Know the definitions and be able to apply the following words:

● Macronutrient - energy-providing chemical substances consumed by living organisms

in large quantities, which includes fat, proteins, or carbohydrates.
● Micronutrient - vitamins and minerals, which support the various biochemical processes
in your body
● trace elements - minerals that are needed by the body in very small amounts
● Heterotrophs - an animal that can’t make its own food supply; unable to produce
organic complex substances (use CO2 for carbon source)
● Autotrophs (two categories: photo and chemo) - organism capable of synthesizing its
own food from inorganic substances using light OR chemical energy
● Phototrophs - manufactures its own food from inorganic substances using light for
energy (light as primary energy source)
● Chemotrophs - manufactures its own food from inorganic substances using chemical
energy (use other sources for carbon)
● Saprobes - any organism, ep a fungus or bacterium, that lives and feeds on dead
organic matter
● Parasites - an organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits by
deriving nutrient at the host’s expense
● Pathogens - a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host
● essential nutrients - a nutrient that the body cannot synthesize on its own -- or not to
an adequate amount -- and must be provided by the diet (include: carbs, protein, fat,
vitamins, minerals, and water)
● CHONPS - six most abundant elements of living organism (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur)
● Diffusions - the net passive movement of particles (atoms, ions, or molecules) from a
region in which they are in higher concentration to regions of lower concentration
● Osmosis - Tendency of water to flow from a hypotonic solution (low concentration of
dissolved substances) to hypertonic solution (higher concentration of dissolved
substances) across a semipermeable membrane
● active transport - movement of molecules across a cell membrane from a region of
their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration in the direction against
some gradient or other obstructing factor
● Endocytosis - active transport in which a cell transports molecules (such as proteins)
into the cell (endo- +cytosis) by engulfing them in an energy-using process
● Phagocytosis - cell eating; the process by which a cell - often a phagocyte or a protist -
engulfs a solid particle to form an internal vesicle known as a phagosome
● Pinocytosis - cell drinking, fluid endocytosis, and bulk-phase pinocytosis, is a mode of
endocytosis in which small particles are brought into the cell, forming an invaination, and
then susspended within small vesicles
Lecture 5 (Chapter 7)
April 9, 2016

● Define the terms anabolism and catabolism.

○ Anabolism is the building of bigger molecules from smaller molecules with energy
input
○ Catabolism is the breaking apart of bigger molecules into smaller molecules
resulting in energy release
● Describe the link between anabolism, catabolism and metabolism.
○ Cellular metabolism is the sum of all the anabolic and catabolic reactions
occurring in the cell
● Explain where chemical energy is stored and how it is transferred in a cellular system.
○ Chemical energy is stored in chemical bonds and is transferred into a cellular
system by anabolic and catabolic reactions
● Describe what ATP is including what components make up this molecule as well as
where the most of the energy is stored in the molecule.
○ ATP is Adenosine Tri-Phosphate
○ The components of this molecule are adenosine and three phosphate groups
○ Most of the energy is stored in the phosphate group furthest from adenosine
● Explain what phosphorylation means with regards to the use of ATP energy.
○ Addition of a phosphorus to a molecule, adenosine.
● Define what an enzyme is.
○ Proteins that can help chemical reactions occur easier; protein catalyst
● Describe the properties of an enzyme that help biological reactions.
○ increase the pace of reaction without influencing the chemical equilibrium
● Define what activation energy is and explain how an enzyme is involved with activation
energy of a reaction. Also explain how enzymes change the overall energy of a system.
○ Activation energy is the minimum quantity of energy that the reacting species
must possess in order to undergo a specified reaction
○ In the activation, they first bring the reactants close together, then they allow for
bonds to form.
● Explain what the suffix “-ase” means when attached to a protein name.
○ add this suffix onto the end of the substrate to form the names of enzymes
● Know what a substrate is for an enzyme and how that links to a chemical reaction.
○ A substrate is the particular reactants that go inside an active site
○ The enzyme acts as a catalyst to break down them down
● Know what an active site or substrate binding site it. Be able to explain the “lock and
key” model of enzyme and substrates.
○ An active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and
undergo a chemical reaction
○ Lock and key is the enzyme has a specific geometric shape and orientation that
a complementary substrate fits into perfectly.
● Explain what a kinase is.
 ○ It is an enzyme that modifies other proteins by chemically adding phosphate
groups to them (phosphorylation)
● Describe the importance of glucose in terms of the energy it provides for a cell. Know
the chemical formula for glucose.
○ Glucose is the first process in energy production from sugars for cells; every cell
can do glycolysis, and occurs in cellular cytoplasm
○ Chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6
● Know the name and function of the first enzyme in glycolysis. Be able to explain the
coupled reaction that this particular enzyme helps.
○ First enzyme is glucokinase, its function is to break apart glucose and release its
chemical bond energy in the form of new ATPs

● Be able to describe and diagram the entire process of glycolysis.

● Know the function of glycolysis.
○ The function of glycolysis is to break down glucose to make ATP
● Be able to describe why glucose is the only sugar that can enter this reaction.
○ Glucose is the only sugar that can enter glycolysis because the enzyme,
Glucokinase, only has an active site specific to glucose
● Understand why ATP is used to start the reactions of glucose.
○ The use of ATP is to phosphorylate glucose.
● Know how many carbons are in the main substrate at any point in glycolysis.
○ 6 Carbons
● Know the function of NAD.
○ The function of NAD is an electron carrier that accepts a pair of high energy
electrons
● Know how inorganic phosphate is different than phosphates already in ATP.
○ Inorganic phosphate provides that source for the phosphoryl group
● Know where the abundance of ADP comes from and how it is used to make ATP.
○
● Know what pyruvic acid is.
○ Pyruvic acid is the end product of glycolysis
● Know the net and gross production of ATP per glucose from glycolysis.
○ Net production of ATP is 4 and gross production is 2ATP
● Know where all the carbons in glycolysis are and the way they are conserved.
○
● Know what types of cells and where within those cells that glycolysis occurs.
○ Glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm

http://www.csus.edu/indiv/r/rogersa/bio139/06fallPowerPoints/8glycolFerm.pdf
Lecture 6 (Chapter 7)
April 16, 2016
● Be able to describe and diagram the entire process of lactic acid fermentation.
○ Pyruvic Acid > (NADH+H to NAD) > Lactic Acid C3
● Be able to describe and diagram the entire process of ethanol fermentation.
○ Pyruvic acid > (enzyme allows CO2 to change) > Acetylaldehyde C2 > (NADH+H
to NAD) > Ethanol C2
● Know the function of any type of fermentation.
○ To regenerate the coenzyme NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue to breakdown
glucose
● Know how fermentation links to glycolysis.
○ Fermentation links to Glycolysis by pyruvate undergoing a process without
oxygen allowing glycolysis to keep going, recycling NADH+H back into NAD
● Know the different types of respiration including the processes included in them.
○ Cellular respiration -
■ Anaerobic, no oxygen is needed
■ Aerobic, oxygen is needed
● Especially know aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration and anaerobic fermentation.
Know which produces the most energy.
○ Anaerobic fermentation - Ethanol C2 and Lactic Acid C3 are waste products
○ Aerobic respiration produces the most energy (ATP)

Lecture 7 (Chapter 8)
April 23, 2016
● Remember the central dogma of biology.
○ DNA Encodes RNA, RNA Encodes Protein
● Know the properties of DNA.
○ They contain a sugar (deoxyribose)
○ They contain a negatively charged phosphate group
○ And the bases A (adenine), T(Thymine), G(Guanine), and C(Cytosine).
● Define genome and chromosome.
○ Genome - all genetic information for a cell
○ Chromosome - One long piece of DNA
● Be able to describe the chromosome locations in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
○ Chromosome location in prokaryotic cells in the nucleoid area
○ Chromosome location in eukaryotic cells are in the cell’s nucleus
● Be able to describe the processes of binary fission as well as semiconservative
replication.
○ The process of binary fission is when a mother cell elongates, there is septum
development, and two daughter cells are formed
○ Semiconservative replication is when the two complementary DNA strands are
separated. This is usually accomplished by special proteins, promoters, that
unwind the molecule and expose the nucleotide bases; Then new
 complementary DNA strands are then synthesized by joining together
deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates, one at a time, and with the removal of a di-
phosphate; Finally at the end of the process the cell has made to identical copies
of all the biological information contained on the original, parental, DNA
molecule, but the two new daughter DNA molecules are "Half old" and "Half
new". Half the original DNA molecule is saved, or conserved in the daughter
molecules.
● Know the purpose of transcription and translation.
○ Transcription is making RNA from DNA
○ Translation is ribosomes translate mRNA information
● Know the functions of: promoter, RNA polymerase, DNA polymerase and ribosome.
○ Promoters function is to define the direction of transcription and indicate which
DNA strand will be transcribed
○ RNA polymerase’s function is an enzyme that is responsible for copying a DNA
sequence into an RNA sequence, during the process of transcription
○ DNA polymerase’s function is to synthesize DNA from deoxyribonucleotides, the
building blocks of DNA
○ A ribosome’s function is to make proteins from amino acids - converted from
mRNA into the protein.
● Know the function of the five types of RNA.
○ mRNA is the messenger RNA that can be translated into protein
○ tRNA is the transfer RNA which brings amino acids into the translation process
○ rRNA is ribosomal RNA and is the structural part of the ribosome
○ siRNA is the small interferring RNA which allows for mRNA degredation, which is
important when mRNA is no longer needed.
○ miRNA is micro RNA that stops transcription of some RNA
● Explain how a tRNA is involved in the translation of a mRNA into a protein and how the
ribosome helps this process.
○ Ribosomes translate mRNA information into proteins, then the tMRA brings
amino acids to ribosome and mRNA complex, the ribosome is then made of
protein and rRNA

For clinical correlates you must know the microorganism focus of each CC including:
● Name
● Type of Microorganism
● Type of Disease
○ Pneumonia
■ Pneumococcus
■ Can be bacterial or viral
○ Malaria
■ Plasmodium parasite
■ Parasitic infection
● All vocabulary words
○ Pneumonia - an infection of the small air sacs of the lungs
○ Alveoli - small air sacs of the lungs
○ Community Acquired - gotten while walking around town or family members
○ Asplenic - The spleen was removed
○ Malaria - a protozoan that invades the red blood cells
○ Plasmodium - a parasitic protozoan of a genus causes malaria
○ Artemisinin - Most rapid drug against Plasmodium malaria