Playing the Game – Effective Gender Role Analysis
Techniques for Computer Games
Derrick Martin
Monash University
Berwick Australia
Derrick.Martin@monash.edu
ABSTRACT
The majority of gender studies of computer games
examines game subsets, such as the first twenty minutes
of gameplay, and extends their conclusions to the whole
game and the game industry in general. The hypothesis of
the subset effectively representing the entire game
requires testing. This study addresses this problem by
comparing the results of two commonly used subset
methods to an analysis of a whole game.
The findings show that the two subset analyses fail to
identify gender representation inequalities that examining
a whole game was able to discover. This result throws
into doubt subset analysis methodology in games and
indicates that the results of current subset techniques,
such as those used by government games rating boards,
are flawed. In analyzing the whole game, this study has
developed a gender role coding technique for whole
games that may be useful in future studies.
Author Keywords
gender, computer games, women in games
ACM Classification Keywords
H5.1.
INTRODUCTION
Media: Telling YOU what to think
Studies have shown that media exposure influences the
opinions, behaviours and roles that the audience adopt
(Dietz 1998; Gentile, Humphrey et al. 2005; Dill and
Thill 2007; Brown 2009). In the case of children this
effect is particularly pronounced, as children have fewer
real-world experiences that may help them determine the
validity (or not) of the media to which they are being
exposed (Funk and Buchman 1996; Dietz 1998; Gentile,
Humphrey et al. 2005). It has been indicated that
childhood attitudes are carried into adulthood which is of
particular concern as these attitudes, once formed,
reinforce themselves by altering media exposure patterns
in the audience (Dietz 1998; Brown 2009). Audience
members have been found to self-select media they are
exposed to based on their perception of the social groups
that they identify with (Brown and Pardun 2004).
Furthermore, once the audience identifies with a social
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  185
Dr. Kirsten Ellis
Monash University
Berwick Australia
Kirsten.Ellis@monash.edu
group, they are more likely to accept negative stereotypes
of other groups (Brown and Pardun 2004).
Boys like blue, Girls like pink…. Or do they?
One particular area where mass media may influence
attitudes is that of gender roles. Gender is used here as a
distinct term separate from that of sexuality. The
important difference is that gender roles are culturally
determined. “Gender refer to the socially constructed
roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given
society considers appropriate for men and women”
(Bryce, Rutter et al. 2006).
Game stereotypes commonly use hypersexualisation in
representing gender. In sexualising characters women are
presented with fixed avatar depictions; there is a lack of
choice and their characters are often represented in
sexualised clothing(Taylor 2003). These sexual character
roles are imposed on children when their in-game
characters represented with these hypersexualised
characteristics (Beasley and Standley 2002; Smith 2006).
In single-player games the game designer may choose to
eliminate any overt sexual content, but in online games
the hypersexualisation of female characters may lead to
children being exposed to unwanted sexual attention
(Taylor 2003). Exposure to sexual attention and material
at an early age is known to predict less progressive
gender role attitudes (Gailey 1993).
Research concerning gender roles in games indicates that
games portray women in traditional gender roles (Cassell
and Jenkins 1998; Dietz 1998). Computer games are
becoming a widespread pastime for women and these
stereotypes are increasingly being seen by them (Brand
2011).
Computer games are everywhere
Computer games have become a common medium that
children are exposed to; in Australia 92% of homes have
some form of gaming device (Brand 2011). Games are
increasingly displacing books, role/pretend-playing and
board games in teaching socialisation to children and are
becoming important agents in negotiating and defining
gender roles (Schleiner 2001; Beasley and Standley 2002;
Dill and Thill 2007). It has been found that children who
aren’t exposed to computer games may still be influenced
by the social stereotypes in games through the
dissemination of these attitudes in their social groups
(Dill and Thill 2007).
The increasing role that games take in influencing the
opinions of the audience, particularly that of children
playing games, means that it is important that the gender
roles that a game portrays is established. In the next
section we will examine how gender roles in games are
currently being identified.
PREVIOUS STUDIES OF GENDER ROLES IN GAMES
The earliest studies of video games found that female
characters were infrequently included, with masculine or
gender-neutral characters dominating games (Gailey
1993). Provenzo (1991) studied popular games for the
Nintendo Entertainment System, examining video game
covers using a simple coding system in a visual content
analysis. The coding focused on gender, clothing and
poses, with additional coding being done to evaluate if
female characters are being shown in passive victim roles.
The results of the study were that men outnumbered
women 13 to 1, women were never shown in dominant
roles and men were never shown in submissive roles
(Provenzo 1991). Additionally, approximately 30% of
games with female characters presented the characters as
victims requiring assistance (Provenzo 1991). The use of
a single coder in the study, without any reliability testing
of the coding being done, limits assumptions of reliability
of the coding. The coding of the presence of passive
victims is not described in detail, so may be flawed.
Provenzo (1991) also restricts the sample range to a
single game hardware platform, bringing into question the
usefulness of extending the study to other gaming
platforms.
The study of video game covers was repeated by Burgess
and Stermer (2007) using similar coding methods, but
focusing on popular games for the Microsoft Xbox,
Nintendo Gamecube and Sony Playstation 2. This study
found that men were 5 times more likely to be the
primary characters on the game cover than women, but
women were 6 times more likely to be hypersexualised in
appearance (Burgess and Stermer 2007). The study
improved Provenzo (1991) study in that it used 3 coders,
with tests for reliability in coding games and in that it
tested games from a variety of game platforms.
Dietz (1998) conducted a study of gender roles and
violence in 33 popular Nintendo and Sega Genesis games
during 1995. This research found that 41% of the games
had no female characters at all. Of the games with women
in them, 28% showed women as sex objects and 21%
included violence specifically directed at women (Dietz
1998). The games chosen were specific to 2 game
hardware types that catered to casual, younger gamers.
By looking at popular games the study may have been
weighted to a particular genre of games.
Dunlop (2007) used both Provenzo (1991) and Dietz
(1998) coding techniques to examine the 20 top selling
games for the Microsoft Xbox and Sony Playstation in
2002. The results of this study were presented
descriptively rather than qualitatively, so no direct
comparison to the prior studies is possible. Dunlop (2007)
doesn’t explain why the games were so old compared to
the analysis, and doesn’t present any additional coding
techniques to Dietz (1998) or Provenzo (1991).
Beasley and Standley (2002) analysed 47 randomly
selected games for the Sony Playstation and Nintendo 64
186
game consoles, examining the first 20 minutes of each
game and coding how characters were clothed. The study
found that approximately 14% of characters were female.
Of these, 40% of female characters were voluptuous and
female characters exposed more skin than male characters
(Beasley and Standley 2002). Similarly to Dietz (1998),
this study was limited to games belonging to a specific
game hardware platform. Beasley and Standley (2002)
randomly selected games from local video stores, but
were unable to obtain some games which were already
borrowed by users. This failure may indicate a reduction
of testing of popular games in their sample set. The
specified 20 minutes of coding relies on the skill of the
tester; a poor player would have experienced far less of
the game than a good player. Beasley and Standley
(2002) admit that the study fails to consider the
importance or behaviour of the coded characters in the
game.
A similar study of the first 30 minutes of gameplay was
performed in 2009 by Martins, Williams, Harrison and
Ratan. This study was interested exclusively in the body
imagery displayed by women in 150 games, comparing
the game representation to real-world measurements of an
average American woman. The research found that game
characters were thinner in games aimed at children and in
games with high levels of photorealism (Martins,
Williams et al. 2009). Williams, Martins, Consalvo and
Ivory also examined gender, race and age in 150 games
using the first 30 minutes of gameplay. Williams et al.
found that white adult males were over-represented in
games (Williams, Martins et al. 2009). The similarities in
authors of these papers explain the identical research
methods, where an expert player was video taped while
playing the game, and then the recording was coded.
This process ensures consistency and maximizes how
much game is experienced. The method does not address
the differences in gameplay between an expert player,
who may be goal-oriented and seeking optimal gameplay
strategies, and a typical player, who may be interested in
exploring non-optimal gameplay elements.
Downs and Smith examined the first 20 minutes of 60
games using the same methodology as Martins et al.
(2009) and Williams et al. (2009), having a single player
record their experience then performing a content analysis
on the video recording. This study coded sex, resolution
(graphics quality), clothing, nudity, body proportions,
sexual language, sexual behaviour, appropriateness of
attire, breast size and waist size. The analysis found that
females were underrepresented, with 14% of characters
being female (Downs and Smith 2010); this finding is
identical to the earlier Beasley and Standley (2002)
conclusion. Women were presented more sexually than
men in clothing and physical appearance (Downs and
Smith 2010).
Casual games were examined in 2011, using 2 coders and
examining the first 20 minutes of gameplay (Wohn
2011). The study examined only the primary characters
of the game, coding sex, race, appearance and
personality. The analysis found that females were equally
represented, with no significant differences between male
and female number or appearance (Wohn 2011). The sexual overtones that male characters did not show (Mou
author argues that this finding is different from earlier and Peng 2008).
results due to the nature of casual games. The limitation
Aside from Dietz (1998) and Dunlop (2007) all of the
of examining the first 20 minutes is discussed, but by
studies described here examine gender roles using sample
focusing only on the primary character, the likelihood that
subsets of the full game (see Table 1). Some of these
the primary character changes significantly after 20
subset studies argue that coding an entire game is beyond
minutes of gameplay is acknowledged as being very low.
the ability of the researcher, and that studying some
Scharrer (2004) studied video game advertisements in 3 representation of the whole game is sufficiently
video game magazines, coding the dress, posture, illustrative of the game itself. This assumption has not
hypersexualisation and number of male and females. The been validated with any cross-testing method using
analysis found that men outnumbered women 3 to 1, complete game coding techniques such as used by Dietz
women were always portrayed as more sexually alluring (1998).
and more scantily dressed than the men (Scharrer 2004).
This study was extended by Dill and Thill (2007), who
examined all video game images in 6 game magazines in Date Technique
2006. Similar to Scharrer (2004), this study analysed
content, looked at gender roles, clothing, aggression, 1991 Subset: Video game cover
dominance and hypersexualisation of men and women.
The study found that women were 60 times more likely to 1998 Entire game
be shown as sexualised than men, 4 times more likely to
be scantily clad and 40 times more likely to be shown in a 2002 Subset: First 20 minutes of gameplay
mix of sex and aggression (Dill and Thill 2007).
2004 Subset: Video game advertising in magazine
Ivory (2006) analysed video game reviews of popular
games on a single game review site, examining 2006 Subset: Video game review on website
descriptive language, prominence of gender in reviews
and the images associated with the reviews. The 2007 Subset: Introductory game movie
examination found that male characters were almost twice
2007 Subset: Video game cover
as likely to be mentioned, pictured and presented as
primary characters in a game review compared to female 2007 Subset: Video game advertising in magazine
characters (Ivory 2006). Female characters were 12 times
more likely to be described with sexual descriptors and 40 2007 Subset: Video game review in magazine
times more likely to be shown in sexualised images
compared to male characters (Ivory 2006). The study fails 2008 Subsets: Video game cover, Introductory game
to consider an inherent bias contained on the single movie, official game trailer
review site examined, nor was there an attempt to validate
findings through cross-checking other reviews. This study 2009 Subset: First 30 minutes of gameplay
was repeated by Miller and Summers (Miller and 2009 Subset: First 30 minutes of gameplay
Summers 2007), with a smaller set of coding values,
using 3 game magazines rather than a website for game 2010 Subset: First 20 minutes of gameplay
reviews. The results of this study were almost identical to
Ivory (2006). 2011 Subset: First 20 minutes of gameplay
Jansz and Martis (2007) looked at the introductory film of
Table 1. Summary of previous research date and techniques
12 popular games for the Microsoft Xbox and Sony
Playstation 2 game platforms. The games chosen were
METHODOLOGY
selected with consideration to the requirements of the
This study will test the following hypothesis:
coding techniques, which considered gender, role and
appearance. The study showed equal proportions of men Examination of a subset of a game will produce
and women in primary roles, in dominant roles and statistically similar results to examination of the whole
shown with a hypersexualised appearance. The study game.
acknowledges the limitation in the selection of videos
analysed could possibly be non-representative. Approach
This study was designed to cross-test a single game with
Mou and Peng (2008) examined 3 game subsets of 19
both subset and entire game analysis of gender roles. The
games, coding the video game cover, introductory movie
hypothesis that these are statistically equivalent will be
and official game trailer. Mou and Peng (2008) argue the
considered.
cover, introductory movie and game trailer are superior to
an examination of limited gameplay, representing a Two specific subsets will be compared. The first will be
sampling across the entire game rather than a linear that of examining the video game cover. The second
portion of the game (Mou and Peng 2008). The study subset will be examining the first 20 minutes of
found that white males were over-represented, while gameplay.
female characters were stereotyped and portrayed with
187
The subsets will be compared to an analysis of the whole
game.
The primary technique of analysis of gender roles in
games has been content analysis (Provenzo 1991; Dietz
1998; Beasley and Standley 2002; Scharrer 2004;
Burgess and Stermer 2007; Dill and Thill 2007; Dunlop
2007; Jansz and Martis 2007; Martins, Williams et al.
2009; Williams, Martins et al. 2009; Downs and Smith
2010; Wohn 2011). We will use the same process to
replicate the approach of these prior researches.
Removal of bias
Previous game studies of gender focus of providing a
wide spectrum of games and have usually used multiple
coders to allow a broad understanding of the game
industry and eliminate bias in coding results.
In this research, testing the hypothesis can be done on a
single game and with a single coder, so long that the
subset and whole game coding use the same data. Any
bias that exists for the subset would also exist for the
whole game. Since this study is not seeking to
extrapolate the findings to the whole industry - rather it is
trying to test the null hypothesis - a single game failing
the test is enough to put the hypothesis into doubt.
Choice of target game
The game Fallout 3 has been chosen as the object of
study due to several important elements in the game’s
nature. It is a recently released game, so represents latest
iteration of technology and application of modern game
design principles. Fallout 3 has been released across
several different platforms: the Microsoft Xbox 360, the
Sony Playstation 3 and for the Windows Operating
System. However, the different releases are
fundamentally the same. It was also selected because it is
a popular game with sales of approximately 4.7 million
units, so it will have a large audience and a corresponding
large affect on the perception of gender roles (Bethesda
Softworks 2008). In addition, Fallout 3 has been aimed at
older audiences, so includes mature themes and
narratives. Furthermore, it has an extended playing time
of at least 100 hours and is intended to have a long
narrative and large cast of characters. This will allow
testing of the validity of a complete game versus subset
gender role coding
These elements are important to reduce or eliminate the
flaws observed in earlier studies of gender roles in games.
Fallout 3 is also a high profile and highly influential
game and the analysis may be indicative of the state of
the game industry and the characteristics of future games.
Data collection
To determine the gender roles portrayed by the female
characters in Fallout 3 a content analysis was conducted.
A copy of Fallout 3 was obtained and a coding sheet was
developed using the combined coding techniques of
Provenzo (1991), Dietz (1998), Beasley and Standley
(2002), Scharrer (2004), Dill and Thill (2007) and Jansz
and Martis (2007).
188
The coding sheet collected multiple data elements from
each character in the game. The number of each gender
represented in the game was recorded, with neutral and
indeterminate categories if gender was not clear. Each
character was rated on their appearance, clothing,
sexuality of poses and attractiveness. The behaviour of
each character in the game was examined for stereotypes,
and the importance of their role in the game was rated.
Use of data for subset analysis
In order to determine the effectiveness of coding a whole
game versus coding a subset, the collected data was
selectively used in the subset analysis.
For the whole game analysis, all data was used to
determine gender representation in the game.
In examining video covers, the number of each gender,
sexuality of poses, type of clothing and presence of
recessive/passive behaviour were the only data criteria
used. This limited data set is based on previous studies of
this nature (Provenzo 1991; Burgess and Stermer 2007).
In examining the first 20 minutes of the game, the
number of each gender, sexuality of poses and type of
clothing worn were the only data used. Again, this limited
dataset is based on previous studies (Beasley and
Standley 2002).
Data interpretation
The coded data will be collected and analysed for
statistical significance in any of the coded fields.
A Pearson’s chi-square goodness-of-fit test will be used
to determine the statistical significance (if any) of
difference in number of female and male characters being
coded.
A chi-square cross-tabulation will be used to determine
the statistical significance (if any) of each of the coded
fields compared with gender.
RESULTS
1. Analysis of Entire Game
In total 221 characters were examined in Fallout 3.
Coding 1(a)
Gender Count
Male human (MH) 124
Female human (FH) 76
Male non-human (MNH) 13
Female non-human (FNH) 8
Neutral (N) 0
Indeterminate (I) 0
Table 2. Coding of Gender
A chi-square goodness-of-fit test shows the difference in
numbers between female and male characters (human and
non-human are summed in each category) to be The expected values fall below 5 and we are unable to
statistically significant, χ²(1)
 =
 12.7,
 p
 <
 0.05.
  make any statistical statement regarding
hypersexualisation of physical appearance.
Coding 2(a)
Coding 2 (e)
Gender Equivalent Skin NonEquivalent Attractiveness was coded, rating characters as one of
Skin disgusting, ugly, normal, good looking or beautiful.
MH 116 8 A chi-square cross-tabulation fails with the entire dataset
as expected values fall below the required minimum of 5.
FH 63 13 However, examining only the human characters gives
χ²(2)
  =
  19.73,
  p
  <
  0.05.
  This
  indicates
  a
  statistical
 
MNH 12 1
significance
 in
 female
 characters
 being
 better
 looking
 
FNH 6 2 than
 male
 characters.
 

Coding 3 (a)
Table 3. Coding of naked skin compared to equivalent
members of opposite gender Gender Stereotypical No Stereo. Dialogue
dialogue
A chi-square cross-tabulation fails with the entire dataset
as expected values fall below the required minimum of 5. MH 2 122
However, examining only the human characters gives
χ²(1)   =   5.69,   p   <   0.05.   This   indicates   a   statistical   FH 11 65
significance   in   female   characters   exposing   more   skin  
that  male.   MNH 0 13

FNH 0 8
Coding 2(b)
Gender No Sexuality Weak Strong
Table 5. Stereotypical dialogue used by character
Posed Sexuality Sexuality
Posed Posed The expected values falls just below 5, indicating that chi
square analysis is inadequate. The coding seems to be
MH 124 0 0 indicating some kind of bias, but we cannot make any
statistical judgement.
FH 75 1 0
Coding 3 (b)
MNH 13 0 0
Behaviour was coded, rating character behaviour as one
FNH 8 0 0 of not requiring help (needing rescuing, being captured,
being assaulted), weakly requiring help or strongly
requiring help.
Table 4. Coding of sexuality of poses taken by character
The expected values fall below 5 and we are unable to
Again here the expected values fall below 5. The coding
make any statistical statement.
clearly indicates that there is no gender bias in sexuality
of character poses.
Coding 3 (c)
Coding 2 (c) Gender No Sexual Implicit Overt
Clothing types and styles of similar characters was coded, behaviour Sexual Sexual
rating sleeve length, neckline and lower body as one of behaviour behaviour
conservative, normal, revealing or none.
MH 117 7 0
A chi-square cross-tabulation fails with the entire dataset
as expected values fall below the required minimum of 5. FH 70 4 2
Even when reducing the field to only humans, analysis of
the sleeve and lower body clothing fail. However, MNH 13 0 0
examining only the neckline of human characters gives
FNH 8 0 0
χ²(1)   =   5.62,   p   <   0.05.   This   indicates   a   statistical  
significance   in   female   characters   exposing   more  
Table 6. Sexual behaviour of character
cleavage  that  male.
Here the expected values fall below 5 and we are unable
Coding 2 (d) to make any statistical statement.
Hypersexualised physical appearance was coded, rating
musculature, breast size and waist size as one of
underdeveloped, normal, overdeveloped or none.

189
Coding 3 (d) Coding 4 (d)
Hypersexualised behaviour was coded, rating characters Gender Weak/Dependent Not
as one of masculine (not present, weak or strong) or Weak/Dependent
feminine.
MH 15 109
The expected values fall below 5 and we are unable to
make any statistical statement. FH 20 56
Coding 4 (a) MNH 2 11
Gender No Non- Core Quest
Quest core FNH 1 7
Quest
Table 10. Character shown in dependent, subordinate or
MH 81 34 9 weak role

FH 55 18 3 A chi-square cross-tabulation fails with the entire dataset

as expected values fall below the required minimum of 5.
MNH 6 7 0 However, examining only the human characters gives
χ²(1)   =   6.60,   p   <   0.05.   This   indicates   a   statistical  
FNH 8 0 0 significance   in   female   characters   being   more  
subordinate  than  male  characters.
Table 7. Importance of character to game narrative
Coding 4 (e)
The expected values falls just below 5, indicating that chi
square analysis is inadequate. The coding seems to be Gender Only supportive Independent
indicating some kind of bias, but we cannot make any roles
statistical judgement.
MH 1 123
Coding 4 (b)
FH 5 71
Gender Stereotypical roles Not Stereotypical
(sex object or Role MNH 0 13
reward)
FNH 0 8
MH 1 123
Table 11. Character shown as only supportive of another
FH 8 68 character
MNH 0 13 Here the expected values fall below 5 and we are unable
to make any statistical statement.
FNH 0 8
2. Analysis of Game Coverart
Table 8. Character shown in stereotypical role Coding 1(a)
Here the expected values fall below 5 and we are unable Gender Count
to make any statistical statement.
MH/FH/MNH/FNH/N 0
Coding 4 (c)
Indeterminate (I) 1
Gender Villain Hero Neither

MH 15 9 100 Table 12. Coding of Gender based on coverart

The low number of characters coded means we are unable
FH 3 4 69
to make any statistical statement.
MNH 2 2 9
Coding 2(b)
FNH 0 1 7 Gender No Weak Strong
Sexuality Sexuality Sexuality
Table 9. Character shown as hero or villain Posed Posed Posed
The expected values falls just below 5, indicating that chi I 1 0 0
square analysis is inadequate. The coding seems to be
indicating some kind of bias, but we cannot make any Table 13. Coding of pose sexuality of character on coverart
statistical judgement.
The low number of characters coded means we are unable
to make any statistical statement.
190
Coding 2(c) Coding 3(b)
Clothing types and styles of similar characters was coded, Behaviour was coded, rating character behaviour as one
rating sleeve length, neckline and lower body as one of of not requiring help (needing rescuing, being captured,
conservative, normal, revealing or none. being assaulted), weakly requiring help or strongly
requiring help.
The low number of characters coded means we are unable
to make any statistical statement. The expected values fall below 5 and we are unable to
make any statistical statement.
Coding 3(b)
Behaviour was coded, rating character behaviour as one DISCUSSION
of not requiring help (needing rescuing, being captured, In considering previous research done in the field of
being assaulted), weakly requiring help or strongly computer game gender analysis, there were several issues
requiring help. that require additional research. This study has touched
upon just one of these; whether examining a subset of a
The low number of characters coded means we are unable
game (the cover of the game box and the first 20 minutes
to make any statistical statement.
of game play) provide similar insights into gender
representation as examining the entire game.
3. Analysis of first 20 minutes of the game
Coding 1(a) Comparison of results
Gender Count The whole game analysis found that females were
underrepresented in Fallout 3, with a ratio of 3 males for
Male human (MH) 18 every 2 females in the game. Analysing the game cover
art did not produce any statistics due to the gender
Female human (FH) 9 neutrality of the character on the cover. In the first 20
minutes of game play, the difference in the number of
Male non-human (MNH) 0 male and female roles were not significant despite having
a ratio of 2 males for every 1 female. A simple frequency
Female non-human (FNH) 0
check might be used to produce some agreement between
Neutral (N) 0 the two modes of analysis, but this would indicate a
greater problem with gender role populations in the
Indeterminate (I) 0 subset than is present in the entire game.
The whole game analysis indicated that females dressed
Table 14. Coding of Gender of character in first 20 minutes differently to males in Fallout 3. 17% of females in the
of gameplay game were more likely to reveal skin in their clothing
A chi-square goodness-of-fit test shows the difference in than their equivalent male counterparts, whereas only 6%
numbers between female and male characters (human and of male characters showed more skin than their female
non-human are summed in each category) not to be counterparts. A detailed breakdown of clothing types
statistically significant, χ²(1)
 =
 3,
 p
 >
 0.05.
  showed statistically that clothing necklines were
significantly different, indicating females where twice as
likely to wear revealing tops as males. It is possible to
Coding 2(b)
argue that this statistic represents clothing norms in
Gender No Weak Strong society as a whole. If we compare this finding to that of
Sexuality Sexuality Sexuality the subset analysis, the game cover art and first 20
Posed Posed Posed minutes of game play found that there were no statistical
differences between clothing or skin being shown for
MH 18 0 0 male and female characters.
FH 9 0 0 The data in the whole game analysis also indicated that
female characters were better looking than male
Table 15. Coding of sexuality of poses taken by character in characters. This coding value is one that is subjective and
first 20 minutes of gameplay open to bias. In this particular field, the existing subset
research did not examine ‘attractiveness’ in game cover
The coded data shows no difference in male and female
art or the first 20 minutes of game play. It is possible that
poses.
the subset analysis may have identified the same
Coding 2(c)
differences in male and female role representations, but
Clothing types and styles of similar characters was coded, we have purposively limited the subset analysis to those
rating sleeve length, neckline and lower body as one of data fields examined in previous studies. This was done
conservative, normal, revealing or none. to evaluate the limitations of the data collected as well as
the population from which the data was collected.
The coded data shows no difference in male and female
clothing The last significant finding from the whole game analysis
was that females were more likely to be shown in weak,
dependent or subordinate roles. 25% of female characters
191
were found to be subordinate, whereas only 8% of male
characters were in similar roles. The methods relied on
by prior research into game cover art and the first 20
minutes of game play does not examine these areas and
would not have identified these gender characteristics.
In part, the minimal art and lack of clear gender
representation is the main reason why we were prevented
in getting significant data from the game cover art. There
is no requirement that the game art represents game play,
gender roles, artistic style or even the visual appearance
of characters in the game. The use of game cover art is
not always going to represent game content and studies of
game cover art needs to address this issue, possibly by
examining additional elements of the game.
Failure of the equality hypothesis
In this study only one coder was used and coding was
done on just one game, unlike the subset research that is
being replicated (Beasley and Standley 2002; Burgess and
Stermer 2007). These previous studies examined
multiple games in order to make findings regarding the
game industry as a whole. This mean that the findings of
this paper aren’t directly extendible across the entire
game industry and the findings regarding the single game
Fallout 3 may be biased. However, in ensuring that
common data is used in both whole game and subset
analysis, any bias would exist in both whole game and
subset analyses, ensuring that the comparison between the
different modes is relevant and accurate.
Flaws in subset analysis
Content analysis is a field of literature review that has
been extended into film, television and computer games.
In content analysis, we are essentially reducing
complicated and extensive content into a summarised
form. It is this reduction that is core to the findings of
this research. Content analysis researcher in other fields
are aware of this issue in that “[t]he central problems of
content analysis originate mainly in the data-reduction
process” (Weber 1990: 15). The two subset analysis
methods used in this research do not appear to be
effective data reduction. In this study not all subsets of
prior game analysis have been examined; future research
could identify if similar problems exist in these other
subset methods. Additionally, the research could be
extended to cover a wider range of games to discover if
the discrepancies exist in other games.
Implications of this research
The implication of this small-scale study is that it is not
always possible to extend the findings of a subset analysis
into a generalisation about the entire game. This puts into
question the game subset analyses typically used by
researchers in the field. Furthermore, government games
ratings are often decided by novice players, who may
play a portion of the game and decide an appropriate
rating based on their experience. A spokesman of the
Australian Classification Board, the Office of Film and
Literature Classification (OFLC), stated that “[w]hile the
Board needs to experience the highest impact and most
contentious elements of the computer game, Board
192
members are not required to play a game to completion
during the classification process.” (Parker 2008). Gender
representation is probably not even examined by the
board. In classification, the game creators are required to
identify “contentious material in the computer game and
the means by which access to that material may be
gained” (Office of Film and Literature Classification
2009). The description of what constitutes ‘contentious’
includes six elements: themes; violence; sex; language;
drug use; nudity (Commonwealth of Australia, 2008).
These elements are focused entirely on violence, sex and
drugs.
A secondary finding of this study specifically involves
the gender roles of Fallout 3. As mentioned above, there
is a possibility of bias in the coding of the game that
would have been reduced in using additional coders.
However if we take the findings at face value, of the 15
categories rated, only 4 were identified by the whole
game analysis as having unequal gender representations.
Both male and female characters are shown in similar
amounts of sexual and non-sexual roles. Neither gender
is particularly predominant in hypersexual appearance or
behaviour. Both genders are represented equally in
important roles. As a widely distributed game, it might
be hoped that the areas of gender equality in this game
will influence other game designers.
CONCLUSION
The whole game and game subset analyses both
examined gender numbers, clothing, poses and behaviour
of the characters in Fallout 3. There is agreement
between the different types of analysis in that was no
statistical different between male and female posing and
behaviour. However the whole game analysis identified
statistical difference in total gender populations and
difference in female and male clothing choices in the
game; these differences were not identified in analysing
the game cover art or the first 20 minutes of game play.
More crucially, the whole game analysis examined many
other aspects of the game. In this data collection there
were identified statistical differences in the attractiveness
of female characters compared to male ones, and that
female characters were more likely to be shown as being
subordinate.
The hypothesis that examination of a subset of a game
will produce statistically similar results to examination of
the whole game fails when using techniques identical to
prior research in this field.
The clear differences between the whole-game
methodology and the subset methodology of analysis of
gender representation illustrate an inadequacy in prior
game analyses that used a subset of a game as a data
source. Researchers of game gender analysis need to be
aware of this issue when choosing data sources when
doing content analysis of games.

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