Research is systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to

establish facts and reach new conclusions. The word research is composed of two syllables, re
and search. The dictionary defines the former as a prefix, meaning---again, anew, or over again
and latter as a verb, meaning---to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.
Research is the systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing data for some
purpose. A research methodology or involves specific techniques that are adopted
in research process to collect, assemble and evaluate data. It defines those tools that are used to
gather relevant information in a specific research study. Data collection may be done with
measurement techniques, extensive interviews and observations, Surveys, questionnaires and or
a set of documents.
Steps of a research
1. Research question
2. Exaustive literature review
3. Formulation of hypothesis
4. Sample and population
5. Tool for assessment
6. Data collection
7. Data entry and screening
8. Testing hypothesi/ results
9. Drawing inferences / Conclusion
10. Dissemination of the results
Observational method
1. Introspection…. Looking inward (prepare from your book)
2. External Observation
External Observational Research is a type of research in which a researcher observes ongoing
behavior. There are a variety of types of observational research, each of which has both
strengths and weaknesses.
Direct Observation

Direct observation, also known as observational study, is a method of collecting evaluative

information in which the evaluator watches the subject in his or her usual environment without
altering that environment. Direct observational methods can be classified as “observation without
intervention” or “observation with intervention.” When observing behavior directly, researchers
make a decision regarding the extent to which they will intervene in the situation they observe.
Intervention refers to researchers’ efforts to change or create the context for observation. The
extent of intervention varies on a continuum from none (observation without intervention) to
intervention that involves carrying out an experiment in a natural setting.
Observation without Intervention
(i) Direct observation of behavior in a natural setting without any attempt by the
observer to intervene is frequently called naturalistic observation.
(ii) An observer using this method of observation acts as a passive recorder of events as
they occur naturally.
(iii) Although it is not easy to define a natural setting precisely, we can consider a natural
setting one in which behavior ordinarily occurs and that has not been arranged
specifically for the purpose of observing behavior.
(iv) When ethical and moral considerations prevent experimental control, naturalistic
observation is an important research strategy. There are certain aspects of human
behavior that moral or ethical considerations prevent us from controlling.
Observation without intervention
Most psychological research uses observation with some component of intervention.
Reasons for intervening include:
 to precipitate or cause an event that normally occurs infrequently in nature or is difficult
to observe;
 to systematically vary the qualities of a stimulus event so as to investigate the limits of an
organism's response;
 to gain access to a situation or event that is generally closed to scientific observation;
 to arrange conditions so that important antecedent events are controlled and consequent
behaviors can be readily observed;
 and to establish a comparison by manipulating independent variables to determine their
effects on behavior
There are three different methods of direction observation with intervention: participant
observation, structured observation, and field experiments.
1. Participant Observation

Participate observation is characterized as either undisguised or disguised. In undisguised

observation, the observed individuals know that the observer is present for the purpose of
collecting info about their behavior. This technique is often used to understand the culture and
behavior of groups or individuals. In contrast, in disguised observation, the observed
individuals do not know that they are being observed. This technique is often used when
researchers believe that the individuals under observation may change their behavior as a result
of knowing that they were being recorded.
2. Structured Observation (also known as Systematic Observation)
Structured observation may occur in a natural or laboratory setting. Within structured
observation, often the observer intervenes in order to cause an event to occur, or to “set up” a
situation so that events can be more easily recorded than they would be without intervention.
Such a situation often makes use of a confederate who creates a situation for observing behavior.
3. Field Experiments
Researchers manipulate one or more independent variables in a natural setting to determine the
effect on behavior. This method represents the most extreme form of intervention in
observational methods, and researchers are able to exert more control over the study and its
participants.
Indirect Observation Method
When a researcher does not observe the desired behavior personally, he/she observes the
things in indirect way. These methods are often called unobtrusive measures (NON REACTIVE)
because the researcher does not intervene in the situation and individuals are not aware of the
observations. A behavioral measure is reactive when participants’ awareness of an observer
affects the measurement process. Because unobtrusive observations are made indirectly, it is
impossible for people to react, or change their behavior, while researchers observe.
Unobtrusive methods also yield important information that can confirm or challenge conclusions
based on direct observation, making these methods an important tool in the multi-method
approach to research.
Physical Traces
The investigation of physical trace evidence involves examining the remnants of the
subject's past behavior. These remnants could be any number of items, and are usually divided
into two main categories. Use traces indicate the use or non-use of an item. Fingerprints, for
example, fall into the category of use traces, along with candy wrappers, cigarette cartons, and
countless other objects. In contrast, products are the creations or artifacts of behavior. An
example of a product might be a painting, a song, a dance or television.
Archival Research
Archival records are the documents that describe the activities of people at a certain time
point or time period. Running records are continuously updated. Episodic records, on the other
hand, describe specific events that only happened once.

Advantages and Limitations of observational method