kg/h)
tc contact time between particles and spray (s)
tv particle falling time (s)
vv falling velocity of particle (m/s)
Vb shell volume added to growing particle (m3)
VGR volume of granulator drum (m3)
Vp0 volume of particles with diameter dp0 in granulator
(m3)
Vtot total volume of solid particles in granulator (m3)
X percentage or fraction of granulator volume filled with
solid material (%)
Greek letters
ε granulator bed voidage (−)
ρB bulk density (kg/m3)
ρf fluid density (kg/m3)
ρP particle density (kg/m3)
τ average residence time of solid material in granulator
drum (h)
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the BASF-staff and operators of
the Antwerp plant in Belgium for their assistance in the course
of this research.
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