ANALYSIS OF

PROCEDURES
IN
COLLECTING
DATA
I. OBSERVATION
• Is a technique of gathering data whereby the researchers
personally watch, interact, or communicate with the
subjects of their study.
• It is a systematic data collection approach where
researchers use all their senses to examine people in
natural settings or naturally occurring situations.
• The researchers, adopting this method, attempt to understand
behavior and societies by getting to know the persons involved
and their values, rituals, symbols, beliefs, and emotions.
 ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATIONAL
METHOD
1. Directness
The main advantage of observation is its directness. We can collect
data at the time they occur. The observer does not have to ask people
about their behavior and reports from others.
2. Natural environment
Whereas other data collection techniques introduce artificiality into the
research environment, data collected in an observation study describe
the observed phenomena as they occur in their natural settings.
3. Longitudinal analysis
Since the observation can be conducted in a natural setting, the
observer can conduct his or her study over a much longer
period than the survey or experiment.
4. Non-verbal behavior
Observation is decidedly superior to survey research,
experimentation, or document study for collecting data on non­
verbal behavior.
Some studies focus on individuals who cannot give verbal
reports or articulate themselves meaningfully.
 DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATIONAL
METHOD
1. Lack of control
the observation study has little control over extraneous
variables that may affect the data
The presence of a stranger (the observer) and the error
involved in human observation and the recording of data,
which may remain out of the observer’s control, are likely to
bias the observations greatly.
2. Difficulties in quantification
Measurement in observational studies generally takes the form of the
observer’s un-quantified perceptions rather than the quantitative
measures often used in the survey and experimental studies.
3. Smallness in sample size
Because observational studies are generally conducted in-depth,
with data that are often subjective and difficult to quantify, the
sample size is usually kept at a minimum.
Also, the in-depth nature of the observation studies generally
requires that they are conducted over an extended period than the
survey method or experiments. This feature tends to limit the size of
the sample.
4. No opportunity to learn the past
In an observational study, there is no way to know the past. It is also
difficult to gather information on intentions, opinions, attitudes, or
preferences.
This technique can generate quantitative or qualitative data but tends to be
used more for small-scale exploratory studies than large-scale
quantitative studies. This is because it usually requires:
a. Relatively highly skilled observers and analysts
b. Prolonged periods of observation
c. High cost per unit of observation.
TECHNIQUES OF OBSERVATION

An observational study is usually initiated from three different

perspectives:
1. Whether the observation is direct or indirect
2. Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown
3. What role the does observer play during the observation
• When an observation study is conducted with the
first two approaches, we call it a non-participant
observation study.
• The third approach leads to a study we refer to as
participant observation.
• Participant observation: The observer takes part in the
situation he or she observes.
• Non-participant observation: The observer watches the
situation openly but does not take part in the situation he or
she observes.
 DIRECT OBSERVATION
• Direct observation refers to when the observer remains
physically present and personally monitors what takes
place.
• During the act of observation, the observer is free to
change the focus of observation, concentrate on
unexpected events, or even change the place of
observation if the situation demands it.
INDIRECT OBSERVATION

• occurs when the recording is done by mechanical,

photographic, videotape, cameras, or other electronic
means.
COVERT OR OVERT OBSERVATION

• The second approach of observation concerns whether the presence of

the observer is known (overt) or unknown (covert) to the subjects.
• In an overt study, the observer remains visible to the observer, and the
subjects are aware that they are being observed.
• In a covert study, on the other hand, subjects are unaware that they
are being observed.
• The major problem with the overt study is that it may be
reactive. That is, it may make the subjects ill at ease and cause
them to act differently than they would if they were not being
observed.
• The covert study uses a concealment approach where the
observers shield themselves from the object of their
observations.
• Often technical means are used, such as one-way mirrors,
hidden cameras, or microphones.
• This method reduces the risk of observer bias but raises ethical
issues in the sense that hidden observation is a form of spying.
 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

• is an observation in which an observer gains firsthand knowledge by

being in and around the social setting being investigated.
• With this method, the observer joins in the daily life of the group or
organization he is studying.
• Prolonged and personal interaction with the research subjects is the
prime advantage of participant observation.
• In participatory research, the researcher assumes either a
complete or participant-as-observer role.
• In a complete participant role, the observer is wholly
concealed; the research activities are unknown to the
subjects, and the researcher attempts to become a member of
the group under observation.
• In participant-as-observer role, researchers make long-term
commitments to becoming active members of the group and
attempt to establish close relationships with its members,
who subsequently served as both informants and respondents.
• With this method, the observer gains a deeper appreciation of
the group and its way of life and may also gain different levels
of insight by participating rather than only observing.
TYPES OF OBSERVATIONAL METHOD

• Bailey classifies observational studies as to:

1. the degree of structure in the environmental setting
2. the amount of structure imposed on the environment
by the researchers.
• Following the author, there are two types of structure.
1. The first is the degree of structure of the environment, which can be
dichotomized as a natural setting or an artificial or laboratory setting.
2. The other is the degree of structure imposed upon the observational
environment by the researcher, which can again be dichotomized as
structured (such as counting of the frequency with which certain
behaviors occur) and unstructured, in which the researcher does not look
for any particular behaviors but merely observes and records whatever
occurs.
STUDY TYPE ENVIRONMENT
Type 1: Completely Natural setting
unstructured
Type 2: Unstructured Laboratory
Type 3: Structured Natural setting
Type 4: Completely structured Laboratory
• In the type-1 study conducted in a natural setting, the
researcher, as a participant-observer, becomes a part of the
culture and describes in great detail everything surrounding
the event or activity of interest.
• In the type 2, the researcher uses the laboratory facilities,
such as videotape, two-way mirrors.
• In contrast, the type 3 study takes advantage of a structured
observational instrument in a natural setting and generally
tends to be a non-participant study.
• The type-4 study, being a completely structured study,
requires a measuring instrument, called an observational
checklist, analogous to a questionnaire, which should possess
a high degree of precision in defining relevant behavior or
acts and have mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories.
MAJOR STEPS IN OBSERVATIONAL STUDY

1. Decide upon the goals of the study

2. Decide upon the group for subjects to be observed
3. Gain entry to the group
4. Gain rapport with the subjects being studied
5. Conduct the study by observing and recording field notes over
weeks, months or even years
6. Deal with crises that occur, such as confrontations with subjects who
think you are some sort of spy
7. Exit from the observational study
8. Analyze the data
9. Write a report presenting the findings.