Wireless Communications 2012 1 PDF

Mobile
Communications 2012
[1] Wireless Digital Communications Dr. Kamilo Feher/ Prentice Hall 1995
[2] Text: Wireless Communications, Theodore S. Rappaport/ Prentice Hall 1996
[3] RF microelectronics, Razavi/Prentice Hall 1998
Course Contents
A. Introduction
 Introduction to Wireless, Cellular, Digital, PCS-Mobile Radio [1- Chap.1,2- Chap.1]
 Wireless/Cellular/PCS
 Mobile Environment
 Regulation
 Transceiver Element
B. Mobile Environment
 The Cellular Concept [2 Chap.2]
 Radio Propagation Models [2 Chap.3-4] [3 Chap. 4] [1 Chap.3]
C.Transceiver Elements
 Modulations [2- Chap.5]
 Digital Modulations [1- Chap.4]
 Channel Coding [2- Chap. 6] [1- Chap.5]
 Source Coding [2-Chap. 7] [1- Chap.2]
 Spread-Spectrum System [1 Chap.6]
 Equalization [2 Chap.6] [1 Chap.4]
 Diversity [2 Chap6] [1 Chap.7]
D. Regulations
E. Systems
 Multiple Access [2 Chap8]
 Wireless Networking [2 Chap.9]
 Cases [2 Chap. 10] [1 Chap.8-9]
Course Schedule:
暫定
2 月 23 日 Introduction
Overview of Wireless Communications and Cellular
3月1日
System
3月8日
Large Scale Propagations
3 月 15 日
Small Scale Propagations
3 月 22 日
3 月 29 日 Case Study: Bluetooth
4 月 5 日 RF Transceivers (I)
4 月 12 日 RF Transceivers (II)
4 月 19 日
4 月 26 日
Digital Modulation and Detection
5月3日
Spread Spectrum Modulations
5 月 10 日
5 月 17 日 Case Study: UWB
5 月 24 日 Equalization
5 月 31 日 Diversity
6 月 7 日 Channel Coding (I)
6 月 14 日 Channel Coding (II)
6 月 21 日
REQUIREMENTS:
1. 45% Term Exam
2. 45% Final Exam.
3. 10% Class Evaluations
TA: 林執中 leslie77914@yahoo.com.tw
Office: MIRC 316

Course URL: www.nctutwt.net
Phone: 5731664 (#31664)
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2012/1/19
 National Chiao Tung University  Institute of Electronics
Dimensions of Wireless Information Society
Human Technology
• Making technology transparent
Virtual Presence
• Making distance
transparent
Seamless Solutions
• Making systems transparent
1
Changing Lifestyles
Page 3
 Instit ute of Electr onics  Nati on al Chi a o Tun g Uni ve r si ty
Stella Kuei Ann Wen 2012/1/19
Mobile trends
Mobile = Connected and in touch

anywhere
Expanding markets
More capable and affordable mobile

PCs and cellular phones
Page 4
2
Wireless Link Between All Devices
Page 5
 Instit ute of Electr onics  www.bluetooth.com
Nati on al Chi a o Tun g Uni ve r si ty
The Three In One Phone
Office Hotel Out and About
LAN PSTN
PSTN
Page 6
3
KEY Factors on Wireless Design
Applications : System Considerations

Where : Environment (Channel)
How : Regulation
Implementation: Transceiver
2012/1/19
Content
Part A. System Considerations
Part B. Mobile Environment
Part C. Transceiver Elements

Part D. Cases
Page 8
4
A. System Considerations
2012/1/19
Outdoor/Indoor ?
Services
Capacity ? Networking ?
Environments Cellular ? Mobility ?
Capacity Data/Voice ? Grade of
Protocol Service ?
Transceiver PHY Process ?

Spectral Spec. Digital/Analog ?
Power Spec. Processor ?
Cost Consideration OS ?
Regulations Implementations
5
Services:
Voice-Oriented Services
Low-Power, Local Area Systems ( Cordless
Telephone)
High-power, Wide-Area Systems (Cellular)
Data-Oriented Services
High-Speed, Local Area Systems ( WLANs)
Low-Speed, Wide-Area Systems ( Mobile Data)
Page 11
High-power, Wide-Area Systems (Cellular)
PSTN: Public Service Telephone Network

MTSO: Mobil telephone switching office
Base Station
Mobile Station
Page 12
6
High-Speed, Local Area Systems
( WLANs)
PSTN
Cable
Internet ….. etc.
ATM
Modem
….. etc. Access
Point
PCMCIA
RADIO
BOARD
Page 13
Low-Speed, Wide-Area Systems

( Mobile Data)
Page 14
7
Environments
Large Scale Path Loss

Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering
Small Scale Fading

Multipath time delay spread
Doppler spread
Cochannel Interference
Adjacent Channel Interference
Page 15
Doppler Shift
Diffraction
C
A
B A
REFLECTION
Page 16
8
Capacity
With fixed number of channels to support an

arbitrarily large number of subscribers
Page 17
Cellular Concept
Page 18
9
Cellular Concept (Cell Split)
Page 19
Fixed Channel Assignment:

Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels
Easy for blocking
Dynamic Channel Assignment

Basestation request channel from MSC on each call
Assignment strategies :
likelihood of future blocking
frequency of use of the candidate
reuse distance
cost function
Page 20
10
Handoff : When a mobile moves into a different
cell while a conversation is in progress, the MSC
automatic transfers the call to a new channel of a
new basestation.
Need to be successful and unfrequented
Page 21
1st Generation Cellular
Page 22
11
2nd Generation Cellular
Page 23
Non-cellular systems
-- Taxi company
-- Fire
-- Police
-- Medical
-- Pager
-- Cordless Telephone
-- Bluetooth
-- WLAN
Page 24
12
Tranceiver :
Propagation Environment :
Path Loss Fading Interference
External Noise
Power Constrain
Bandwidth Constrain
Overcome impairments
Encrease bandwidth
Encrease bit rate
Transceiver Design:
Modulation Equilization Coding Diversity Multiple Access
Page 25
ELEMENTS:
Transmitter Channel Receiver
Coder Modulator RF Front RF Front Demodulator DeCoder

* ECC * Mod End End
* Encryption * Spreading
101100111..
Page 26
13
Cases PRISM Antenna to Bits
A Complete DS Spread Spectrum Radio Chipset
ADC CCA
I ADC
HFA3424 DE- DE-
LNA SPREAD MODULATE
Q ADC
HSP3824 Tx/Rx
LO BASEBAND
HFA3624 DATA I/O
HFA3724 PROCESSOR
RF/IF QMODEM
MODULATE/ CONTROL -
SPREAD
ENCODE TEST I/O
HFA3925
RF POWER
AMPLIFIER
AND Tx/Rx
SWITCH
HFA3524
DUAL
SYNTHESIZER
AP96358 4-4
Page 27
Regulations
IMTS: Improved mobile Telephone Service
FCC: Federal Communication Commission
CCIR: International Radio Consultative Committee
TIA: Telephone industry Association
EIA: Electronic industries Association
CCITT: International Telegraph and
Telephone Consultative Committee
ANSI: America national Standards institute
Page 28
14
B. Mobile Environment
Model Analysis
2012/1/19
Line of Site Transmission Model

LOS Radio Transmission
Design Essentials
Path Analysis Approaches
Outdoor Propagation Model

Conceptual layout of a cellular system
Radio propagation in the mobile environment
Impairments – fading in the mobile environment
Indoor Propagation Model
Page 30
15
Path Analysis Approaches
( 1.) Calculate EIRP (effective isotropically
radiated power) at the transmit antenna.
( 2.) Calculate free-space loss between
TX & RX, f (distance, freq.)
( 3.) Calculate on estimate RSL
(Receive Signal Level) at the first
active stage of receiver.
Page 31
Page 32
16
Page 33
Free Space Path Loss:

Pt Gt Gr( ) 2
Friis free space equation: Pr(d)=
(4 ) 2 d 2 L
Pt: transmitted power Pr(d): received power
Gt : transmitted antenna gain Gr: receiver antenna gain
L: system loss factor not relate to propagation
- If an istrophic radiator is fed by a transmitted power Pt ,

Pt/4d2 (W/m2) will be radiated at a distance d.
Page 34
17
EIRP = PtGt
Free-space path loss : Pt Gt Gr(  )2
Pr (d)=
( 4 )2 d 2 L
PL = 10log (Pt/Pr )= -10log (Pr/Pt )
= -10logGtGr 2 / (4d)2. (=c/f )
(Unit Gain Antenna, Gt=Gr=1)
= -10log 2 / (4d)2. (=c/f )
Page 35
= -10log 2 / (4d)2. (=c/f )

= -10logc 2 / (4df)2. (=c/f =3*105km/f=3*105*10-9/f(GHZ)*10-9)
= -20logc+20log4+ 20log10FGHz +20log10D
= 96.6 + 20log10FGHz + 20log10D

(path distance in statute miles)
= 92.4 + 20log10FGHz + 20log10Dkm
Page 36
18
Outdoor Propagation Model
Conceptual layout of a cellular system
MTSO: Mobil telephone switching office
CGSA: Cellular geographic survey area
Cell site apart: 6.4~12.8Km
Page 37
Radio propagation in the mobile environment

Additive factor to LOS communications: motion
(1) path loss:
 CCIR formula #:
LdB = 40log(dm)- 20log(hT hR)
hT: height of transmit antenna above plane(m)
hR: height of receive antenna above plane(m)
d: distance(m)
Page 38
19
 Indoor Model
.
M1 B5
M2
B3
Figure 6.2 Tx and Rx at different floors. B3 is in the building. B4
outside the
M5 building, at street level. B5 outside the
B4
building , above street level.
M4
M3
Page 39
Indoor Model :
M9
M6 M7
B1
M1
M2
M4
M8 M5 B1
Figure 6.1 Indorr environment
Page 40
20
Parameters Being Considered
 Construction materials.
 Types of interiors.
 Locations within a building.
 Location of Tx and Rx antennas
Page 41
Model 1: B1 to M1(base 1 to mobile 1).

Inside a hall or a large area.
P1 = S + 10n1log(d)
P1 : path loss
S : free space loss
n1 : environment factor, n1 = 2 ~ 6
d : distance
Page 42
21
C. Transceiver Elements
Transceiver Overview
Theoretic Brief
Building Blocks Brief
2012/1/19
Transceiver Overview
A/D Coding Mod. TX

Scramble
Protocol Framing
RX Demod Decoding D/A
Protocol
Page 44
22
Bluetooth Audio
Continous Variable Slope Delta-Modulation
(CVSD)
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 . . . . . . .
Page 45
BT Packets
Packet Format
72 54 0-2745
access code packet header payload
Page 46
23
GSM Packets
Times Frames, Time Slots and Bursts
1 hyperframe = 2048 superframes = 2715648 TDMA frames ( 3h 28min 53s 760ms )
0 1 2 3 2044 2045 2046 2047
0 1 2 3 47 48 49 50
0 1 24 25
1 superframes = 1326 TDMA frames ( 6.12s )

= 51 (26-frame) multiframes or 26 (51-frame)multiframes
Page 47
GSM
Interleave Times Frames, Time Slots and Bursts
1(26-frame) multiframes (120ms) 1(51-frame) multiframes (235ms)

= 26 TDMA frames = 51 TDMA frames
0 1 2 3 22 23 24 25 0 1 2 3 47 48 49 50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 TDMA frames (4.615ms) = 8 time slots
Page 48
24
BTError Control Coding
 Forward-Error Correction (FEC)

 1/3 rate: bit-repeat code
 2/3 rate: (15,10) shortened Hamming code
 Automatic Retransmission Query (ARQ)
 1-bit fast ACK/NAK
 1-bit sequence number
 header piggy-backing
Page 49
BT Error Checking
HEC
CRC
Page 50
25
Modulation Brief
Page 51
(1): Baseband TX/RX

Baseband Tx
Page 52
26
 Baseband RX
1 0 0
Page 53
 Signal Detection Basics
Page 54
27
(2): Passband TX/RX :
Modulation ( Transform baseband signal to radio signal )
Page 55
Page 56
28
Wave being transmitted in wireless environment :
 Impairments: Carrier wave and Timing

Page 57
Page 58
29
Page 59
[Example] BPSK:
Data: ai = { 1 ,0, 1, 0 … }
Data to phase : (t) = 0 if ai=1, (t) = if ai=0
Modulated data signal : S(t) = Acos( ct+ (t) ) = Acos(ct)
BPF
Antenna
Data in Data to phase Mod BPF ANT
ANT Amp BPF Carrier DeMod Decoding

Recovery - Correlation
- Integral
- Decision
- Timing
Page 60
30
Received: V(t) = Acos(ct + ) : phase delay caused by transmission.
Carrier recovery : V2(t) = A2cos2 (ct + ) = (1/2)[A2 + A2cos2(ct + )]
Freq. divided by 2  carry recovered: cos(ct + )
Demodulation by multiply:
Acos(ct + ) ·2cos(ct + ) = (A)[1 + cos2(ct + )]
Lowpass filtering for cos2(ct + ) and I(t) =+A extracted !
Actual case : with noise : domodulation with matching

Acos(ct + ) + n(t) x -------> Integral --> Sample at T +(A2T + N) --> Decision
2 Acos(ct + )
T
 dt
0
Decoding by integrator + symbol timing recovery circuit

output = integrator output at the end of bit interval
Page 61
Building Blocks Brief

Coder : Binary signal + code + multiple access scheme
Spectral Efficiency & ISI reduction
 Multiple Access Scheme
Error control/correct
DeCoder
 Modulator :
Coded signal + Carrier + Modulation Scheme
DeModulation
Equalization ( matching ) ------ Shaping
 Carrier Recovery ---------------- Recover carrier
Synchronization ----------------- Recover timing
BPSK, QPSK, MSK … etc. ---- Recover signal
Spreading
 RF Front End ( FROM “Wireless RF Training”

Sam Pritchett and Matt Harrison )
31
Multiple Access Scheme
 RF Front End ( FROM “Wireless RF Training”

Sam Pritchett and Matt
Harrison
RF Front End: For Frequency Shift

Design Parameters: Spectral Processing, Selectivity, Sensitivity

* ECC * Mod End End
* Encryption * Spreading
101100111..
Page 64
32
Frequency Shift Basics
m(t)cosct x m(t)cosIFt ( IF= c+LO)
2cosLOt
2m(t)cosctcosLOt=m(t) cos(c-LO)t+cosLO (c+LO) t
e.g. : IF=281MHz c=2.4GHz ….. LO=(2400-281) MHz
Image Signal : c+ 2 IF IF’= ( c+ 2 IF ) + LO

= ( c+ 2 IF ) + (IF + c )
= IF
Page 65
Page 66
33
Page 67
Constant Envelope Modulation
 GMSK v.s MSK
Page 68
34
 GFSK v.s FSK
Page 69
 Bluetooth v.s GSM
Page 70
35
Page 71
Page 72
36
Page 73
Page 74
37
Page 75
Page 76
38
Page 77
Page 78
39
Page 79
Function Block Overview
Coder Modulator IF RF
CRC Equalizer Amp
Viterbi Synchronizer Mixer
Speech Codec Matched Filter Limiter

(RPE-LPC,
CELP...) Coherent Detection Filter
Timing Recovering VCO

Scrambler
PLL VCO Frequency Syn.
Frequency Syn.
Page 80
40
Transceiver Overview (Cont.)
Page 81
Applications
TCP/IP HID RFCOMM
Data
L2CAP
Audio
Link Manager LMP
Baseband
RF
 A hardware description
 An application framework
Modules
Page 82
41
A Complete DS Spread Spectrum Radio Chipset
ADC CCA
I ADC
HFA3424 DE- DE-

LNA SPREAD MODULATE
Q ADC
HSP3824
LO Tx/Rx
BASEBAND
HFA3624 DATA I/O
HFA3724 PROCESSOR
RF/IF QMODEM
MODULATE/ CONTROL -
SPREAD
ENCODE TEST I/O
HFA3925
RF POWER
AMPLIFIER
AND Tx/Rx
SWITCH
HFA3524
DUAL
SYNTHESIZER
Page 83
42
2012/1/19
行動通訊 Mobile Communications

Overview of Wireless Communications
Trans Wireless Technology Laboratory

National Chiao Tung University
WS Wuen Mobile Communications 1
Outline
History of Wireless Communications

Wireless Vision and Future Trends
Technical Issues and Challenges
Modern Wireless Communication Systems
Wireless Spectrum, Regulations and Standards
1
2012/1/19
Overview of Wireless Communications History of Wireless Communications
Early Wireless Communications
Visual Communication
– Line of Sight (LOS) communication
– LOS distance further extended by telescopes
– e.g. Smoke signals, Heliographs and Semaphore
Heliograph signaling Semaphore signaling Semaphore wheel

[Source: Wikipedia] [Source: Portsdown Tunnels] [Source: ThinkQuest]
Origin of Wireless Communications
2
2012/1/19
3
2012/1/19
Overview of Wireless Communications Wireless Vision and Future Trends
Wireless vs. Mobile Communications
Wired/Wireless Network Today
RCA
Real-Time
GPS DVD/TV/VCR
Video
Auto
Cable
Ethernet Broadband
Internet
PCS Service
Mobile Mobile Data PC / Server DSL
Devices
Network
USB
PCS Digital
Device Printer Camera
Mobile Wired
Devices Devices
4
2012/1/19
Future of the Wired/Wireless World
UWB
Auto DVD /
GPS Real-Time
Video HDTV
3G BT 802.11 Broadband
WWN WPAN WLAN Digital Data
Mobile Data OC3 (Fiber/FWA)
3G Mobile PC / Server
Devices Devices WAN
SODA
Wireless Legend
Consumer Digital Red: Multi-Mode
POS Camera Printer
Green: Single Mode
Wireless Industry At A Crossroad

16 (in millions) 14.3
13.2
US Home Networking Purchases
14 12.5
12 10.7
Wireless outsold wired
10
9.3 home networking gear
7.3
8
12.3 13.6 for the first time in 2004!
5.4 11.3
6 6.9 9
4.6
4 2.6
2
2.8 2.7 2.5 1.7 1.2 0.9
0 0.7
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Wired Only Wireless Total Purchase
[Source: JupiterResearch Home Networking Model, 8/04]
5
2012/1/19
Trend – Convergence of 4C
Scanners
Game DVDs
Platforms MP3
Players Personal Computer
(Internet)
Consumer Electronics
(Broadcast) Portable Portable Wireless LAN
Game Cube Projectors
Wireless PAN DV Printers

Camcorders
Digital Notebook Storage

STBs Cameras PCs Devices
Cordless PDAs
Phones GSM
3G
Handsets
Contents Mobile
over Communication
Everywhere Wireless MAN
Trend – Ubiquitous Wireless Connectivity
Wireless Network Infrastructures

Airplane
Train regional
Museum
Vertical metropolitan
Handoff
Campus
Downtown
Home
Hospital •3G Mobile
campus-based WCDMA, CDMA 2000
Wireless MAN 802.16
•4G Mobile
MBWA 802.20
in-house Wireless RAN 802.22
6
2012/1/19
Wireless Home Network
Digital Home/e-Home Broadband

Wireless
Home
Access
Security
Senor
Network Wireless
Home
Network
Wireless Broadband
PAN Internet
xDSL
Convergence of Consumer Electronic Devices
Unified Wireless Access Platform
Wireless MAN NCTU HeRMes

Digital Wireless LAN On UniWAN
Content High Rate
Digital
Video Wireless PAN
Broadcast (e.g. UWB)
Low Rate
Wireless PAN
(e.g. Bluetooth, Zigbee)
7
2012/1/19
Overview of Wireless Communications Technology Issues and Challenges
Wireless Industry Trends
>1 Gbps
300 - 500Mbps
WPAN-UWB
WMAN (WiMax)
>100Mbps
Data Rates
WLAN
WPAN – BT
WWAN-Cellular
2002 2006 2010
Heterogeneous Wireless Network Access
WPAN WLAN WMAN WRAN

Future
1Gbps Ultra-Wide Band
Giga-bit WLAN High
Data Rate
802.11n
100Mbps
Ultra-Wide Band
802.11a 4G
802.11g
10Mbps Beyond 3G
Wi-Fi
Next Generation High
802.11b 802.16e, 802.20, 802.22
Bluetooth Mobility
1Mbps 802.11
Bluetooth 3G – WCDMA, CDMA2000
ZigBee 2.5G – GPRS / EDGE

100kbps 2G - GSM
<1m ~10m ~100m ~1km >10km
Desktop Room Building Community City
8
2012/1/19
Challenges in Wireless Communications

Spectrum is scarce  License fee
High data rates  Multimedia applications
Reliability  Quality of service
Mobility  Channel characteristics
Portability  Low power consumption
Connectivity in various wireless networks  Multimode
Interference from other users  Limited user capacity
Security  Mobile commerce
Requirements for Multimedia Applications
9
2012/1/19
Issues of Portable Devices

Power consumption
– limited computing power, low quality displays, small disks due
to limited battery capacity
– CPU: power consumption ~ CV2f
• C: internal capacitance, reduced by integration
• V: supply voltage, can be reduced to a certain limit
• f: clock frequency, can be reduced temporally
Loss of data
– higher probability, has to be included in advance into the
design (e.g., defects, theft)
Limited user interfaces
– compromise between size of fingers and portability
– integration of character/voice recognition, abstract symbols
Limited memory
– limited value of mass memories with moving parts
– flash-memory or ? as alternative
Wireless v.s. Wired Networks

Higher loss-rates due to interference, lower reliability
Restrictive regulations of frequencies
Lower transmission rates
Higher delays, higher jitter
Lower security, simpler active attacking
Flexibility and freedom
LOCAL AREA PACKET SWITCHING WIDE AREA CIRCUIT SWITCHING
100,000 100 M ATM 100,000 ATM
Ethernet
10,000 FDDI 10,000
wired- wireless
Ethernet bit-rate "gap"
1000 User 1000 User wired- wireless
Bit-Rate Bit-Rate ISDN bit-rate "gap"
(kbps) 2nd (kbps)
100 gen 100 28.8 modem
1st gen 32 kbps
Polling WLAN WLAN 9.6 modem PCS
10 10 14.4
9.6 cellular digital
Packet 2.4 modem cellular
1 1 2.4 cellular
Radio
.1 .1
.01 .01
1970 1980 1990 2000 1970 1980 1990 2000
YEAR YEAR
[Source: Andrea Goldsmith, Wireless Communications]
10
2012/1/19
Cross-Layer Design for Quality of Service

– service location
Application layer
– data rates, delay constraints
– adaptive applications
Transport layer – congestion and flow control
– quality of service
– addressing, routing,
device location
Network layer – hand-over
– authentication
Access layer – media access
– multiplexing
– media access control
– encryption
– modulation
Physical layer – interference
– attenuation
– frequency
Cross-Layer Design
Adaptive techniques
– Link, MAC, network, and application adaptation
– Resource management and allocation (power control)
Diversity techniques
– Link diversity (antennas, channels, etc.)
– Access diversity
– Route diversity
– Application diversity
– Content location/server diversity
Scheduling
– Application scheduling/data prioritization
– Resource reservation
– Access scheduling
11
2012/1/19
Wireless System On a Chip
Wireless Transceiver
– Connectivity interface in SOC
Memory Wireless SOC
CPU
Controller
Peripheral Bus
Wireless MAC Bridge USB 10/100

1.1/2.0 MAC
Peripheral Bus
Wireless PHY 10/100
PHY
UART Timer
ADC/DAC RF
Module Modules
Wireless SOC
Wireless LAN SOC
1st Single-Chip Bluetooth SOC
Ref: Alcatel, ISSCC 2001
Ref: A. Reza Rofougaran et al, IEEE Microwave Magazine, Mar 2005
12
2012/1/19
Wireless Communications in Physical Layer

End End
101100111..
Wireless Transceiver Elements
Info.
Source
Transmitter
Source Channel Multiple Transmission RF

Modulation
Coding Coding Access Technique Front-End
Radio
Channel
Receiver
Source Channel RF
Demod. Equalization Diversity
decoding decoding Front-End
Info.
Sink
13
2012/1/19
Typical RF Transceiver System

Analog Mixed Signal
Switch & Filter RF Front-End A/D

LNA Mixer
Reference
0
I, V, Freq
90
Antenna T/R Switch
VCO
A/D
1/N
Clock
Fref Tree
PA & PM
Power Power D/A
Amplifier Driver
0
90
Mixer
Regulators
Power
Control D/A
Logic
Propagation Channel Effects
dB
Multipath + Shadowing + Path Loss
Shadowing + Path Loss

Pr
Pt
Path Loss
d0 log(d)
14
2012/1/19
Interference
Co-Channel Interference Adjacent-Channel Interference
890.4 890.4
890.2
890.8 890.6
890.4 890.4
890.4 890.4
891.0 891.2
890.0
890.4 890.4
Adjacent Adjacent
Channel Channel
Desired
Channel Desired
Channel
Co-channel
Interference
890.4 MHz 890.2 890.4 890.6 MHz
Noise
Thermal noise
Man-made noise
Receiver noise Pn=N0B
S
fTX fRX
TX RX
BER[%]
Required
Transmission
Quality
SNR[dB]
SNRmin
15
2012/1/19
Overview of Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communication Systems
Modern Wireless Communication Systems
Paging System
Cordless Phone System
Cellular Phone System
Satellite Network
Wireless Local Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Metropolitan Network
Paging System
Send brief message to a subscriber
Simplex System
Large transmitter power (~ kWatt)
Low data rate (~ kbps)
City 1 Simulcasting:
Landline Link Simultaneously
Paging broadcasting a
Remote paging Terminal page
City 2
Landline Link Paging
PSTN
Terminal
Local paging
City N
Paging Paging
Control Terminal
Center Satellite Link
Worldwide paging
16
2012/1/19
Cordless Phone System

Full duplex system
1st generation primarily for in-home use
Now as extended telephone in-home/in-building use or
outdoor locations within urban centers
Limited range and mobility
Wireless Link
PSTN
Fixed Port
Public
Switched Base
Telephone Station
Network
Cordless
Handset
Cellular Phone System

Handoff: enables a call
to proceed moving from Base
one cell to another. Station
Cell: coverage of
a base station
transmitter
TAIPEI
Long-Distance
Network
MSC MSC High Speed Wired Link

PSTN
(MTSO) (MTSO)
Internet
MSC: Mobile Switch Center

MTSO: Mobile Telephone Switching Office
HSINCHU
PSTN: Public Switched Telephone Network
17
2012/1/19
Fundamental of Cellular Phone System

Frequency Reuse
– Signal power falls off with distance
– Reuse the same frequency spectrum at spatially-separated
locations
Inter-cell Interference
– Interference caused by users in different cells operating on the
same channel set
– Must remain below a given threshold for acceptable system
performance
Reuse Distance
– Should be as small as possible so that frequencies are reused
as often as possible, thereby maximizing spectral efficiency 
more user capacity
– Difficult to determine the minimum reuse distance since both
transmitting and interfering signals experience random power
variations due to the characteristics of wireless signal
propagation
Cell Types of Cellular Phone System

Macro-cell
– Early cellular systems used relative large cells (small number
of cells) to cover an entire city due to high cost of base stations
– Signal power radiated uniformly in all directions and the circular
contour of constant power yields a hexagonal cell shape for the
system
– Mostly in rural areas
Micro-cell, Pico-cell
– need for higher capacity
– reduced size and cost of base station electronics
– mostly in urban areas
– less transmitting power is required
– smaller cells cause complicated network design, handoff and
location management
– difficult to develop general propagation models for small cells
18
2012/1/19
Common Terms in Cellular Phone System
CAI: Common air interface

FVC: Forward voice channel
– Voice transmission channel for BSMS
RVC: Reverse voice channel
– Voice transmission channel for MSBS
FCC: Forward control channel
– Control channel for setting up a call for BS  MS
RCC: Reverse control channel
– Control channel for setting up a call for MS  BS
Call Process: Landline User  Mobile User

Receives call from Verifies that the Requests BS to Connects the
PSTN; Send the mobile has a move mobile to mobile with the
MSC requested MIN to valid MIN, unused voice calling party on
all base stations ESN pair channel pair the PSTN
Transmits page Transmits data

(MIN) for message for mobile
FCC specified user to move to specific
voice channel
Receives MIN,
ESN, Station
BS RCC Class Mark and
passes to MSC
Begin Voice
FVC transmission
Begin voice
FCC reception
Receives page Receives data

and matches messages to move
FCC the MIN with its to specified voice
own MIN channel
Acknowledges
receipt of MIN
MS and sends ESN
RCC and Station
Class Mark
Begin voice
FVC reception
Begin Voice
FCC transmission
19
2012/1/19
Call Process: Mobile User 1  Mobile User 2

Receives call initiation Instruct FCC of Connects the
request from BS and originating BS to mobile with the
MSC verifies that mobile has move mobile to a called party on
a valid MIN, ESN pair pair voice channels the PSTN
Paging for called mobile,

instructing the mobile to
FCC move to voice channel
BS
Receives call
initiation request and
RCC MIN, ESN, Station
Class Mark
Begin Voice
FVC transmission
Begin voice
FCC reception
Receives page and matches

the MIN with its own MIN.
FCC Receives instruction to move
to voice channel.
MS Sends a call
initiation request
along with subscribe
RCC MIN and number of
called party
Begin voice
FVC reception
Begin Voice
FCC transmission
Evolution From 2G to 3G Cellular Systems
IS-136
2G IS-95 GSM
& PDC
GPRS
IS-95B HSCSD
2.5G EDGE
cdma2000-1xRTT W-CDMA
3G cdma2000-1xEV, DV, DO
TD-SCDMA
EDGE
cdma2000-1xRTT
20
2012/1/19
Migration of Digital Cellular Systems

Circuit-Switched Voice
Circuit-Switched Packet-Switched
Packet-Switched Data
GSM Circuit-Switched Voice
Packet GPRS
Data
EDGE
Packet Voice & Data
IS-136 Circuit-Switched Voice over EDGE
IS-136+
EDGE
UMTS
GPRS: General Packet Radio Service Packet Voice & Data
(17.6 kbps x 8)
EDGE: Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution
over UMTS (WCDMA)
CDMA2000
(59.2 kbps x 8)
UMTS: Universal Mobile Telecomm Systems
Circuit Switched vs. Packet Switched
Circuit-Switched
B
C
Packet-Switched
Header Data Trailer
B
C
21
2012/1/19
Multiple Access
FDMA
– Frequency Division Multiple Access
TDMA
– Time Division Multiple Access
CDMA
– Code Division Multiple Access
FDMA time TDMA time CDMA

code time
TDMA
freq freq freq

Satellite Network
Inter Satellite Link (ISL)
Mobile User Link Gateway Link (GWL)

(MUL) MUL
GWL
Small cells
(spotbeams)
base station
or gateway
ISDN PSTN GSM
User Data
22
2012/1/19
Wireless Local Area Network
Wireless LAN (WLAN) as an

extension to wired LAN
Hub
Switch
Hub Access Point

Server
Internet
Workgroup Bridge
Infrastructure vs. Ad-hoc Networks
Infrastructure
network
AP: Access Point
AP
AP Wired Network (Ethernet)

AP
ad-hoc network
PDA
Laptop
Computer WiFi Phone
23
2012/1/19
Personal Ad-hot Network Cable Replacement
Security
TV
HVAC
VCR
AMR
DVD/CD
Lighting Control
RF Remotes
Access Control
BUILDING CONSUMER
AUTOMATION ELECTRONICS
Patient
monitoring ZigBee
Fitness Wireless Control that
monitoring
PERSONAL Simply Works PC &
HEALTH CARE PERIPHERALS
Security
RESIDENTIAL/ HVAC
Asset Mgt
LIGHT Lighting Control
Process
Control INDUSTRIAL COMMERCIAL Access Control
CONTROL CONTROL
Environmental Lawn & Garden
Energy Mgt
Irrigation
Chart Copyright ZigBee Alliance 2004
24
2012/1/19
Wireless Metropolitan Area Network

3 1
2
FRACTIONAL E1 for RESIDENTIAL & SoHo DSL
SMALL BUSINESS BACKHAUL for LEVEL SERVICE
HOTSPOTS Mobile
Backhaul 4
WMAN Nomadic Coverage -->
T1+ LEVEL SERVICE 802.16d 802.16d handoff from HOT SPOTS
ENTERPRISE H
H
H
H
H H
H H
H
802.16e
5
= wide area coverage
outside of Hot Spots
INTERNET
BACKBONE
BWA Operator Network
Backbone
Mobility
Wireless Regional Area Network
WRAN Hierarchy
Public IP Network
SD
Service Provider IP Network
AAA HA
ACR ACR
CPE WRAN 집
BS
집 집
• AAA : Authentication, Authorization and Account Server

• ACR : Access Control Router HA : Home Agent
25
2012/1/19
Wireless Regional Area Network
Deployment Scenario
집
WRAN
집
Base Station
집 집
Wireless
MIC
집 집
집 집
집
집
TV Transmitter
집 WRAN
Base Station 집
집 집
WRAN
Repeater 집
Typical ~33km 집
Wireless 집
Max. 100km
MIC 집
집 집
: WRAN Base Station

집 집
집
집
집
집 집
집
집
: CPE: Customer Premise Equipment 집
Overview of Wireless Communications Wireless Spectrum, Regulations and Standards
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wavelength (meters)
1 Mm 1 km 1m 1 mm 1 mm 1 nm
108 107 106 105 104 103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
Infra- Ultra- X-Ray
Radio waves Microwaves Red Violet
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017
1 Hz 1 kHz 1 MHz 1 GHz 1 THz
Frequency (Hz)
26
2012/1/19
Spectrum Regulation Agencies
Since frequency spectrum is scarce, the

application of spectrum is regulated by
governments.
– Taiwan: National Communications Commission
(NCC)
– Japan: Ministry of Internal Affairs and
Communication (MIC)
– United States: Federal Communications
Commission (FCC)
– Europe: European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ESTI)
– Global: Internal Telecommunications Union (ITU)
Applications of Frequency Spectrums
US Licensed Band
27
2012/1/19
Applications of Frequency Spectrums
US License-Exempt Band
Standard Organizations
Telecommunications Industry Association
– represents providers of communications and information
technology products and services for the global marketplace
through its core competencies in standards development,
domestic and international advocacy, as well as market
development and trade promotion programs.
IEEE
– leads the way in developing open, leading-edge consensus
standards for Wireless Local Area Networks (Wireless LANs),
Wireless Personal Area Networks (Wireless PANs), and
Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (Wireless MANs).
ETSI
– is officially responsible for standardization of Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) within Europe.
28
2012/1/19
Current and Evolving Wireless Standards
IEEE 802.15.4 Sensors RFID

IEEE 802.21, IEEE 802.18 802.19 (Zigbee Alliance) (AutoID Center)
WRAN
IEEE 802.22
WWAN
3GPP (GPRS/UMTS)
IEEE 802.20 3GPP2 (1X--/CDMA2000)
IEEE 802.16e GSMA, OMA
IEEE 802.16d WMAN ETSI HiperMAN &

WiMAX HIPERACCESS
IEEE 802.11 WLAN ETSI-BRAN

Wi-Fi Alliance HiperLAN2
IEEE 802.15.3
UWB, Bluetooth
WPAN ETSI
HiperPAN
Wi-Media, BTSIG,
MBOA
29
Cellular Systems
Mobile Communications
Cellular Systems
Wen-Shen Wuen
Trans. Wireless Technology Laboratory

Vincent W.-S. Wuen Mobile Communications 1

Outline Cellular Systems
Outline
1 Cellular System Fundamentals
2 Frequency Reuse
3 Interference and System Capacity
4 Trunking and Grade of Services
5 Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems
6 Channel Assignment Strategies
7 Handoff Strategies

Cellular System Fundamentals Cellular Systems
Outline
2 Frequency Reuse

Introdcution
Early mobile radio systems:

Cover a large area by using a single, high powered transmitter
with an antenna mounted on a tall tower.
No frequency reuse, no interference
Limited user capacity
Cellular concept:
Based on power fall off with distance of signal propagation and
reuse the same channel frequency at spatially separated
locations
Sovling problem of spectral congestion and user capacity
Replacing a single, high power transmitter (large cell) with
many low power transmitters (small cells)
Available channels can be reused as many times as necessary
so long as the co-channel interference is kept below acceptable
levels

Cellular System
Each cell is assigned to a unique channel set, Cn

Adjacent cells: cells assigned to a different channel sets
Co-channel cells: cells using the same channel sets

Tesselating Cell Shapes
To approximate the contours of constant received power

around the base station
Hexagonal cells:
Having largest area for a given distance between the center of a
polygon and its farthest perimeter points
Approximating a circular radiation pattern for an omnidirectional
base station antenna and free space propagation
Diamond cells: better approximating contours of constant
power in modern urban microcells

Frequency Reuse Cellular Systems
Outline
2 Frequency Reuse

Frequency Reuse
S: total number of duplex channels available for use

k: number of channels assigned to a cell (k < S)
N : number of cells sharing the S duplex channels
S = kN (1)
Cluster: a group of N cells use the complete set of available

frequencies
C : the total number of duplex channels with frequency reuse
M : number of replica of a cluster
C = MkN = MS (2)
Cluster size: N is typically 4, 7 or 12 for hexagonal cell shape.

Frequency reuse factor: 1/N
For the same cell size at a given area, N ↓⇒ M ↑⇒ C ↑

Various Cluster Sizes for Hexagonal Cells

Cluster sizes:
4-cell reuse
7-cell reuse
12-cell reuse
19-cell reuse
N -cell reuse

Locating Co-Channel Cells in Hexagonal Cells

Example: N = 19, i = 3, j = 2

Reuse Distance
The distance between co-channel (frequency reuse) cells
Origin: (0, 0)
Nearest co-channel location
P : (i, j)
Reuse Distance, D
p q
D = 3R i2 + ij + j2 (3)
p
= R 3N (4)

Number of Cells Per Cluster

Number of cells per cluster, N
p p 2
Acluster 3 3x2 /2 3D /2
N = = p = p
Acell 3 3R2 /2 3 3R2 /2
Ã ¢!
1 D 2 1 3R2 i2 + ij + j2
µ ¶ ¡
= = = i2 + ij + j2 (5)
3 R 3 R2

Interference and System Capacity Cellular Systems
Outline
2 Frequency Reuse

Interference
Major limiting factor in the performance and major bottleneck

in increasing capacity
Sources of interference:
anothr mobile in the same cell
a call in progress in a neighboring cell
other base station operating in the same frequency band
any noncellular system which leaks energy into the cellular
frequency band
Interference effects:
Cross talk: interference on voice channels
Missed and blacked calls: interference on control channels
System-generated cellular interference
Co-channel interference
Adjacent channel interference

Co-channel Interference
Cannot be combated by simply increasing transmitter power

To reduce, co-channel cells must be separated by a minimum
distance to provide sufficient isolation

Co-channel Interference, cont’d
Assume
the size of each cell is the same
base stations transmit the same power
⇒ co-channel interference ratio is independent of TX power and
is a function of the radius of the cell, R, and the distance
between centers of nearest co-channel cells, D.
Co-channel reuse ratio, Q
D p
Q, = 3N (6)
R
Q ↑⇒ spatial separation of co-channel cells ↑⇒ co-channel
interference ↓
Q ↓⇒ N ↓⇒ M ↑⇒ C ↑ channel capacity ↑, but co-channel
interferece ↑

Signal to Interference Ratio, SIR, S/I
S S
= PN (7)
I co
Iii=1
S: desired signal power from the desired station
Ii : the interference power caused by the i-th interfering co-channel
cell base station
Di : the distance of the i-th interferer from the mobile.
µ ¶−n
d
∵ Pr = P0 ∴ Ii ∝ Di−n (8)
d0
Assume transmit power of each base station is equal and the

path loss exponent is the same, the SI of for a mobile at cell
boundary:
¡p ¢n
S R−n R−n 3N
= PN = −n
= (9)
I co
D −n N co D Nco
i=1 i

Co-channel Interference For N =7
Consider first tier of

co-channel cells:
S R−4
≈
I 2(D − R) + 2(D + R)−4 + 2D−4
−4
(10)
S 1
≈
I 2(Q − 1)−4 + 2(Q + 1)−4 + 2Q−4
(11)
where Q = D/R and assume n = 4.

Example 1
If signal-to-interference ratio of 15 dB is required for satisfactory
forward channel performance of a cellular system, what is the
co-channel reuse factor and cluster size that should be used for
maximum capacity if the path loss exponent is (a) n=4, (b)n=3?
Assume there are six co-channel cells in the first tier and all of them
are at the same distance from the mobile.
Solution:
p
(a) Consider 7-cell reuse pattern: Q = D/R = 3N = 4.583,
p
S/I = ( 3N)n /Nco = 4.5834 /6 = 75.3 = 18.66 dB ⇒ N = 7 can be used.
(b) Consider 7-cell reuse pattern: S/I = 4.5833 /6 = 16.04 = 12.05 dB
< 15 dB, therefore a larger N should be used.
N = 12 ⇒ D/R = 6, S/I = 63 /6 = 36 = 15.56 dB > 15 dB, therefore N = 12
should be used.

Channel Planning of Wireless Systems
Typically 5% of the entire mobile spectrum is devoted to control

channels and 95% of the spectrum is dedicated to voice
channels.
Air interface standards ensure a distinction between voice and
control channels and control channels are not allowed to be
used as voice channels and vice versa.
Different frequency reuse strategy is applied to control
channels to ensure greater S/I protection in control channels.
For propagation consideration, most practical CDMA systems
limits frequency reuse with f 1/f 2 cell planning.
CDMA system has a dynamic, time-varying coverage region
depending on the instantaneous number of users on the radio
channel. ⇒ breathing cell ⇒ dynamic control of power levels
and thresholds assigned to control channels, voice channels for
changing traffic intensity

Adjacent Channel Interference
results from imperfect receiver filters which allows nearby

frequency to leak into the passband.
causes near-far effect, a nearby TX captures the receiver of the
subscriber.
ACI can be minimized through careful filtering and channel
assignments.
Keeping frequency separation between each channel as large as
possible
Avoiding the use of adjacent channels in neighboring cell sites
For a close-in mobile (MS1) is X times as close to the BS as
another mobile (MS2) and has energy leaks to the passband,
the S/I at the BS for the weak mobile (MS2) before receiver
filtering is approximately
S
= X −n
I
S
for n = 4 ⇒ I ≈ −40 dB
Trunking and Grade of Services Cellular Systems
Outline
2 Frequency Reuse

Definition of Common Terms in Trunking Theory
Set-up Time: The time required to allocated a trunked radio

channel to a requesting user.
Blocked Call (Lost Call): Call which cannot be completed at time
of request, due to congestion.
Holding Time: Average duration of a typical call. Denoted by H
(in seconds).
Traffic Intensity: Measure of channel time utilization, which is
the average channel occupancy measured in Erlangs.
Load: Traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio system,
measured in Erlangs.
Grade of Service (GOS): A measure of congestion specified as
the probability of a call being blocked (for Erlang B), or the
probability of a call being delayed beyond a certain amount of
time (for Erlang C).
Request Rate: The average number of call requests per unit
time. Denoted by λ second−1 .
Trunking Theory
Each user generates a traffic intensity of Au Erlangs:
Au = λH
The total offered traffic intensity A for a system containing U

users:
A = UAu
In a C channel trunked system, if the traffic is equally

distributed, the traffic i ntensity per channel, Ac :
Ac = UAu /C
Erlang: the amount of traffic intensity carried by a channel that

is completely occupied (1 Erlang = 1 call-hour / hour).
Busy hour traffic, Ab = call/busy hour × mean call holding time.

Example 2
Call established at 2 am between a central computer and a data
terminal. Assuming a continuous connection and data transferred at
34 kbit/s what is the traffic if the call is terminated at 2:45am?
Solution:
Traffic=(1 call)×(45 min)×(1 hour / 60 min) =0.75 Erlangs
Example 3
A group of 20 subscribers generate 50 calls with an average holding
time of 3 minutes, what is the average traffic per subscriber?
Solution:
Traffic=(50 calls)×(3min)×(1 hour/60 min)=2.5 Erlangs
2.5/20=0.125 Erlangs per subscriber.

Erlang B: Blocked Calls Cleared
AC
C!
p [blocked] = PC Ak = GOS
k=0 k!
where C : the number of trunked channels offered by a trunked radio
system; A: the total offered traffic.
Assumptions of Erlang B:
There are memoryless arrivals of requests.
The probability of a user occupying a channel is exponentially
distributed.
There are a finite number of channels available in the trunking
pool.

GOS of an Erlang B System
Trunking efficiency: a meaure of the number of users which can be

offered a particular GOS with a particular configuration of fixed
channels.
Erlang B Chart

Erlang C: Blocked Calls Delayed
Probability of a call not having immediate access to a channel

and being queued:
AC
C!
p [delay > 0] = = GOS
Ak
A + C! 1 − CA C−1
C
¡ ¢P
k=0 k!
The probability that the delayed call is forced to wait more than
t second:
p [delay > t] = p [delay > 0] p [delay > t|delay > 0]

(C − A)t
µ ¶
= p [delay > 0] exp − (12)
H
Average delay D for all calls in a queued system
H
D = p [delay > 0]
C −A

Erlang C Chart

Example 4
How many users can be supported for 0.5% blocking probability for
the following number of trunked channels in a blocked calls clear
system? (a) 1, (b) 5, (c) 10, (d) 20, (e) 100. Assume each user
generate 0.1 Erlangs of traffic.
Solution:
(a) C = 1, Au = 0.1, GOS = 0.005, from the chart,
A = 0.005 ⇒ U = A/Au = 0.005/0.1 = 0.05 users
(b) C = 5, Au = 0.1, GOS = 0.005, from the chart,
A = 1.13 ⇒ U = A/Au = 1.13/0.1 ' 11 users
(c) C = 10, Au = 0.1, GOS = 0.005, from the chart,
A = 3.96 ⇒ U = A/Au = 3.96/0.1 ' 39 users
(d) C = 20, Au = 0.1, GOS = 0.005, from the chart,
A = 11.1 ⇒ U = A/Au = 11.1/0.1 ' 111 users
(e) C = 100, Au = 0.1, GOS = 0.005, from the chart,
A = 80.9 ⇒ U = A/Au = 80.9/0.1 ' 809 users

Example 5
Trunked mobile networks A, B, and C provide cellular services in an urban
area with 2 million residents. The (no. of cells, no. channels/cell) for the
three providers are (394,19), (98,57) and (49,100). Find the number of
users that can be supported at 2% blocking if each user averages two
calls/hour at an average call duration of 3 min. Find the percentage market
penetration for each provider.
Solution:
System A: GOS = 0.02, C = 19, Au = λH = 2(3/60) = 0.1 Erlangs. For GOS = 0.02
and C = 19 ⇒ A = 12 Erlangs U = A/Au = 12/0.1 = 120 ⇒
total number of subscribers is 120 × 394 = 47289
System B: GOS = 0.02, C = 57, Au = λH = 2(3/60) = 0.1 Erlangs. For GOS = 0.02
System C: GOS = 0.02, C = 100, Au = λH = 2(3/60) = 0.1 Erlangs. For GOS = 0.02
Market penetration: A: 47280/2,000,000=2.36%; B:
44100/2,000,000=2.205%;C: 43120/2,000,000=2.156%

Example 6
Given a city area: 1300 mile2 , with 7-cell reuse pattern, cell radius=4 miles
and frequency spectrum: 40MHz with 60KHz channel bandwidth. Assume
GOS=2% for an Erlang B system, if the offered traffic per user is 0.03
Erlangs, compute (a) the no. of cells in the service area (b) the no. of
channels per cell (c) traffic intensity of each cell (d) the maximum carried
traffic (e) the total no. of users can be served for the GOS (f) the no. of
mobiles per unique channel (g) the theoretical maximum no. of users that
could be served at one time by the system.
Solution:
p
(a) Acell = 1.5 3R2 = 2.5981 × 42 = 41.57 square mile. Total no. of cells
Nc = 1300/41.57 = 31 cells.
(b) Total no. of channels per cell C = 40MHz/(60kHz × 7) = 95 channels/cell.
(c) C = 95, GOS = 0.02 ⇒ traffic intensity per cell A = 84 Erlangs/cell.
(d) Maximum carried traffic=no. of cells × traffic intensity per cell =
31 × 84 = 2604 Erlangs.
(e) Traffic/user=0.03 Erlangs ⇒ Total no. of users = 2604/0.03=86800 users
(f) no. of mobiles per channel= no. of users/no. of channels =86800/(40
MHz/60 kHz)=130 mobiles/channel.
(e) The theoretical maximum no. of served mobiles (all channels are
occupied)= C × Nc = 95 × 31 = 2945 users
Example 7
A hexagonal cell within a four-cell system has a radius of 1.387 km. A total
of 60 channels are used within the entire system. If the load per user is
0.029 Erlangs and λ = 1 call/hour, compute the following for an Erlang C
system which has a 5% probability of delayed call: (a) how many user per
square kilometer will the system support? (b) the probability that a delayed
call will have to wait for more than 10 seconds? (c) the probability that a
call will be delayed for more than 10 seconds?
Solution:
Cell area=2.598 × (1.387)2 = 5km2 . no. of channel per cell C = 60/4 = 15
channels.
(a) For Erlang C of 5% probability of delay with C = 15, the traffic
intensity=9.0 Erlangs.
no. of users=total traffic intensity/traffic per user = 9/0.029=310 users for
5 km2 or 62 users/km2
(b) H = Au /λ = 0.029hour = 104.4 second.
p[delay > 10|delay] = exp (−(C − A)t/H) = exp(−(15 − 9)10/104.4) = 56.29% (c)
p[delay > 0] = 5% = 0.05
p[delay > 10] = p[delay > 0]p[delay > 10|delay] = 0.05 × 0.5629 = 2.81%

Improving Coverage and Capacity Cellular Systems
Outline
2 Frequency Reuse

Cell Splitting
Let R ↓ and keeps D/R

unchanged
Pr [at old cell boundary] ∝ Pt1 R−n
Pr [at new cell boundary] ∝ Pt2 (R/2)−n
for n = 4
Pt1
Pt2 =
16

Cell Splitting
Example 8
Assume each BS uses 60
channels and large cell radius of 1
km and microcell radius of 0.5
km. Find the number of channels
in a 3 km by 3 km square around
A when (a) without the use of
microcells (b) the labeled
microcells are used (c) all original
BS are replaced by microcells.
Solution:
(a) 5 × 60 = 300 (b) (5 + 6) × 60 = 660
(2.2x) (c) (5 + 12) × 60 = 1020 (3.4x)

Sectoring
Increasing S/I ratio, keeping cell radius R the same and

decreasing D/R ⇒ D ↓⇒ N ↓⇒ frequency reuse ↑ ⇒ cluster size
N can be reduced because of S/I is improved.

Sectoring, cont’d

Microcell Zone

Microcell Zone

Channel Assignment Strategies Cellular Systems
Outline
2 Frequency Reuse

Channel Assignment Strategies Cellular Systems
Channel Assignment Strategies
Fixed channel assignment

each cell is allocated to a predetermined set of voice channels ⇒
the call is blocked is all the channels are occupied.
borrowing strategy: a cell is allowed to borrow channels from a
neighboring cell if all of its own channels are occupied.
MSC supervises the borrowing procedure to ensure no disrupting
calls or interference with any of the calls in progress in the donor
cell.
Dynamic channel assignment
the serving BS request a channel from MSC whenever a call
request is made.
following an algorithm considering the likelihood of future
blocking in the cell, the frequency of use of the candidate cell, the
reuse distance of the channel and other cost functions.
MSC needs to collect real-time data on channel occupancy, traffic
distribution, and radio signal strength indicator (RSSI) of all
channels on a continuous basis. ⇒ increasing storage and
computational load on the system.

Handoff Strategies Cellular Systems
Outline
2 Frequency Reuse

Handoff
When a mobile moves into a different cell when a conversation

is in progress, the MSC automatically transfer the call to a new
channel belonging to a new BS.
Many handoff strategy prioritize handoff requests over call
initiation requests when allocating an unused channel.
Handoff threshold: a signal level slightly stronger than the
minimum usable signal for acceptable voice quality.
∆ = Pr,handoff − Pr,min.usable
∆ too large ⇒ unnecessary handoffs burden MSC

∆ too small ⇒ may be insufficient time to complete a handoff
before a call is lost

Handoff Scenario at Cell Boundary

Handoff Decision
Monitor the signal level of MS for a period of time
to ensures MS is actually moving away from the serving BS.
Dwell time
The time over which a call may be maintained within a cell,
without handoff, depending on propagation, interference,
distance between the MS and BS, and other time varying
effects
Monitor RSSI
BS monitors the signal strengths of all its reverse voice
channels to determined the relative location of each MS.
Locator receivers monitor the signal strength of users in
neighboring cells need of handoff and report RSSI to MSC.
Mobile assisted handoff (MAHO)
MS measures the received power from the surrounding BS’s
and continuously reports to the serving BS.
Faster handoff time than first generation analog system
Suited for microcellular environments
Handoff Considerations
Prioritizing Handoffs
Guard channel concept: reserves a fractional of total available
channels exclusively for handoff ⇒ reducing total carried traffic
⇒ combining with dynamic channel assignment to offer
efficient spectrum utilization
Queuing of handoff requests: using the finite time interval
between the time the received signal levels drops below the
handoff threshold and the time the call is terminated ⇒ not
guarantee a zero probability of forced termination

Handoff Considerations
Umbrella cells
Cell dragging
Hard handoff
Soft handoff

Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Mobile Communications
Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Wen-Shen Wuen
Trans. Wireless Technology Laboratory


Outline Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
1 Radio Wave Propagation
2 Transmit and Receive Signal Models
3 Free Space Propagation Model
4 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering
5 Empirical Path Loss Models
Outdoor Propagation Models
Indoor Propagation Models
6 Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model
Link Budget Analysis
Simplified Path Loss Model
Log-normal Shadow Fading
Percentage of Cell Coverage Area

Radio Wave Propagation Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering

Radio Wave Propagation

Radio Wave Propagation
Reflection, diffraction and scattering
Line-of-sight (LOS) path : direct path between a transmitter
(TX) and a receiver (RX)

Radio Wave Propagation, cont’d
Propagation channel properties

Noise, interference, and other channel impediments
Channel impediments change over time
Random and unpredictable due to user movement ⇒ Limits the
reliability and performance of wireless communications and
requires channel models to characterize

Radio Wave Propagation, cont’d
Propagation channel properties

Noise, interference, and other channel impediments
Channel impediments change over time
Random and unpredictable due to user movement ⇒ Limits the
reliability and performance of wireless communications and
requires channel models to characterize
Propagation Models
Large-scale models predict the mean signal strength for an
arbitrary TX-RX separation distance (∼100 to ∼1000 m)
Small-scale/fading models characterize the rapid fluctuation of
the received signal strength over very short travel distances (∼
wave lengths) or short time duration (∼ seconds)

Propagation Effects
Propagation Effects
Path Loss: caused by dissipation of power radiated by the TX
as well as effects of channels
a Measurement of local received signal power: Average signal power
measurements over a measurement track of 5λ to 40λ. e.g. fc = 1 ∼ 2 GHz,

λ = c/fc = 0.3 ∼ 1.5m ⇒ measuring the local average received power over movements
of 1m to 10m.

Propagation Effects
Propagation Effects
Shadowing: caused by obstacles between the TX and RX that
attenuate signal power through absorption, reflection,
scattering and diffraction

of 1m to 10m.

Propagation Effects
Propagation Effects
Shadowing: caused by obstacles between the TX and RX that
attenuate signal power through absorption, reflection,
scattering and diffraction
Multipath Fading
The received signal of a mobile moving over very small distances
is a sum of many contributions coming from different directions.
The received signal powera may vary by as much as three or four
orders of magnitude (30 or 40 dB) when the receiver is moving by
only a fraction of a wave length.

of 1m to 10m.

Relation of Path Loss, Shadowing and Multipath

Transmit and Receive Signal Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering

Transmit and Receive Signal Model
Noise
Transmitted n(t) Received
Signal Signal
s(t) Channel, h(t) + r(t)
Transmitted signal: s(t) = Re s̃(t)ej2πfc t

© ª
Received signal: r(t) = Re r̃(t)ej2πfc t + n(t)

© ª
For time-invariant channels: r̃(t) = s̃(t) ∗ h(t)

Representation of Bandpass Signals
A bandpass signal s(t) at carrier frequency fc :

n o
s(t) = A(t) cos 2πfc t + φ(t) = Re A(t)ejφ(t) ej2πfc t
¡ ¢
(1)
Let
A(t)ejφ(t) , sI (t) + jsQ (t) (2)
q
envelope: A(t) = sI2 (t) + sQ2
(t) (3)
−1 sQ (t)
µ ¶
phase: φ(t) = tan (4)
sI (t)
The information can be carried in the envelope A(t) and/or

phase φ(t) of a carrier.

Representation of Bandpass Signals
Complex lowpass representation of s(t)
s(t) = sI (t) cos(2πfc t) − sQ (t) sin(2πfc t) (5)
sI (t) and sQ (t) are real lowpass (baseband) signals with

bandwidth B ¿ fc and also called in-phase and quadrature
components of s(t).
©¡ ¢¡ ¢ª
s(t) = Re sI (t) + jsQ (t) cos(2πfc t) + j sin(2πfc t) (6)
= Re {s̃(t)} cos(2πfc t) − Im {s̃(t)} sin(2πfc t) (7)
n o
= Re s̃(t)ej2πfc t (8)
s̃(t) , sI (t) + jsQ (t) is the equivalent lowpass signal for s(t) or
its complex envelope.

Free Space Propagation Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering

Free Space Propagation Model
TX and RX have a clear, unobstructed LOS path in between

Examples: satellite communication systems and microwave
LOS radio links
Friis Free Space Equation

Pt Gt Gr λ2
Pr (d) = (9)
(4π)2 d2 L
Pt : transmitted power,
Pr (d): received power at T-R separation distance d meters,
Gt : transmitter antenna gain,
Gr : receiver antenna gain,
λ: wave length in meters,
L: system loss factor not related to propagation (L ≥ 1).

Free Space Propagation Model, cont’d
System Loss Factor: L(L ≥ 1), usually due to transmission line

attenuation, filter losses and antenna losses; L = 1 ⇒ no loss in
the system hardware
1
Received Power: Pr ∝ d2
⇒20 dB/decade
Isotropic Radiator ⇒ an ideal antenna which radiates power
with unit gain uniformly in all directions.
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power, EIRP = Pt Gt ⇒ the
maximum radiated power available from a transmitter in the
direction of maximum antenna gain, as compared to an
isotropic radiator
Effective Radiated Power, ERP ⇒ as compared to a
half-wave dipole antenna.
dBi vs dBd: dipole antenna has a gain of 1.64 (2.15 dB above
an isotrope) ⇒ EIRP [dB] = 2.15 + ERP [dB]

Power Flux Density
Power flux density Pd (W/m2 ) in free space

EIRP Pt Gt E2 E2 |E|2 |E|2
Pd = = = = = = W/m2 (10)
4πd2 4πd2 Rfs η 120πΩ 377Ω
Rfs : the intrinsic impedance of free space; |E|: the magnitude of the
radiating portion of the electric field in the far field

Received Power
Received Power
|E|2 Pt Gt Gr λ2 |E|2 Gr λ2
Pr (d) = Pd Ae = Ae = = W (11)
120π (4π)2 d2 480π2
Gant λ2
where Ae = 4π is effective aperture of the antenna.
Received Power
d0 2
µ ¶
Pr (d) = Pr (d0 ) , d ≥ d0 ≥ df (12)
d
Pr (d0 ) d0
µ ¶ µ ¶
Pr (d) [dBm] = 10 log + 20 log (13)
0.001W d
d0 is the reference distance and typically chosen to be 1m (indoor)

or 100m∼1Km (outdoor).

Equivalent Received Voltage at Receiver Input
Equivalent Received Voltage at Receiver Input
2
Vrx (Vant /2)2 V2
Pr (d) = = = ant
Rant Rant 4Rant
p
⇒ Vrx = Rant Pr (d) (14)

Example 1
Transmitter power, Pt = 50 W; Carrier frequency, fc = 900 MHz;
Transmitter antenna gain, Gt = 1; Receiver antenna gain, Gr = 2;
Receiver antenna resistance Rant = 50 Ω; Transmitter and receiver
distance, d = 10 km; Find (a) the power at the receiver, (b)
magnitude of E-field at receiver antenna, (c) the rms voltage
applied to the receiver input assuming that the receiver antenna is
matched to the receiver.
Solution:
P G G λ2 2
³ ´ ³ ´
(a) Pr (d) = 10 log t t 2 rd2 = 10 log 50×1×2×(1/3)
2 2 = −61.5 dBm
q (4π) q(4π) ×10000
q
Pr (d)120π Pr (d)120π 7×10−10 ×120π
(b) |E| = = Gr λ2 /4π
= 2×0.332 /(4π)
= 0.0039 V/m
p Ae p
(c) Vrms = Pr (d)Rant = 7 × 10−10 × 50 = 0.187 mV

Path Loss
Path Loss in Free Space

Pt Gt Gr λ2
µ ¶
PL [dB] = 10 log = 10 log (15)
Pr (4π)2 d2
valid for d in the far-field (d ≥ d0 ≥ df )a of the transmitter antenna.
2
a Far Field (Fraunhofer Region):df = 2D
λ
, df À D, df À λ, where D is the largest
physical linear dimension of the antenna.
Example 2
Find the far field distance for an antenna with maximum dimension
of 1m and operating frequency of 900MHz.
Solution:
2 2D2 2(1)2
far field distance ⇒ df = 2D 2
λ = c/f = 3×108 = 1 = 6m
3
900×106

Free-Space LOS Received Signal

Free-Space LOS Received Signal
(p d )
Gt Gr λe−j2π λ j2πfc t
r(t) = Re s̃(t)e (16)
4πd
Example 3
If a transmitter produces 50W of power, express the transmit power
in (a) dBm (b) dBW. If 50W is applied to a unit gain antenna with a
900MHz carrier frequency, (c) find the received power in dBm at a
free space distance of 100m from the antenna. (d) What is
Pr (10km)? Assume Gr = 1.
Solution:
(a) Pt (dBm) = 10 log (Pt (mW)/1mW) = 10 log(50 × 103 ) = 47dBm
(b) Pt (dBW) = 10 log (Pt (W)/1W) = 10 log(50×) = 17dBW
Pt Gt Gr λ2 50(1)(1)(1/3)2
(c) Pr (d) = (4π)2 d2 L
= (4π)2 (100)2 (1)
= 3.5 × 10−6 W = 3.5 × 10−3 mW
Pr (dBm) = 10 log Pr (mW) = 10 log(3.5 × 10−3 mW) = −24.5dBm
¡ 100 ¢
(d) Pr (10km) = Pr (100m) + 20 log 10000 = −24.5 − 40 = −64.5dBm
Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering

Ray Tracing Path Loss Models

Tracing radio ray propagation paths
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering

Reflection of Radio Waves
When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon

another medium having different electrical properties ⇒ partially
reflected and partially transmitted.
Material of 2nd medium

Perfect Dielectric: partially transmitted into the 2nd medium
and partially reflected back to the 1st medium, and no loss of
energy.
Perfect Conductor: all energy is reflected back without loss of
energy.
Lossy Dielectric: absorbs power ⇒ complex dielectric constant:
σ
² = ²0 ²r − j²0 = ²0 ²r − j (17)
2πf
²0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m is the free space dielectric constant.

Material Parameters at Various Frequencies
Material Relative Conductivity Frequency

Permittivity ²r σ (s/m) (MHz)
Poor Ground 4 0.001 100
Typical Ground 15 0.005 100
Good Ground 25 0.02 100
Sea Water 81 5.0 100
Fresh Water 81 0.001 100
Brick 4.44 0.001 4000
Limestone 7.51 0.028 4000
Glass, Corning 707 4 1.8 × 10−7 1
Glass, Corning 707 4 2.7 × 10−5 100
Glass, Corning 707 4 0.005 10000
Good conductor: ²r and σ are generally insensitive to operating

frequency
Lossy dielectric: ²r is constant with frequency, but σ may be
sensitive to operating frequency
Reflection from Dielectric
Laws of Reflection in Dielectric
θi = θr , Er = ΓEi , Et = Ei + Er = (1 + Γ) Ei (18)
Γ is either Γ∥ or Γ⊥ .

Reflection Coefficients
Reflection Coefficients
Er η 2 sin θt − η 1 sin θi
Γ∥ = = (E-field in POI) (19)
Ei η 2 sin θt + η 1 sin θi
Er η 2 sin θi − η 1 sin θt
Γ⊥ = = (E-field ⊥ POI) (20)
Ei η 2 sin θi + η 1 sin θt
η = µ/² is the intrinsic impedance of the medium

p
p
ν = 1/ µ² is the velocity of an EM wave
POI: plane of incidence
Fresnel Reflection Coefficient, Γ

The ratio of the E-field intensity of the reflected to the
transmitted waves.
Depends on the material properties, wave polarization, incident
angle and frequency of the propagating wave.

Snell’s Law and Brewster Angle
Snell’s Law
p p
µ1 ²1 sin (90 − θi ) = µ2 ²2 sin (90 − θt ) (21)
Brewster Angle
the incident angle at which no reflection occurs in the medium
Condition: the incident angle θB is such that the reflection
coefficient Γ∥ is equal to zero.
²1
r
sin θB = (22)
²1 + ²2
Example: if the first medium is free space and the second medium
has a relative permittivity ²r
s
²r − 1
sin θB = (23)
²2r − 1

Reflection from Various Materials
Reflection from Perfect Conductors
θi = θr , Ei = Er ⇒ Γ∥ = 1 (E-field in POI) (24)
θi = θr , Ei = −Er ⇒ Γ⊥ = −1 (E-field ⊥ POI) (25)
⇒ For a perfect conductor, |Γ| = 1, regardless of incident angle.
Reflection from Dielectric: 1st medium is free space and µ1 = µ2
p
−²r sin θi + ²r − cos2 θi
Γ∥ = p (26)
²r sin θi + ²r − cos2 θi
p
sin θi + ²r − cos2 θi
Γ⊥ = p (27)
sin θi + ²r − cos2 θi

Example 4
Demonstrate that if medium 1 is free space and medium 2 is a
dielectric both |Γ∥ | and |Γ⊥ | approach 1 as θi approach 0◦ regardless
of ²r .
Solution:
p
−²r sin 0 + ²r − cos2 0
Γ∥ = p = 1, (28)
²r sin 0 + ²r − cos2 0
p p
sin 0 − ²r − cos2 0 − ²r − 1
Γ⊥ = = p = −1 (29)
²r − 1
p
sin 0 + ²r − cos2 0
⇒ Ground may be modeled as a perfect reflector with |Γ| = 1 when
an incident wave grazes the earth, regardless of polarization or
ground dielectric properties.

Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
Reasonably accurate for predicting

the large-scale signal strength over long distances (∼ km) for
mobile systems that use tall towers (heights > 50 m)
line-of-sight microcell channels in urban environments
Free space propagation E-field:
E0 d0 d
µ µ ¶¶
E (d, t) = cos ωc t − d > d0 (30)
d c

Deriving Total Received E-field

E-field due to line-of-sight component
E0 d0 dL
µ µ ¶¶
EL (dL , t) = cos ωc t − (31)
dL c
E-field for the ground reflected wave
E0 d0 dR
µ µ ¶¶
ER (dR , t) = Γ cos ωc t − (32)
dR c
Total Received E-field
E0 d0 dL E0 d0 dR
µ µ ¶¶ µ µ ¶¶
ETOT (d, t) = cos ωc t − +Γ cos ωc t − (33)
dL c dR c

Deriving Total Received E-field, cont’d
Consider grazing incidence

Small incident angle: θi → 0
Perfect horizontal E-field polarization
Ground reflection: Γ⊥ = −1 and Et = 0
Total E-field envelope: |ETOT | = |EL + ER |
E0 d0 dL E0 d0 dR
µ µ ¶¶ µ µ ¶¶
ETOT (d, t) = cos ωc t − + (−1) cos ωc t − (34)
dL c dR c
2ht hr
p p
Path difference: ∆ = dR − dL = (ht + hr )2 + d2 − (ht − hr )2 + d2 ≈ d
(d À ht + hr )
θ∆ θ∆
Time Delay: τd = ∆ 2π∆
c = ωc λ = ωc = 2πfc
∆ω
Phase difference: θ∆ = ωc τd = 2π∆
λ
= cc
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯E d ¯ ¯E d ¯ ¯E d ¯
Large distance: d À ht + hr ⇒ d ≈ dL ≈ dR ⇒ ¯ 0d 0 ¯ ≈ ¯ d0 0 ¯ ≈ ¯ d0 0 ¯
L R


d
The received E-field evaluated at t = cR
dR E0 d0 dR − dL E0 d0
µ ¶ µ µ ¶¶
ETOT d, t = = cos ωc − cos 0◦
c dL c dR
E0 d0 E0 d0 E0 d0 ¡
cos θ∆ − cos θ∆ − 1
¢
= = (35)
dL dR d
E-field normal to the POI, horizontal polarization, Γ⊥ = −1
s
E0 d0 2 ¡ E0 d0 2
µ ¶ µ ¶
¢2
cos θ∆ − 1 + sin2 θ∆
¯ ¯
¯E (36)
TOT (d) (Γ⊥ =−1) =
¯
d d
E0 d0 p E0 d0 θ∆
= 2 − 2 cos θ∆ = 2 sin (37)
d d 2
E-field in the POI, vertical polarization, Γ∥ = −1
E0 d0 p E0 d0 θ∆
2 + 2 cos θ∆ = 2
¯ ¯
¯E cos (38)
TOT (d) (Γ∥ =1) =
¯
d d 2


θ θ θ 2πht hr
For 2∆ < 0.3 rad ⇒ sin 2∆ ≈ 2∆ = λd
< 0.3
Approximation of the received E-field at large distance d
20πht hr 20ht hr
d> ≈ (39)
3λ λ
2E0 d0 2πht hr 1
⇒ ETOT (d) ≈ ∝ 2 (40)
d λd d
p
Received Power at T-R distance d À ht hr
h2 h2r 1
Pr = Pt Gt Gr t 4 ∝ 4 (41)
d d
Received power is independent of frequency!
Path Loss for Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
PLdB = 40 log d − (10 log Gt + 10 log Gr + 20 log ht + 20 log hr ) (42)

Path loss is independent of frequency!

Received Signal for Two-Ray Model
Received Signal for Two-Ray Model
·p
λ (Gt Gr )L
½
dL
r2ray (t) = Re s̃(t)e−j2π λ
4π dL
p
(Gt Gr )R
¸ ¾
dR
+Γ s̃(t − τd )ej2π λ ej2πfc t (43)
dR
where (Gt Gr )L is the transmit and receive antenna gain in the LOS
direction and (Gt Gr )R is the transmit and receive antenna gain
corresponding to the reflected ray.

Example 5
T-R distance: 5km, E-field at a distance of 1km from the TX is
10−3 V/m, frequency is 900MHz. The RX uses a vertical λ/4 monopole
antenna with gain of 2.55dB. Find (a) the length and the effective
aperture of the RX antenna. (b) find the received power using
two-ray model assuming ht is 50m and hr is 1.5m.
Solution:
(a) L = λ/4 = 0.333/4 = 0.0833m = 8.33cm
2
rλ
2
Ae = G4π = 1.8(0.333)
4πp = 0.016 m2
p
(b) d = 50km À ht hr = 50 × 1.5³ = 8.66m ´
2×10−3 ×103
⇒ Er (d) ≈ 2Ed0 d0 2πht hr
λd = 5×103
2π×50×1.5
0.333×5×103
= 113.1 × 10−6 V/m
|E|2 Ae (113.1×10−6 )2 (0.016)
⇒ Pr (d) = 120π = 377 = 5.42 × 10−13 W = −92.68dBm

Diffraction
Causes: the propagation of secondary wavelets into a

shadowed (obstructed) region; explained by Huygen’s
Principle1 .
Locations: curved surface of the earth, hilly or irregular terrain,
building edges or obstructions blocking the LOS path between
TX and RX.
Model: the Fresnel knife-edge diffraction model.
1 Huygen’s Principle: all points on a wavefront can be consider as point sources for
the production of secondary wavelets and these wavelets combine to produce a new
wavefront in the direction of propagation.
Fresnel Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
Excess path length (∆d longer than LOS path)
h2 d1 + d2
∆d = (d10 + d20 ) − (d1 + d2 ) ≈ (44)
2 d1 d2
Phase difference (∆φ)
2π∆d 2π h2 d1 + d2 π 2
∆φ = ≈ = ν (45)
λ λ 2 d1 d2 2
Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter (ν)
∵ tan α ≈ α = β + γ ≈ tan(β) + tan(γ) (46)
d1 + d2
µ ¶
∴α≈h (47)
d1 d2
s s
2(d1 + d2 ) 2d1 d2
ν=h =α (48)
λd1 d2 λ(d1 + d2 )

Fresnel Zones
The loss due to knife-edge diffraction is a function of ν and can

be explained by Fresnel zones.2
nth Fresnel zone radius (rn )
s
nλd1 d2
rn = valid for d1 , d2 À rn (49)
d1 + d2
Fresnel zones will have maximum radii if the knife-edge
obstacle is midway between TX and RX
p
nλd
rn = (d1 = d2 = d2 ) (50)
2
2 Fresnel zone: successive regions where secondary waves have an excess path
length equal to nλ
2 , n ∈ N.
Knife-Edge Diffraction Loss Model

The diffraction loss occurs from the blockage of secondary
waves ⇒ only a portion of the energy is diffracted around an
obstacle.
Ideally, for an 80%-free Fresnel zone, no significant signal loss
presents. Keep at least 60% of the zone free, or the link will be
unreliable, poor or may never work.
Diffraction loss is Ld (ν) = 20 log |F(ν)|, where F(ν) is the complex
2
E 1+j R ∞ −jπt
Fresnel integral ( F(ν) ≡ Ed = 2 ν e 2 dt ) (relative to LOS
0
path)
Lee’s Approximation for Ld (ν)


 0 ν ≤ −1
−1 ≤ ν < 0

 20 log (0.5 − 0.62ν)



20 log ³0.5e−0.95ν 0≤ν<1
¡ ¢
Ld (ν) [dB] = p ´ (51)
 20 log 0.4 − 0.1184 − (0.38 − 0.1ν)2 1 ≤ ν < 2.4




20 log 0.225 ν > 2.4

 ¡ ¢
ν

Received Signal for Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
Received Signal for Knife-Edge Diffraction Model

( )
λ Ld (ν) (Gr Gt )d
p
−j2πdD /λ j2πfc t
r(t) = Re s̃(t − τ)e e (52)
4π dD
where (Gr Gt )d is the TX and RX antenna gain product in the
diffracted ray direction; τ = ∆d
c is the delay associated with the
diffracted ray relative to LOS path and dD = d10 + d20 is the traveled
path of the diffracted ray .

Example 6
If an obstacle is 10km away from a TX antenna and 2km away from
RX antenna, find (a) the 1st Fresnel zone boundary, and (b) the
boundary for 80% clearance for transmitting 900MHz signal.
Solution: r
3×108 3 3
6 (2×10 )(10×10 )
q
λd1 d2
(a) r1 = d +d = 900×10 12×103 = 23.57m (b) 0.8r1 = 18.86m
1 2
Example 7
Continue the above example. If the TX antenna height is 50m and
RX antenna height is 25m, determine the loss due to knife-edge
diffraction. Assume the obstacle height is 100m.
Solution:
β = tan−1 100−50
10000 = 0.005, γ = tan
−1 100−25
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
2000 = 0.0375,
q
2×10000×2000
α = β + γ = 0.0425 ⇒ ν = 0.0425 (1/3)×(10000+2000) = 4.25
Gd (4.25) = 20 log(0.225/4.25) = −25.52dB.

Scattering
When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected

energy is spread out in all directions.
Rayleigh criterion hc : determines surface roughness by defining
λ
a critical height hc = 8 sin θ i
Smooth surface: maximum to minimum protuberance h ≤ hc
Rough surface: h > hc
Scatter loss factor ρ s : Γrough = ρ s Γflat
· ³ ´ ¸
πσh sin θi 2
Ament’s: ρ s = exp −8 λ
· ³ ´ ¸ · ³ ´ ¸
πσh sin θi 2 πσh sin θi 2
Boithias’s: ρ s = exp −8 λ
I0 8 λ
where σh is the standard deviation of the surface height about
the mean surface height, I0 is the Bessel function of the first kind
and zero order.
Radar Cross Section Model
Radar cross section σRCS : the ratio of the power density of the
signal scattered in the direction of RX to the power density of
the radio wave incident upon the scattering object, in unit of
dB · m2 .
Received power:
Pr [dBm] = Pt [dBm] + Gt [dBi] + 20 log(λ) + σRCS [dB·m2 ]

−30 log(4π) − 20 log d − 20 log d0 (53)
where d and d0 are the distance from the scattering objects to

TX and RX
Useful for predicting receiver power which scatters off large
objects such as buildings.

Received Signal Due to a Scattered Ray
Bistatic Radar Equation

½ p
λ (Gt Gr )s σRCS
¾
−j2π(d+d0 )/λ j2πfc t
r(t) = Re s̃(t − τ)e e (54)
(4π)3/2 dd0
where τ = (d + d0 − dL )/c is the delay associated with the scattered
ray; σRCS is the radar cross-section of the scattering objects,
depending the roughness, size and shape of the scattering objects.

Ray Tracing Model
Totoal received signal for a LOS path, Nr reflected, Nd diffracted and

Ns scattered rays:
Ray Tracing Model
·p
λ Gt Gr
½
r(t) = Re s̃(t)e−j2πdL /λ
4π dL
Nr Γ
p
i (Gt Gr )R,i
s̃(t − τi )e−j2πdR,i /λ
X
+
i=1 d R,i
Nd L (ν) (G G )
p
d t r D,j
s̃(t − τj )e−j2πdD,j /λ
X
+
j=1 dD,j
# )
Ns (Gt Gr )S,k σRCS,k
p
−j2π(dk +dk0 )/λ j2πfc t
s̃(t − τk )e
X
+ p e (55)
k=1 4πdk dk0

Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering

Empirical Path Loss Models
Why: Practical mobile wireless environments cannot be

accurately modeled by free-space path loss or ray tracing.


What: Empirical models are based on measurements over a
given distance in a given frequency range for a particular
geographical area or building. path loss defined.


How: Empirical measurements of Pr /Pt as a function of distance
include the effects of path loss, shadowing, and multipath
effects.


effects.
In order to remove multipath effects ⇒ average the received
power measurements and corresponding path loss at a given
distance over several wavelengths.


effects.
Local Mean Attenuation (LMA): average path loss at distance d
(∼ nλ)


effects.
Local Mean Attenuation (LMA): average path loss at distance d
(∼ nλ)
Summary: empirical path loss PL (d) for a given environments:
the average of LMA measurements at distance d over all
available measurements in the given environment.

Okumura Model
Area: large urban macrocells

Distance: 1-100 km
Frequency: 150-1500 MHz
PL(d) [dB] = L(fc , d) + Aµ (fc , d) − G(ht ) − G(hr ) − GAREA (56)
L(fc , d): free-space path loss at distance d at carrier frequency fc

Aµ (fc , d): the median attenuation in addition to free-space path loss
GAREA : gain due to the type of environment.
G(ht ): the base station antenna height gain factor
G(ht ) = 20 log(ht /200) 30m < ht < 100m (57)
G(hr ): the mobile antenna height gain factor

½
10 log(hr /3) hr ≤ 100m
G(hr ) = (58)
20 log(hr /3) 3m < hr < 10m

Okumura Model, cont’d

Hata Model
Area: large urban macrocells

Distance: 1-100 km
Frequency: 150-1500 MHz
PLurban (d) [dB] = 69.55 + 26.16 log(fc ) − 13.82 log(ht ) − a(hr )

¡ ¢
+ 44.9 − 6.55 log(ht ) log(d) (59)
a(hr ): correction factor based on the coverage area

small to medium-sized cities:
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
a(hr ) = 1.1 log(fc ) − 0.7 hr − 1.56 log(fc ) − 0.8 (60)
large cities:
¡ ¢2
a(hr ) = 8.29 log(1.54hr ) − 1.1 fc ≤ 300 MHz
¡ ¢2
a(hr ) = 3.2 log(11.75hr ) − 4.97 fc > 300 MHz (61)

Hata Model, cont’d
¡ ¢2
PLsuburban (d) [dB] = PLurban (d) − 2 log(fc /28) − 5.4 (62)
¡ ¢2
PLrural (d) [dB] = PLurban (d) − 4.78 log fc + 18.33 log fc − K
K ranges from 35.94 (countryside) to 40.94 (desert)

Hata model approximates Okumura model for distance d >1 km.
well suited for large cells on the order of 1 km radius.

COST-231 Extension to Hata Model
Extension to Hata model by European Cooperative for Scientific

and Technical Research
Frequency: 1.5 GHz to 2 GHz
PLurban [dB] = 46.3 + 33.9 log(fc ) − 13.82 log(ht ) − a(hr )

¡ ¢
+ 44.9 − 6.55 log(ht ) log(d) + CM (63)
CM = 0 dB for medium sized city and suburband areas

CM = 3 dB for metropolitan centers
Range of parameters:
30m ≤ ht ≤ 200m
1m ≤ hr ≤ 10m
1km ≤ d ≤ 10km

Walfisch and Bertoni Model

Consider the impact of rooftops and building height by using
diffraction to predict average signal strength at street level
Path loss S:
S = P0 Q 2 P1 (64)
³ ´2
λ
P0 free space path loss between isotropic antennae, P0 = 4πR
Q2 the reduction in the rooftop signal due to the row of buildings
which immediately shadow the receiver at the street level
P1 the signal loss from rooftop to the street
S [dB] = L0 + Lrts + Lms (65)

Wideband PCS Microcell Model

extensive measurements in line-of-sight (LOS) and obstructed
(OBS) environments at 1900 MHz
→ a two-ray ground reflection model is a good estimated for
path loss in LOS microcells
→ a simple log-distance path loss model holds well for OBS
microcells
average path loss for LOS cases
½
10n1 log(d) + p1 for 1 < d < df
PL(d) [dB] =
10n2 log(d/df ) + 10n1 log df + p1 for d > df
where P1 = PL(d0 ), d0 = 1m, n1 and n2 are path loss exponents,

df the distance at which the first Fresnel zone obstructed by
ground3
average path loss for OBS cases
PL(d) [dB] = 10n log(d) + p1 (66)

q
4
3d 1
16h2t h2r − λ2 h2t + h2r + λ16
¡ ¢
f =λ

Indoor radio channel differs from mobile radio channel in two
aspects
distance covered are much smaller than outdoor environment
variability of the environment is much greater for a much
smaller range of T-R separation distances
Indoor propagation are strongly influenced by
layout of building
construction material
building type
Measurements across a wide range of building indicate
the attenuation per floor is greatest for the first floor that is
passed through
the attenuation per floor decreases with each subsequent floor
penetrated
eg. at 900 MHz 10-20 dB when TX and RX are separated by a
single floor, while subsequent attenuation is 6-10 dB per floor
for the next three floors
Radio Path Loss Obstructed by Common Building

Material

Radio Path Loss Obstructed by Common Building

Material, cont’d

Indoor Attenuation Factor Model

Seidel:
Np
d
¶ µ
X
PL(d) [dB] = PL(d0 ) + 10nsf log + FAF + PAFi (67)
d0 i
nsf : the exponent value for the same floor measurement.

FAF: floor attenuation factor for a specified number of building
floors.
PAF: partition attenuation factor .
¶ Np
d
µ
X
PL(d) [dB] = PL(d0 ) + 10nmf log + PAFi (68)
d0 i
Devasirvatham et al.: in-building path loss obeys free space loss

plus an additional loss factor.
Np
d
µ ¶
+ αd + FAF + PAFi
X
PL(d) [dB] = PL(d0 ) + 20 log (69)
d0 i
α is the attenuation constant for the channel (dB/m)

Floor Attenuation Factors (FAF)

Floor Attenuation Factors (FAF), cont’d

Indoor Path Loss Exponents and Standard Deviation

Indoor Path Loss Exponents and Standard Deviation

Scatter Plot for Path Loss in Office Building 1

Scatter Plot for Path Loss in Office Building 2

Free Space Plus Linear Path Attenuation Model

Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering

Noise Limited System
Thermal Noise
The power spectral density of thermal noise depends on the
environment temperature Te that antenna “sees". The
temperature of the Earth Te is typically 300K
Noise power N0
N0 = kB Te = −174[dBm/Hz] (70)
where kB is Boltzmann’s constant, kB = 1.38 × 10−23 Joules/Kelvin

Noise power Pn
Pn = N0 B = kB Te B = −174 + 10 log (B) [dBm] (71)
where B is the RX bandwidth in Hz.

Noise Limited System, cont’d

Man-made Noise
Spurious emissions
Other intentional emission sources
Receiver Noise
SNRin F2 − 1 F3 − 1
F, = F1 + + +... (72)
SNRout G1 G1 G2

Link Budget
Example 8
Consider the downlink of a GSM system. fc is 950 MHz and the RX
sensitivity is −102 dBm. The output power of the TX amplifier is
30 W. The TX antenna gain is 10 dB, the losses in connectors,
combiners, etc. are 5 dB. The fading margin is 12 dB.
³ Assume for
´ −n
d < dbreak , Pr ∝ d−2 and for d > dbreak , Pr (d) = Pr (dbreak ) d d where
break
n = 3.5 and dbreak = 100m. What is the distance can be covered?
Solution:
TX side RX side
Pt : 30 W 45 dBm Pmin -102 dBm
Gt : 10 10 dB Fading margin 12 dB
Loss: -5 dB Median RX power -90 dBm
EIRP 50 dBm Ovreall path loss 140 dB
Path loss at dbreak = 100 m: 72 dB; Path loss d > dbreak , ∝ d−3.5 : 68 dB
⇒ d = 100 · 1068/(10n) = 8.8km

Log-Distance Path Loss Model
¶n
d
µ
PL(d) [dB] = PL(d0 ) (73)
d0
d
µ ¶
PL [dB] = PL(d0 ) + 10n log (74)
d0
Typical path loss exponents

Environment Path Loss Exponent, n
Free space 2
Urban cellular 2.7-3.5
Shadowed urban cellular 3-5
In building LOS 1.6-1.8
Office buildings (same floor) 1.6-3.5
Office buildings (multiple floors) 2-6
Obstructed in factory 1.6-3.3
Obstructed in building 4-6

Example 9
Four RX power measurements were taken at distances of 100m, 200m, 1km and 3km
from a TX and the measured RX power levels are 0dBm, -20dBm, -35dBm and
-70dBm, respectively. Assume the path loss obeys the log-distance model. Find the
path loss exponent n that minimizes mean square error (MSE) between measured
and modeled values.
Solution:
k
(pi − p̂i )2
X
J(n) =
i=1
¡ ¢
p̂i = pi (d0 ) − 10n log di /d0
The value of n which minimize J(n) can be obtained by letting dJ(n)
dn
= 0 and solving for
n.
J(n) = (0 − 0)2 + (−20 − (−3n))2 + (−35 − (−10n))2 + (−70 − (−14.77n))2

J(n) = 6525 − 2887.8n + 327.153n2
dJ(n)
= 654.306n − 2887.8
dn
dJ(n)
= 0 ⇒ n = 4.4
dn

Consider the random variation of surrounding environment due

to blockage from objects
Measurements have shown at any value of d, the path loss PL (d)
at a particular location is random and distributed log-normally
(normal in dB) about the distance-dependent mean.
d
µ ¶
PL(d) [dB] = PL(d) + Xσ = PL(d0 ) + 10n log + Xσ (75)
d0
Xσ is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in dB)

with standard deviation σ (in dB).
Received Power Pr (d)
Pr (d) [dBm] = Pt [dBm] − PL(d) [dBm] (76)
Log-normal shadowing implies measured signal levels at a

specific T-R separation distance have a Gaussian (normal)
distribution.
Example 10
Find the standard deviation and variance σ2 of Example 9. Estimate
the received power at distance 2km.
Solution:
1X 4 1
σ2 = (pi − p̂i )2 = J(n)
4 i=1 4
J(n) = (0 + 0) + (−20 + 13.2)2 + (−35 + 44)2 + (−70 + 64.988)2 = 152.36
σ2 = 152.36/4 = 38.09 dB2

p
σ = 38.09 = 6.17 dB
p̂(d = 2 km) = 0 − 10(4.4) log(2000/100) = −57.24 dBm (77)

Outage Probability under Path Loss and Shadowing
A target minimum received power level Pmin is required for

wireless systems performance.
For received signal power below Pmin performance becomes
unacceptable
Definition
Outage probability Pout (Pmin , d) under path loss and shadowing: the
probability that the received power at a given distance d, Pr (d) falls
below Pmin
Pout (Pmin , d) , p(Pr (d) < Pmin ) (78)
Ã! Ã !
Pmin − Pr (d) Pr (d) − Pmin
p(Pr (d) ≤ Pmin ) = 1 − Q =Q (79)
σ σ

Review: Gaussian Distribution

Gaussian distribution for a random variable X is defined in
terms of its mean µX and variance σ2X as
(x−µX )2
1 −
2σ2
pX (x) = p e X (80)
2πσX
also called the normal distribution, denoted as N(µX , σ2X ).

Probability of X ≤ x for Gaussian distribution can be expressed
in terms of Gaussian Q-function
x − µX
µ ¶
p(X ≤ x) = 1 − Q (81)
σX
Gaussian Q-function is the probability that a Gaussian random
variable X with mean 0 and variance 1 is larger than x:
Z ∞
1 y2
Q(x) = p(X ≥ x) , p e 2 dy (82)
x 2π
where Q(x) = 1 − Q(−x)
Review: Error Function
Error function erf (x) can be related to the Q-function by
2
Z x 2 p
erf (x) , p e−y dy = 1 − 2Q( 2x) (83)
π 0
x
µ µ ¶¶
1
⇒ Q(x) = 1 − erf p (84)
2 2
Complementary error function erfc(x)
p p
erfc(x) = 1 − erf (x) = 1 − (1 − 2Q( 2x)) = 2Q( 2x) (85)
x
µ ¶
1
Q(x) = erfc p (86)
2 2

Example 11
Predict the probability that the received signal level at 2 km will be
greater than -60 dBm.
Solution:
Ã !
Pmin − Pr (d)
p(Pr (d) > −60 dBm) = Q
σ
µ ¶
−60 + 57.24
= Q
6.17
= Q(−0.447)
= 1 − Q(0.447) = 67.4% (87)

Percentage of useful service area, U(Pmin ): percentage of area with

a received signal level Pr (r) ≥ Pmin
1
Z
U (Pmin ) = p (Pr (r) > Pmin ) dA (88)
πR2 cell area
Z 2π Z R
1
= p (Pr (r) > Pmin ) rdrdθ (89)
πR2 0 0

Percentage of Cell Coverage Area, cont’d
Ã ! Ã !
Pmin − Pr (r) 1 1 Pmin − Pr (r)
p(Pr (r) > Pmin ) = Q = − erf p (90)
σ 2 2 σ 2
³ ³ ´´ 
Pmin − Pt − PL(d0 ) + 10n log dr0

1 1
= − erf  p 
2 2 σ 2
referenced to the cell boundary (r = R):

³ ³ ´ ¡ r ¢´ 
R

1 1 P min − P t − PL(d0 ) + 10n log d0 + 10n log R
p(Pr (r) > Pmin ) = − erf  p 
2 2 σ 2
(91)
1 1 ³ r´
p(Pr (r) > Pmin ) = − erf a + b ln (92)
2 2 R
³ ³ ´´
Pmin − Pt −PL(d0 )+10n log dR Pmin −Pr (R) 10n log e
0
where a = p = p , b= p
σ 2 σ 2 σ 2

Percentage of Cell Coverage Area, cont’d
Z 2π Z R µ
r´
¶
1 1 1 ³
U(Pmin ) = − erf a + b ln rdrdθ (93)
πR2 0 0 2 2 R
Z R
1 1 ³ r´
= − 2 erf a + b ln rdr (94)
2 R 0 R
1 − ab
· µ ¶µ µ ¶¶¸
1 1 − 2ab
= 1 − erf (a) + exp 1 − erf (95)
2 b2 b
p p 1 − ab
· µ ¶ µ µ ¶¶¸
1 1 − 2ab
= 2Q( 2a) + exp 2Q 2 (96)
2 b2 b
If Pmin = Pr (R) ⇒ a = 0
· µ ¶µ µ ¶¶¸ " µ ¶ Ã p !#
1 1 1 1 1 2
U(Pmin ) = 1 + exp 2 1 − erf = 1 + exp 2 2Q
2 b b 2 b b
(97)

Fractional Coverage of Total Cell Area

Example 12
Predict the percentage of area within a 2 km radius cell that
receives signals greater than -60 dBm given in Example 9-10.
Solution:
Pmin − Pr (R) −60 − (−57.24)

a= p = p = −0.3163
σ 2 6.17 2
10n log e 10 · 4.4 log e
p b= = p = 2.18966
σ 2 6.17 · 2
³ ³ p ´ h ³ p ´i´
U(Pmin ) = 0.5 2Q −0.3163 × 2 + e0.4974 2Q 0.7729 × 2 ' 88%

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Mobile

TA: 林執中 leslie77914@yahoo.com.tw

Office: MIRC 316

Wireless Communications 調整邊框

Dimensions of Wireless Information Society

Mobile = Connected and in touch

More capable and affordable mobile

The Three In One Phone

Office Hotel Out and About

Applications : System Considerations

Part C. Transceiver Elements

Transceiver PHY Process ?

High-power, Wide-Area Systems (Cellular)

PSTN: Public Service Telephone Network

Low-Speed, Wide-Area Systems

Large Scale Path Loss

Small Scale Fading

With fixed number of channels to support an

Fixed Channel Assignment:

Dynamic Channel Assignment

Need to be successful and unfrequented

1st Generation Cellular

Path Loss Fading Interference

Modulation Equilization Coding Diversity Multiple Access

Transmitter Channel Receiver

Coder Modulator RF Front RF Front Demodulator DeCoder

A Complete DS Spread Spectrum Radio Chipset

Line of Site Transmission Model

Outdoor Propagation Model

Indoor Propagation Model

Free Space Path Loss:

- If an istrophic radiator is fed by a transmitted power Pt ,

= -10log 2 / (4d)2. (=c/f )

= 96.6 + 20log10FGHz + 20log10D

Radio propagation in the mobile environment

Figure 6.1 Indorr environment

Model 1: B1 to M1(base 1 to mobile 1).

Transmitter Channel Receiver

A/D Coding Mod. TX

RX Demod Decoding D/A

access code packet header payload

1 hyperframe = 2048 superframes = 2715648 TDMA frames ( 3h 28min 53s 760ms )

0 1 2 3 2044 2045 2046 2047

1 superframes = 1326 TDMA frames ( 6.12s )

1(26-frame) multiframes (120ms) 1(51-frame) multiframes (235ms)

1 TDMA frames (4.615ms) = 8 time slots

 Forward-Error Correction (FEC)

(1): Baseband TX/RX

 Signal Detection Basics

 Impairments: Carrier wave and Timing

Data to phase : (t) = 0 if ai=1, (t) = if ai=0

Modulated data signal : S(t) = Acos( ct+ (t) ) = Acos(ct)

Data in Data to phase Mod BPF ANT

ANT Amp BPF Carrier DeMod Decoding

Carrier recovery : V2(t) = A2cos2 (ct + ) = (1/2)[A2 + A2cos2(ct + )]

Freq. divided by 2  carry recovered: cos(ct + )

Actual case : with noise : domodulation with matching

Decoding by integrator + symbol timing recovery circuit

Building Blocks Brief

 RF Front End ( FROM “Wireless RF Training”

 RF Front End ( FROM “Wireless RF Training”

RF Front End: For Frequency Shift

Coder Modulator RF Front RF Front Demodulator DeCoder