ISC 2023 – 2024 Std.

11
SUBJECT: PSYCHOLOGY
CHAPTER 2- METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY

CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. Scientific Methods in Psychology- observation, case study, surveys, psychological tests,

experimentation – steps. Psychological tests and their uses.

The application of scientific methods in the study of behaviour. What is meant by scientific observation?
Field study; controlled and uncontrolled observation; longitudinal and cross-sectional studies; the case
history method; the experimental method – variables - steps in an experiment; surveys and use of
questionnaires/self-reports. One advantage and one disadvantage for each method of Psychology. Meaning
of samples (random, biased, representative); meaning of population. Psychological tests – characteristics,

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definition, uses and types.

II. Interpretation of research results – use of statistics in interpretation of data understanding of why
statistics is used (descriptive & inferential). Basic statistical concepts – statistics, sample, population.

Why statistics is used in Psychology - interpretation of findings: describing and summarising data,
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comparing individuals/ groups, investigating relationships between variables, predicting. Descriptive
statistics -for summarising scores. Inferential statistics - to determine whether observed differences between
groups are likely/unlikely to have occurred by chance. How scores are grouped into frequency distributions;
central tendency of a frequency distribution - mean, median, mode and when each measure is used;
dispersion: the extent to which scores are spread out - range, variance, standard deviation; why both central
tendency and variability are important in psychology.

Jamnabai Narsee School, Juhu. Dept. Of Psychology.

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 I. SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

A. DEFINITION AND PROCEDURE: (Baron, Pg. Nos. 14-15)

The scientific method is a standardised way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories,
testing predictions, and interpreting results. Researchers make observations in order to describe and
measure behaviour.

In psychology, researchers want to see only what is really there, not what their biases might lead them
to see. This can be achieved using the scientific method, a system for reducing bias and error in the
measurement of data. The scientific method is a way to accomplish the goals of psychology :
description, explanation, prediction, and control.

Psychologists use scientific methods to study cognitive processes and behaviour. Psychologists treat
psychological phenomena as real and investigate it by using scientific methods.

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Scientific findings are believed to have following qualities:
1. Cumulative
2. Verifiable
3. Public
A scientist while doing research not only simply describes the phenomenon, but explains it as well. E.g.:
Alchemist not only explains the reactions of chemicals, but also explains “why” such reactions happen.
Similarly, a psychologist, studying memory not only explains the extent to which we forget information, but
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also explains “why” forgetting occurs.
To answer this question “why” scientists in all the fields engage in construction of theories.
Theory – A framework for explaining various events or processes.
Psychologists follow a proper procedure in order to explain various events and processes.

Procedure: (Baron, Pg. No. 16)

1. Based on existing evidence, a theory is formulated.

2. These theories consist of basic concepts and explains how these concepts are related to each other
and can also make prediction about observable events
3. These predictions are known as hypotheses. Hypotheses are tested by doing research.
4. If the results of the research are consistent with the theory, the confidence increases. If not, the
theory is modified and further tested.
5. Ultimately, the theory is accepted or rejected. Even if accepted further research can be done.

B. THE APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN STUDY OF BEHAVIOUR: (Baron Pg.

17)

By adopting the scientific method and using critical thinking, psychologists vastly increase the probability
that their efforts to attain valid information about human behaviour will succeed. It is these commitments to
the scientific method and careful thought that set psychology apart from other efforts to understand human
behaviour and make its findings so valuable from the perspective of enhancing human welfare.

Jamnabai Narsee School, Juhu. Dept. Of Psychology.

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Confirmation bias: The tendency to verify your own views.

‘The tendency to notice and remember primarily information that lends support to our views.’ We usually
prefer to have our views confirmed rather than refuted. When we attempt to use informal observation as a
source of knowledge about human behaviour we tend to notice and remember information that lends support
to these views- information that confirms what we already believe. This tendency known as the
confirmation bias is very strong and when it operates, it places us in a kind of closed system in which only
evidence that confirms our existing beliefs is processed. Clearly, this is one tendency that can lead to errors
in our efforts of understanding ourselves and others.

The Availability Heuristic: Emphasising what comes to mind first or most readily.

A mental shortcut suggesting that the easier it is to bring something to mind, the more frequent or important
it is. It is a mental shortcut because of which the easier it is to bring something to mind, or the more
information we can think of about it, the more importance we attribute to it and the greater its impact on
subsequent decisions or judgments. In general, this tendency makes sense when we can bring information
about something to mind easily, it often is important. But the availability heuristic can also lead us to errors.

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Because sometimes what we can recall most readily isn't especially important; it's just highly memorable
because it is dramatic or unusual. For instance, because aeroplane crashes are more dramatic and easier to
remember than automobile accidents, many people believe that the chances of being killed in a plane is
higher than those of being killed while driving; a conclusion that is totally false. Judgments based on
common sense or intuition are often strongly influenced by the availability heuristic, so they are often
untrustworthy for this reason.
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C. WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATION? (Baron, Pg. Nos. 19-20) (Morgan, Pg. Nos. 13-16)

The observational method of research that concerns with planned watching, recording, and analysis of
observed behaviour as it occurs in a natural or controlled setting.

The researcher decides where the observation will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what
circumstances and uses a standardised procedure. The researcher systematically classifies the behaviour they
observe into distinct categories. Scientific observation is reliable and more standardised than general
observation. Also known as controlled observation.
Features:
● It is a non-experimental method and does not allow any cause-effect relationship.
● The key feature of observational method is a standardised, planned, and systematic approach to
objectively observe and record behaviour.
● This approach is similar to the experimental method in that variables are measured but it is different
in that researchers do not wilfully manipulate the independent variable. Instead, they capitalise on
variations that occur naturally.

Jamnabai Narsee School, Juhu. Dept. Of Psychology.

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 E. DIFFERENT SCIENTIFIC METHODS

1. Field Study:
A study that is conducted outside the laboratory in a “real-world” setting. A field study is more
comprehensive, detailed and involves various factors/sub-areas that the researcher would like to
study. In contrast, naturalistic observation involves only observation and limits the data collection to
that.

2. Systematic/ Controlled Observation: (Morgan, Pg. Nos. 13-16)

A basic method of science in which the natural world, or various events or processes in it are
observed and measured in a very careful manner.
In this method the researcher intervenes to exert some control over the events they are observing.
The technique begins with casual observation, then a systematic procedure is used for data collection

S and analysis. In order to observe the behaviour, the researcher normally causes an event to occur or
“setup” a situation so that events can be more easily recorded. The researcher then uses procedure to
investigate the observed behaviour.

3. Naturalistic/Uncontrolled Observation:

A research method in which behaviour is studied in the settings where it usually occurs.
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Explore a population under natural or near natural conditions.
It is a research method commonly used by psychologists & other social scientists. This technique
involves observing subjects in their natural environment. This type of method is used commonly
where conducting lab experiment/research is not possible. An observer in this method acts like a
passive recorder of events as they occur naturally. The goal of observation in a natural setting is to
describe behaviour as it occurs and investigate the relationship among the variables that are present.
Advantages:
● Behaviour is observed in the settings where it usually occurs.
● Able to study things which cannot be manipulated in the lab setting because of ethical concerns.
● The main advantage of laboratory observation method is the degree of control that it gives to the
observer.
● Both naturalistic and laboratory observations can lead to the formation of hypotheses that can later
be tested.
Disadvantages:
● It cannot be used to establish cause and effect relationships.
● Often costly and difficult to perform.
● In many cases, animals or people who know they are being watched will not behave normally, a
process called the observer effect.
● One of the disadvantages of naturalistic observation is the possibility of observer bias. That happens
when the person doing the observing has a particular opinion about what he or she expects to see.
● Laboratory settings have the disadvantage of being an artificial situation that might result in artificial
behaviour—both animals and people often react differently in the laboratory than they would in the
real world.

4. Longitudinal and Cross-sectional Studies (Baron Pg. 253)

Jamnabai Narsee School, Juhu. Dept. Of Psychology.

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 4.a. Longitudinal studies:

Longitudinal studies are where the differences in an individual or group of some individuals are
studied over a long span of time. For example, by learning the pattern of growth and development with
regard to physical, mental, emotional, social or moral dimensions of personality, we can study a particular
infant or a number of infants as they normally grow and develop through successive ages.
Longitudinal studies follow the same sample of people over time. E.g.: Ageing
They are usually observational in nature i.e. the survey makers are not interfering with the subjects or survey
respondents.

The most important distinction between longitudinal and cross-sectional studies is the timeline.
Instead of a researcher collecting data from varying subjects to study the same variables, the same subjects
are surveyed multiple times, in some cases, over the course of many years.
Advantages:
● It allows the researcher to study in detail about the individuals, which is effective in determining
variable patterns over time.

S ● This is one powerful way in which we come to learn about cause-and-effect relationships.
Disadvantage:
● However, this type of study would require quite a long span as the researcher has to wait for the
normal course of development to occur.
● It is time consuming.

4.b. Cross- sectional studies:

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It is when we study the different individuals across different age groups to determine the pattern of
growth and development at different ages. Thus this takes place at a single point of time.
Instead of studying one or more infants at their successive age, we take different infants at varying ages and
study them simultaneously to determine patterns of growth and development. Thus, research takes place at a
single point of time. It seeks to gather data on the person’s conditions instead of looking at the effects of
variables over a period. Cross-sectional studies interview a fresh sample of people each time they carry out
research. A cross-sectional study compares multiple population groups at a single point in time. Instead of
collecting data over time on a single variable, a cross-section is framed, allowing a researcher to see
differences among population subsets in several categories.
An example would be a study on the benefits of jogging. In this study, multiple measurements are taken like
resting heart rate, body mass index, and blood pressure. These would be taken across groups of varying
levels of exercise. Researchers aren’t collecting data from a single subject over several years to learn about
the effects of jogging, but from many subjects.
Advantages:
● It gives the understanding about what is happening with the person at present.
● Data on all variables is only collected once and can be collected quickly.
Disadvantages:
● It does not help in predicting that one variable causes the result or change in the other variable.
● It cannot be used to analyse behaviour over a period to time.

5. Case Study/Case History Method: (Baron, Pg. No. 20)

A research method in which detailed information about individuals is used to develop general
principles about behaviour.

Jamnabai Narsee School, Juhu. Dept. Of Psychology.

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The researchers then use this information to formulate principles or reach conclusions that apply to large
numbers of persons- to all human beings.
A method which includes an intensive description and analysis of a single individual. Case histories
frequently make use of qualitative data. Researchers who use the case study method obtain their data from
several sources, including naturalistic observation, interviews, and psychological tests. According to Freud,
it does seem capable of providing insights into various aspects of behaviour. Moreover, when the behaviour
is very unusual, the case method can be revealing.
E.g., individuals who experienced specific kinds of damage to the brain showed certain kinds of memory
loss. By studying the pattern of such losses, psychologists have been able to put together a more complete
picture of how memories are stored in the brain.

Advantages:
● Detailed information is gathered.
● Individuals can be studied over a long period of time.
Disadvantages:
● Generalizability of results is uncertain.

S● Objectivity of the researcher may be compromised.

6. Survey Method: (Baron, Pg. No. 20)

A research method in which large numbers of people answer questions about aspects of their views or
their behaviour.
This method involves use of questionnaires and reports. Here, instead of focusing in detail on a small
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number of persons, researchers obtain a very limited sample of behaviour from large numbers of individuals,
usually through their responses to questionnaires. These designs study the prevalence of a certain attitude,
belief, or behaviour based on a person’s response to specific predetermined questions. Each survey must use
an adequate sample and carefully determine which questions to be used. The survey method
gathers quantitative data on those thoughts, feelings, and behaviours we have in common, or on which we
differ. The survey method of research asks a representative sample of people oral or written questions to find
out about their attitudes, behaviours, beliefs, opinions, and values. If the sample is truly representative this
allows the generalisation of results to the population from which the sample came. Surveys are used for
many purposes to measure attitudes towards specific issues, voting preferences, and consumer reactions to
new products. Surveys can also be repeated over long periods of time to track changes in public opinion or
other aspects of behaviour. For instance, surveys of job satisfaction-individuals’ attitudes toward their jobs
have continued for more than forty years. Surveys can be used on their own or with other research methods
such as the experiment, observation and the interview. Surveys may be conducted by post, face-to-face, by
telephone, videophone and the Internet. A good survey will be designed well, with standardised instructions
and questions. A pilot survey is often conducted to allow this to occur.
The survey method shares an important feature with the more structured of interviews and observations.
This is the gathering of data by self-report from a respondent or interviewee.

Questionnaire:
It is a research tool and data collection technique that consists of well-structured, scheduled, and systematic
compilation of questions regarding a particular topic, which are asked to an individual or a group. Often a
questionnaire uses both open and closed questions to collect data. This is beneficial as it means both
quantitative and qualitative data can be obtained. Open questions give rise to open, descriptive answers,
while closed questions restrict respondents' choice of answer. Open questions can give you too much
qualitative, descriptive information in answers, which makes working out our common or differing attitudes,
opinions etc. difficult.
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A self-report is any method which involves asking a participant about their feelings, attitudes, and
beliefs. The respondent must select an option from among the choices that best reflect his/her own
judgement, opinion, or idea towards the topic.

Advantages:
● Large amount of information can be acquired quickly.
● Accurate predictions of large-scale trends can sometimes be made.
● Big advantage of surveys is their ability to get at private information.
Disadvantage:
● Generalizability may be questionable unless persons surveyed are a representative sample of a large
population.
● a problem with questionnaires is that respondents may lie due to social desirability
● Some people deliberately give the answer they think is more socially correct rather than their true
opinion, so that no one gets offended, in a process called courtesy bias.
● Both the wording of survey questions and the order in which they appear can affect the outcome. It is

S difficult to find a wording that will be understood in exactly the same way by all those who read the
question.

7. Experimental Method: (Baron, Pg. Nos. 23-25; Morgan, Pg. Nos. 8-13)

Experimental method is a research method in which researchers systematically alter one or more
variables in order to determine whether such changes influence some aspect of behaviour.
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a. Variables:
In a simple experiment, then, different groups of participants are exposed to contrasting levels of the
independent variable (such as low, moderate, and high). The researcher can then carefully measure the
research participants’ behaviour to determine whether it does in fact differ depending on the level of
independent variable to which they are exposed.

Independent Variable: The variable that systematically changes in an experiment. It is the variable
that is controlled and manipulated.

Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured in an experiment or for which some outcome is
expected.

The name for the variable that is manipulated in any experiment is the independent variable because it is
independent of anything the participants do. The participants in the study do not get to choose or vary the
independent variable, and their behaviour does not affect this variable at all. In the preceding example, the
independent variable would be the presence or absence of violence in the cartoons.
The response of the participants to the manipulation of the independent variable is a dependent relationship,
so the response of the participants that is measured is known as the dependent variable. Their behaviour, if
the hypothesis is correct, should depend on whether or not they were exposed to the independent variable,
and in the example, the dependent variable would be the measure of aggressive behaviour in the children.
The dependent variable is always the thing (response of subjects or result of some action) that is measured to
see just how the independent variable may have affected it.

Confounding variable: Confounding variables in psychology are defined as influences that interfere with
an accurate measurement between the independent and dependent variable. In psychological experiments,
Jamnabai Narsee School, Juhu. Dept. Of Psychology.

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there is always the possibility that no matter how carefully an experiment is designed, or how thorough the
screening of participants, a variable other than those being investigated is skewing the results. This is a
confounding variable.

The group that is exposed to the independent variable (the violent cartoon in the example) is called the
experimental group, because it is the group that receives the experimental manipulation. The other group
that gets either no treatment or some kind of treatment that should have no effect (like the group that
watches the nonviolent cartoon in the example) is called the control group because it is used to control for
the possibility that other factors might be causing the effect that is being examined. If researchers were to
find that both the group that watched the violent cartoon and the group that watched the nonviolent cartoon
were equally aggressive, they would have to assume that the violent content did not influence their
behaviour at all.

b. Steps in Experimental Method:

1. A problem or a question that interests the researcher is identified
2. The researcher then formulates an explanation of the phenomena under study, with the help of a

S theory, and develops a hypothesis

3. The researcher then designs an experiment, and identifies the Independent and Dependent
Variables
4. The researcher also identifies and controls the confounding variables
5. Gathers the sample from target population, using an appropriate and convenient sampling method
6. Assigns the sample to the experimental conditions
7. Proceeds with the data collection
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8. Statistically treats the data to organise, describe and draw an inference from the data
9. Based on the results, the hypothesis is either accepted or rejected
10. The researcher then draws appropriate conclusion based on the results
11. To check the reliability of results, ideally the process should be repeated or replicated after some
time.

c. In its most basic form, the experimental method in psychology involves two key steps:
1. The presence or strength of some variable is believed to affect behaviour which is systematically
altered.
2. The effects of such alterations are carefully measured.

The logic behind these steps is this: If the variable that is systematically changed does indeed influence
some aspect of behaviour, then individuals exposed to different levels or amounts of that factor should differ
in their behaviour for instance, exposure to a low amount of the variable should result in one level of
behaviour, while exposure to a higher amount should result in a different level.
The factor systematically varied by the researcher is termed an independent variable, while the variable
that is measured in an experiment is a dependent variable.

Advantages:
o Cause and effect relationships can be established.
o Precise control can be exerted over other, potentially confounding variables.
Disadvantages:
o Results can be subject to several sources of bias (e.g., experimenter effects)
o Generalizability can be doubtful if behaviour is observed under highly artificial conditions. The
results of the experimental method are low in ecological validity

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Jamnabai Narsee School, Juhu. Dept. Of Psychology.

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F. SAMPLING AND POPULATION

Sample is a sub-set or a portion of the population. It has to represent the population in order to be
able to generalise the results.
Population is a collection of subjects that share a common characteristic.

Types of Samples:
● Random sample: A sampling method in which all members of a group (population or universe)
have an equal and independent chance of being selected.
● Biased sample: In research method, sampling bias is a bias in which a sample is collected in such a
way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others. If this is
not accounted for, results can be erroneously attributed to the phenomenon under study rather than to
the method of sampling.
● Representative sample: A representative sample is one that has a strong relationship to the target
population the sample is meant to represent. That is, the characteristics of the sample have to match

S those of the group at large, so the sample represents the group well. This will help to generalise the
results to the entire population.

G. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS:

a. Definition: A psychological test is "an objective and standardised measure of a sample of

behaviour". A psychological test is a structured technique to generate a selected sample of behaviour.
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b. Characteristics: Main characteristics of good psychological test are:
1. Objectivity: A test should be free from subjective judgement regarding the ability, skill, knowledge,
trait or potential to be measured and evaluated.
2. Reliability: It refers to the extent to which the obtained results are consistent over time.
3. Validity: It refers to the extent to which test measures what it intends to measure.
4. Norms: It refers to average performance of a representative sample on a given test. It gives us the
average standard of a particular sample in a particular aspect. Norms are the standard scores,
developed by the person who develops the test. The future user of the test can compare their scores
with the norms to know their sample.
5. Practicability: The test must be practicable in time required for completion, the length, number of
items, scoring, etc. The test should not be too lengthy and difficult to answer as well as scoring.

c. Types of tests:

Psychological tests are classified based on their language, mode of administration, difficulty level, and also
based on variables they measure.
Depending upon the language, we have verbal, non-verbal, and performance tests. Literacy is required
for taking verbal tests as the items must be written in some language. In non-verbal tests, items are made of
symbols or pictures, and involve the use of language to a bare minimum, e.g., Non-Verbal Test of
Intelligence. Performance tests require movement of objects from their respective places in a particular
order, i.e., it requires the test-taker to perform certain tasks like solving puzzles, picture arrangement, etc.

Depending upon the mode of administration, psychological tests are divided into individual or group
tests. An individual test is administered by the researcher to one person at a time, while group tests can be
administered to a large number of persons at the same time.
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Psychological tests are also classified by their nature/level of difficulty of test items into speed and power
tests. In a speed test, there is a time limit within which the test taker is required to answer all the items. Such
a test evaluates the individual on the basis of time taken to answer the items accurately. In a speed test, all
the items are of the same degree of difficulty. On the other hand, power tests assess the underlying ability (or
power) of the individuals by allowing them sufficient time, i.e., these tests do not have any time limit.
In a power test, the items are generally arranged in an increasing order of difficulty.

Based on variables, tests are broadly classified into:

1. Intelligence Tests:
They measure one’s ability to understand reasoning and problem-solving skills and the ability to deal
with the environment. Most intelligence tests give an IQ score E.g., Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
based on age. The Wechsler Test is based on test items.
2. Interest tests:
These tests are used to ascertain an individual’s areas of interest. They attempt to match the interests

S of persons in careers. This also helps in giving a perfect fit for a job.
3. Personality Tests: These assess the characteristics of a person.
a) Objective tests: are paper pencil tests that have the options of a person answering in ‘yes’ or
‘no’. E.g., questionnaires and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
b) Projective test: These are subjective tests of personality. In these tests, an image is shown to the
test-taker, or are given open-ended test items and the test-takers are asked to express whatever it
is that comes to mind. E.g., Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception Test
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4. Aptitude tests: As the name suggests, aptitude psychological tests help gauge the respondent’s
aptitudes such as spatial, numerical, clerical, or mechanical aptitudes.
5. Achievement Tests: An achievement test is a measure of one’s developed knowledge or skill. A
standardised test is the most common example of an achievement test that provides insight into the
respondent’s knowledge and skills in a particular field of expertise or a particular grade level. In
these kinds of psychological tests, the respondent is given a series of tasks, at the end of which, the
respondent will be graded according to prescribed guidelines.
6. Attitude Tests: These psychological tests try to assess the respondent’s reaction towards a certain
event, object, or another person. In the marketing field, attitude ranks or scales are used to find out
the group or individual preferences for items or brands.

d. Uses:

● Psychological test is used to measure and to detect the abilities of a person.

● A psychological test is used to measure the individual differences between abilities of different
persons and the performance of the same person at different times.
● The psychological tests are usually used in clinical psychology. In clinical psychology a test's
function is to diagnose mental disorders. It is used to identify abnormal or psychological problems.
● A psychological test helps in classifying several people into different categories.
● A psychological test provides standardised information about the abilities, capabilities, aptitudes,
potential competencies, interests, traits and states of a person which helps in understanding one's
personality and planning future prospective. It is used in schools and educational settings for
measurement of IQ and Personality tests.
● Effectiveness of a particular program can be assessed by the applications of some kind of test. This
function is usually performed by an achievement test.

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● Used in scientific inquiry or research. Some experts use tests for research purposes which provide
objective and accurate information about the variables that they are studying.
● A closely related application of psychological testing is to be found in the selection and classification
of military personnel.
● In industry and business tests are helpful in selection and classifying personal for placement in jobs
that range from the simpler semiskilled to the highly skilled, from the selection of filing clerks and
salesperson to top management for any of these position, however test results are only one source of
information, though an important one. It is used for hiring and recruitment.
● Psychological tests, especially those of general intelligence and of specific aptitudes have very
extensive use in educational classification, selection and planning from the 1st grade (and sometimes
earlier) through the university.

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II. INTERPRETATION OF RESEARCH RESULT (Baron, Pg. Nos. 591-596; Morgan, Pg. Nos.
725-727, 731-732).

A. WHY IS STATISTICS USED IN PSYCHOLOGY?

All fields of science require two major types of tools:

First, scientists need various kinds of equipment to gather the data they seek. Obviously, this equipment
differs from field to field.
Second, all scientists need some means of interpreting the findings of their research- for determining the
meaning of the information they have acquired and its relationship to important theories in their field. Again,
this varies from one science to another. In most cases, though, some type of mathematics is involved. To
understand the findings of their research, psychologists make use of statistics – or, more accurately,
statistical analysis of the data they collect. Statistics are a flexible tool and can be used for many different
purposes.

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Psychologists must be able to do two things with the data they collect. The first is to summarise the
information from a study or experiment. This is the role of descriptive statistics. The second is to make
judgments and decisions about the data. We are interested if groups differ from each other. We are also
interested in how one group of variables is related to another. This second emphasis is known as inferential
statistics.
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In psychology, however, they are usually employed to accomplish one or more of the following
tasks:
1. Interpretation of findings:
Statistical theories provide various tools for analysing errors and interpreting data in a systematic,
objective, quantitative and scientific manner.
2. Summarising and describing large amount of data:
Statistics uses various measures of central tendency – mean, median, mode to find out average. To
find out variability – standard deviation, range, quartile deviation is calculated. To study
relationships between two variables – correlation is computed. To find out significance of data –
analysis of variance, ratio is calculated. These techniques are also used to test experimental
hypotheses, reliability, validity etc.
3. Comparing individuals or groups, of individuals in various ways:
To determine similarities and differences, positive or negative relationships in the performance of the
group or individual psychologists need to take the aid of statistical techniques and procedures.
4. Investigating relationships between variables: Determining whether certain aspects of
behaviour are related (whether they vary together in a systematic manner):
Psychologists study multiple variables in their experiments. With the use of statistics, the
psychologist will be able to find out how the multiple variables are related to each other. Do the
variables share positive or negative correlation, are the variables inter-related etc.
5. Predicting future behaviour from current information.
Statistics can help psychologists to investigate various aspects of the obtained data.
Such investigations can help to predict behaviour.
For example: A psychologist obtains data on intelligence test. He found that the client is diagnosed
with MR based on norms of I.Q. Thus, the psychologist will be able to predict behaviour of what
kind of characteristics the child will show.

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 B. BASIC STATISTICAL CONCEPTS

Statistical analysis is a way of trying to account for the error that exists in almost any body of data. A
statistic is typically a number that represents some measure of central tendency or variability. Statistics are
calculated from a sample. A sample is a group of subjects selected from a larger population of subjects
(usually selected randomly). The same number calculated from a population is called a parameter. If you
asked what the average height of teenage males was, and you calculated the average from just your high
school, that average would be a statistic. If you tested every teenage male on earth, the average would be a
parameter. As you can see parameters are very rarely calculated. Thus, statistics is the branch of
mathematics that is concerned with the collection and interpretation of data from samples.

● Statistics: A branch of mathematics concerned with describing and interpreting data.

● Population: a collection of subjects that share a common characteristic.
A Population is a complete set of something-people, nonhuman animals, objects, or events.

S● Sample: is a sub-set or a portion of the population. It has to represent the population in order to be
able to generalise the results.

C. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Statistics that summarise the major characteristics of an array of scores.

It refers to those statistics that are used for describing, organising, and summarising various individual &
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group scores. These scores are then represented in the form of various graphical methods. It also includes
measures of central tendencies, variability, correlation, normal distribution etc. By using these methods and
techniques various kinds of data are quantified and grouped. These summaries may either form the basis of
the initial description of the data as part of a more extensive statistical analysis, or they may be sufficient in
and of themselves for a particular investigation.

Visual representation of data through graphs makes the difficult data clear and understandable. For example,
the average runs scored by the batsman in his cricketing career. Thus, the researcher will take into account
the runs scored by a batsman in every match and sum it. The researcher will then divide the total runs by the
number of matches he played and thus get the average. This is known as grade point average. This single
number describes the general performance of a cricketer across his career.

C. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Descriptive methods of statistics are not useful when it comes to comparing sets of numbers or scores to see
if there are differences between them that are great enough to be caused by something other than chance
variation. Inferential statistics consist of statistical techniques that allow researchers to determine the
difference between results of a study that are meaningful and those that are merely due to chance variations.
Inferential statistics also allow researchers to draw conclusions, or make inferences, about the results of
research and about whether those results are only true for the specific group of animals or people involved in
the study or whether the results can be applied to, or generalised to, the larger population from which the
study participants were selected.

In any analysis that compares two or more sets of data, there’s always the possibility of error in the data that
comes from either within the group (all participants in one group, for example, will not be exactly like each
other) or differences between groups (the experimental group and the control group are formed with
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different people, so there are differences between the two groups that have nothing to do with the
manipulations of the experimenter).When researchers want to know if the differences they find in the data
that come from studies or experimental data are large enough to be caused by the experimental manipulation
and not just by the chance differences that exist within and between groups, they have to use a kind of
statistical technique that can take those chance variations into account. These kinds of statistical analysis use
inferential statistics.

There are many kinds of inferential statistical methods. The method that is used depends on the design of the
experiment, such as the number of independent and dependent variables or the number of experimental
groups.

D. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:

The frequency with which each score occurs within an entire distribution of scores.
A summary of how often various scores occur in a sample of scores. Score values are arranged in order of

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magnitude, and the number of times each score occurs is recorded. A frequency distribution is a table or
graph that shows how often different numbers, or scores, appear in a particular set of scores.

E.g., suppose that a psychologist conducts an experiment concerned with the effects of staring at others in
public places. The procedures of the study are simple. He stares at people in stores, airports, and a variety of
other locations, and he records the number of seconds until they look away- or until they approach to make
him stop. After carrying out these procedures twenty times, he obtains the data shown in Table A.1.
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Presented in this form, the scores seem meaningless.
If they are grouped together in the manner shown in FigureA.1, however, a much clearer picture emerges.
Now we can see at a glance that the most frequent score is about 4 seconds; that fewer people look away
after 3 or 5 seconds; and that even fewer look away very quickly (after 2 seconds) or after a longer delay (6
seconds). This graph presents a frequency distribution: It indicates the number of times each score occurs
within an entire set of scores.

Table A.1

Persons Seconds Persons Seconds

1 4 11 4
2 4 12 4
3 1 13 3
4 4 14 3
5 3 15 5
6 2 16 4
7 5 17 4
8 3 18 2
9 6 19 6
10 5 20 5
Table A.1: Raw data from a simple experiment: When a psychologist stares at strangers in public places,
these persons either look away or approach him in the number of seconds shown. Note that more people
look away or approach after 4 seconds than any other value.

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A graph such as the one in Figure A.1 provides a rough idea of the way a set of scores is distributed. In
science, however, a rough idea is not sufficient: More precision is required. In particular, it would be useful
to have an index of the middle score of the distribution of scores (their central tendency) and the extent to
which the scores spread out around this point (their dispersion). Such measures are provided by descriptive
statistics.

S (Most people look away or approach after 3, 4, or 5 seconds.)

How are the scores grouped into frequency distribution?

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The manner in which the frequencies are distributed over the class intervals is called frequency distribution.
The data collected from the experiments or tests has to be arranged or grouped systematically so that the
calculation and interpretation can be possible.

The first step – to organise the data from the obtained raw scores.

Ungrouped Data: Any data that has not been categorised in any way is termed as an ungrouped data. For
example, we have an individual who is 25 years old, another who is 30 years old and yet another individual
who is 50 years old. These are independent figures and not organised in any way, thus they are ungrouped
data.

Grouped Data: A data that is categories or organised is termed as grouped data. Mainly such data is
organised in frequency distribution. For example, we can have the age range 26- 30 years, 31- 35 years, 36-
40 years and so on. Grouped data is convenient especially when the data is large.

Following steps are essential to calculate FD:

1. Determination of Range – refers to the gap between the highest and lowest score.
2. Size of the groups or class interval – Class interval depends on the range.
(Size = Range / No. of intervals)
3. Tally – it is the score which lies in any one particular class interval.
● One tally is given for each score in the corresponding class interval.
● The fifth tally is shown by an oblique line over the previous tallies. ( | | | | )
● These tallies are then added to obtain the frequency of each score.

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E. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY:

The middle (centre) of a distribution of scores. Measures of central tendency represent where most values
tend to occur. Measures of central tendency are used to summarise the data and give you one score that
seems typical of your sample.

● Mean: A measure of central tendency derived by adding all scores and dividing by the number
of scores.
We calculate a mean by adding all scores and then dividing by the total number of scores. The mean
represents the typical score in a distribution and in this respect is often quite useful. Sometimes, though, it
can be misleading. This is because the mean can be strongly affected by one or a few extreme scores.
Properties:
It is sensitive to all of the scores. If one score in the distribution is changed, the mean will change too.
The sum of the deviations about the mean equals zero.
When to use the mean: In a symmetric distribution, the mean locates the centre accurately. Consequently,
it’s best to use the mean as a measure of the central tendency when you have a symmetric distribution.

S ● Median: A measure of central tendency indicating the midpoint of an array of scores.

It is simply the point in the group of scores above and below which half the scores fall. The median is
sometimes called the 50th percentile because 50 percent of the scores are at or above it.
Properties:
It is not sensitive to all the scores.
It is most useful with skewed distributions.
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It is preferred when a group of scores or measures contains some extreme values.
How to calculate the Median:
1. Put all the numbers in numerical order.
2. If there is an odd number of results, the median is the middle number.
3. If there is an even number of results, the median will be the mean of the two central numbers.
When to use the Median: When you have a skewed distribution, the median is a better measure of central
tendency than the mean.

● Mode: A measure of central tendency indicating the most frequent score in an array of scores.
It is the score that occurs most often.
Properties:
There can be more than one.
We can have bi or tri-modal distributions.
When to use the Mode: Typically, you use the mode with categorical, ordinal, and discrete data. In fact, the
mode is the only measure of central tendency that you can use with categorical data—such as the most
preferred flavour of ice cream. However, with categorical data, there isn’t a central value because you can’t
order the groups. With ordinal and discrete data, the mode can be a value that is not in the centre. Again, the
mode represents the most common value.

Which is Best—the Mean, Median, or Mode?

When you have a symmetrical distribution for continuous data, the mean, median, and mode are equal. In
this case, analysts tend to use the mean because it includes all of the data in the calculations. However, if
you have a skewed distribution, the median is often the best measure of central tendency.
When you have ordinal data, the median or mode is usually the best choice. For categorical data, you have to
use the mode.

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F. MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
Measures of variability are used to indicate how spread out the data are. Are they tightly packed or are they
widely dispersed?
Variability in statistics means deviation of scores in a group or series, from their mean scores. It actually
refers to the spread of scores in the group in relation to the mean. It is also known as dispersion. For
instance, in a group of 10 participants who have scored differently on a mathematics test, each individual
varies from the other in terms of the marks that he/she has scored.
The term variability or dispersion is also known as the average of the second degree, because here we

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consider the arithmetic mean of the deviations from the mean of the values of the individual items. To
describe a distribution adequately, therefore, we usually must provide a measure of central tendency and a
measure of variability. Measures of variability are important in statistical inference. With the help of
measures of dispersion, we can know about fluctuation in random sampling. How much fluctuation will
occur in random sampling? This question in fundamental to every problem in statistical inference, it is a
question about variability.
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Variability or dispersion also means the scatter of the values in a group. High variability in the distribution
means that scores are widely spread and are not homogeneous. Low variability means that the scores are
similar and homogeneous and are concentrated in the middle.
The measures of variability most commonly used in psychological statistics are as follow:
1) Range 2) Quartile Deviation 3) Average Deviation or Mean Deviation 4) Standard Deviation 5) Variance
Range and quartile deviation measure dispersion by computing the spread within which the values fall,
while as average deviation and standard deviation compute the extent to which the values differ from the
average.
1. Range:
Range can be defined as the difference between the highest and lowest score in the distribution. This is
calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score in the distribution. The equation is as
follows: Range = Highest Score – Lowest Score(R=H-L) The range is a rough measure of dispersion
because it tells about the spread of the extreme scores and not the spread of any of the scores in between. For
instance, the range for the distribution 4,10,12,20, 25, 50 will be 50 - 4 = 46.
2. Standard Deviation
Deviation score expresses the location of the scores by indicating how many score points it lies above or
below the mean of the distribution. Deviation score may be defined as (X-Mean), that is, when we subtract
the means from each of the raw scores the resulting deviation scores states the position of the scores, relative
to the mean.

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The term standard deviation was first used in writing by Karl Pearson in 1894. The standard deviation of
population is denoted by ‘σ’ (Greek letter sigma) and that for a sample is ‘s’. This is the most widely used
method of variability. The standard deviation indicates the average of distance of all the scores around the
mean. It is the positive square root of the mean of squared deviations of all the scores from the mean. It is
the positive square root of variance. It is also called ‘root mean square deviation’. Mangal defined standard
deviation as “the square root of the average of the squares of the deviations of each score from the mean”.

SD is an absolute measure of dispersion, and it is the most stable and reliable measure of variability.
Standard deviation shows how much variation there is, from the mean. SD is calculated from the mean only.
If standard deviation is low, it means that the data is close to the mean. A high standard deviation indicates
that the data is spread out over a large range of values. Standard deviation may serve as a measure of
uncertainty.
If you want to test the theory or in other words, want to decide whether measurements agree with a
theoretical prediction, the standard deviation provides the information. If the difference between mean and

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standard deviation is very large, then the theory being tested probably needs to be revised. The mean with
smaller standard deviation is more reliable than the mean with large standard deviation. A smaller SD shows
the homogeneity of the data.
The value of standard deviation is based on every observation in a set of data. It is the only measure of
dispersion capable of algebraic treatment therefore, SD is used in further statistical analysis.
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3. Variance
The term variance was used to describe the square of the standard deviation by R.A. Fisher in 1913. The
concept of variance is of great importance in advanced work where it is possible to split the total into several
parts, each attributable to one of the factors causing variations in their original series. Variance is a measure
of the dispersion of a set of data points around their mean value. It is a mathematical expectation of the
average squared deviations. from the mean.
The variance (sd2) or mean square (MS) is the arithmetic mean of the squared deviations of individual scores
from their means. In other words, it is the mean of the squared deviation of scores. Variance is expressed as
V = SD².
Calculating the variance is an important part of many statistical applications and analysis. It is a good
absolute measure of variability and is useful in computation of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to find out
the significance of differences between sample means.
G. IMPORTANCE OF MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY IN
PSYCHOLOGY
Central tendency:
The main functions of measures of central tendency are as follows:
1) They provide a summary figure with the help of which the central location of the whole data can be
explained. When we compute an average of a certain group we get an idea about the whole data.

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2) Large amount of data can be easily reduced to a single figure. Mean, median and mode can be computed
for a large data and a single figure can be derived.
3) When the mean is computed for a certain sample, it will help gauge the population mean.
4) The results obtained from computing measures of central tendency will help in making certain decisions.
This holds true not only to decisions regarding research but could have applications in varied areas like
policy making, marketing and sales and so on.
5) Comparison can be carried out based on single figures computed with the help of measures of central
tendency. For example, regarding performance of students in mathematics test, the mean marks obtained by
girls and the mean marks obtained by boys can be compared.
Variability:
1) It is used for calculating other statistics such as analysis of variance, degree of correlation, regression etc.
2) It is also used for comparing the variability in the data obtained as in the case of Socio-Economic Status,

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income, education etc.
3) To find out if the average or the mean/median/mode worked out is reliable. If the variation is small then
we could state that the average calculated is reliable, but if variation is too large, then the average may be
erroneous.
4) Dispersion gives us an idea if the variability is adversely affecting the data and thus helps in controlling
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the variability.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Baron, R; Misra, Girishwar, Psychology 5th Edition Pearson Education Inc, 2002
Morgan, C; King. R, Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Edition, 2006
https://statisticsbyjim.com/basics/measures-central-tendency-mean-median-mode/

HOW TO PREPARE FOR THE CHAPTER

1. You are required to refer to your three textbooks (Morgan and King, Baron and Mangal) while
preparing for this chapter, in order to gain a deeper understanding and prepare for your examination.
2. These notes are guidelines and are by no means ‘ideal answer’. You must supplement your answers
with relevant examples wherever required as per the marks allotted in the question paper.

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