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the country.

ME 516
Industrial Plant Processes

Industrial Processes
of
Cotton to Fabric Product

Submitted by:
Kristo Ver P. Tampos
BSME – 5A

Submitted to:
Engr. Adolfo C. Salise Jr.
Instructor
COTTON
Cotton remains the most miraculous fiber under the sun, even after 8,000
years. No other fiber comes close to duplicating all of the desirable characteristics
in cotton.
The fiber of a thousand almost as many uses, cotton is noted for its
versatility, appearance, performance and above all, its natural comfort. From all
types of apparel, including astronauts’ inflight space suits, to sheets and towels,
and tarpaulins and tents, cotton in today’s fast-moving world is still nature’s wonder
fiber. It provides thousands of useful products and supports millions of jobs as it
moves from field to fabric.
With Cotton Harvesting, Timing Is Everything
Cotton is fully mature and ready for harvesting approximately 160 days after
being planted. Once the bolls have burst open, the farmers can prepare the cotton
plants for harvesting. One of the biggest threats to a cotton crop is weather—rain,
specifically—so it must be harvested on time to avoid damage, which would
negatively impact yield.
Now, the Machines Do Much of the Work
Machines called cotton pickers are used to remove the bolls of cotton from
the stalk. These machines use rotating spindles to pick (or twist) the seed cotton
from the opened burr. Doffers then remove the seed cotton from the spindles. A
second machine, called a cotton stripper, can also be used. This particular
machine uses rollers equipped with bats and brushes to knock the open bolls from
the plants into a conveyor. Both harvesting systems use air to elevate the seed
cotton into a basket where it is stored until it can be dumped into a boll buggy.

Storing the Cotton Before Delivery to the Gin

Now that the cotton has been harvested from the field, it’s transferred from
the boll buggy to a module builder. From there, the cotton is then packed into large
cubes that weigh approximately 20,000 pounds each. At this point the cotton is
sent to the cotton gin for processing and preparing before the fiber makes its next
stop, which will be either a textile mill, or a purification manufacturer.
 From field to fabric, the process of making cotton transforms the raw fibers
into threads, yarn and fabric in three steps: Ginning, Spinning, and Weaving.

GINNING
To be used for thread or fabric, raw
seed cotton must have cleaned and free of
debris. Seeds, burrs, dirt, stems and leaf
material are removed from the cotton during
ginning.

Cotton Ginning Process

  Feeder:
The stationary head feeder employs a dispersing head with spiked rollers
for breaking apart the module. the modules are transported to the stationary
dispersing head on a series of beds: each bed is the length of a module and is
constructed of flat wire-mesh belts or of chains similar to those of the module truck
live bed.

 Dryer
In the first stage of drying, heated air conveys the cotton through the shelves
for 10-15 sec. The temperature of the conveying air is regulated to control the
amount of drying.
 Cylinder Cleaner
The drying continues as the warm air moves the seed cotton to the cylinder
cleaner, which consists of six or seven revolving spiked cylinders that rotate at
400-500 rpm.

 Stick Machine
The stick machine removes larger foreign matter, such as burs and sticks,
from the cotton. Stick machines use the centrifugal force created by saw cylinders
rotating at 300-400 rpm to "sling off" foreign material while the fiber is held by the
saw. The foreign matter that is slung off the reclaimer feeds into the trash-handling
system. Processing rates of 1.5-2.0 bales/hr/ft of cylinder length are common.

 Extractor Feeder
The primary function of the
extractor-feeder is to feed seed cotton to
the gin stand uniformly and at controllable
rates, with extracting and cleaning as a
secondary function. The feed rate of seed
cotton is controlled by the speed of two
star-shaped feed rollers located at the top
of the feeder directly under the distributor
hopper.

 Gin Stand
The modern gin plant typically has
multiple gin stands. Cotton enters the gin
stand through a huller front. The saws
grasp the cotton and draw it through widely
spaced ribs known as huller ribs. The locks
of cotton are drawn from the huller ribs into
the bottom of the roll box.

 Lint Cleaner
It is very important for cotton to flow uniformly and be well dispersed,
particularly as it leaves the gin stand. Cotton is conveyed from the gin stand
through lint ducts to condensers and formed again into a batt.
 The batt is removed from the condenser drum and fed into the saw-type lint
cleaner. The batt should be of uniform thickness and be evenly spread over the
entire width of the lint cleaner; otherwise, poor cleaning and excessive fiber loss
will result.
 Bale Press
The cleaned cotton is compressed
into bales, which must then be covered to
protect them from contamination during
transportation and storage. Three types of
bales are produced: modified flat,
compress universal density, and gin
universal density. These bales are
packaged at densities of 14 and 28 lb/ft3
for the modified flat and universal density
bales, respectively.

SPINNING

 Blending, Mixing and Scutching

Scutching refers to the process of cleaning cotton of its seeds and other
impurities. The scutching machine worked by passing the cotton through a pair of
rollers, and then striking it with iron or steel bars called beater bars or beaters. The
beaters, which turn very quickly, strike the cotton hard and knock the seeds out.
This process is done over a series of parallel bars so as to allow the seeds to fall
through. At the same time, air is blown across the bars, which carries the cotton
into a cotton chamber.
 Carding
In the carding process, the fibres are separated and then assembled into a
loose strand (sliver or tow). The cotton comes off of the picking machine in laps,
and is then taken to carding machines. The carders line up the fibres nicely to
make them easier to spin. The carding machine consists mainly of one big roller
with smaller ones surrounding it. All of the rollers are covered in small teeth, and
as the cotton progresses further on the teeth get finer (i.e. closer together). The
cotton leaves the carding machine in the form of a sliver: a large rope of fibres.

Carding Machine Combing Machine

 Combing
The carded sliver is further combed to remove short fibers and dust that
could not be removed in the carding process. Fibers are then arranged parallel to
obtain uniform combed sliver. This process is essential to manufacture uniform,
high-quality yarn.
 Drawing
Six to eight slivers after the carding or combing process are gathered and
elongated to six to eight times their original length using a drawing machine to
straighten and remove uneven thickness from the fibers. This process transforms
fibers into string-like “drawn sliver.”
 Roving
Since the drawn sliver is too thick to produce yarns directly, it is further
elongated using a roving machine. Twisting is first applied to fibers in this process
to obtain the green yarn, which is wound onto a bobbin.
 Spinning
In the fine spinning process, the last of the main spinning processes, the
green yarn resulting from the roving process is further elongated to obtain a
desired thickness and then
twisted. The final product, or
the finished yarn, is wound
on a bobbin
WEAVING

 Winding
After being spun and plied, the cotton thread is taken to a warping room
where the winding machine takes the required length of yarn and winds it onto
warpers bobbins.
 Warping
Racks of bobbins are set up to hold the thread while it is rolled onto the warp
bar of a loom. Because the thread is fine, often three of these would be combined
to get the desired thread count.
 Sizing
Slasher sizing machine needed for strengthening the warp by adding starch
to reduce breakage of the yarns.
 Drawing in, Looming
The process of drawing each end of the warp separately through the dents
of the reed and the eyes of the healds, in the order indicated by the draft.
 Pirning (Processing the weft)
Pirn winding frame was used to transfer the weft from cheeses of yarn onto
the pirns that would fit into the shuttle.
 Weaving
Prepared beams are set on a looming frame to weave a textile in the
following five motions:
1. Shedding: two groups of warps are opened to let the weft pass through.
2. Picking: The weft is inserted between two groups of warps.
3. Beat-up: Pushing the newly inserted yarn back into the fell using reed.
4. Let-off: The warp yarns are unwound from the warp beam.
5. Take-up: The woven fabric is wound on the cloth beam.
Finishing — processing of fabrics (textiles)
The woven cotton fabric in its loom-state not only contains impurities,
including warp size, but requires further treatment in order to develop its full textile
potential. Furthermore, it may receive considerable added value by applying one
or more finishing processes.
 Desizing
Depending on the size that has been used, the cloth may be steeped in a
dilute acid and then rinsed, or enzymes may be used to break down the size.
 Scouring
Scouring, is a chemical washing process carried out on cotton fabric to
remove natural wax and non-fibrous impurities (e.g. the remains of seed
fragments) from the fibres and any added soiling or dirt.
 Bleaching
Bleaching improves whiteness by removing natural coloration and remaining
trace impurities from the cotton; the degree of bleaching necessary is determined
by the required whiteness and absorbency.
 Mercerising
A further possibility is mercerizing during which the fabric is treated with
caustic soda solution to cause swelling of the fibres. This results in improved lustre,
strength and dye affinity.
 Singeing
Singeing is designed to burn off the surface fibres from the fabric to produce
smoothness. The fabric passes over brushes to raise the fibres, then passes over
a plate heated by gas flames.
 Raising
Another finishing process is raising. During raising, the fabric surface is
treated with sharp teeth to lift the surface fibres, thereby imparting hairiness,
softness and warmth, as in flannelette.
 Calendering
Calendering is the third important mechanical process, in which the fabric is
passed between heated rollers to generate smooth, polished or embossed effects
depending on roller surface properties and relative speeds.
 Shrinking (Sanforizing)
Finally, mechanical shrinking (sometimes referred to as sanforizing),
whereby the fabric is forced to shrink width and/or lengthwise, creates a fabric in
which any residual tendency to shrink after subsequent laundering is minimal.
 Dyeing
Finally, cotton is an absorbent fibre which responds readily to colouration
processes. Dyeing, for instance, is commonly carried out with an anionic direct dye
by completely immersing the fabric (or yarn) in an aqueous dyebath according to
a prescribed procedure.
 Printing
Printing, on the other hand, is the application of colour in the form of a paste
or ink to the surface of a fabric, in a predetermined pattern. It may be considered
as localised dyeing. Printing designs onto already dyed fabric is also possible.

WHAT KINDS OF POLLUTION DO TEXTILE FACTORIES GIVE OFF?

Water Pollution
The toxic chemicals used to create textiles are major sources of pollution
from textile factory operations. Factories use polyvinyl chloride to size fabrics,
chlorine bleach to lighten a fabric’s color, benzidine and toluidine as dyeing agents
and flame retardants that are known cancer-causing agents. Other toxic chemicals
that are used in everyday operations are formaldehyde, lead and mercury. Fabrics
are washed and rewashed as they move down the production line. Releasing this
untreated chemical wastewater brew can pollute waterways and groundwater
sources.
Air Pollution
As textiles move through the production process, numerous life-threatening
pollutants left untreated can contaminate the air. Factory boilers that heat the water
release nitrous oxides and sulphur dioxides. Carbon monoxide is released from
factory sizing operations. Bleaching operations release chlorine dioxide, and fabric
printing releases hydrocarbons and ammonia. Fabric-finishing operations can
release formaldehyde into the air. Without EPA safeguards, these toxic vapors
would remain suspended in the air and be carried by the wind to pollute other
areas.
Solid-Waste Pollution
Textile manufacturing operations create large amounts of toxic and nontoxic
solid waste. Fibers, hemp, yarn and fabrics are solid waste that are created directly
from production lines. The cones, looms and cardboard reels used to hold fibers
and textiles during manufacturing add to a factory’s solid-waste pollution. Common
toxic-solid waste pollutants include the storage drums and plastic containers used
to hold hazardous chemicals and solvents. Leftover powdered dyes and dye
containers, scrap metal, oily cloths and wastewater sludge can contaminate the
soil and groundwater sources if not properly disposed of or released untreated.
POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES

Quality Control for Raw Materials

1. Adopt environmentally responsible purchasing policies and work with
suppliers to obtain less-polluting raw materials.
2. Perform tests on raw materials shortly after receipt.
3. Purchase raw materials in returnable containers.
Chemical Substitution
1. Replace chemicals with less-polluting ones.
2. Replace chemical treatment with other treatment.

Process Modification
1. Use low-liquor ratio dyeing machines.
2. Use pad batch dyeing methods.
3. Use countercurrent washing to reduce water use.
4. Optimize process conditions.
5. Combine processes.

Process Water Reuse and Recycle

1. Reuse dyebaths.
2. Reuse rinse baths.
3. Install automated dosing systems and dye machine controllers.
4. Use continuous horizontal washers.
5. Use continuous knit bleaching ranges.

Good Operating Practices

1. Schedule dyeing operations to minimize machine cleaning.
2. Optimize cleaning practices.
3. Optimize housekeeping practices.