course 101

unit-1
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through
four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on
understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the
nature of intelligence.Piaget's stages are;

The Sensorimotor Stage --Ages: Birth to 2 Years

The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations

Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening

Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they are not n their sensory
feild (object permanence)

They are separate beings from the people and objects around them

They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

The Preoperational Stage--Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.

Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.

While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think
about things in very concrete terms.

The Concrete Operational Stage--Ages: 7 to 11 Years

During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events

They begin to understand the concept of conservation;, for example-

that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass,
for example

Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete

Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a

general principle

The Formal Operational Stage--Ages: 12 and Up

At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems

Abstract thought emerges

Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning

Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific

information

Methods for Collecting Data about

children{education psychology}
Introspection is the oldest method of educational psychology. Introspection means
'self observation', i.e. to look into one's own mental state. Introspection means
examining the inner behavior of an individual by oneself. Introspection is the
easiest and most economical of all methods of educational psychology

Merits of Introspection Method:

•It does not need any device or research facility as the subject and the examiner is
the same.

•It is the most efficient strategy and one which empowers us to think about the
mental condition of an individual, i.e. his feelings and sentiments.
Drawbacks of Introspection Method:

•Reflection implies investigating one's own particular feelings and sentiments,

sowhen one endeavors to study one's mental state, it vanishes and in this way it
isdistinctive to introspect the changing mental encounters.

•As the subject and investigator is same the contemplation gets to be subjective
and one-sided and thusly the information may not be solid and legitimate. The
individual maynot consider certain truths.

•The reflection strategy is impossible by abnormal people and kids.

•A man ought to be profoundly prepared and gifted to introspect himself

The observation method is described as a method to observe and describe the

behavior of a subject. As the name suggests, it is a way of collecting relevant
information and data by observing.Observation method is used in cases where you
want to avoid an error that can be a result of bias during evaluation and
interpretation processes. It is a way to obtain objective data by watching a
participant and recording it for analysis at a later stage.

type of observation methods:-

1) Controlled observations

The controlled observation is carried out in a closed space. It is the researcher who
has the authority to decide the place and the time where and when the observation
will take place. He also decides who the participants will be and in what
circumstances will he use the standardized process.

2) Naturalistic observations;

Social scientists and psychologists generally use the naturalistic observation

method. The process involves observing and studying the spontaneous behavior of
the participants in open or natural surroundings. The role of the researcher is to
find and record whatever he can see and observe in natural habitat.

Advantages-

When a participant is in a natural habitat, his flow of behavior is natural and not
forced.

The studies have gained better ecological validity than the controlled observation
method

The naturalistic observation method is used by the researchers to create new ideas.
The researcher has the chance to observe the total situation and can find avenues
that other people have not thought about

Limitations

The naturalistic observation method facilitates observations on a micro-scale. It

often lacks a representative sample and thus cannot help the researcher in making a
generalization that relates to a broader society

In this type of observation method, the researcher needs proper training to

recognize aspects that are significant and worth attention.

The observations through naturalistic observation method are not as reliable as the
researcher wants them to be because it is not possible to control some variables.
This is why other researchers cannot similarly repeat the study or research.

Establishing the cause and effect relationship is not possible because the researcher
cannot manipulate the variables

3) Participant observations

The participant observation method is often considered a variant of the naturalistic

observation method because it has some similarities with it. The point of difference
is that the researcher is not a distant observer anymore because he has joined the
participants and become a part of their group. He does this to get a more in-depth
and greater insight into their lives.

Advantages of Observation Method

-.The observation method is one of the best ways to formulate a hypothesis. The
researcher can observe and come to know about the activities, perceptions, likes
and dislikes to form a theory on his subject

Observation method is one of the most common methods used in all sciences and
is very easy to follow and accept

The observation method does not require the willingness of the participant to
record. The researcher can observe from a distance and record his findings

Disadvantages of Observation Method

Faces a severe disadvantage because it takes a longer time frame compared to other
data collection methods

There is a chance of higher observer bias in the observation method

Several personal behaviors are not open for observation and this proves a
limitation in case of observation method

There is a higher chance of the observer influencing the behavior of a sample

group elements

INTERVIEW
Acc to -Good & Hatt: Interview a close face to face conversation or a dialogue
between the investigator or interviewer and interviewee. OR It is a process of
social interaction between interviewer and interviewee

types

Structured Interview

A structured interview is a quantitative research method where the interviewer a set

of prepared closed-ended questions in the form of an interview schedule, which
he/she reads out exactly as worded.

Interviews schedules have a standardized format which means the same questions
are asked to each interviewee in the same order

these asre also known as Formal interviews

Unstructured Interview

Unstructured interviews do not use any set questions, instead, the interviewer asks
open-ended questions based on a specific research topic, and will try to let the
interview flow like a natural conversation. The interviewer modifies his or her
questions to suit the candidate's specific experiences.

Unstructured interviews are sometimes referred to as ‘discovery interviews’ and

are more like a ‘guided conservation’ than a strict structured interview. They are
sometimes called informal interviews.

Focus Group Interview

Focus group interview is a qualitative approach where a group of respondents are

interviewed together, used to gain an in‐depth understanding of social issues. The
method aims to obtain data from a purposely selected group of individuals rather
than from a statistically representative sample of a broader population.

read -merits and demerits of interview form book page 59

Anecdotal records
Observational narrative techniques, sometimes called anecdotal records, can result
in a rich array of developmental information about individual children that can be
used in a variety of ways. An anecdotal record is a detailed descriptive narrative
recorded after a specific behavior or interaction occurs. Anecdotal records inform
teachers as they plan learning experiences, provide information to families, and
give insights into identifying possible developmental delays.

steps
Disadvantages of anecdotal records
Only records events of interest to the person doing the observing.

Quality of the record depends on the memory of the person doing the observing.
Incidents can be taken out of context.

May miss out on recording specific types of behaviour.

ADVANTAGES

Itprovidesanaccuratedescriptionofaspecificevent.

Itdescribesthesettingsufficientlytogivetheeventmeaning.

Theinterpretationisseparatedfromthedescription.

The event it describes is one that relates to the child’s personal development or
social interactions

.The event it describes is either representative of the typical behavior of the child
or significant because it is strikingly different from his usual form of behavior.

unit-2
MATURATION

In very simple words, maturing is aging. It is the process with which we develop,
grow and change throughout our entire lives. In children, maturation means going
through their development stages. It is them being able to do tasks and things they
could not do previously. So it can be said with maturing there is an increase in
competency and adaptability.

Now maturation is a multi-faceted and automatic process. There is mental,

physical, emotional, somatic growth and development in the child. Some of the
changes are even genetic in mature

Motar developement
Motor development means the physical growth and strengthening of a child’s
bones, muscles and ability to move and touch his/her surroundings. A child’s motor
development falls into two categories: fine motor and gross motor.
Fine motor skills refer to small movements in the hands, wrists, fingers, feet, toes,
lips and tongue. Gross motor skills involve motor development of muscles that
enable babies to hold up their heads, sit and crawl, and eventually walk, run, jump
and skip

Factors affecting physical/motor development

(a) Heredity: The motor development largely depends on the genetic factors.
Children get genetic traits of development from their parents. It includes height,
weight, muscle mass etc. 

(b) Environment: Healthy environment provides encouragement and security.

Encouragement by the parents leads to sensory and motor development. Children
who get more opportunities for playful activities have much better motor
development than those who are less exposed to educational environment. 

(c) Regular physical activity: Regular physical activity in the form of yogal
calisthenics/aerobics/participation in games and sports always promote motor
development. These are necessary for basic foundation of life. It makes the child
confident with good development of strength speed and endurance.

1.

[f]Physical impairment: Blind children are slower to develop motor skills –

walking, climbing or manipulating objects. Physical impaired children have
poor balance and equilibrium.

unit -3
What are gender roles?

Gender roles in society means how we’re expected to act, speak,

dress, groom, and conduct ourselves based upon our assigned sex.
For example, girls and women are generally expected to dress in
typically feminine ways and be polite, accommodating, and nurturing.
Men are generally expected to be strong, aggressive, and bold.

Theories of Gender Development

Psychodynamic. Psychodynamic theory has its roots in the work of

Viennese Psychoanalyst, Sigmund Freud. This theory sees the role of the
family, the mother in particular, as crucial in shaping one’s gender identity.
Boys and girls shape their identity in relation to that of their mother.
Because girls are like their mothers biologically they see themselves as
connected to her. Because boy are biologically different or separate from
their mother, they construct their gender identity in contrast to their mother . 
Symbolic Interactionism. Symbolic Interactionism (George Herbert Mead) is based
specifically on communication. Although not developed specifically for use in
understanding gender development, it has particular applicability here. Because gender
is learned through communication in cultural contexts, communication is vital for the
transformation of such messages. When young girls are told to “sit up straight like a
lady” or boys are told “gentlemen open doors for others,” girls and boys learn how to be
gendered (as masculine and feminine) through the words (symbols) told to them by
others (interaction)

 Social Learning. Social Learning theory is based on outward motivational

factors that argue that if children receive positive reinforcement they are motivated
to continue a particular behavior. If they receive punishment or other indicators of
disapproval they are more motivated to stop that behavior. In terms of gender
development, children receive praise if they engage in culturally appropriate
gender displays and punishment if they do not. When aggressiveness in boys is
met with acceptance, or a “boys will be boys” attitude, but a girl’s aggressiveness
earns them little attention, the two children learn different meanings for
aggressiveness as it relates to their gender development. Thus, boys may
continue being aggressive while girls may drop it out of their repertoire.

 Standpoint. Earlier we wrote about the important role of culture in understanding
gender. Standpoint theory places culture at the nexus for understanding gender
 development. Theorists such as Collins and Harding recognize identity markers
such as race and class as important to gender in the process of identity
construction. Probably obvious to you is the fact that our culture, and many others,
are organized hierarchically—some groups of people have more social capital or
cultural privilege than others. In the dominant U.S. culture, a well-educated, upper-
middle class Caucasian male has certain sociopolitical advantages that a working-
class African American female may not. Because of the different opportunities
available to people based on their identity markers (or standpoints), humans grow
to see themselves in particular ways

A stereotype is a widely accepted judgment or bias about a person or

group — even though it’s overly simplified and not always accurate.
Stereotypes about gender can cause unequal and unfair treatment
because of a person’s gender. This is called sexism.

There are four basic kinds of gender stereotypes:

 Personality traits — For example, women are often expected to

be accommodating and emotional, while men are usually
expected to be self-confident and aggressive.
 Domestic behaviors — For example, some people expect that
women will take care of the children, cook, and clean the home,
 while men take care of finances, work on the car, and do the
home repairs.
 Occupations — Some people are quick to assume that teachers
and nurses are women, and that pilots, doctors, and engineers
are men.
 Physical appearance — For example, women are expected to be
thin and graceful, while men are expected to be tall and
muscular. Men and women are also expected to dress and
groom in ways that are stereotypical to their gender (men
wearing pants and short hairstyles, women wearing dresses and
make-up.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts
until around the age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily
shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences for breaking the
rules. There are two stages within this level:

 Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral

development, obedience and punishment are especially common in
young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of
reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as
fixed and absolute.7 Obeying the rules is important because it is a way
to avoid punishment.
 Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and
exchange stage of moral development, children account for individual
points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual
needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of
action was the choice that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is
possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's
own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social
rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and
adults internalize the moral standards they have learned from their role
models and from society.

This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to

the norms of the group. There are two stages at this level of morality:

 Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often

referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the
interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living up
to social expectations and roles.7 There is an emphasis on conformity,
being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
 Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on
ensuring that social order is maintained. At this stage of moral
development, people begin to consider society as a whole when
making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by
following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of
abstract principles of morality. The two stages at this level are:

 Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a

social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage
to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of
other people.7 Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but
members of the society should agree upon these standards.
 Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral
reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract
reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of
justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules

Emotions—
Emotion is a subjective state of mind. Emotions can be reactions to internal stimuli
(such as thoughts or memories) or events that occur in our environment.
Emotions are not the same thing as moods. A mood is a state of mind that
predisposes us to react a certain way.

Types
 Dr. Robert Plutchik’s emotion wheel. Plutchik arranges the eight basic emotions in a rainbow
wheel. Each emotion is placed directly across from its “opposite”, like so:

1. Joy vs. Sadness

2. Trust  vs. Disgust

3. Fear  vs. Anger

4. Surprise vs. Anticipation

Techniques for Controlling

Emotions
1. Desensitisation:
It is largely used to control fear or anxiety. This technique consists of three stages:
(a) First, a list of the hierarchy which produces an emotion (say fear) is prepared. The
list will contain various situations arranged in a hierarchical order which ranges from
least fear producing to highest fear producing.

(b) Second, an individual is taught to relax.

(c) Third, the situation from the list of the hierarchy which produces least emotion (i.e.,
fear) is presented to an individual. If there is no fear expressed, he/she is exposed to
another situation from the list of the hierarchy. If still there is no emotion (i.e., fear) he is
exposed to another situation and so on till the situation producing the highest amount of
fear is exposed to him. If at any stage the individual shows fear, he is taught to relax in
the presence of the fear producing situation. In this way an individual is gradually made
to control his emotions and relax during an emotional state.

2. Flooding:
In this situation an individual is presented with a fear-producing situation, in a non-threatening
manner. For example, a woman who is afraid of snakes would be suddenly given a snake in her
hand. The person learns that the snake is not harmful even when it is held in the hand. Hence,
gradually she will lose her fear of snakes.

3. Self-statements:
Emotions can he Overcome when we reassure ourselves with self- talking or expressing
self-directed statements to control our feelings. For example phrases like “Relax”, “Don’t
get angry, keep cool!” etc. can help us to control our emotions.

4. Coping strategies:
Many emotions can be controlled when we learn the strategies or techniques of
handling emotional situations appropriately. Some such coping strategies are:

(a) Learn to increase your stress tolerance level. Lack of tolerance leads to frustration,
anxiety and anger.

(b) Keep your goals within manageable and realistic limits.

(c) Relaxation, exercises, sports, good sleep, good food, etc. can help to control
emotions

(d) Count to ten before you speak. It diverts attention and dulls the feeling.
(e) Engage yourself in an activity that does not require concentration, e.g., gardening,
cleaning up the cupboard, etc .

ATTECHMENT THEORY – BOWLBY

Attachment theory is a psychological, evolutionary and ethological theory concerning relationships

between humans. Attachment is an emotional bond with another person.

John Bowlby was the first attachment theorist, describing attachment as a

"lasting psychological connectedness between human beings

The Stages of Attachment

Pre-Attachment Stage

From birth to 3 months, infants do not show any particular attachment to a

specific caregiver. The infant's signals, such as crying and fussing, naturally
attract the attention of the caregiver and the baby's positive responses
encourage the caregiver to remain close.

Indiscriminate Attachment

Between 6 weeks of age to 7 months, infants begin to show preferences for

primary and secondary caregivers. Infants develop trust that the caregiver
will respond to their needs. While they still accept care from others, infants
start distinguishing between familiar and unfamiliar people, responding more
positively to the primary caregiver.

Discriminate Attachment

At this point, from about 7 to 11 months of age, infants show a strong

attachment and preference for one specific individual. They will protest when
separated from the primary attachment figure (separation anxiety), and
begin to display anxiety around strangers (stranger anxiety).

Multiple Attachments

After approximately 9 months of age, children begin to form strong

emotional bonds with other caregivers beyond the primary attachment
figure. This often includes the father, older siblings, and grandparents.
Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of
behaviors and attitudes that makes a person distinctive. Personality development occurs by the
ongoing interaction of temperament , character, and environment.

A personality test or accessment is a method of assessing human personality

constructs. Most personality assessment instruments are in fact introspective self-report
questionnaire measures or reports from life records such as rating scales

Projective Methods of personality accessment

projective test: personality assessment in which a person responds to ambiguous stimuli,
revealing hidden feelings, impulses, and desires  This kind of test relies on one of the defense
mechanisms proposed by Freud—projection—as a way to assess unconscious processes.
Types
1).The Rorschach Inkblot Test is a series of symmetrical inkblot cards that are presented to a
client by a psychologist. Upon presentation of each card, the psychologist asks the client, “What
might this be?” What the test-taker sees reveals unconscious feelings and struggles 

2).  Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) :  A person taking the TAT is shown 8–12 ambiguous
pictures and is asked to tell a story about each picture. The stories give insight into their social
world, revealing hopes, fears, interests, and goals. The storytelling format helps to lower a
person’s resistance divulging unconscious personal details. The TAT has been used in clinical
settings to evaluate psychological disorders; more recently, it has been used in counseling
settings to help clients gain a better understanding of themselves and achieve personal growth

3). Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB) : projective test that is similar to a word
association test in which a person completes sentences in order to reveal their unconscious
desires, fears, and struggles. The tests include 40 incomplete sentences that people are asked
to complete as quickly as possible (Figure 3). The average time for completing the test is
approximately 20 minutes, as responses are only 1–2 words in length
 Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages. Erikson's

theory described the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.
Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships played a
role in the development and growth of human beings.

stages

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development starts at birth and continues to
approximately 18 months of age. The principal task is trust versus mistrust. Infants rely
solely upon their caregivers; thus, if caregivers are responsive and sensitive to their
infant’s needs, it helps the infant develop a sense of trust. Apathetic caregivers who do
not meet their baby’s needs may cause the baby to develop feelings of anxiety, fear and
mistrust and see the world as unpredictable. Basic virtue developed: hope.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage occurs between the ages of 1½ and 3 years. If a child is allowed to
develop at their own pace during this stage, they can acquire self-reliance and self-
confidence. However, if parents are inconsistent, overcritical, or overprotective, the child
may doubt their ability to control themselves and their world. Basic virtue developed:
will.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

The third of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development arises during the
preschool stage, 3-5 years of age. A child can develop initiative through social
interactions, and by planning and commencing in play and other activities. If the child’s
pursuits fail or are criticized, feelings of self-doubt and guilt may arise. Basic virtue
developed: purpose.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth stage occurs from ages 5 to 12 years. During this period, a child begins to
compare themselves with peers. The child learns to be productive and to accept the
evaluation of his or her efforts, and in turn, can develop a sense of accomplishment and
pride in their academic work, sports, social activities and home life. If a child feels they
do not measure up, feelings of inferiority or incompetence may be established. Basic
virtue developed: competency.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of psychosocial development is marked by an adolescent identity crisis.

Between the ages of 12-18, an individual develops a sense of self by experimenting with
a variety of social roles. An adolescent who is successful at forming a cohesive, positive
identity will have a strong sense of identity, whereas adolescents who do not search for an
identity or are pressured into an identity may experience role confusion and develop a
weak sense of self. Basic virtue developed: fidelity.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

The sixth stage extends from late adolescence to early middle age, 18 to 40. A strong
sense of self must be developed in adolescence in order to create intimate relationships
with others during this stage. Adults who lack a positive self-concept may experience
emotional isolation or loneliness.

To avoid feeling isolated or alone, individuals must learn to not lose themselves when
sharing or caring for others. Gaining a strong self-identity allows an individual to achieve
true intimacy, whereas identity diffusion can be a challenge. Basic virtue developed: love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Also called generativity versus self-absorption, the seventh stage in Erikson’s

psychosocial development theory occurs during the ages of 40-65. During middle
adulthood, individuals have a positive goal of generativity. In most cases, this results in
procreation, along with the fulfillment of parental and social responsibilities. This is in
strict contrast to interest in the self or self-absorption. Basic virtue developed: care.

8. Integrity vs. Despair

The final stage of psychosocial development theory during old age (65+) is a period when
a person reflects on life. One can either develop a sense of satisfaction of their life and
approach death with peace or develop a sense of despair over missed opportunities and
wasted time, leaving the individual to approach death with dread. Basic virtue developed:
wisdom.