DATA COLLECTION

DATA COLLECTION
• is defined as the procedure of collecting, measuring and analyzing
accurate insights for research using standard validated techniques.
• is the primary and most important step for research, irrespective of
the field of research.
 INTERVIEWS
• are used to collect data from a small group of subjects on a broad
range of topics.
• structured or unstructured interviews
 STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
• are comparable to a questionnaire, with the same questions in the
same order for each subject and with multiple choice answers.
 UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
• questions can differ per subject and can depend on answers given
on previous questions, there is no fixed set of possible answers.
 VIDEO CONFERENCING TOOLS
• Microsoft Teams (for employees & students) (recording possible)
• Skype for Business (for employees only) (recording possible)
• Google Hangouts (for students and employees) (recording possible)
• PILOT SURF Videoconferencing for max 6 persons (only for
employees to set up a conference; an employee can invite anyone)
• BlueJeans (must be requested via Servicesdesk LISA)
 QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD OF
DATA COLLECTION
• Questionnaire is as an instrument for research, which consists of a
list of questions, along with the choice of answers, printed or typed in
a sequence on a form used for acquiring specific information from
the respondents.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
QUESTIONNAIRE
• It should consist of a well-written list of questions.
• The questionnaire should deal with an important or significant
topic to create interest among respondents.
• It should seek only that data which cannot be obtained from other
sources.
• It should be as short as possible but should be comprehensive.
• It should be attractive.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
QUESTIONNAIRE
• Directions should be clear and complete.
• It should be represented in good psychological order proceeding from
general to more specific responses.
• Double negatives in questions should be avoided.
• Putting two questions in one question also should be avoided. Every
question should seek to obtain only one specific information.
• It should be designed to collect information which can be used
subsequently as data for analysis.
 FORMAT OF QUESTIONS IN
QUESTIONNAIRES
• Restricted questions, also called closed-ended, ask the respondent
to make choices — yes or no, check items on a list, or select from
multiple choice answers.
• Restricted questions are easy to tabulate and compile.
 FORMAT OF QUESTIONS IN
QUESTIONNAIRES
• Unrestricted questions are open-ended and allow respondents to
share feelings and opinions that are important to them about the
matter at hand.
• Unrestricted questions are not easy to tabulate and compile, but
they allow respondents to reveal the depth of their emotions.
 USES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
• Questionnaires are a common and inexpensive research tool used
by private companies, government departments, individuals, groups,
NGOs etc to get feedback, research, collect data from consumer,
customers or from general public depending on the need.
• Questionnaires are the most important part of primary surveys.
 ADVANTAGES OF
QUESTIONNAIRE
• One of the greatest benefits of questionnaires lies in their uniformity —
all respondents see exactly the same questions.
• It is an inexpensive method, regardless of the size of the universe.
• Free from the bias of the interviewer, as the respondents answer the
questions in his own words.
• Respondents have enough time to think and answer.
• Due to its large coverage, respondents living in distant areas can also be
reached conveniently.
 LIMITATIONS OF QUESTIONNAIRE
• The risk of collection of inaccurate and incomplete information is
high in the questionnaire, as it might happen that people may not be
able to understand the question correctly.
• The rate of non-response is high.
 OBSERVATION METHOD
Observation (watching what people do) would seem to be an obvious
method of carrying out research in psychology. However, there are
different types of observational methods and distinctions need to be
made between:
1. Controlled Observations
2. Naturalistic Observations
3. Participant Observations
 CONTROLLED OBSERVATION
The researcher decides where the observation will take place, at what
time, with which participants, in what circumstances and uses a
standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each
independent variable group.
Rather than writing a detailed description of all behavior observed, it
is often easier to code behavior according to a previously agreed
scale using a behavior schedule (i.e. conducting a structured
observation).
 EXAMPLE
For example, Mary Ainsworth used a behavior schedule to study how
infants responded to brief periods of separation from their mothers.
During the Strange Situation procedure infant's interaction behaviors
directed toward the mother were measured, e.g.
1. Proximity and contacting seeking
2. Contact maintaining
3. Avoidance of proximity and contact
4. Resistance to contact and comforting
 EXAMPLE
The observer noted down the behavior displayed during 15-second
intervals and scored the behavior for intensity on a scale of 1 to 7.

Sometimes the behavior of participants is observed through a

two-way mirror or they are secretly filmed. This method was used by
Albert Bandura to study aggression in children (the Bobo doll
studies).
 EXAMPLE
A lot of research has been carried out in sleep laboratories as well.
Here electrodes are attached to the scalp of participants and what is
observed are the changes in electrical activity in the brain during
sleep (the machine is called an electroencephalogram – an EEG).
 NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
This technique involves observing involves studying the spontaneous
behavior of participants in natural surroundings. The researcher
simply records what they see in whatever way they can.
 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
Participant observation is a variant of the above (natural
observations) but here the researcher joins in and becomes part of the
group they are studying to get a deeper insight into their lives.
 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
Participant observations can be either cover or overt. Covert is where
the study is carried out 'undercover'. The researcher's real identity and
purpose are kept concealed from the group being studied.
The researcher takes a false identity and role, usually posing as a
genuine member of the group.
On the other hand, overt is where the researcher reveals his or her
true identity and purpose to the group and asks permission to observe
 RECORDING OF DATA
1. Event sampling. The observer decides in advance what types of
behavior (events) she is interested in and records all occurrences. All
other types of behavior are ignored.
 RECORDING OF DATA
2. Time sampling. The observer decides in advance that observation
will take place only during specified time periods (e.g. 10 minutes
every hour, 1 hour per day) and records the occurrence of the
specified behavior during that period only.
 RECORDING OF DATA
3. Instantaneous (target time) sampling. The observer decides in
advance the pre-selected moments when observation will take place
and records what is happening at that instant. Everything happening
before or after is ignored.
 EXPERIMENT
An experiment is a controlled study in which the researcher attempts
to understand cause-and-effect relationships. The study is
"controlled" in the sense that the researcher controls (1) how subjects
are assigned to groups and (2) which treatments each group receives.
In the analysis phase, the researcher compares group scores on some
dependent variable. Based on the analysis, the researcher draws a
conclusion about whether the treatment (independent variable) had a
causal effect on the dependent variable.
 REGISTRATION METHOD
Registration method refers to continuous, permanent, compulsory
recording of the occurrence of vital events together with certain
identifying or descriptive characteristics concerning them, as
provided through the civil code, laws or regulations of each country.
The vital events may be live births, foetal deaths, deaths, marriages,
divorces, judicial separations, annulments of marriage, adoptions,
recognitions (acknowledgements of natural children), legitimations.
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Sampling is a method that allows researchers to infer information
about a population based on results from a subset of the population,
without having to investigate every individual. Reducing the number
of individuals in a study reduces the cost and workload, and may
make it easier to obtain high quality information, but this has to be
balanced against having a large enough sample size with enough
power to detect a true association.
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
There are several different sampling techniques available, and they
can be subdivided into two groups: probability sampling and
non-probability sampling.

In probability (random) sampling, you start with a complete sampling

frame of all eligible individuals from which you select your sample.
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
In non-probability (non-random) sampling, you do not start with a
complete sampling frame, so some individuals have no chance of
being selected. Consequently, you cannot estimate the effect of
sampling error and there is a significant risk of ending up with a
non-representative sample which produces non-generalisable results.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
1. Simple random sampling
In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each
member of the population has an equal chance, or probability, of
being selected.

In simple random sampling allows the sampling error to be calculated

and reduces selection bias.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
2. Systematic sampling
Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame.
The intervals are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. If you
need a sample size n from a population of size x, you should select
every x/nth individual for the sample. For example, if you wanted a
sample size of 100 from a population of 1000, select every 1000/100
= 10th member of the sampling frame.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
3. Stratified sampling
The population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all
share a similar characteristic. It is used when we might reasonably
expect the measurement of interest to vary between the different
subgroups, and we want to ensure representation from all the
subgroups.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
4. Clustered sampling
In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the
sampling unit, rather than individuals. The population is divided into
subgroups, known as clusters, which are randomly selected to be
included in the study. Clusters are usually already defined.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
4. Clustered sampling
Cluster sampling can be more efficient that simple random sampling,
especially where a study takes place over a wide geographical region.
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
1. Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling,
because participants are selected based on availability and
willingness to take part. Useful results can be obtained, but the
results are prone to significant bias, because those who volunteer to
take part may be different from those who choose not to (volunteer
bias), and the sample may not be representative of other
characteristics, such as age or sex. Note: volunteer bias is a risk of all
non-probability sampling methods.
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
2. Quota sampling
This method of sampling is often used by market researchers.
Interviewers are given a quota of subjects of a specified type to
attempt to recruit.
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
3. Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling
Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique
relies on the judgement of the researcher when choosing who to ask
to participate. Researchers may implicitly thus choose a
“representative” sample to suit their needs, or specifically approach
individuals with certain characteristics. This approach is often used
by the media when canvassing the public for opinions and in
qualitative research.
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
4. Snowball sampling
This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating
hard-to-reach groups. Existing subjects are asked to nominate further
subjects known to them, so the sample increases in size like a rolling
snowball.
 BIAS IN SAMPLING
4. Snowball sampling
Sampling bias may be introduced when:
1. Any pre-agreed sampling rules are deviated from
2. People in hard-to-reach groups are omitted
3. Selected individuals are replaced with others, for example if they are
difficult to contact
4. There are low response rates
5. An out-of-date list is used as the sample frame (for example, if it
excludes people who have recently moved to an area)