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Operating Characteristics of Salient-Pole Machines: by J. H. WALKER, M.SC, PH.D., Member
Operating Characteristics of Salient-Pole Machines: by J. H. WALKER, M.SC, PH.D., Member
1411
621.313.32 SUPPLY SECTION
(1) INTRODUCTION
The fundamental 2-axis theory underlying the operation of
salient-pole machines was first enunciated by Blondel, and since
then many papers have been published1 that develop from this
theory the appropriate equations for design and operation. For
instance, the equations appropriate to transient conditions were
developed by Park in his classic contribution; again Gibbs, 2 in
a recently published monograph, comprehensively covered opera-
tion under both transient and steady-state conditions, but since
he expressed his results in the notation of matrix algebra they
are not in a form suitable for ready application to practical
problems. Although other papers, such as those by David 3 and
Angelini,4 have dealt with particular aspects of the application
of 2-axis theory to steady-state operation, there appears to be Fig. 1.—Two-axis voltage vector diagram.
no comprehensive analysis suitable for immediate practical Salient-pole alternator
application to normal running conditions. Xa 1 1 per unit, Xq = 0-7 per unit.
Power factor == 0-9 lagging.
The present paper develops for the various types of synchronous
salient-pole machines the diagrams and general equations suitable the armature current lagging behind the terminal voltage by the
for practical use under steady-state conditions; it further shows angle <f>. The line AB is drawn at the angle <f> to the perpendicular
how the application of these results may in certain cases lead to AY, a length AF proportional to IXq is marked off on it and the
improvements in design and operation. imaginary pole axis is then drawn through F from O. The two
hypothetical components Id and Iq of the armature current can
(2) THE VECTOR DIAGRAM then be obtained by drawing the vector representing ld per-
(2.1) Assumptions pendicular to the pole axis (imaginary), OF, and the vector
(a) All load changes take place within a time interval longer representing Iq parallel to the same axis. The mutually per-
than the short-circuit transient time-constant of the machine. pendicular vectors IdXd and IqXq can then be drawn, the extenr
The analysis in the paper is thus restricted to steady-state con- sion of OF to OG then giving the internal voltage EQ. It should
ditions as defined by this assumption. be noted that throughout the paper the "per unit" system is
(b) In all cases the machine is operating in parallel with a used so that rated r.m.s. current per phase is unit current, rated
large-capacity system, i.e. it is connected to a so-called "infinite" r.m.s. voltage per phase is unit voltage, direct-axis reactance Xlf
busbar whose voltage is unaffected by load changes in the machine is direct-axis reactance in ohms times rated current and divided
in question. by rated voltage, and similarly for Xq. It thus follows that Eo
(c) Magnetic saturation can be neglected. This is justified on is the per-unit internal voltage. If the line AF is extended to B
the grounds that saturation has an appreciable influence only in such that AB represents IXd, OBA is the conventional vector
triangle of the cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine.
Written contributions on papers published without being read at meetings are It can be seen that the internal voltages obtained by the two
invited for consideration with a view to publication.
Dr. Walker is with the British Thomson-Houston Co., Ltd. methods scarcely differ, but the pole angle 8 obtained by the
13]
14 WALKER: OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF SALIENT-POLE MACHINES
2-axis method is substantially less than given by round-rotor
theory.
The corresponding diagram for an alternator operating at a
leading power factor is shown in Fig. 2. It can be seen that
Fig. 2.—Two-axis voltage vector diagram. representing the contribution from the salient-pole effect to the
Salient-pole alternator internal voltage; in Fig. 4 it can be represented as the similar
Xd 1 • 1 per unit, Xv 0 - 7 p e r unit. contribution to the load field current.
Power factor - - 0 - 9 leading.
By eliminating all but essentials, the simple vector diagram of
there is an appreciable difference between both the internal Fig. 5 can now be drawn, which shows quite clearly the relation-
voltages and pole angles given by the two different methods. ships between short-circuit current, armature current and load
In both Figures the polygon OAHG represents a voltage field current. This simplified current vector diagram now
vector diagram. The terminal voltage is constant so that the affords a ready means of determining the relationships between
only operational variables are armature current, power factor armature current, power factor and field current. If Xq — Xd
and field current. It is therefore necessary to transform the the diameter of the semicircle becomes zero, and the vector
voltage vector polygons of Figs. 1 and 2 into those appropriate diagram reduces to the simple diagram of the round-rotor
to currents; in addition, for simplicity of representation, it is machine as shown by the dotted line.
desirable that the vector polygon be replaced, in effect, by a
vector triangle corresponding to that normally associated with (3) POWER DIAGRAMS
the cylindrical-rotor theory. The latter change is shown in
Fig. 3, in which HG has been extended to B so that HB represents (3.1) The Alternator Power Diagram
With a fixed terminal voltage it is obviously possible to
determine from Fig. 5 the active- and reactive-power loading of
!
Per-uriit kW
Power factor
0-6
Fig. 6.— Circle diagram for constant armature current / with varying power factor and field current If.
Salient-pole alternator
= 1 • 1 per unit, Xq -•— 0-7 per unit.
Power factor = 0-9 lagging.
Fig. 7.—Diagram for rated^constant field current If with varying power factor and armature current /.
Salient-pole alternator
Xd — 1-1 per unit, Xq — 0-7 per unit.
Power factor — 0-9 lagging.
16 WALKER: OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF SALIENT-POLE MACHINES
as zero, projections of the current vectors on the vertical axis maximum and then falls again. Similar considerations apply
represent active power and similar projections on the horizontal in Fig. 8 to operation either as a generator or a motor.
axis represent reactive power. A counter-clockwise rotation of
vectors is assumed in all these diagrams to be positive, and (3.3) Machine Stability
negative values of <f> correspond to lagging power factors and It is now necessary to consider the question of stable operation.
positive values to leading ones. It then follows that in Fig. 6 In general when an alternator is operating on full load any small
projections of current vectors falling on the horizontal axis to fortuitous increase in the torque of the prime mover is followed
the right of Oy represent lagging reactive power, and to the by a corresponding increase in the pole angle 8; the latter
left leading reactive power. This Figure is thus an elementary increase leads to an increase in the active-power output of the
form of power chart. alternator which restores the rotor—more or less—to its original
An alternator connected to a large power system may be pole angle. However, if the alternator is initially operating at
subjected to substantial output variations, and under these its maximum active-power output point the small fortuitous
conditions it is useful to the power engineer to have a diagram increase in the torque of the prime mover is followed by a
showing, for a given initial steady-state condition (e.g. rated decrease in the output of the alternator. The prime mover will
load), the variation of armature current and power factor caused thus continue to increase the pole angle S until finally the speed
by output variations with constant field current. An elementary of the alternator rises above synchronism and the unit falls out
form of such a diagram is shown in Fig. 7, and in this the locus of step. The corresponding condition in a synchronous motor
of the armature vector is determined by drawing a number of may occur for example in a rolling-mill drive. If the motor is
rays through C and then marking off along each ray from the running on afixedfieldexcitation, the introduction of a piece of
periphery of the semicircle a length representing I//Xd; this material which is either too thick or not hot enough may lead
construction is an extension of that given in Fig. 5. to an increase in the active-power output which exceeds the
The resulting smooth curve drawn through the extremities of maximum output for that particular field excitation and the
these rays is called the "limacon of Pascal," although in Fig. 7 motor will immediately drop out of synchronism.
it appears to be a semicircle. It is thus important that a power diagram should indicate for
the various possible operating conditions the maximum output
(3.2) The Generalized Power Diagram points at various values of field current. As can be clearly
seen from Fig. 8 these points are the maximum and minimum
In the diagrams so far considered, the power-factor angle <f> ordinates of the limacons, and the two smooth curves joining
has been restricted to the range ±90', i.e. they have covered the these points indicate the limits of stable operation; the dotted
operation of synchronous salient-pole machines as generators portions of the limacons thus indicate the unstable region of
operating from zero lagging to zero leading power factor. It the diagram.
is obvious that by extending the diagram of Fig. 7 to cover the
These stability limits start from the intersection of the per-
full range of <f>, i.e. O-36O;>, it will also give the performance of
pendicular at E/Xq with the horizontal axis and decrease
the machine as a synchronous motor operating from zero
asymptotically towards the perpendicular at E\Xd. This per-
leading to zero lagging power factor. This has been done in Fig. 8,
pendicular is, of course, the theoretical stability limit of the
Generator y cylindrical-rotor machine in which the loci of the extremities of
the armature-current vectors are circles with centres at O. It
can thus be seen that when a salient-pole alternator is operating
2: -1-77
at about rated output and power factor, the maximum output
given by the 2-axis theory is slightly greater than that given by
cylindrical-rotor theory. However, if the machine is operating
at a low leading power factor, e.g. charging a long transmission
line during periods of light load, the 2-axis theory shows that
under these conditions the machine has a much higher maxi-
RVA lagging., mum output than is given by cylindrical-rotor theory. This
K.VA leading- increased output, however, can in general only be obtained
by operating with reversed field current in the rotor winding, the
maximum value being obtained in the stable region of the
diagram at the abscissa corresponding to EfXq, i.e. at zero
leading power factor. The armature current and thus the output
at this point are represented by E/Xq, and the required negative
field current, E(llXg — \IXd), corresponds to the diameter of
the circle between the ordinates at E/X and E/Xd.
(3.4) Properties of the Armature Current Loci (Limacons)
It is of interest to note in Fig. 8 that, for the given values of
Xd and Xq, the limacon for full-load field current is almost
Fig. 8.—Armature-current loci for fixed field currents. indistinguishable from a circle, for If = 1-2 amp it has a slight
Salient-pole machine flattening at one side, for If ~ 0-57 amp the limacon takes on
Xri 1 • 1 per unit, Xq -~ 0-7 per unit.
Rated power factor = 0-9 lagging. the special form known as a cardioid with the cusp at the abscissa
E\Xq, and for lower values of If the limacon develops a
and in addition the limacons (armature-current loci) correspond- loop inside the circle as shown in the example for If • 0 18.
ing to various fractions of full-load field current have been This loop can be considered either, in the normal case, as the
included. locus of armature current with negative field current, or as the
In Figs. 6 and 7 it can be seen that as the power-factor angle cf) same locus with positive field current after the machine has
varies from —90° to +90°, the active-power output rises to a traversed a pole angle S greater than 180° and resumed stable
WALKER: OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF SALIENT-POLE MACHINES 17
operation on the loop. The curves showing the relationship negative. This final condition corresponds to operation on the
between torque and pole angle can be obtained from Fig. 8 by loop of Fig. 8. In normal operation such a procedure is im-
plotting the projection of / on the vertical axis against the pole practicable, and operation on the loop is initiated with the
angle 8. The resulting curves shown in Fig. 9 demonstrate more required negative field current. Fig. 9 brings out in a simple
manner the concept of saliency as a constant-amplitude second-
harmonic torque superimposed on a fundamental sinusoidal
Round-rotor theory torque whose amplitude varies with the field excitation; and the
same concept, although not so obvious, underlies the geometrical
construction of Fig. 8.
10
5% excitation
margin
Fig. 10.—Power chart for salient-pole alternator connected to constant-voltage system.
Xa = 1 • 1 per unit, Xg = 0-7 per unit.
Rated power factor = 0-9 lagging.
VOL. 100, PART II.
18 WALKER: OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF SALIENT-POLE MACHINES
It is of interest to note that, if for simplicity the power chart
of this particular machine had been based on cylindrical-rotor
theory, the capacity of the machine in the region of leading power
would have been as shown by the dotted stability line and thus
considerably less than that given by the appropriate theory.
This form of chart can be of considerable assistance to the
power-system engineer in determining the capabilities of machines
under varying conditions of active-power loading and power
factors; it is, however, not in a form which can be readily
interpreted by the engineer responsible for the actual operation
of the alternators in a station. The diagram of Fig. 10 may be
modified into the form shown in Fig. 11 which is suitable for
•*= V k\
•
A \ \
\
\
\ •• 1
V j •7 1
J / •
S .
/
(
/
A \
)
\
L\
S
\
\
i
\
1
\ •J- \ \
\
7_\
Y\ V1 I y \
x
\
;
\
r
\
w1 1
1
1-0 0-8 0-G 0-4 0-2 0 0-2 0-4 0-6
-« Leading kVAr Lagging +*
Fig. 11. Simplified power chart.
Salient-pole alternator.
Per-unit KVAr
(lead) R
Fig. 15. -Characteristics for synchronous condenser operating Per-unit k W
on zero lagging power factor.
(a) Condenser supplying lagging output.
Xd ~ 1-7 per unit, Xa = 1 -0 per unit.
Machine loss -=2% of rated output.
(b) Current vector diagram at maximum stable power.
95% full load power.
been drawn for values of Xd = 1-7 per unit and Xq = 1-0 per unit
appropriate to a typical synchronous condenser. It can be seen
that in order to operate with a small positive field current it is Motor
necessary to restrict the lagging power to 50% of the rating at Fig. 16.—Combined power chart and vector diagram for a
zero leading power factor. However, if the excitation system is synchronous reluctance motor.
designed to reduce the field current to zero and then increase Xd 2-22 per unit, Xq -••= 0-78 per unit.
22 WALKER: OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF SALIENT-POLE MACHINES
a low lagging power factor. A high power factor could be and the values of all three variables on the right-hand side of
obtained only by an impermissibly small radial air-gap to give a this equation are now known.
low value of magnetizing current. If it is required to calculate only the curves of Fig. 8 but
For this reason the reluctance motor is used only in those not those of Fig. 9, then eqns. (1) to (4) can be simplified to a
applications requiring less than about 10 h.p. single equation, which involves much less labour, as follows:
These machines are occasionally used as reluctance generators,
and Fig. 16 shows that in this case the machine can generate only ~ ~\ cos 8 (6)
at a low leading power factor. This may introduce difficulties
in practical operation because in industrial installations none of in which r is the length of a ray, drawn in Fig. 8, from the
the loads connected to the infinite busbar may have the charac- value of E\Xq on the horizontal axis, to the required locus.
teristics required by the reluctance generator. The curve traced out by this equation for varying values of 8
is, of course, the limacon of Pascal.
(9) ALGEBRAIC ANALYSIS The theoretical stability-limit curve is plotted from the follow-
(9.1) The Excited-Rotor Machine ing equation:
From the geometry of Fig. 1 it can be seen that the pole angle 8 E
is given by ^=1--^-
1- \ . . (7)
S-arctan (1)* x. xj • '
,E//^-sin in which d and y are co-ordinates of the stability curve. The
derivation and method of applying this equation are given in
and from similar considerations the internal voltage Eo, and Appendix 13.1.
thus t h e field current If, for t h e given values of E, / , a n d <f> is
It is interesting to note the types of limacons which are obtained
obtained from
for various values of E^Xd. If EJXd > (E/Xg - E/Xd) then,
Eo = IXdsin (8 - <f>) + E c o s 8 . . . (2) for example, the smooth outer curve of Fig. 8 is obtained; as
EfJXd -> (E/Xg — EIXd) the curve exhibits an increasingly
T h e value of <f> for a n y required value of 8 is easily derived marked depression at the left side on the horizontal axis. When
from eqn. (2) a n d Fig. 1 a n d is given by E0/Xd - m\IXq - UXd), eqn. (6) becomes
f;
0 — 8 — arc tan \
E sin 8
' VI . .
tan8/J
(3) . . . . (8)
Correspondingly, by derivation from eqn. (1), the value of / which is the equation to the cardioid, and the depression now
for the same value of 8 is given by becomes a cusp with its point at the origin of r.
With Eo/Xd < E{\IXq — l/Xd) the limacon develops a loop,
1
. • (4) as can be seen in Fig. 8, this loop being the armature-current
XAcos <£/tan 8 + sin <f>. ) • locus for negative values of field current.
These are, in essence, for steady-state operation, the four When EJXd = 0, i.e. zero field current, eqn. (6) simplifies to
fundamental equations of the salient-pole machine from which
all steady-state operating characteristics can be derived. COS (9)
These equations can be applied to the calculation of, for
example, the curves of Fig. 8. The values of Xd and Xq being which is, of course, the equation to the circle in Fig. 8. It is
known, a required locus, say that for the field current corre- also the equation for the current locus of the reluctance machine
sponding to rated terminal voltage load and power factor, is (see Fig. 16).
calculated as follows. It can be seen from eqn. (6) and Fig. 7 that the equation for
The value of 8 at rated load is calculated from eqn. (1) and per-unit active power is
from this the value of internal voltage and thus the field current
on rated load are obtained from eqn. (2). To facilitate further P = rE sin 8
calculation a number of suitable values are assumed for 8 and
the corresponding values of <f> and / are calculated from = HT S i n 28 . (10)
eqns. (3) and (4), the previously calculated value of EJXd at
rated load being treated as a constant. The outer curve of To find the value of 8 at this maximum power and thus the
Fig. 8 can then be plotted from these results. A similar procedure maximum power, eqn. (10) is differentiated with respect to 8 and
is adopted for the remaining loci in Fig. 8, in each case the equated to zero, thus obtaining
starting point being the calculation of E0/Xd for a given value
of / at the rated power factor.
If, as previously suggested, E and / are expressed as per-unit
values, then, at rated voltage and load, E and / are unity. To By substituting these values of 8 in eqn. (10) the value of maxi-
calculate the above set of curves for a different value of E, say mum power is readily obtained.
at 90% of terminal voltage, it is only necessary to re-evaluate Reference was made in Section 3.4, in connection with
eqns. (l)-(3) using E—- 0-9 per unit instead of E = 1 per unit. Figs. 8 and 9, to the fact that the power curves represent a
The curves of Fig. 9 can now easily be obtained from the fundamental torque with a second-harmonic torque superimposed
previous calculations, since on it. This is also shown, in algebraic form, by eqn. (10).
Per-unit active power = El cos <f> (5)
(9.2) The Reluctance Machine
* A counter-clockwise rotation is assumed to be positive. The zero position (see
Fig. 8) for the armature current vector is along the active-power axis above the apparent- For the excited salient-pole machine the armature current
power axis. The zero position for the internal voltage vector is along the apparent-
power axis and to the right of the ordinate at EIXq. and power factor are specified at the outset, but with the
WALKER: OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF SALIENT-POLE MACHINES 23
reluctance machine it is necessary to determine these quantities (11) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
for a specified active-power loading. In order to retain the The author is indebted to the Directors of the British Thomson-
simplicity of the per-unit system it is necessary to assume Houston Co., Ltd., for permission to publish this paper. He also
an approximate full-load current in amperes and use this in wishes to thank Mr. L. D. Anscombe, M.A., Member, of the
calculating the per-unit values of Xd and Xq. It is important same Company, and a number of colleagues for advice and
to note that the extent to which the assumed value differs from criticism, and to acknowledge his debt to another colleague,
the value obtained from the following equation has no effect Mr. N. Kerruish, M.A., for assistance in the mathematical
whatever on the accuracy of the per-unit value of current analysis. Messrs. Nalder Bros, and Thompson Ltd., London,
calculated from, for example, eqn. (14). The assumed value of kindly supplied the meter details of Fig. 12.
per-unit current should, of course, lie within the theoretical
current range of the machine, i.e. E\Xd to E/Xq.
The power output is given by eqn. (10) after omitting the left- (12) REFERENCES
hand term since the machine has no rotor excitation and (1) MORTLOCK, J. R., and DAVIES, M. W. H.: "Power System
is zero. Thus Analysis" (Chapman and Hall, 1952), p. 179.
(2) GIBBS, W. J.: "Algebra of Electric Machine Analysis"
(Technical Monographs—The British Thomson-Houston
Co., Ltd.).
By differentiating with respect to 8 and equating to zero, the (3) DAVID, H., and FAVERAN, J.: "Stability of Alternators with
value of 8 for maximum power is found to be 45°, which is Series Excitation connected by a Long Line to a High
obvious from Fig. 16. Power System," C.I.G.R.6., 12th Session 1948, Vol. 3,
The equation for maximum power thus becomes Paper No. 305.
E 1 (4) ANGELINI, A. M.: "General Topogram for Synchronous
p (l-XA Machines," ibid., Vol. 2, Paper No. 114.
*'"»* 2\Xq X d) • • • • (5) CRARY, S. B.: "Power System Stability, Vol. 1" (Chapman
The current and power factor at any given active-power loading and Hall, 1945), pp. 114-150.
are given by (6) SZWANDER, W.: "Fundamental Characteristics of Syn-
E [~1 + chronous Turbo-Generators," Journal I.E.E., 1944, 91,
Part II, p. 185.
x (7) British Patent No. 568166.
British Patent Application No. 11295, 1952.
<f> —• arc cos f - British Patent Application No. 13137, 1952.
± vci - (8) Ross, P. G.: "Some Notes on the Transient Reactance of
. . . . (15)* Water-wheel Alternators" (Proceedings—B.T.H. Summer
in which p is the per-unit rated load referred to the maximum School, 1952).
output [eqn. (13)].
Since the losses in this type of machine are high they must (13) APPENDICES
be added to the active-power output to give the per-unit rated (13.1) Derivation of the Equation for the Pull-Out Point of
load. a Salient-Pole Machine
At maximum output, i.e. p = 1, eqn. (14) reduces to
For simplicity assume terminal voltage E = 1.
Then sin 8 = IqXq and Eo — cos 8 - IdXd
and eqn. (15) to where Id — / sin (8 — </>) and Iq --- I cos (8 — <f>)
At zero output, i.e. p — 0, eqn. (14) reduces to therefore sin 8 = Xq(y cos 8 + y sin 8 tan <f>) . . . (20)
By using the relationship of eqn. (20) it follows that For per-unit values of E other than 1 0 this equation is
written
* s yxQ
tan o = -— j r y— i J v ~v
1 — xXq
Divide eqn. (24) throughout by cos2 8 so that Since for any values of E, Xd and Xg, d always lies between
1 and 0, the values of y' from the equation
(28)
This reduces to can be calculated, once and for all, as in Table 2, so that for a
. • • (25) given machine the values of y in eqn. (27) can be obtained by
multiplying the values of y' by (E/Xq — EIXd).
The co-ordinates of any point on the theoretical stability
curve of, for example, Fig. 8 are thus given by x and y in (13.2) Derivation of Current and Power-Factor Equations of
eqn. (25), since this stability curve, in effect, passes through Reluctance Machine
all the points of maximum active-power output for the various In Fig. 16 the diameter of the circle is given by E(l/Xq— 1/Xd).
limacons shown in this Figure. Let this be replaced by 2k. The vertical NQ is a measure of
A more convenient form for calculation is obtained by the power output; let this output as a fraction of the maximum
replacing the x-co-ordinate by d: output [eqn. (13)] be represented by p. From eqn. (6), RN in
Fig. 16 equals 2k cos 8. Let OM in Fig. 16 equal i.
Then from the triangle NQO
(29)
and from triangle RNQ
Eqn. (25) then reduces to (2k S^ 8)2 - 4fc2 COS2 8 . . (30)
d
Replacing / and k by their actual values and simplifying, gives
E
005 4 4-140 T f1 ±
010 2-700 7 J •
0-20
0-30
1-600
1070
LFig. 16
Again from
0-40 0-735 pk
0-50 0-500
0-60 0-327 I
0-70 0196
0-80 0100
0-90 0033
100 0 ± vo -
. . . . (32)