Unit 1 Psychology as a Science

The method of psychology

1) NATURAL/SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION

Observational methods may be quantitative or qualitative

As the name suggests, quantitative methods involve quantifying, counting, measuring behaviors

NATURAL OBSERVATION

• Naturalistic observation is a research method that is used by psychologists and other social scientists.
The technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment. It can be used if conducting
lab research would be unrealistic, cost-prohibitive, or would unduly affect the subject's behavior.
• Naturalistic observation is different than structured observation because it involves looking at a
subject's behavior as it occurs in a natural setting with no attempts at intervention on the part of the
researcher.

How Does Naturalistic Observation Work?

• People do not necessarily behave in a lab setting the way they would in a natural environment.
Researchers sometimes want to observe their subject's behavior as it happens ("in the wild," so
to speak). Psychologists can get a better idea of how and why people react the way that they
do by watching how they respond to situations and stimuli in real life. For example, a
researcher interested in aspects of classroom behavior (such as the interactions between
students or teacher-student dynamics) might use naturalistic observation as part of their
research.
• Performing these observations in a lab would be difficult because it would involve recreating a
classroom environment. This would likely influence the behavior of the participants, making it
difficult to generalize the observations made. By observing the subjects in their natural setting
(the classroom where they work and learn), the researchers can more fully observe the
behavior of interest as it occurs in the real world.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• An advantage of naturalistic observation is that it allows the investigators to directly observe
the subject in a natural setting.The method gives scientists a first-hand look at social behavior
and can help them notice things that they might never have encountered in a lab setting.
• The observations can also serve as inspiration for further investigations, and the information
gleaned from naturalistic observation can lead to insights that can be used to help people
overcome problems and lead to healthier, happier lives.

Advantages
• Allows researchers to study things that cannot be manipulated in a lab due to ethical concerns. For
example, while it would be unethical to study the effects of imprisonment by actually confining
subjects, researchers can gather information by using naturalistic observation in actual prison settings.
• Can support the external validity of the research. Researchers might say that the findings of a lab
study can be generalized to a larger population, but that does not mean they would
actually observe those findings occurring in a natural setting.

Dis-Advantages
• People might behave differently when they know they are being watched. Subjects might try to
behave better than they normally would in to appear more socially desirable or acceptable to those
who are observing them. Researchers can make efforts to avoid the issue, but it can be difficult to
eliminate.
• People might change their behavior to conform to what they think the researchers expect to see. In
psychology, the term demand characteristics refer to subtle cues that let participants know what the
experiment is about or what the researchers hope to find. Participants might alter their behavior to go
along with what they think the researchers want.
• Different observers can draw different conclusions from the same witnessed behavior. Two
researchers might see the same actions yet attribute them to different causes.

Data Collection Methods

Researchers use different techniques to collect and record data from naturalistic observation. For
example, they might write down how many times a certain behavior occurred in a specific period of
time or take a video-recording of subjects.
• Audio or Video Recordings. Depending on the type of behavior being observed, the researchers might
also decide to make audio or videotaped recordings of each observation session.
• Observer Narrative. The observer might take notes during the session that they can refer back to.
They can collect data and discern behavior patterns from these notes.
• Tally Counts. The observer writes down when and how many times certain behaviors occurred.
How Often Is Data Collected?
It is rarely practical—or even possible—to observe every moment of a subject's life. Therefore,
researchers often use sampling to gather information through naturalistic observation. The goal is to
make sure that the sample of data is representative of the subject's overall behavior.
A representative sample can be obtained through:
• Time Sampling. Taking samples at different intervals of time (random or systematic).
• Situation Sampling. Observing behavior in different situations and settings.
 Examples
• Imagine that you want to study risk-taking behavior in teenagers. You might choose to observe behavior in
different settings, such as on a sledding hill, a rock-climbing wall, an ice-skating rink, and a bumper car ride. After
you operationally define "risk-taking behavior," you would observe your teen subjects in these settings and
record every incidence of what you have defined as risky behavior.
• Famous examples of naturalistic observations include Charles Darwin's journey aboard the HMS Beagle, which
served as the basis for his theory of natural selection, and Jane Goodall's work studying the behavior of
chimpanzees.

SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION

• In systematic observation the observer is interested in one or a few behaviors in a limited range of
settings.

• Behaviors are operationalized such that they can be quantified.

• Unlike naturalistic observation, the researcher often has specific hypotheses about the behavior(s)
to be observed.and gathers quantitative as well as qualitative data.

• Coding systems are created so that behaviors can be quantified and recorded in the most efficient
manner possible.

• While the image above shows a person using a clipboard, the clipboard is being replaced with ipads
and other tablets!

Coding Systems
• In a systematic observation behavior is coded so that it can be easily recorded and then quantified for
further analysis.

• For instance, a researcher might observe a dog that does some frequent "bad" behavior, say growling
or biting, for two hours, divide a recording form into 60 2 minute intervals and record a "1" each
interval the behavior of interest occurs, and a zero when it does not occur. He might also note
relevant events occurring at the same time, for instance he might have a code for noting if people are
present or not, if another dog is present, if food is present, etc.
• Another way to code the interaction would be to assign a value of 1 for growling, a value of 2 for
biting, a value of 3 for sleeping, a value of 4 for awake and not biting or growling, a value of 5 for
licking, and a value of 6 for all other behaviors.

• Yet another way to code the behavior would be to count the number of times the behavior occurs in
some time interval. This is in contrast to interval recording described above. In interval recording the
observer would only note if the behavior occurred or did not occur in a given time interval...whether
the behavior occurs once, twice, or five times it is recorded the same. With a frequency count the
observer would note every time the behavior occurs, so the number of occurrences noted in a
frequency count will likely be higher than in an interval count.

• Operational definitions are also important in behavioral observation. The thing being observed must
be a behavior, and it must be defined in such a way that two different observers could agree that the
behavior did or did not occur.

Methodological Issues
Things to consider when planning a systematic observation include:

• Equipment - is the observation going to be live, or audio/video recorded?

• Reactivity - is the presence of a camera or an observer likely to influence the behavior being
observed?
• Reliability - Is the coding system reliable? In systematic observation inter-rater reliability is
especially important; imagine four researchers are each assigned to a six hour shift observing
the behavior of rats...it would be import to training them to use the coding system, and make
sure the code is clear so as to make sure they have high inter-rater reliability.
• Sampling - the timing and duration of the observation is important. Any one observation
allows us to observe a sample of behavior. We will most likely see different behaviors if we
observe a child in the classroom versus observing them at home, and in the classroom we are
likely to see different behaviors if we observe a child during free-time, versus a group activity,
versus when the teacher is reading a story to the class. The appropriate sample for the
observer depends on what her purpose is. The 'best' sample depends on the frequency of the
behavior and on how variable it is across settings, and on the purposes of the researcher. If
she wants to understand why a child cries at school and not at home, then she should observe
the child in both settings. If the child cries twice a week she will have to observe for several
days, whereas if the behavior occurs every 10 minutes she may have sufficient information
after a few hours of observation.
 2) CLINICAL METHOD
• A Clinical line of inquiry is quite different from a naturalistic observation & the survey, Clinical
method focus upon understanding adjustment problems.A Clinical study is an in-depth study
of the case in all it’s details. Hence clinical method is also known as case study or case history
method.
• Clinical method is primarily used to collect detailed information on the behavior problems of
maladjusted and deviant cases.
• The maladjustment may be in the form of anti- social behavior, emotional disturbances, in the
area of learning and backwardness in school subjects.
• Clinical method is applicable to individual cases. To the individual who has some problem.
Methods of diagnosis and treatment are employed in dealing with the problem. It gives
pleasure in making mankind healthier and better.

Collection of information
1. Preliminary Information ( name, age, sex etc…)
2. Past History ( condition of mother during pregnancy, physical- mental- emotional- social illness,
relation b/w parents, parents death etc…)
3. Present Condition ( Physical, mental, social, emotional, interest, school achievement )

Techniques for diagnosis of problem behaviour

A. Physical Examination
B. Case History
C. Clinical Interview
D. Appraisal of Abilities and Aptitudes

Merits
1. It could be safely employed to study in- depth a particular individual with respect to the
problem area concerned.
2. Efficient & useful method to investigate misbehavior.
3. Intensive study regarding individual behavior

De-Merits
1) The information given by the individual, parents, and friends is not verifiable and is highly subjective.
2) The field of application of this method is quite narrow and limited.
3) There is a need for specially trained teachers or professionals for carrying out the studies.
4) Valid generalizations leads to enrichment of theory is not possible.

Example
For example, a clinical psychologist might specialize in an area such as substance abuse treatment, child
mental health, adult mental health, or geriatric mental health.
 3) SURVEY METHOD

• Surveys are one of the most commonly used research tools3 because they can be utilized to collect data and describe
naturally occurring phenomena that exist in the real world.
• A survey is a data collection tool used to gather information about individuals. Surveys are commonly used
in psychology research to collect self-report data from study participants. A survey may focus on factual information
about individuals, or it might aim to obtain the opinions of the survey takers.
• A survey can be used to investigate the characteristics, behaviors, or opinions of a group of people. These research
tools can be used to ask questions about demographic information about characteristics such as sex, religion,
ethnicity (VANSHVELO), and income.
• A survey can be administered in a couple of different ways. In one method known as a structured interview, the
researcher asks each participant with the questions. In the other method known as a questionnaire, the participant
fills out the survey on his or her own.
• Surveys are generally standardized to ensure that they have reliability and validity. Standardization is also important
so that the results can be generalized to the larger population.

Advantages
1) Surveys allow researchers to collect a large amount of data in a relatively short period.
2) Surveys are less expensive than many other data collection techniques.
3) Surveys can be created quickly and administered easily.
4) Surveys can be used to collect information on a broad range of things, including personal facts, attitudes, past
behaviors, and opinions.

Dis-Advantages
1) Poor survey construction and administration can undermine otherwise well-designed studies.
2) The answer choices provided in a survey may not be an accurate reflection of how the participants actually
feel.
3) While random sampling is generally used to select participants, response rates can bias the results of a
survey.
4)The social desirability bias can lead people to respond in a way that makes them look better than they
really are. For example, a respondent might report that they engage in more healthy behaviors than they do
in real life.

Advantages Dis-Advantages
Efficient Subject to nonresponse bias

Less expensive May be poorly designed

Easy to create and administer Limited answer choices can influence results

Diverse uses Subject to social desirability bias

 Types of Surveys
• Surveys can be implemented in a number of different ways. The chances are good that you have participated in a
number of different market research surveys in the past.
Some of the most common ways to administer surveys include:
• Mail — An example might include an alumni survey distributed via direct mail by your alma mater.
• Telephone — An example of a telephone survey would be a market research call about your experiences with a
certain consumer product.
• Online — Online surveys might focus on your experience with a particular retailer, product, or website.
• At home interviews — The U.S. Census is a good example of an at-home interview survey administration.

4) EXPRIMENTAL METHOD

• The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one
variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled
methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis.
• While there are a number of different research techniques, the experimental method allows
researchers to look at cause-and-effect relationships.
• In the experimental method, researchers identify and define key variables, formulate a
hypothesis, manipulate the variables and collect data on the results. Extraneous variables
are carefully controlled to minimize a potential impact on the outcome of the experiment.

Types of Experiments
• There are a few different types of experiments that researchers might choose to use. The type
of experiment chosen might depend on a variety of factors including the participants, the
hypothesis and the resources available to the researchers.
• Lab Experiments: Lab experiments are very common in psychology because they allow
experimenters more control over the variables. These experiments can also be easier for other
researchers to replicate. The problem, of course, is that what takes place in a lab is not always
identical to what takes place in the real world.
• Field Experiments: Sometimes researchers might opt to conduct their experiments in the field.
For example, let's imagine that a social psychologist is interested in researching prosocial
behavior. The experimenter might have a person pretend to faint and observe to see how long
it takes onlookers to respond.
This type of experiment can be a great way to see behavior in action in realistic settings.
However, it makes it more difficult for the researchers to control the variables and can
introduce confounding variables that might influence the results.
• Quasi-Experiments: Quasi-experiments are often referred to as natural experiments because
the researchers do not have true control over the independent variable.
• While lab experiments represent what are known as true experiments, researchers can also
utilize a type known as a quasi-experiment. Field experiments can be either quasi-experiments
or true experiments. Instead, the treatment level is determined by the natural conditions of the
situation. A researcher looking at personality differences and birth order, for example, is not
able to manipulate the independent variable in the situation. Treatment levels cannot be
 randomly assigned because the participants naturally fall into pre-existing groups based on
their birth order in their families.
• So why would a researcher choose to use a quasi-experiment? This is a good choice in
situations where scientists and interested in studying phenomena in natural, real-world
settings. It is also a good choice in situations where researchers cannot ethically manipulate the
independent variable in question.

Key Terms to Know

• In order to understand how the experimental method works, there are some key terms you should first
understand.
• The independent variable is the treatment that the experimenter manipulates. This variable is assumed to cause
some type of effect on another variable. If a researcher was investigating how sleep influences test scores, the
amount of sleep an individual gets would be the independent variable.
• The dependent variable is the effect that the experimenter is measuring. In our previous example, the test
scores would be the dependent variable.
• Operational definitions are necessary in order to perform an experiment. When we say something is an
independent variable or dependent variable, we need to have a very clear and specific definition o f the
meaning and scope of that variable.
• A hypothesis is a tentative statement or guesses about the possible relationship between two or more variables.
In our earlier example, the researcher might hypothesize that people who get more sleep will perform better on
a math test the next day. The purpose of the experiment is then to either support or fail to support this
hypothesis.

The Experimental Process

• Psychologists, like other scientists, utilize the scientific method when conducting an experiment. The scientific
method is a set of procedures and principles that guide how scientists develop research questions, collect data
and come to conclusions.
• Most psychology students will be expected to use the experimental method at some point. If you want to take a
closer look at the process, be sure to check out a step-by-step breakdown of how to conduct a psychology
experiment for more information.
• The four basic steps of the process are:

1)Forming a Hypothesis

2)Designing a Study and Collecting Data

3)Analyzing the Data and Reaching Conclusions

4)Sharing the Findings