Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology

ISSN: 0193-2691 (Print) 1532-2351 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ldis20

Characterization of Emulsions: A Systematic

Spectroscopy Study

Maria‐Teresa Celis & Luis H. Garcia‐Rubio

To cite this article: Maria‐Teresa Celis & Luis H. Garcia‐Rubio (2008) Characterization of
Emulsions: A Systematic Spectroscopy Study, Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology,
29:1, 20-26, DOI: 10.1080/01932690701686775

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Published online: 24 Sep 2008.

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 Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 29:20–26, 2008
Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0193-2691 print/1532-2351 online
DOI: 10.1080/01932690701686775

Characterization of Emulsions: A Systematic Spectroscopy Study

Maria-Teresa Celis1 and Luis H. Garcia-Rubio2
1
Laboratory of Polymers and Colloids (POLYCOL) and Laboratory FIRP, Chemical Engineering Department
University of the Andes, Mérida, Venezuela
2
College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida, USA

Emulsification processes results in the generation of droplets populations produced from the
dynamic equilibrium between the breakup and coalescence phenomena determined primarily
by the formulation and composition variables, mixing characteristics and emulsion prep-
aration. The information contained in the UV-vis spectrum on the absorption and scattering
Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 04:55 09 October 2017

properties of the emulsions lead to the interpretation of the spectra in terms of the particle
size distribution, the particle shape, and the chemical composition of the oil and emulsifier.
This article reports analysis of emulsions on transmission spectrum as function of the oil con-
centration and physicochemical variables. The quantitative interpretation of the transmission
spectrum is performed in the portion where no absorption is present (300 – 820 nm) leading to
reliable estimated of droplet size populations in the range of 1 to 20 mm. The possibility of
obtaining information from a single multiwavelength measurement makes UV-vis spec-
troscopy a powerful tool for characterization of dispersed systems.

Keywords Emulsion, droplet size, multiwavelength spectroscopy, particle characterization

INTRODUCTION photon correlation spectroscopy, angular laser light scattering,

Emulsions contain two nonmiscible phases, which are desig-
nated as water (W) and oil (O) in a broad sense. The dispersions
of water-in-oil (W/O) or oil-in-water (O/W) become emulsions
when they are stabilized by the presence of a small concentration
of surfactant in most practical cases. The surfactant concentration
together with the so-called formulation variables, that is, the nature
of the components or their physicochemical characteristics has
influence on droplet size and distribution, which are linked with
emulsion properties.[1 – 9] The techniques more used for particles
characterization (droplet sizes/particle size distribution) are:
Received 31 October 2006; Accepted 11 November 2006.
The authors thank the Venezuelan National Research Fund
(FONACIT-Grant No. F-2005000175) and to the University of the
Andes Research Council (CDCHT-Grant No. I-817-05-08 B) for
sponsoring the research program at the POLYCOL (Polymers and
Colloids) Laboratory.
Abbreviations: Au, absorbance units; UV-vis, ultraviolet-visible;
cmc, critical micellar concentration; Co, oil concentration; Ce, emul-
sifier concentration; DSD, droplet size distribution; PSD, particle size
distribution.
Address correspondence to Maria-Teresa Celis, Laboratory of
Polymers and Colloids (POLYCOL) and Laboratory FIRP,
Chemical Engineering DepartmentUniversity of the Andes, Mérida
5101, Venezuela. E-mail: celismt@ula.ve and L.H. Garcia-Rubio,
College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Peter-
sburgh, FL 5101. E-mail: garcia@marine.usf.edu
20
dynamic light scattering, and electron microscopy. However,
these techniques do not provide direct estimates of particle
counts. It is necessary extensive sample preparation as in the
case of electron microscopy, vacuum evaporation may be
required, principally when either polymer particles are analyzed
or when dispersed phase has a high vapor pressure. There are com-
mercially available equipments using light scattering techniques.
However, standard monochromatic light scattering techniques
have difficulties resolving broad particle size distributions
(PSDs) because the scattering contribution to the total scattering
contribution from large particles or droplets superimposes the con-
tribution to the total scattering from small particles when popu-
lations of large and small droplets are present in the dispersion.
Ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy is a rapid and reliable
analytical tool that has direct application in colloids area, taking
advantage of modern spectrophotometers, which permit the acqui-
sition of the complete (UV-vis-NIR) spectra with high resolution
such as (HP and Perkin Elmer spectrophotometer), and short
measurement times leading to real-time continuous monitoring
applications.[10 – 12] The resolution in terms of particle size near
infrared is proportional to the size parameter a defined as:
a ¼ D/l, where D is the particle diameter y l is the wavelength,
leading to spectroscopy measurements over a broad range of wave-
lengths and a large range for particles analysis.[12 – 17] This infor-
mation is obtained from spectroscopy analysis of a sample
measured over a broad range of wavelength and/or with the
 CHARACTERIZATION OF EMULSIONS
scattered light measured at one or several observation angles. In the
diluted regime, Mie theory can be used for the interpretation of
transmission and angular scattering data. This theory describes
the absorption and scattering behavior of spherical particles of
any size and refractive index and it has shown to be very successful
in a large variety of applications.[2,18,19] Techniques for the esti-
mation of particle size distribution from multiwavelength
spectral data have been reported in the literature.[19 – 21]
However, most of these techniques require that the shape of the
PSD be known, or rely on the advantages inherent in the mathemat-
ical properties of particle size distributions such as the Lognormal,
Gaussian, etc. In addition, most measurement techniques rely on a
limited number of wavelengths and do not address issues related to
differences in chemical composition.[21,22] The spectroscopy tech-
nique applied herein utilizes a broad wavelength range (190–
820 nm), which make possible particles population analysis with
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sizes ranging from nanometric to micrometer range.[13 – 17,23,24]
In addition to the dynamic range for scattering the absorption com-
ponent, due to the presence of chromophores, provides quantitative
information for chemical composition of the labeled mol-
ecules.[15,16,25] The technique applied herein is based on the regu-
larized solution to the inverse scattering problem posed by the
multiwavelength turbidity equation. As such, it does not require
prior assumptions regarding to the shape of the particle size distri-
bution.[13,26,27] Spectroscopy study over range of wavelength
(190–820 nm) and analysis of emulsions, in terms, of droplet
size distribution in the spectral region (300–820 nm) have been
successfully applied to the continuous estimation of the droplet
size distribution (DSD) and to the assessment of stability of
emulsions.[8,12,17,28] In addition, monomer emulsions have been
characterized on the implementation of the multiwavelength spec-
troscopy technique and its verification with osmium tetroxide/
electron microscope technique.[29] This article reports a qualitative
spectroscopy study of saturated hydrocarbon emulsions over a
broad wavelength range (190–820 nm), and a quantitative
interpretation in the wavelength range of 300 to 820 nm, in
terms, of spectral differences as function of physicochemical vari-
ables and of the oil concentration. In the framework of this paper,
the terms PSD and DSD will be used interchangeably.
INTERPRETATION OF THE TRANSMISSION SPECTRUM
Qualitative Interpretation
The UV-vis spectra of particle suspensions are known to
contain information on the absorption and scattering properties
of the particles.[20] For spherical particles, Mie theory relates the
transmission t (l0) measured at a given wavelength l0 and the nor-
malized particle size distribution f(D) through the following
equation.[18,20,30]

p ð 1
t ðl0 Þ ¼ lNp Qext ðmðl0 Þ; DÞD2 f ðDÞdD ½1

4 0
where l is the cell path length, D is the particle diameter,
21
Qext(m(l0), D) corresponds to the Mie extinction coefficient, and
Np is the number of particles per unit volume.
The theoretical basis for the analysis is Equation (1) from
which it can be inferred that the shape of the spectra as
function of wavelength depends on the kernel of the integral
and of the number of particles. To be able to compare the
shape of the spectra as function of wavelength it is necessary
to eliminate the effect of the number of particles. It is
apparent from Equation (1) that if the optical density
measured at every wavelength is divided by the integral of
the optical density as function of wavelength, the number of
particles is canceled. It is given by:
" #
t0 ðlÞ
t
ðlÞ ¼ Ð lf ½2

li t0 ðlÞd l
where t̄ (l) is the normalized spectrum transmission, li and lf
are the wavelengths (nm) over which the discrete optical den-
sities as function of the wavelength t0(l) are measured.
Quantitative Interpretation
The interpretation of the spectra can be done in terms of the
particle size distribution, the particle shape and the chemical
composition of the oil and emulsifier. Equation (1) can be
written in matrix form by discretizing the integral with an
appropriate quadrature approximation:[13,31]
t
¼ A
f þ 1

where A represents the discretized kernel, f̄ is the discrete rep-
resentation of the particle size distribution, and 1̄ represents
experimental errors, the errors associated with the adequacy
of the model, and the errors resulting from the discretization
procedure.[13] The regularized solution a Equation (3) is
given by:[13,26,27,31]
^
f ðgÞ ¼ ðAT A þ gHÞ1 AT t
½4

where H is a covariance matrix that essentially filters the exper-
imental errors, and the errors arising from the model adequacy
and the approximations required for its numerical implemen-
tation (1); g is the regularization parameter estimated using
the Generalized Cross-Validation technique.[27] The General-
ized Cross Validation technique requires the minimization of
the following objective function with respect to g.[13,26,27,30,31]
j½I  AðAT A þ gHÞ1 AT
tj2
VðgÞ ¼ m1 ½5

½trace½I  AðAT A þ gHÞ1 AT

2
m1, represents the number of discrete turbidity measurements.
Simultaneous application of Equations (4) and (5) to the turbid-
ity spectra yields the discretized droplet size distribution.[13,30]
The range of integration and the width of the discretization
elements are algorithmically selected to achieve an optimal
solution for a desired number of discretization elements.
 22 M.-T. CELIS AND L. H. GARCIA-RUBIO
Equation (1) can be explicitly expressed in terms of the
absorption and scattering components:

p ð 1
t ðl0 Þ ¼ lNp Qsca ðmðl0 Þ; DÞD2 fDÞdD
4 0

p ð 1 ½6

2 each sample the spectrometer is zeroed to account for any
þ lNp Qabs ðmðl0 Þ; DÞD f ðDÞdD
4 0
where, Qabs and Qsca represents the absorption and scattering
efficiencies respectively. Upon convergence, Equation (6)
can be useful to evaluate the contribution of chromophoric
groups present in the emulsion, typically, the emulsifier.
Equations (1) and (3) – (5) can be utilized to obtain the
droplet size distribution from continuous spectroscopy
measurements of the emulsions as functions of time and of
dilution ratio.[12]
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EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
Materials
The ionic emulsifier, sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate
(SDBS) is obtained from Polysciences Inc. The absence of the
characteristic dip prior to the critical micellar concentration
(cmc) in the surface tension versus emulsifier concentration
curve indicates the purity of this material. The cmc is
1.4 g/L + 0.1. Saturated hydrocarbons obtained from
(Aldrich Chemical Company (USA) with a purity of 99%) are
free of impurities and used without purification. The purity of
these oils is verified spectroscopically. Sterilized de-ionized
water is used in emulsion preparation. The equipment utilized
for the preparation of the emulsions consists of a 100 ml glass
reactor, an electric stirrer and a temperature controller.
Emulsion Preparation
Emulsions of hydrocarbons/SDBS/H2O are prepared using
the recipe based on a 39 wt.% of oil, and 1.2 wt.% of emulsifier
while no more specification is shown. The procedure used for
preparation of emulsions is summarized as follows. The
necessary amount of de-ionized water is added to the bottom
of the small reactor together with the amount required of emul-
sifier (SDBS). The aqueous solution of emulsifier is heated to
708C stirring at 300 rpm. Oil is added to this mixture under agi-
tation. After emulsification takes place, the temperature control
is turned off and the emulsion is cooled by convection main-
taining the agitation until the desired temperature has been
reached. After reaching the desired temperature, the stirring
is stopped and the sampling is carried out.
Spectroscopy Measurements
Spectra of the emulsions, monitored over the entire wave-
length (190 – 820 nm) at different oil concentrations, are inter-
preted in the spectral region (300 –820 nm), leading to the
quantitative characterization of the emulsions in terms of
droplet size distribution. The Uv-vis transmission spectra
from the liquid-liquid dispersions are recorded using a diode
array spectrometer (HP 8452 Hewlett-Packard, USA) having
an acceptance angle smaller than 2 degrees, and a thermoelec-
tric cell holder with a temperature controller with temperature
programming capabilities. Prior to recording the spectrum of
stray light. To avoid the effect of inhomogeneities in the sus-
pending medium, the background spectrum is taken using the
respective suspending media from the batch utilized in the
preparation of the original sample (sterilized de-ionized
water) to the operation temperature. Equation (1) requires as
input the optical properties of the components of the
emulsion which are represented through the complex relative
refractive index (m(l0)):
nðl0 Þ þ ikðl0 Þ
mðl0 Þ ¼ ½7

n0 ðl0 Þ
where n(l0) corresponds to the real component of the refractive
index of the droplets, and n0(l0) corresponds to the refractive
index the suspending medium. The imaginary part of the
complex refractive index is represented by absorption coeffi-
cient (k(l0)). Saturated hydrocarbons are known to have negli-
gible absorption in the UV-vis portion of the spectrum. The real
part of the complex refractive index as a function of wave-
length is calculated, using a modification of Sellmeier-Drude
correlation.[17] The refractive index of water n0(l0) in
Equation (7) as a function of wavelength is calculated from
the correlation reported in Elicabe and Garcia-Rubio.[13,31]
The Mie scattering coefficients in Equation (1) are calcu-
lated with a computer program, which includes multiwave-
length spectral calculations and has been adapted to calculate
distributions of particle sizes.[13,26,27,30,31]
Sample Preparation
For the dilution experiments, samples are taken from the top
of the reactor by means of a disposable graduated pipette and
there is a time lapse of 30 seconds from the time the sample
is taken until the first dilution is obtained. The dilution
process related with the oil concentration consists in doing suc-
cessive dilutions to the sample taken from the original
emulsion by approximately three orders of magnitude to be
within the appropriate absorbance range for measurements
(0.01 1.2 Au). The oil concentration after dilution is in
the range 1  1025 – 1022 g/mL. The dilutions are done
directly in 1 cm path length quartz cuvette and 3.5 ml of
volume. Successive dilutions are accomplished using de-
ionized water at operation temperature.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As a representation of the emulsion spectra, Figures 1 and 2
show the spectra of decane/SDBS/H2O and hexadecane/
SDBS/H2O emulsions at 258C as function of the oil concen-
tration. Figure 1 shows the variation of optical density with
the oil concentration (dilution process). As can be seen, the
 CHARACTERIZATION OF EMULSIONS
FIG. 1. Spectra of the decane/SDBS/H2O emulsion as function of the oil
concentration. Range of concentration (5e-3-1e-2 g/mL). Spectra of decane
emulsion in the wavelength range 300 –800 nm (inset).
Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 04:55 09 October 2017
optical density decreases with the oil concentration. The
absorption bands present between 190 and 300 nm are due to
the phenyl moiety present in the emulsifier SDBS, and the
small peaks present at 490, 580, and 680 nm should be
ignored which is due to the lamp. The region between 300
and 820 nm contains, primarily, information on the scattering
behavior of the emulsions, and, therefore, on the droplet size
distribution (see figure inset). Figure 2 shows the spectra
obtained as function of the oil concentration for the emulsion
of hexadecane/SDBS/H2O at 258C. It can be observed
similar characteristics at the different regions of the spectra.
The variation of the optical density at 500 nm of wavelength
with the oil concentration is shown in Figure 2 inset. As it
can be appreciated, the optical density as function of the oil
concentration maintain a linear relationship with the oil con-
centration at low and intermediate concentrations indicating
that the spectra can be interpreted in terms of single scattering
models. At high oil concentration the observed deviation
suggests multiple scattering effects.
FIG. 2. Spectra of the hexadecane/SDBS/H2O emulsion as function of
the oil concentration. Range of concentration (7e-3-1e-2 g/mL). Optical den-
sity at 500 nm as function of the oil concentration (inset).
23
FIG. 3. Normalized spectra of hidrocarbon emulsions as function of the
chain length: decane (C10), tetradecane (C14), hexadecane (C16), and heptade-
cane (C17) at Co ¼ 3e-3 g/mL.
To be able to compare the shape of the spectra as function of
wavelength and of the process conditions, the spectra are nor-
malized. The normalization is done dividing the measured
optical density by the area under curve corresponding to the
wavelength of 300 – 820 nm (Equation (2)). Figure 3 shows
the normalized spectra of alkane/SDBS/ H2O emulsions as
function of the oil chain length (decane C10, tetradecane C14,
hexadecane C16, and heptadecane C17), at oil concentration
(Co ¼ 3e-3 g/mL). The normalized optical density in the
region between 300 and 820 nm decrease with the increase
of alkane chain length. Spectral changes obtained in the wave-
length region (300 – 820 nm), should be in agreement with the
changes of droplet sizes. It is the higher the solubility of the oil,
the larger emulsion droplet size. The larger droplets can grow
at the expense of the smaller ones (molecular diffusion). The
magnitude of this effect is dependent on the solubility of the
oil being larger for polar oils and shorter chain length.
Figure 4 shows the variation of the normalized spectra of hep-
tadecane/SDBS/ H2O emulsions as function of the tempera-
ture (T ¼ 308C, T ¼ 458C, T ¼ 558C) at oil concentration
FIG. 4. Normalized spectra of heptadecane emulsions as function of the
temperature (1: T ¼ 308C; 2: T ¼ 458C; 3: T ¼ 558C) at Co ¼ 3.5e-3 g/mL.
 24 M.-T. CELIS AND L. H. GARCIA-RUBIO
FIG. 5. A) Normalized spectra of decane/SDBS/H2O emulsions for
emulsifier concentration higher than cmc: (Ce1 ¼ 1e-2 g/mL; Ce2 ¼ 8e-3 g/
mL) at Co ¼ 4.15e-3 g/mL. B) Normalized spectra of Decane/SDBS/H2O
emulsions for emulsifier concentration lower than cmc: (Ce3 ¼ 1.3e-3 g/mL;
Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 04:55 09 October 2017
Ce4 ¼ 8e-4 g/mL) at Co ¼ 1.15e-2 g/mL (cmc ¼ 1.4e-3 g/mL).
(Co ¼ 3.5e-3 g/mL). As it can be appreciated, normalized
optical density remains relatively constant with the wavelength
in the region between 300 and 820 nm. which is indicative that
there is not redistribution of emulsifier from the oil/water
interface to the continuous phase. Consequently, similar
droplet size should be obtained. Figure 5A shows the variation
of the normalized optical density of decane/SDBS/ H2O emul-
sions with the wavelength at oil concentration (Co ¼ 4.15e-
3 g/mL) and emulsifier concentrations (Ce1 ¼ 1e-2 g/mL
and Ce2 ¼ 8e-3 g/mL) higher than cmc (1.4e-3 g/mL). As it
can be seen, the normalized spectra of decane emulsions in
wavelength range (300 – 820 nm) do not change appreciable,
which indicates similar emulsion droplet size. On the other
hand, the changes in the absorption bands observed in the nor-
malized spectra of decane emulsions in the region between 300
and 820 nm for emulsifier concentration (Ce3 ¼ 1.3e-3 g/mL
and Ce4 ¼ 8e-4 g/mL) lower than cmc should indicate
changes in size of emulsion droplets (Figure 5B). The
changes of absorption bands in spectral region (240 – 300 nm)
shown in Figures 3 –5 may be indicative of smaller droplet
FIG. 6. Extinction component (measured spectrum) and scattering com-
ponent (calculated spectrum), as function of the wavelength for heptade-
cane/SDBS/H2O emulsion at Co ¼ 2.5e-3 g/mL.
FIG. 7. Number based particle size distribution of alkane/SDBS/H2O
emulsions as function of the chain length at oil concentration (Co ¼ 1e-4 g/mL).
populations and/or emulsifier in solution as function of
physicochemical variables[17,24] and should be reflected in
the variance of the estimated droplet size distributions. The
differences and similarities found in spectral region (300 –
820 nm) suggest that quantitative analysis can be used to
correlate the physicochemical variables with the droplet size
distribution of the emulsions.
The model includes the measured and the calculated
spectrum that corresponds to the extinction and scattering com-
ponent respectively. As seen in Figure 6, the excellent agree-
ment between the measured and calculated spectrum of the
heptadecane emulsion at Co ¼ 2.5e-3 g/mL in the wavelength
range (300 – 820 nm) show the quality of the model interpret-
ation. Moreover, the difference between the extinction and
scattering component lead to the absorption coefficient,[12,17]
which allows identification of the chromophoric groups of
the emulsifier, and eventually for the assessment of the distri-
bution of emulsifier among the present phases.
Figures 7– 9 show the analyses of alkane emulsions in the
spectral range (300 – 820 nm), in terms of droplet size and dis-
tribution inferred from the multiwavelength spectroscopy.
FIG. 8. Emulsion droplet size as function of the alkane chain length and of
the oil concentration. (Oil: 39 wt.%; SDBS: 1.2 wt.%; T ¼ 258C).
 CHARACTERIZATION OF EMULSIONS
FIG. 9. Standard deviation of the droplet size distribution for alkane/
SDBS/H2O emulsions as a function of the chain length and of the oil
Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 04:55 09 October 2017
concentration.
Figure 7 shows the variation of the droplet size distribution
with the alkane chain length at (Co ¼ 1e-4 g/mL), and
Figure 8 summarizes the changes of droplet average diameter
with the oil concentration as a function of alkane chain
length. Both plots confirm what is suggested by Figure 3, the
droplet size decreases and the breadth of the distribution
change as the alkane chain length increase. As expected,
from Figure 3, the variance of the distribution increase for
shorter oil chain length (Figure 9).
Figures 10 and 11 show the quantitative spectral interpret-
ation of heptadecane/SDBS/H2O emulsions as function of
the temperature. Figure 10 shows the variation of the droplet
size distribution for different temperatures (T ¼ 308C,
T ¼ 458C, and T ¼ 558C). The close match of the normalized
transmission spectra in the region between 300 and 820 nm
shown in Figure 4 lead to unimportant changes in the breadth
of the distribution observed in Figure 10, and similar
emulsion droplet size (Figure 11).
FIG. 10. Number based particle size distribution of heptadecane/SDBS/
H2O emulsions as function of temperature at Co ¼ 1e-3 g/mL.
25
FIG. 11. Variation of the droplet size of heptadecane/SDBS/H2O emul-
sions with the oil concentration for different temperatures.
Figure 12 shows the variation of the droplet size of decane/
SDBS/H2O emulsions with the oil concentration for different
emulsifier concentration. As suggested, from spectra in
Figure 5, the emulsion droplet size undergoes changes with
the emulsifier concentration. An increase in emulsifier concen-
tration generally tends to speed up the emulsifier adsorption,
which is associated with interfacial tension decreasing and
droplet breaking. All of these effects promote the formation
of smaller droplets.
As it is noted, there is a relation between the spectral changes
and droplet size distribution of emulsion populations in the
macroemulsion range as function of the oil concentration.
Therefore, the spectra can be used to obtain quantitatively
measurements of emulsion droplet size and its distribution as
function of physicochemical variables. Additional spectroscopy
studies of labeled emulsifiers are necessary to interpret the wave-
length portion of the spectrum (240–300 nm). These studies are
ongoing in order to assess the distribution of emulsifier among
the phases present and the quantification of droplet population
in the nanoemulsion range.
FIG. 12. Variation of the droplet size of decane/SDBS/H2O emulsions
with the oil concentration for different emulsifier concentrations.
 26 M.-T. CELIS AND L. H. GARCIA-RUBIO
CONCLUSION
A systematic study of emulsions as function of the oil con-
centration and physicochemical variables over the entire wave-
length (190 –820 nm) has been shown using multiwalength
ultraviolet/visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy. The changes of
absorption bands in the different spectral regions are related
with the size and distribution of droplet populations and
found to be in agreement with process conditions. Droplet
populations in the range of 1 to 20 mm have been measured
from the quantitative interpretation of spectra in the wave-
length range (300 – 820 nm), and experimental results may be
indicative of the existence of nanodroplet populations in the
spectral region (240 –300 nm) where chromophoric groups of
emulsifier are present. The potential to extract large amounts
of information from a single multiwavelength measurement
makes UV-vis spectroscopy a powerful tool in the area of
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colloids, and it provide the essential information for continuing
studies on the evaluation of the distribution of emulsifier in the
interfaces and the quantification of droplet population in the
nanoemulsion range as function of the oil concentration and
operation conditions.
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