Casting

2.810
T. Gutowski
 Casting since about 3200 BCE…

China circa 3000BCE

Lost wax jewelry from Greece

Etruscan casting with runners circa 300 BCE
circa 500 BCE
 Bronze age to iron age

Iron works in early Europe,

Ancient Greece; bronze e.g. cast iron cannons from
statue casting circa 450BCE England circa 1543
Cast Parts
 Outline
1.  Review:Sand Casting, Investment Casting, Die
Casting
2.  Basics: Phase Change, Shrinkage, Heat
Transfer
3.  Pattern Design and New Technologies
4.  Environmental Issues
 Casting
Readings;
1.  Kalpakjian, Chapters 10, 11,
12
2.  Booothroyd, Design for Die
Casting
3.  Flemings Heat Flow in
Solidification
4.  Dalquist LCA of Casting

Note: a good heat transfer reference can be found by

Profs John Lienhard online http://web.mit.edu/lienhard/www/ahtt.html
 Casting Methods

•  Sand Casting •  Investment Casting •  Die Casting

High Temperature Alloy, High Temperature Alloy, High Temperature Alloy,
Complex Geometry, Complex Geometry, Moderate Geometry,
Rough Surface Finish Moderately Smooth Surface Smooth Surface
Finish
Sand Casting
 Sand Casting
Description: Tempered sand is packed into wood or metal pattern
halves, removed form the pattern, and assembled with or without cores,
and metal is poured into resultant cavities. Various core materials can be
used. Molds are broken to remove castings. Specialized binders now in
use can improve tolerances and surface finish.
Metals: Most castable metals.
Size Range: Limitation depends on foundry capabilities. Ounces to many
tons.

Tolerances:
Non-Ferrous ± 1/32ʺ to 6ʺ
Add ± .003ʺ to 3ʺ, ± 3/64ʺ from 3ʺ to 6ʺ.
Across parting line add ± .020ʺ to ± .090ʺ depending on size.
(Assumes metal patterns)
Surface Finish:
Non-Ferrous: 150-350 RMS
Ferrous: 300-700RMS
Minimum Draft Requirements:
1° to 5°
Cores: 1° to 1 1/2°
Normal Minimum Section Thickness:
Non-Ferrous: 1/8ʺ - 1/4ʺ
Ferrous: 1/4ʺ - 3/8ʺ
Ordering Quantities: All quantities
Normal Lead Time:
Samples: 2-10 weeks
Production 2-4 weeks A.S.A.
Sand Casting Mold Features

Vents, which are placed in

molds to carry off gases
produced when the molten
metal comes into contact with
the sand in the molds and core.
They also exhaust air from the
mold cavity as the molten metal
flows into the mold.
Videos from Mass & Burlington Foundries
Production sand casting
 Investment Casting
Description: Metal mold makes wax or plastic replica. There
are sprued, then surrounded with investment material, baked
out, and metal is poured in the resultant cavity. Molds are
broken to remove the castings.
Metals: Most castable metals.
Size Range: fraction of an ounce to 150 lbs..

Tolerances:
± .003ʺ to 1/4ʺ
± .004ʺ to 1/2ʺ,
± .005ʺ per inch to 3ʺ
± .003ʺ for each additional inch
Surface Finish:
63-125RMS
Minimum Draft Requirements: None
Normal Minimum Section Thickness:
.030ʺ (Small Areas)
.060ʺ (Large Areas)
Ordering Quantities:
Aluminum: usually under 1,000
Other metals: all quantities
Normal Lead Time:
Samples: 5-16 weeks (depending on complexity)
Production 4-12 weeks A.S.A. (depending on subsequent
operations).
Talbot Associates Inc.
 Investment Casting
The investment-casting
process, also called the
lost-wax process, was first
used during the period
4000-3500 B.C. The pattern
is made of wax or a plastic
such as polystyrene. The
sequences involved in
investment casting are
shown in Figure 11.18. The
pattern is made by injecting
molten wax or plastic into a
metal die in the shape of
the object.
 Die Casting
Description: Molten metal is injected, under pressure, into
hardened steel dies, often water cooled. Dies are opened,
and castings are ejected.
Metals: Aluminum, Zinc, Magnesium, and limited Brass.
Size Range: Not normally over 2 feet square. Some foundries
capable of larger sizes.

Tolerances:
Al and Mg ± .002ʺ/in.
Zinc ± .0015ʺ/in.
Brass ± .001ʺ/in.
Add ± .001ʺ to ± .015ʺ across parting line depending on
size
Surface Finish: 32-63RMS
Minimum Draft Requirements:
Al & Mg: 1° to 3°
Zinc: 1/2° to 2°
Brass: 2° to 5°
Normal Minimum Section Thickness:
Al & Mg: .03ʺ Small Parts: .06ʺ Medium Parts
Zinc: .03ʺ Small Parts: .045ʺ Medium Parts
Brass: .025ʺ Small Parts: .040ʺ Medium Parts
Ordering Quantities:
Usually 2,500 and up.
Normal Lead Time:
Samples: 12-20 weeks
Production: ASAP after approval.
Die cast parts & runners
http://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com
http://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com
 High Melt Temperature
• Reactivity
3000° C
• with air, mold mat ls, Tungsten Carbide, WC,
Silicon Carbide, SiC Cubic Zirconia, ZrO2

Molybdenum

• Gas solubility
• H2 gas in Al 2000° C
Alumina Al2O3

Platinum, Pt
Titanium, Ti

• Safety Iron, Plain Carbon Steels, low alloy, stainless

Nickel, Ni
Nickel Alloy Silicon, Si
• Metal fires, e.g. Mg
1000° C Copper, Cu, Bronze, Brass

Aluminum
Magnesium Nylon
Zinc, Zn Acetal
PTFE (Teflon)
Tin, Sn
HDPE
0° C
 Mold Filling
Bernouli s Equation:
p v2
h+ + = Const.
pg 2 g

h
Reynold s Number:
vDP
Re =
µ
• Short filling times
• Potential Turbulence
(see Kalpakjian..Ch 10)
 Mold Filling Example

Mold filling issues: oxidation, turbulence, mold erosion, soluble gases, safety
 Phase
Change &
Shrinkage
Solidification of a binary alloy
Composition change during
solidification
Pb-Sn phase diagram
Solidification

Dendrite growth in metals- lower surface energy

crystallographic planes are favored, producing
tree like structures if not disturbed.
Cast structures

Schematic illustration of three cast

structures solidified in a square mold:
(a) pure metals; (b) solid solution
alloys; and c) structure obtained by
using nucleating agents. Source: G. W.
Form, J. F. Wallace, and A. Cibula
 Properties of castings

e.g. Compare elongation of carbon steels (4-36%)Table 5.3,

with cast irons (0-18%) Table 12.3 (Kalpakjian & Schmid 7th)
How long does it take to
solidify?

Thickness ~ 0.5 cm
Thickness ~ 30 cm
Heat Transfer – Sand Casting

2
⎛V ⎞
ts ≈ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ A⎠

Ref: Mert Flemings Solidification Processing

Thermal Conductivity k (W/m·K)
dT
q = −k
dx
Copper 394
Aluminum 222
Iron 29
Sand 0.61
PMMA 0.20
PVC 0.16
Transient Heat Transfer

Alu

Sand 3X10-3
 Sand Casting (see Flemings)

We seek the transient

temperature profile in
the sand.
 Sand Casting (see Flemings)

At t=0, T=To everywhere

This will allow us to At x=0, T=Tm always

calculate the heat
lost by the metal at
the boundary with
the sand tooling
Solidification Time

Enthapy/wt

Use Flemings
result here
Solidification Time (cont.)

The constant C (in this case not heat capacity)

is determined by experiment.
Several references suggest that values range:
C ~ 2 to 4 min/cm2 (with most data for iron and steel)
 How long does it take to
solidify?
Order of magnitude estimate using half thickness, & C = 3.3 min/cm2

Thickness ~ 30 cm Thickness ~ 0.5 cm

Solidification time = 3.3 (30/2)2 [min] ~ 12 hrs t = 3.3 (0.5/2)2 [min] ~ 12 sec
Can you explain these
Solidification features?

?
?

Picture taken from the Chipman Room

Pattern Design suggestions
 More
Pattern
Design
suggestions
Heat Transfer – Die Casting

1
⎛V ⎞
ts ≈ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ A⎠
 Film Coefficients h W/m2·K

q = −hA(ΔT )
Carbon coating high pressure low pressure polished die

Typical die casting 1,000 - 10,000

Natural convection 1 - 10
Flowing air 10 - 50
Also see Boothroyd Ch 10, p446-447
 Die Casting
Solidification
Time
s

Time to form
A
solid part
 Time to cool part to the ejection
temperature. (lumped parameter model)

dT
mC = −Ah (T − To ) Let, θ = T − To
dt

θf ⎛ dθ ⎞ Ah tf
∫ ⎜ ⎟=− ∫ dt
θi
⎝ θ ⎠ mC p ti

−mC Δθ f
Integration yields… t= ln
Ah Δθ i
Note C= heat capacity, h = enthalpy
 Time to cool part to the ejection
temperature. (lumped parameter model)
For thin sheets of thickness w , including phase change

Δθi = Ti + ΔTsp - Tmold

wρC ⎛ Tinject + ΔTsp − Tmold ⎞
t= ln ⎜
ΔTsp = h/C 2h ⎝ Teject − Tmold ⎠
⎟

Δθf = Teject - Tmold

sp means superheat
C is heat capacity
h is enthalpy of phase change
Approximations,
t ≈ 0.42 sec/mm x wmax (Zn)
t ≈ 0.47 sec/mm x wmax (Al)
t ≈ 0.63 sec/mm x wmax (Cu)
t≈ 0.31 sec/mm x wmax (Mg)

Ref Boothroyd, Dewhurst, Knight p 447

 Pattern Design Issues (Alum)
•  Shrinkage Allowance: 1.3%
•  Machining Allowance: 1/16 = 1.6 mm
•  Minimum thickness: 3/16 = 5 mm
•  Parting Line: even
•  Draft Angle: 3 to 5%
•  Thickness: even
 Pattern Design
Table 12.1
Normal Shrinkage Allowance for
Some Metals Cast in Sand Molds
Metal Percent
Gray cast iron 0.83 – 1.3
White cast iron 2.1
Malleable cast iron 0.78 – 1.0
Aluminum alloys 1.3
Magnesium alloys 1.3
Yellow brass 1.3 – 1.6
Phosphor bronze 1.0 – 1.6
Aluminum bronze 2.1
High-manganese steel 2.6
Pattern materials
Digital Sand Casting:
Print molds or parts?
Early Versions of 3-D printing

Liquid metal droplets

Jung-Hoon Chun, MIT

Printed mold and cast part

Ely Sachs, MIT

Liquid metal dropets

CMU
Printed steel & aluminum tools
 Additive Steps to produce tooling

CAD file Support structure Printing: EOS M280

generation

Sawing (or wire

EDM) and hand Printed part on
tool removal of plate, stress
3D printed part
support structure relieve
 Laser melting of powders
Common laser power: Laser scan speeds
Polymers ~ 50 W (CO2 10.6µm) ~ .1 to 1 m/s
Metals ~ 200 W (Nd:YAG 1.06µm )
Absorption ~ 0.7 max build rate:
30mm3/s
= 108 cm3/hr

w ~ 0.3 mm d ~ 0.1 mm
Actual Build
Sand casting; Environmental
Issues • Energy
• Emissions
• Sand
• Waste water

S. Dalquist
 Cast Iron Example (Cupola)
Stage MJ/kg
Mold preparation 3.0
Metal preparation 6.7
Casting 0.7
Finishing 1.2
Total at foundry 11.6
Electricity losses 0.0
TOTAL ~12 MJ/kg

Source: DOE, 1999.

Source: EIA, 2001.
 Melting Energy
•  pour : part size Ratio ~ 1.1 to 3

•  thermal energy
ΔH = mCpΔT+mΔHf => 0.95 (aluminum), 1.3 MJ/kg (cast iron)

•  melting and holding efficiency,

•  Losses at the utilities for electric furnaces

• National statistics (including elect losses)

13 – 17 MJ/kg (total)
Improving sand casting
C p ΔT + Δh 1
η= ≅ ≅ 7%
MJ 15
15
kg

•  reduce runners, risers

•  recycle metal & sand
•  improve furnace efficiency
•  use waste heat
•  use fuel Vs electricity
 Process Material Flow
Recycling

Product Finishing
Melting Pouring Cooling Shakeout Trim

Product
Metals & Waste
Flow

Mold Sand Sand Processing

Mixing Formation Cooling (AO Treatment)

Sand+ Losses
Flow

Recycling

A. Jones
 Metals & sand used in Casting
•  Iron accounts for 3/4 of
US sand cast metals
–  Similar distribution in the
UK
–  Share of aluminum
expected to increase with
lightweighting of
automotive parts
•  Sand used to castings
out– about 5.5:1 by mass
•  Sand lost about 0.5:1 in
US; 0.25:1 in UK

Source: DOE, 1999.

Aggregate TRI data (toxic releases)
 Sandcasting Emissions Factors

•  Emissions factors are useful Iron Melting Furnace Emissions Factors

(kg/Mg of iron produced)
because it is often too time
Process Total Particulate CO SO2 Lead
consuming or expensive to
Cupola
monitor emissions from
Uncontrolled 6.9 73 0.6S* 0.05- 0.6
individual sources.
Baghouse 0.3
•  They are often the only way Electric Induction
to estimate emissions if you
Uncontrolled 0.5 - - 0.005 - 0.07
do not have test data.
Baghouse 0.1

•  However, they can not *S= % of sulfur in the coke. Assumes 30% conversion of sulfur into SO2.

account for variations in Source: EPA AP-42 Series 12.10 Iron Foundries
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch12/bgdocs/b12s10.pdf
processing conditions

Pouring, Cooling Shakeout Organic HAP Emissions Factors

for Cored Greensand Molds
(lbs/ton of iron produced)

Core Loading Emissions Factor

AFS heavily cored 0.643

AFS average core 0.5424
EPA average core 0.285

Source:AFS Organic HAP Emissions Factors for Iron Foundries

www.afsinc.org/pdfs/OrganicHAPemissionfactors.pdf
 TRI Emissions Data – 2003
XYZ Foundry (270,000 tons poured)

Surface Total transfers off

Total Air Water Total on-site site for waste Total waste
Chemical Emissions (lbs) Discharge (lbs) Release (lbs) Management (lbs) Managed (lbs)

COPPER 69 9 78 74,701 74,778

DIISOCYANATES 0 0 0 20 20

LEAD 127 40 167 39,525 39,692

MANGANESE 274 48 322 768,387 768,709

MERCURY 14.35 0 14.35 0.25 14.6

PHENOL 6,640 5 6,645 835 7,484

ZINC (FUME OR
DUST) 74 0 74 262,117 262,191

TOTALS 7,300 1,145,585 1,152,889

Input Metals for Casting