I.

CONCEPT OF ABRAHAM MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Maslow's (1943, 1954) hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology

comprising a five tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a
pyramid.

Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs
take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the
first thing that motivates our behaviour. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what
motivates us, and so on.

This five stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first
four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and the top level is known as
growth or being needs (B-needs).

The deficiency needs are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the need to
fulfil such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied. For example, the
longer a person goes without food, the more hungry they will become.

One must satisfy lower level deficit needs before progressing on to meet higher level
growth needs. When a deficit need has been satisfied it will go away, and our activities become
habitually directed towards meeting the next set of needs that we have yet to satisfy. These
then become our salient needs. However, growth needs continue to be felt and may even
become stronger once they have been engaged. Once these growth needs have been
reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called self-actualization.

Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of
self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a failure to meet lower level
needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss of a job may cause an individual to fluctuate
between levels of the hierarchy. Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a
uni-directional manner but may move back and forth between the different types of needs.

Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully self-actualized because our
society rewards motivation primarily based on esteem, love and other social needs.

II. BACKGROUND OF THE PROPONENT

Abraham Maslow, in full Abraham Harold Maslow, also called Abraham H.

Maslow (born April 1, 1908, New York, New York, U.S.—died June 8, 1970, Menlo
Park, California), American psychologist and philosopher best known for his self-
actualization theory of psychology, which argued that the primary goal
of psychotherapy should be the integration of the self.

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 Maslow studied psychology at the University of Wisconsin and Gestalt
psychology at the New School for Social Research in New York City before joining the
faculty of Brooklyn College in 1937. In 1951 he became head of the psychology
department at Brandeis University (Waltham, Massachusetts), where he remained until
1969.

Influenced by existentialist philosophers and literary figures, Maslow was an

important contributor in the United States to humanistic psychology, which is
sometimes called the “third force.”

In his major works, Motivation and Personality (1954) and Toward a Psychology of
Being (1962), Maslow argued that each person has a hierarchy of needs that must be
satisfied, ranging from basic physiological requirements to love, esteem, and, finally,
self-actualization. As each need is satisfied, the next higher level in the emotional
hierarchy dominates conscious functioning. Maslow believed that truly healthy people
were self-actualizers because they satisfied the highest psychological needs,
fully integrating the components of their personality, or self. His papers, published
posthumously, were issued in 1971 as The Farther Reaches of Human Nature.

III. SYNTHESIS OF THE THEORY

Maslow attempted to synthesize a large body of research related to human

motivation. Prior to Maslow, researchers generally focused separately on such factors
as biology, achievement, or power to explain what energizes, directs, and sustains
human behavior. Maslow posited a hierarchy of human needs based on two groupings:
deficiency needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each lower need must
be met before moving to the next higher level. Once each of these needs has been
satisfied, if at some future time a deficiency is detected, the individual will act to remove
the deficiency. The first four levels are:

1) Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.;

2) Safety/security: out of danger;

3) Belongingness and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted; and

4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and

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 According to Maslow, an individual is ready to act upon the growth needs if and
only if the deficiency needs are met. Maslow's initial conceptualization included only
one growth need--self-actualization. Self-actualized people are characterized by: 1)
being problem-focused; 2) incorporating an ongoing freshness of appreciation of life; 3)
a concern about personal growth; and 4) the ability to have peak experiences. Maslow
later differentiated the growth need of self-actualization, specifically identifying two of
the first growth needs as part of the more general level of self-actualization (Maslow &
Lowery, 1998) and one beyond the general level that focused on growth beyond that
oriented towards self (Maslow, 1971). They are:

5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore;

6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;

7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and realize one's potential; and

8) Self-transcendence: to connect to something beyond the ego or to help others find

self-fulfillment and realize their potential.

Maslow's basic position is that as one becomes more self-actualized and self-
transcendent, one becomes more wise (develops wisdom) and automatically knows
what to do in a wide variety of situations. Daniels (2001) suggested that Maslow's
ultimate conclusion that the highest levels of self-actualization are transcendent in their
nature may be one of his most important contributions to the study of human behavior
and motivation.

Norwood (1999) proposed that Maslow's hierarchy can be used to describe the
kinds of information individual's seek at different levels of development. For example,
individuals at the lowest level seek coping information in order to meet their basic
needs. Information that is not directly connected to helping a person meet his or her
needs in a very short time span is simply left unattended. Individuals at the safety level
need helping information. They seek to be assisted in seeing how they can be safe and
secure. Enlightening information is sought by individuals seeking to meet their
belongingness needs. Quite often this can be found in books or other materials on
relationship development. Empowering information is sought by people at the esteem
level. They are looking for information on how their egos can be developed. Finally,
people in the growth levels of cognitive, aesthetic, and self-actualization seek edifying

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information. While Norwood does not specifically address the level of transcendence, I
believe it is safe to say that individuals at this stage would seek information on how to
connect to something beyond themselves or to how others could be edified.

Maslow published his first conceptualization of his theory over 50 years ago
(Maslow, 1943) and it has since become one of the most popular and often cited
theories of human motivation. An interesting phenomenon related to Maslow's work is
that in spite of a lack of empirical evidence to support his hierarchy, it enjoys wide
acceptance (Wahba & Bridgewell, 1976; Soper, Milford & Rosenthal, 1995).

The few major studies that have been completed on the hierarchy seem to
support the proposals of William James (1892/1962) and Mathes (1981) that there are
three levels of human needs. James hypothesized the levels of material (physiological,
safety), social (belongingness, esteem), and spiritual. Mathes proposed the three levels
were physiological, belonginess, and self-actualization; he considered security and self-
esteem as unwarranted. Alderfer (1972) developed a comparable hierarchy with his
ERG (existence, relatedness, and growth) theory. His approach modified Maslow's
theory based on the work of Gordon Allport (1960, 1961) who incorporated concepts
from systems theory into his work on personality.

Maslow recognized that not all personalities followed his proposed hierarchy.
While a variety of personality dimensions might be considered as related to
motivational needs, one of the most often cited is that of introversion and extroversion.
Reorganizing Maslow's hierarchy based on the work of Alderfer and considering the
introversion/extraversion dimension of personality results in three levels, each with an
introverted and extroverted component. This organization suggests there may be two
aspects of each level that differentiate how people relate to each set of needs with
different personalities relating more to one dimension than the other. For example, an
introvert at the level of Other/Relatedness might be more concerned with his or her own
perceptions of being included in a group, whereas an extrovert at that same level would
pay more attention to how others value that membership.

At this point there is little agreement about the identification of basic human
needs and how they are ordered. For example, Ryan & Deci (2000) also suggest three

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needs, although they are not necessarily arranged hierarchically: the need for
autonomy, the need for competence, and the need for relatedness. Thompson, Grace
and Cohen (2001) state the most important needs for children are connection,
recognition, and power. Nohria, Lawrence, and Wilson (2001) provide evidence from a
sociobiology theory of motivation that humans have four basic needs: (1) acquire
objects and experiences; (2) bond with others in long-term relationships of mutual care
and commitment; (3) learn and make sense of the world and of ourselves; and (4) to
defend ourselves, our loved ones, beliefs and resources from harm. The Institute for
Management Excellence (2001) suggests there are nine basic human needs: (1)
security, (2) adventure, (3) freedom, (4) exchange, (5) power, (6) expansion, (7)
acceptance, (8) community, and (9) expression.

Notice that bonding and relatedness are a component of every theory. However,
there do not seem to be any others that are mentioned by all theorists. Franken (2001)
suggests this lack of accord may be a result of different philosophies of researchers
rather than differences among human beings. In addition, he reviews research that
shows a person's explanatory or attributional style will modify the list of basic needs.
Therefore, it seems appropriate to ask people what they want and how their needs
could be met rather than relying on an unsupported theory. For example, Waitley
(1996) advises having a person imagine what life would be like if time and money were
not an object in a person's life. That is, what would the person do this week, this month,
next month, if he or she had all the money and time needed to engage in the activities
and were secure that both would be available again next year. With some follow-up
questions to identify what is keeping the person from engaging in these activities at the
present time, this open-ended approach is likely to identify the most important needs of
the individual.

IV. IMPLICATIONS

Maslow created a theory of self-actualization, and it is the topic of this discussion.

According to Maslow, self-actualization is a process by which individuals may ascend a
hierarchy of needs that is linear as opposed to dialectical. The higher levels of this
hierarchy are reached by psychologically robust and healthy self-actualizing individuals.
In addition, Maslow contends that these self-actualizing individuals are highly creative
and demonstrate a capacity to resolve dichotomies inherent in ultimate contraries, such

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as life versus death and freedom versus determinism, as examples. This discussion
does not challenge Maslow’s theory as much as it extends the ideas postulated by him.
Essentially, this argument stresses the synergism of dialectical transcendence implicit
in the type of personal growth that Maslow contends is self-actualizing. Further, it is
argued that one need not transcend these levels of self-actualization in directly linear
and subsequent stages. Lastly, it is postulated that all creative individuals might be
capable of self-actualization, independent of their mental health or lack of it.

Self-actualization has been described by Maslow as the ability to transcend levels

of physiological, psychological and social needs, to obtain fulfillment of personal needs
in terms of life’s meaning. He stated this type of growth to be a linear escalation of
fulfillment that is represented by a pyramidal hierarchy. The levels that he describes
express these needs and their order of hierarchical transcendence. These needs in
order of hierarchical ascension are as follow:

1. Physiological needs represented by hunger, thirst, air and sleep;

2. Safety needs, reflecting the needs for security and protection; (Note that
safety needs become prominent in situations of social or political instability);

3. The needs for belongingness and love; these needs can take two forms:
(a) The drive to fulfill deficiency-based needs for others in a selfish way by taking
instead of giving, and (b) The need for non-possessive and unselfish love based upon
growth rather than deficiency;

4. The next level is described by self-esteem needs or the needs for self-
respect and positive feelings consequent to admiration; and

5. Lastly, the final stage of self-actualization is reflected by the “being”

needs, indicated by the needs for creative self-development in terms of one’s potential
toward a goal and a sense of meaning in life.

According to Maslow, creativity is a prominent quality in self-actualizers. It should

be noted that self-actualizing people and the needs depicted on his pyramidal hierarchy
are descriptively explained by Maslow, as opposed to a explicitly stated in terms of how
the fulfillment of them emerges.

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 Maslow contends that the hierarchical needs must be fulfilled in order of more
basic needs to the highest level of needs, or being values, stated to be needs
associated with personal meaning in life. The needs within this hierarchy, according to
Maslow, must be obtained in a stepwise fashion, such that each level, from survival
needs to being values, must be fulfilled at a prior level in order to be fulfilled at the
subsequent, higher level. Maslow additionally states, however, that one’s needs may
be met only partially at any given moment. It is the contention within this essay that
such needs may be fulfilled in any order, given that needs relating to survival may be
compromised in a long-term situation even while an individual may be more or less
fulfilled in terms of needs for meaning. Additionally, confrontation with life and death
may represent a dichotomy that the individual at this point in life is trying to resolve.
Seen in this sense, the self-actualized or self-actualizing person may find meaning in
confrontation with death and the dialectical contrast between life and death, in
particular.

As might be the case if one was faced with the Eriksonian stage of ego integrity
versus despair, “being” values or fulfillment regarding life’s meaning may then be
actualized even when a person is in a long-term situation of deficiency regarding other
needs. Erikson postulated the “ego integrity” versus “despair” stage as feasibly
culminating in a sense of meaning in life. A confrontation with life and death may
represent a dichotomy that the individual at this point in life is trying to resolve.

Seen in this sense, the self-actualized or self-actualizing person may find meaning
in confrontation with death, when safety or physiological needs are threatened. This
may be the case regarding the needs of a person who is imprisoned, who finds
meaning in his life in spite of incarceration, even while his life may be threatened. Such
may have been true of Nelson Mandela, for example, who maintained a sense of
meaning and values in the context of imprisonment. Likewise, the individual, Viktor
Frankl, was a Holocaust survivor who never relinquished his search that culminated in
meaning. Gandhi can be compared with the self-actualizing individual postulated by
Maslow. Through non-violent civil disobedience, Gandhi moved India to independence,
and he inspired movements for non-violence, civil rights and freedom across the world,
in spite of whatever difficulties he endured in terms of satisfying his more basic needs.
Personal needs for meaning, such as spiritual needs, may be fulfilled in any
circumstance of life. The fact that apparently self-actualized people do find meaning in

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dire life circumstances for long periods of time lessens support of Maslow’s ideas
regarding stepwise fulfillment of the need hierarchy. It is evident that people can find
“being values” regarding meaning when they are situated, at least in part, at the lower
levels of Maslow’s hierarchy. It should be noted that Maslow would certainly agree that
these individuals were self-actualized.

Maslow’s goal was to describe psychologically healthy rather than psychologically

or mentally unwell individuals. Maslow contended that the “being” needs or needs for
personal meaning allow persons who have obtained the highest level in terms of
Maslow’s hierarchy to find meaning in life, and they are able to resolve dichotomies
such as the “free-will versus determinism”, “good versus evil” and “subject versus
object.” Maslow’s understanding of self-actualization, as indicated, is descriptive, and it
has been, to an extent, overlooked as a subjectively based composition of ideas, rather
then an empirical science, perhaps largely because self-actualization occurs in the
mental realm of the self instead of allowing for observation by the five senses.
Additionally and prominently, psychology’s focus on mentally unhealthy people results
from an effort to solve the problems associated with mental illness, as opposed to
Maslow’s focus on postulations regarding psychologically healthy individuals.

Persons of evident psychopathology, such as Sylvia Plath, might be recognized to

be among self-actualizing individuals. Plath’s poem about the birth of her child
demonstrated an aspect of her own peak experience in giving birth.

In this, Plath realized personal meaning of what it is to be a mother. Although she

had definite indications of mental illness, this did not prevent her from demonstrating
creativity in the sense of Maslow’s self-actualizers, and she obviously had moments of
insight or epiphanies during her life, in spite of having a mental illness, as well. The
abundance of creativity that Maslow said to characterize self-actualizing people is quite
strong in the mentally ill, who, as a group, demonstrate creativity to a greater extent
than is the norm.

As indicated, Maslow stated that the self-actualized person might love creative
pursuits, such a reading or writing poetry and enjoying art. In terms of resolution of
paradox, a theory of creativity might be postulated as a basis for understanding self-
actualization. Creativity may reflect transcendence in terms of self-actualization that

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relies on reification of the self through experienced self-awareness. This may burgeon
from creative activity as experienced by the self-actualized or self-actualizing person.
Creativity is both a conscious and an unconscious process; it is both intentional and
unintentional. It results, at least in part, from fortuitous accidents that are built upon and
therefore utilized in terms of creativity. Art and its appreciation may lead to “peak
experiences”, as described by Maslow to characterize self-actualizers. Embedded
within poetry, for example, are graphic illustrations that may allow a perceptive reader
to find transformation on the level of the self by means understanding of metaphor and
allegory, and such understanding then could be said to be fundamentally “alive” within
the individual, as opposed to dogmatically received by the individual. It is the
experience of art both by the artist and the reader, seer or hearer that allows for this
type of experience.

Creativity unifies the dichotomy of free-will and determinism, if only in the sense
that art relies on both causal and freely willed activity, on the part of both the artist and
the receiver of artistic expression. Creativity also allows for unification of subject and
object, the self and the other, due to the at least somewhat extant bonding of subject or
poet and object or appreciator of art. Conscious and unconscious awareness are to
some extent unified through artistic expression and reception, as well. Creativity may
reside within the essence of dialectical transcendence.

Clearly, poetry, as only one example of art, is both an intrapersonal and an

interpersonal activity for both those who express and those who receive poetic
expression. Poetry enhances a recapitulation of the psychological self, thought and
emotion, serving a communicative function for the poet and the consequent enactment
of self-realization by the audience. Deconstruction and reconstruction of the self
becomes possible through poetic expression and recognition of an evolving self.
Metaphor and allegory, as used in poetic expression, can be represented as a means
of creating permeable boundaries that are nevertheless intact, for both the poet and his
audience. Self-actualization through poetic expression and reception, or reflective
communication, enhances the psychological health of the individual. Moreover, self-
actualization becomes possible for both the poet and his audience, as both of these
entities will find self-recognition through poetic expression, whether through the process
of becoming conscious of the meaning of one’s own words or the words of others.
These same processes are apparent in terms of all forms of art.

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 Ultimately, self-actualization is defined by creativity. Clearly, people may find
transcendence through dialectical processes that allow for anyone to find meaning, as
opposed to strictly self-actualizers who may have escalated Maslow’s levels of need
fulfillment. The merging of thesis and antithesis, culminating in a synthesis of self-
realization by means of a personal illumination is expressed at all levels of need
fulfillment, even when one’s needs remain unfulfilled because of dire circumstances.
Spiritual epiphanies find us at markedly difficult times and when needs are
compromised severely. This may represent an aspect of the conscious and the
unconscious, the intentional and the unintentional creative aspects of self, mind and
existence. In contrast to Maslow’s contention, any creative individual may have an
avenue to being values and meaning. More or less, we are all creative individuals.

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