Town Planning System

The Town Planning System of Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) was city
based. The excellent drainage and sanitation systems are remarkable.

The Indus civilization flourished around cities. The ruins of the cities so far unearthed show
remarkable town planning system and excellent system of drainage and sanitation of the
Indus Valley Civilization. The city was the heart of the civilization. The life in the Indus cities
gives the impression of “a democratic bourgeois economy” like that of ancient Crete. Both at
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and also at Kalibangan, the city was divided into two main parts.
The higher and upper portion of the city was protected by a construction which looks like a
fort. The ruling class of the towns perhaps lived in the protected area. The other part of the
towns was lower in height than the former and common men lived in this area. The lower
area of the towns generally spread over one square mile. The main streets ran from north to
south and east to west intersecting one another at right angles. The streets were broad varying
from 9 feet to 34 feet. They ran straight to a mile. They were suitable for wheeled traffic.
Lanes were joined with the streets. Each lane had a public welt. Street lamps were provided
for welfare of public.

Systematically built Buildings and Houses

The nature of the buildings at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro shows that the town dwellers were
divided into various social classes. The rich and the ruling class lived in the multi-roomed
spacious houses and the poorer section lived in small tenements. The public building and big
houses were situated on the streets. The modest houses were situated on the lanes.
Encroachment on public roads or lanes by building houses was not permitted. The houses can
be divided into three main groups viz.

o dwelling houses,
o larger buildings,
o Public baths.
Smaller houses had two rooms, while larger houses had many rooms. There were courtyards
attached to big buildings. There was little artistic touch in the architectural design of the
buildings belonging either to the rich or the poor. They were plain, utilitarian and comfortable
to live. Some of the buildings were probably multi-storied. The staircases of big buildings
were solid; the roofs were flat and were made of wood. Most of the houses had baths, wells
and covered drains connected with street drains. Ordinary buildings had little ventilation
arrangements, as doors and windows were rarely fixed in the outer walls. Doors of entrance
were fixed not on the front wall but on the side walls. One could enter a house by the door
facing the side lanes of the house. The doors were made of wood. Large buildings had
spacious doors.

Building Materials
There was no stone built house in the Indus cities. Most of the houses were built of burnt
bricks. But unbumt sun-dried bricks were also used. That portion of the buildings where
contamination with water was possible, burnt bricks were used. For other parts sun-dried
bricks were used. Most of the bricks were of equal size.

Drainage System
The elaborate drainage system was a remarkable feature of the civilization. According to D.
D. Kosambi, the drainage plans of the Indus cities definitely establish the separate identity or
independent character of the Indus civilization. No ancient civilization before the Roman
civilization had such an advanced drainage and sanitation system. Each house had horizontal
and vertical drains. There were underground drains for the streets. These drains were covered
by stone slabs. The soak pits were made of bricks. The house drains were connected with
road drains.

Great Public Bath and Granary of Indus Valley Civilization

There is an impressive building which was used as a public bath. The overall dimension of
the Bath is 180 feet by 108 feet. The bathing pool is 39 feet by 23 feet with 8 feet depth.
There is a device to fill and empty the water of the bathing pool. There are galleries and
rooms on all sides of the bathing pool. Dr. Kosambi has provided an interpretation of the
bathing pool and the adjoining rooms which is ingenuous. According to him, men used to
bathe in the tanks as a ritual for the mother goddess to whom the citadel belonged. This
public bath was attached to the Mohenjo-Daro fort where upper class people lived. Among
the other large buildings there was a big hall which was perhaps used for public meeting.
There is the ruin of a great granary at Harappa measuring 169 fit x 135 fit. Attached to the
granary were two roomed tenements with a common courtyard. These tenements housed the
workers or the slaves who thrashed the corn to be preserved in the granary.
Declining Stage of the City
The advanced style of the Indus city life found in the earlier layers is absent in the later
layers. In later layers there was a marked decline in civic discipline. Buildings encroached on
the roads. Lanes were chocked with klins. Slums grew around. At Harappa and more clearly,
at Mohenjo-Daro excavation has revealed the general shape of town planning system of the
Indus Valley Civilization.

The most striking feature of the Harappan cities is their town planning. The
Harappan City was divided into the upper town called the Citadel and the lower town. The
various features of the Harappan town Planning is given below:

Granaries: The granary was the largest structure in Mohenjodaro, in Harappa there were
about six granaries or storehouses. These were used for storing grain.

Great Bath: This was another important structure in Mohenjodaro. The floor of the bath had
five layers. It was so watertight that even today it holds water. There were changing rooms.
People probably used it during festivals and religious ceremoies.

Town Hall: A palace-like building that looked like an assembly hall for the city government
of for people to meet.

Lower Town: This was the residential area where the common people lived.

Streets: The roads and streets intersected at right angles. There were covered drains along the
road. Houses were built on either side of the roads and streets.

Drainage System: The drainage system of the Harappan cities was the best known to the
world in ancient times. The brickwork prevented the dirty water from leaking. Wooden
screens stopped the solid wastes from being washed away with the water. Drains were built
either side of the roads. They were covered with stones which could be removed in order to
clean them.

Houses: The houses varied in size. Some might have been two storeyed. The houses were
made of burnt bricks. Most of the houses had central courtyard, well, bathing area and
kitchen.
Mohenjadaro & Harappan Town Planning

This blog is an article on the marvelous town planning skills of the ancient Indus Valley
Cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The most amazing aspect of Mohenjo-daro and
Harappa is the town planning. Some key features of the town are as follows:

 The streets which divided the city into neat rectangular or square blocks, varied in
width but always intersected each other at right angles.

 The city had an elaborate drainage system consisting of horizontal and vertical drains,
street drains and so on.The architecture of the buildings was clearly intended to be
functional and minimalist, and certainly not to please the aesthete.

 Due to its elaborate town plan, Mohenjo-daro was considered a cosmopolitan city, the
capital of the civilization with people of different races mingling with the local
populace.

 Indus Valley Civilization used mudbrick extensively, as can be seen in the ruins of
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. In the Indus Valley Civilization particularly, all bricks
corresponded to sizes in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1, and made use of the decimal system.
The ratio for brick dimensions 4:2:1 is even today considered optimal for effective
bonding.

 Surprisingly, the usage of mudbricks for construction can also be seen in the Ancient
Egyptian metropolis, showing that forms of trade existed between ancient
civilisations, also as inferred from the Port city of Lothal. However, the bricks used in
Egypt had a different production procedure.

 The quality of municipal town planning suggests knowledge of urban planning and
efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene. The streets
of major cities such as Mohenjo-daro or Harappa were laid out in a perfect grid
pattern, comparable to that of present day New York. The houses were protected from
noise, odors, and thieves.As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and the recently
discovered Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation
systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from
wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was
directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner
 courtyards and smaller lanes.The houses were built on plinths that rose above the
street level with stairs recessed at the wall at the front door. The planning did not
allow any hindrance on the roads, so everything was well planned.

 The ancient Indus systems of sewage and drainage that were developed and used in
cities throughout the Indus Empire were far more advanced than any found in
contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in
some areas of modern Pakistan and India today.

 The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards,

granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive citadels of
Indus cities that protected the Harappans from floods and attackers were larger than
most Mesopotamian ziggurats.

 The purpose of the "Citadel" remains debated. In sharp contrast to this civilization's
contemporaries, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, no large monumental structures
were built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples—or, indeed, of
kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at
one city is an enormous well-built bath, which may have been a public bath. Although
the "Citadels" are walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive.
They may have been built to divert flood waters.

 Although some houses were larger than others, Indus civilization cities were
remarkable for their apparent egalitarianism. For example, all houses had access to
water and drainage facilities. One gets the impression of a vast middle-class society.

 Mohenjo-daro is a remarkable construction, considering its antiquity. It has a planned

layout based on a grid of streets, which were laid out in perfect patterns. At its height
the city probably had around 35,000 residents. The buildings of the city were
particularly advanced, with structures constructed of same-sized sun dried bricks of
baked mud and burned wood.

 The public buildings of these cities also suggest a high degree of social organization.
The so-called Great Granary at Mohenjo-daro as interpreted by Sir Mortimer Wheeler
in 1950 is designed with bays to receive carts delivering crops from the countryside,
and there are ducts for air to circulate beneath the stored grain to dry it. However,
 Jonathan Mark Kenoyer has noted that no record of grain exists at the "granary." Thus
Kenoyer suggests that a more appropriate title would be "Great Hall."

 Close to the granary, there is a building similarly civic in nature - a great public bath
(sometimes called the Great Bath), with steps down to a brick-lined pool in a
colonnaded courtyard. The elaborate bath area was very well built, with a layer of
natural tar to keep it from leaking, and in the center was the pool. Measuring 12m x
7m, with a depth of 2.4m, it may have been used for religious or spiritual ceremonies.

 Being an agricultural city, it also featured a large well, and central marketplace. It also
had a building with an underground furnace (hypocaust), possibly for heated bathing.

 Mohenjo-daro was a well fortified city. Lacking actual city walls, it did have towers to
the west of the main settlement, and defensive fortifications to the south. Considering
these fortifications and the structure of other major Indus valley cities like Harappa,
lead to the question of whether Mohenjo-daro was an administrative centre.

 Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro share relatively the same architectural layout, and
were generally not heavily fortified like other Indus Valley sites. It is obvious from
the identical city layouts of all Indus sites, that there was some kind of political or
administrative centrality, however the extent and functioning of an administrative
centre remains unclear

 .Mohenjo-daro was successively destroyed and rebuilt at least seven times. Each time,
the new cities were built directly on top of the old ones. Flooding by the Indus is
thought to have been the cause of destruction. The city was divided into two parts, the
so-called Citadel and the Lower City. Most of the Lower City is yet to be uncovered,
but the Citadel is known to have the public bath, a large residential structure designed
to house 5,000 citizens and two large assembly halls.

 Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and their civilization, vanished without trace from history
until discovered in the 1920s. It was extensively excavated in the 1920s, but no in-
depth excavations have been carried out since the 1960s.

 The Harappan and Mohenjo-daro town planning has stunned the archaeologists
worldwide.
 Excavations are being carried out even today. The remains of these citites has left an
everlasting effect on the people of today. It is unbelievable that even in that ancient
past people could think scientifically and were so conscious as to build a dream city
with everything well-planned and properly executed. It has become a specimen of
wonderful town planning in today's world and has inspired the contemporary
generation.

Town planning:

The town planning of the Harappan civilization affirms the fact that the civic
organizations of the city was highly developed. The roads, dwelling houses, large
buildings and forts were very well executed. They followed a system of centralized
administration. The houses were even protected from noise, odors, and thieves. Harappan
town planning had the inclusion of many traveling houses which ranged from two roomed
to large buildings. Houses were properly placed on both sides of the roads, and also in tha
lanes. The doors of the houses opened in the lanes and not on the roads. The houses were
built on plinths that rose above the street level with stairs recessed at the wall at the front
door. The planning did not allow any hindrance on the roads so everything was well
organized. There were the government houses which were differently executed, dwelling
houses which ranged from single to several stories with many rooms, public baths and so
on. At Harappa many rooms consisting of two chambers around the courtyard of a
dwelling house have been discovered, which are meant for the staying of the laborers.
From the economic point of view, it can be assumed that agriculture was the primary
occupation. This is evident from the availability of the granary in the city. The granary
was constructed on the high foundation of the burnt bricks. The city of Harappa had
defensive outer walls. The Citadel was the centre of important buildings, most of these
settlements were built of, ud bricks, chiseled stones and burnt bricks. The citadels faced
the west, which acted like sanctuaries at the time of aggression and during peace they
played the role of community centers. The Harappan town planning gives a detailed
account of a very good drainage and sanitary system. The main drain was connected with
each and every house ensuring the proper disposal of waste. In order to check the
maintenance, inspection holes were provided. The drains were covered and connected to
the larger sewerage outlets, which ensured the passage of dirt out of the city.
Effects:
The Harappa town planning has stunned the archaeologists worldwide. Excavations are
being carried out even today. The remains of the city have left an everlasting effect on the
people. Whenever we encounter the well-laid roads, houses, public houses we find their
love for well-organized city. It has become a landmark for the contemporary civilization
when technological advancements have been made which is helping to achieve great
heights. It is unbelievable that even in that ancient past people could think so
scientifically and were so conscious as to build a dream city with everything well planned
and properly executed. It has become a specimen of wonderful town planning in today`s
world and has inspired the contemporary generation. From the concept of bathing pools
and granaries we get a glimpse of the modern day swimming pools and storehouses where
grain can be stored. It was a proper furnished city that a modern man is habituated with.
This facilitated the Harappa dwellers to live a luxurious life with proper sanitation and
regulation. Safe transport and traveling facilities were provided due to the well laid roads
which did not hinder communication. Over all the Harappa town planning was very
scientific and very much applicable and feasible in contemporary times.

Characteristics of Indus Valley Civilisation:

1. Indus Valley Cities:

The excavated Indus cities may be classified into the following groups:

(i) Nucleus cities

(ii) Coastal towns

(iii) Other cities and townships.

I. Nucleus Cities:

(a) Harappa:

It was the first Indus site to be discovered and excavated in 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni.
The site has two large and imposing ruined mounds located some 25 kms. South-west of
Montgomery district of Punjab (Pakistan) on the left bank of river Ravi.

The vast mounds at Harappa were first reported by Masson in 1826. Alexander
Cunningham identified Harappa with Po-Fa-to or Po-Fa-to-do visited by Hiuen-Tsang.
a) The western mound of Harappa, smaller in size represented the citadel, parallelogram
in plan and fortified.

b) Outside the citadel was the unfortified town having some important structures
identified with workmen’s quarters, working floors and granaries. The workmen’s
quarters, 10 in number were of uniform size and space (17×7.5 m). Close to these quarters
were 16 furnaces, pear- shaped on plan with cow-dung ash and charcoal.

c) 12 Granary building of 15.24×6.10 m each, arranged systematically in 2 rows (6 in

each row) with central passage 7 m. wide

d) The material remains discovered at Harappa are of the typical Indus character,
prominent being.

e) 891 seals which form 36.32 per cent of the total writing material of the Indus
civilisation ,

f) Two very important stone figurines (not available at any other site) which include one
red stone torso of a naked male figure (the prototype of the Jina or Yaksha Figure) and a
female figure in dancing pose.

g) A crucible used for smelting bronze was also found at a slightly higher level.

h) Dog attacking deer on a pin

Evidence of the disposal of the dead has been found to the south of the citadel area named
as cemetery R-37. Excavations have also yielded 57 burials of different types. The
skeletons were disposed of in the graves along with the grave-goods.

(b) Mohenjo-Daro:

The site of Mohenjo-Daro (or the Mound of the Dead) situated in the Larkana district of
Sind (Pakistan) and 540 km. south of Harappa is situated on the right bank of the river
Indus. It also has two mounds, the western being the citadel or acropolis and the eastern
extensive mound was enshrining the relics of the buried lower city. The mounds were
excavated first by Sir John Marshall. The citadel was fortified with big buildings
extremely rich in structures.
a. The most important public place of Mohenjo-Daro seems to be the Great Bath, with a
bed made water tight by the use of bitumen and a system of supplying and draining away
water. This tank which is situated in the citadel mound is an example of beautiful brick-
work measuring 11.88×7.01 meters and 2.43 meters deep. Flight of steps at either end
lead to the surface. There are side rooms for changing clothes. This tank seems to have
been used for ritual bathing.

b. In Mohenjo-Daro, the largest building is the great granary which is 45.71 meters long
and 15.23 meters wide and lies to the west of the great bath.

c. To the north-east of the great bath is a long collegiate building, perhaps meant for the
residence of a very high official, possibly the high priest himself, or a college of priests.

e. The lower unfortified city displayed all the elements of a planned city. The remarkable
thing about the arrangement of the houses in the city is that they followed the grid system
with the main streets running north-south and east-west dividing the city into many
blocks.

This is true of almost all Indus settlements regardless of size. The main streets in the
lower city are about 9.14 metre wide. The drainage system of Mohenjo-Daro was very
impressive. These drains were covered with bricks and sometimes with stone slabs. The
street drains were equipped with manholes. Houses were made of kiln-burnt bricks as in
Harappa.

f. Material remains of Mohenjo-Daro with its richness confirms that it was a great city of
the Indus civilisation. About 1398 seals representing 56.67 percent of the total writing
material of the Indus cities throws light on Harappan religion.

Important stone images found here includes the torso of a priest made of steatite (19 cm),
lime stone male head (14 cm), the seated male of alabaster (29.5 cm), the seated male
with the hands placed on knees (21 cm) and a composite animal figure made up of
limestone. The bronze dancing girl from Mohenjo-Daro, considered a masterpiece (14
cm) is made by cast wax technique.

(c) Dholavira:

Situated in Kutch district of Gujarat, Dholavira is the latest and one of the two largest
Harappan settlements in India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana. The ancient
mounds of Dholavira were first noticed by Dr J.P. Joshi but extensive excavation work at
the site was conducted by R.S. Bisht and his team in 1990-91.

It shares almost all the common features of the Indus cities but its unique feature is that
there are three principal divisions (instead of two in other cities), two of which were
strongly protected by rectangular fortifications.

The first inner encloser hemmed in the citadel (the acropolis) probably housed the highest
authority and second one protected the middle town meant for the close relatives of the
administrators and other officials.

The existence of this middle town, apart from the lower town, is the unique feature of this
settlement. The access to these fortified settlements at Dholavira was provided through an
elaborate gate-complex.

(d) Kalibangan:

Situated in Ganganagar district of Rajasthan on the southern bank of the Ghaggar river
this site was excavated by B.B. Lai and B.K. Thapar (1961-69). This site also has two
mounds yielding the remains of a citadel and lower city respectively. Excavations have
revealed evidence of pre-Harappan and Harappan culture.

a. The citadel and the lower city both were fortified.

b. The citadel had mud-brick platforms having seven fire-altars in a row.

c. The lower fortified town had two gateways.

e. The people of Kalibangan used mud-bricks for the construction of houses, the use of
burnt bricks has been found only in wells, drains and pavements.

f .The cylindrical seals found at Kalibangan had an analogy in the Mesopotamian

counterpart. The discovery of inscribed sherds clearly suggests that Indus script was
written from right to left.

g. Excavations at Kalibangan revealed the evidence of the ploughed field.

II. Coastal towns

(a) Lothal:
It was an important trading centre of the Indus civilisation and situated near the bed of the
Bhogavo River at the head of the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat. Lothal was excavated by S
R. Rao which brought to light five period sequences of cultures. It was one rectangular
settlement surrounded by a brick wall. Along the eastern side of the town was a brick
basin, which has been identified as a dockyard by its excavator.

a) The house of a wealthy merchant yielded gold beads with axial tubes and sherds of
Reserved Slip Ware related to the Sumerian origin indicating that the merchants were
engaged in foreign trade.

b) Metal-workers, shell ornament makers and bead-makers shops have been discovered
here.

c) The discovery of the Persian Gulf seal and the Reserved Slip Ware suggests that Lothal
was engaged in the maritime activities.

(b) Sutkagendor:

Situated at a distance of 500 kms to the west of Karachi on the Makran coast it functioned
as a trading post of the Harappans. It was originally a port of Harappan according to
archaeologist Dales but later cut off from the sea due to coastal uplift. Excavation at the
site revealed the two-fold division of the township into ‘citadel’ and ‘Lower city’.

(c) Balakot:

Situated at a distance of 98 km to the north west of Karachi this coastal settlement yielded
the relics of the pre-Harappan and Harappan civilisation. Baked bricks were used in few
drains but the standard building material were the mud-bricks.

(d) Allahdino:

The excavations at Allahdino were undertaken by W. A. Fairservis and are situated at a

distance of 40 kms to the east of Karachi. These coastal cities have yielded the remains of
mud-brick structures.

III. Other cities and township:

(a) Surkotada:
Situated about 270 km. north-west of Ahmedabad in Gujarat the settlement pattern of
Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Kalibangan was repeated here. As at Kalibangan, both the
citadel and the lower town were fortified. There was also an inter-communicating gate
between the two.

In addition to mud- bricks, stone rubble was liberally used for construction. In the last
phase of this site, bones of horses, hitherto unknown, have been discovered.

(b) Banawali:

Situated in the Hissar district of Haryana it was on the bank of the river Rangoi, identified
with the ancient bed of Sarasvati River. The excavations conducted by R.S. Bisht have
yielded two cultural phases, Pre-Harappan and Harappan, similar to that of Kalibangan.

The Harappan phase showed significant departure from the established norms of town-
planning (chess-board pattern as in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, etc.). The roads were neither
always straight, nor are they cut at right-angles. It lacked systematic drainage system, a
noteworthy feature of the Indus civilisation.

(c) Chanhudaro:

The township of Chanhudaro, situated about 130 km. south of Mohenjodaro, consists of a
single mound divided into several parts by erosion. An evidence of material remains
clearly shows that it was the major centre of production for the beautiful seals.

The hoards of copper and bronze tools, castings, evidence of the crafts like bead-making,
bone items and seal making suggest that Chandhudaro was mostly inhabited by artisans
and crafts-men. Excavations have also unearthed a furnace with a brick- floor used for
glazing steatite beads.

(d) Kot Diji:

Situated on the left bank of the Indus River about 50 km. east of Mohenjo-Daro, the site
of Kot Diji excavated by F.A. Khan Yields two cultural phases’ pre-Harappan and
Harappan civilisation. Material remains discovered at the site are terracotta bulls, five
figurines of the Mother Goddess and large unbaked cooking brick-lined ovens.
2. Polity and Society:

There is no clear idea about the political organization of the Harappans. If the Harappan
cultural zone is considered identical with the political zone, the sub-continent did not
witness such a large political unit until the rise of the Maurya Empire. The Harappans
made the first ever experiment to bring about political unity of the divergent geographical
units of the civilisation without the use of force.

The total absence of internecine wars, religious or political, speaks volumes about the
peaceful administration of the Indus state. It would be wrong to think that priests ruled in
Harappa, as they did in the cities of lower Mesopotamia for we have no religions
structures of any kind except the Great Bath.

There are some indications of the practice of fire cult at Lothal in the later phase, but no
temples were used for the purpose. Perhaps the Harappan rulers were more concerned
with commerce than with conquests, and it was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.

3. Social set-up:

An important characteristic of the Indus civilisation was its urban life. The rural areas not
only supported but often contributed to the socio-cultural development. The social
stratification is reflected in the dwellings and disposition of the dead bodies in the graves.

4. Dress, Hairstyles and Ornaments:

The Harappan men wore robes which left one shoulder bare, and the garments of the
upper classes were often richly patterned. Beards were worn, and men and women alike
had long hair.

The elaborate head-dresses of the Mother Goddess probably had their counter-parts in the
festive attire of the richer women. The women wore a short skirt that reached upto the
knee; and it was held by a girdle-a string of beads.

The coiffures of the women were often elaborate, and pigtails were also popular, as in
present-day India. Women loved jewellery and wore heavy bangles in profusion, large
necklaces, and earrings. Mirrors of bronze were very common. It appears that the ladies at
Mohenjo-Daro knew the use of collyrium, face-paint and other cosmetics. Chanhudaro
finds indicate the use of lipsticks. Bronze razors of various types served for the toilet of
the male.

5. Amusements:

Kids played with terracotta toys such as rattles, birds shaped whistle, bulls with movable
heads, monkeys with movable arms, figures which ran down strings, the favorite being
the baked clay cart.

Dice was used in gambling, marbles of jasper and chert were played by rich children.
Music and dance were secular. Hunting and fishing was in vogue. On a few seals, hunting
of wild rhino and antelope are shown.

6. Religious Practices:

Except for the discovery of fire altars at Kalibangan, we have not found any cult objects,
temples at any of the Harappan sites. On the basis of the material remains discovered at
various Harappan sites we can say that the Harappan people had many features of the
later Hinduism, such as worship of the Mother Goddess, Pashupati Siva, animal worship,
tree-worship, etc.

The chief female deity was Mother Goddess. In one terracotta figurine found at Harappa,
a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman. Probably the image represents
the goddess of earth. The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the earth as a fertility
goddess and worshipped her.

The most striking deity of the Harappan culture is the horned-deity of the seals. He is
depicted on three specimens, in two, seated on a small dais, and in the third on the
ground; in all three his posture is cross-legged (sitting posture of a yogi). On the largest of
the seals, he is surrounded by four wild animals, an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros and a
buffalo, and beneath his feet appear two deer.

Marshall boldly called this god Proto-Siva, and the name has been generally accepted;
certainly the horned god has much in common with the Siva of later Hinduism, who is, in
his most important aspect a fertility deity, is known as Pasupati, the Lord of Beasts.
Phallic worship was an important element of Harappa religion.
Many cone-shaped objects have been found, which almost certainly formalized represen-
tation of the phallus are. The linga or phallic emblem in later Hinduism is the symbol of
the god Siva. The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees. The picture of a deity
is represented on a seal in the midst of the branches of the pipal tree which continues to
be worshipped to this day.

Animals were also worshipped and many of them are represented on seals. The most
important of them is the humped bull. The inhabitants of the Indus region thus
worshipped gods in the form of trees, animals and human beings. Amulets have been
found in large numbers. Probably the Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces.

7. Burial Practices:

Cemeteries excavated at several Indus sites like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan,

Lothal and Ropar throws light on the burial practises of the Harappans. Three forms of
burials have been found at Mohenjo-Daro, viz., complete burials, (means the burial of the
whole body along with the grave goods) fractional burials, (burial of some bones after the
exposure of the body to wild beasts and birds) and post-cremation burials.

From the Lothal cemetery comes evidence of another burial type with several examples
of pairs of skeletons, one male and one female in each case, buried in a single grave.
Bodies were always placed in the north-south direction with the head in the north.

8. Economy:

The Harappan economy was based on irrigated surplus agriculture, cattle rearing,
proficiency in various crafts and brisk trade both internal and external.

I. Agriculture:

The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced sufficient
foodgrains not only to feed themselves but also the town people. No hoe or ploughshare
has been discovered, but the furrows discovered in the pre-Harappan phase at Kalibangan
show that the fields were ploughed in Rajasthan in the Harappan period.

The Harappans probably used the wooden ploughshare. We do not know whether the
plough was drawn by men or oxen. Stone sickles may have been used for harvesting the
crops. Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by dams for storing water were a feature in parts of
Baluchistan and Afghanistan, but channel or canal irrigation seems to have been absent.

The Indus people produced wheat, barley, rai, peas, etc. They produced two types of
wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley has been discovered at Banawali. In addition
to this, they produced sesamum, mustard, dates and varieties of leguminous plants.

At Lothal and Rangpur, rice and spike- lets were found embedded in clay and pottery. The
Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton. Because cotton was first
produced in this area the Greeks called it Sindon, which is derived from Sindh.

II. Domestication of Animals:

Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were kept on a large scale. Oxen,
buffaloes, goats, sheeps and pigs were domesticated. The humped bulls were favoured by
the Harappans. From the very beginning dogs were regarded as pets.

Cats were also domesticated. Asses and camels were used as beasts of burden. Camel
bones are reported at Kalibangan. Evidence of horse are also reported from Mohenjodaro,
Lothal and Surkotada. Elephants and rhinoceros were well known to the Harappans.

III. Technology and Crafts:

The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age. The people of Harappa used many tools
and implements of stone, but they were very well acquainted with the manufacture and
use of bronze. Bronze was made by the smiths by mixing tin with copper.

Numerous tools and weapons recovered from the Harappan sites suggest that the
bronzesmiths constituted an important group of artisans in the Harappan society. Objects
of gold are reasonably common, silver makes its earliest appearance in the Indus
civilization and was relatively more common than gold. Lead, arsenic, antimony and
nickel were also used by the Harappan people.

The axes, chisels, knives, spearheads, etc., were made of bronze and stone. They seem to
have been produced on a mass-scale in place like Sukkur. Two short copper swords found
in Mohenjodaro are of the slashing type and not cutting type.
As for craft specialization, the towns of Chanhudaro and Lothal have yielded evidence of
the presence of workshops of bead-makers. Balakot, Lothal and Chanhudaro were centres
for shell-working and bangle- making.

Apart from them the evidences indicate the presence of potters, stone masons, brick
makers, seal cutters, traders, priests, etc. The Harappans also practised boat making.
Weavers wove cloth of wool and cotton. Spindle whorls were used for spinning. The
potter’s wheel was in full use, and the Harappans produced their own characteristic
pottery, which was made glossy and shining. Most of the time it means the use of a
pinkish pottery with bright red slip and standard representation of trees, birds, animals
and geometric motifs, in black.

No human figure is depicted on the pottery from Mohenjo-Daro but a few pottery pieces
discovered from Harappa portray a man and a child. The Harappan pottery was highly
utilitarian in character with artistic touch.

The greatest artistic creations of the Harappans are the seals. About 2000 seals have been
found, made of stealite, these seals range in size from 1 cm to 5 cm. Two main types are
seen. First, square with a carved animal and inscription and second, rectangular with an
inscription only.

Stone sculptures and terracotta figurines have been reported from various sites. Figurines
made of fire-baked clay, commonly called terracotta which were either used as toys or
objects of worship. It was used mainly by the common people and it represented
sophisticated artistic works.

9. Trade:

The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is attested not only by granaries
found at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal but also by the presence of numerous seals,
uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide area. They did not use metal
money. Most probably they carried on all exchanges through barter.

In return for finished goods and possibly food grains, they procured metals from the
neighbouring areas by boats and bullock-carts. Inter-regional trade was carried on with
Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, parts of western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Foreign
trade was conducted mainly with Mesopotamia or Sumeria (modern Iraq) and Iran.

Their cities also carried commerce with those in the land of the Tigris and the Euphrates.
Discovery of many Indus seals in Mesopotamia and evidence of imitation by the
Harappans of some cosmetics used by the urban people of Mesopotamia suggests that
some of the Harappan merchants must have resided or visited Mesopotamia.

About two dozen Indus type seals were also discovered from different cities of
Mesopotamia like, Ur, Susa, Lagash, Kish and Tell Asmar. Reciprocal evidence comes
from the Indus cities also-discovery of a circular button seals which belongs to a class of
Persian Gulf seals, several bun-shaped copper ingots of Mesopotamian origin and the
‘Reserved Slip Ware’ of the Mesopotamian type at Lothal.

All these provide conclusive proof of trade links between the two civilisations. The
Mesopotamian records from about 2350 B.C. onwards refer to trade relations with
Meluha, which was the ancient name given to the Indus region, and they also speak of
two intermediate stations called ‘Dilmun’ (identified with Bahrain on the Persian Gulf)
and Makan (Makran Coast). Shortughai located near Badakhsan in north-east Afghanistan
was one of the Harappan trading outpost, beyond the high passes of the Hindukush.

The Harappan cities did not possess the necessary raw material for the commodities they
produced and hence depended upon the products imported from distant places. Main
imports consisted of precious metals like gold (from North Karnataka), silver (probably
from Afghanistan or Iran), Copper (from Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan, Baluchistan
and Arabia), lead (East and South India), tin (Afghanistan and Hazaribagh in Bihar), and
several semi-precious stones like lapis lazuli (Badakshan in North-East Afghanistan),
turquoise (central Asia and Iran), amethyst (Maharashtra), agate (Saurashtra), jade
(central Asia), and chalcedonies and carnelians (from Saurashtra and west India).

Main exports were several agricultural products and a variety of finished products such as
cotton goods, carnelian beads, pottery, shell and bone inlays etc.

10. Weights and Measures:

The knowledge of script must have helped the recording of private property and accounts-
keeping. Numerous articles used for weights have been found. They show that in
weighting mostly 16 or its multiples were used; for instance, 16, 64, 160, 320 and 640.

The Harappans also knew the art of measurement. The measures of length were based
upon a foot of 13.2 inches and a cubit of 20.6 inches. Several sticks inscribed with
measure marks, one of these made of bronze have been discovered.

11. Script and Language:

The Harappans invented the art of writing like the people of ancient Mesopotamia.
Although the earliest specimen of Harappan script was noticed in 1853 and the complete
script discovered by 1923, it has not been deciphered so far. Unlike the Egyptians and
Mesopotamians, the Harappan did not write long inscriptions. Most inscriptions were
recorded on seals, and contain only a few words.

These seals may have been used by propertied people to mark and identify their private
property. Altogether there are about 250 to 400 pictographs, and in the form of picture
each letter stands for some sound idea or object.

The Harappan script is not alphabetical but mainly pictographic since its sign represent
birds, fish, varieties of the human form, etc. and it was written from right to left like
modern Urdu.

There are two main arguments as to the nature of the language; that it belongs to the Indo-
European or even Indo-Aryan family, or that it belongs to the Dravidian family. Parpola
and his Scandinavian colleagues gave a hypothesis that the language was Dravidian.

Problems of Decline:

In the absence of any written material or historical evidence, scholars have made various
speculations regarding the causes for the decline of the Harappan culture. Cities like
Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and Kalibangan saw a gradual decline in urban planning. Later
on some of the settlements like Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa etc. were abandoned. However,
in most other sites people continued to live.
Some important features associated with the Harappan civilization, writing, uniform
weights, pottery and architectural style disappeared of. Wheeler believed that the Indus
civilization was destroyed by the Aryan invaders. It has been pointed out that in the late
phases of Mohenjo-Daro there are evidences of a massacre.

However, it has been pointed out that Mohenjo-Daro was abandoned by about 1800 B.C.,
Aryans on the other hand are said to have come to India around 1500 B.C. Thus, this
theory of sudden death cannot explain the decline. The gradual death theory is supported
by several scholars.

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R. Raikes, a hydrologist, has set forth a theory that due to tectonic activity, the flood
plains of the lower Indus river were raised which led to prolonged submergence of cities
like Mohenjo-Daro and Chanhudaro and hence their abandonment. But the cause for the
decline of some of the other Indus cities like Kalibangan and Banawali seems to be not
the floods but the drying up of rivers.

W.A. Fairservis have tried to explain the decay of the Harappan civilization in terms of
the problems of ecology. He believes that the Harappans degraded their delicate
environment. A growing population of men and animals confronted by falling resources
wore out the landscape which resulted into more floods and droughts. These stresses in
the end led to the collapse of the urban culture. The enduring fertility of the soils of the
Indian sub-continent disproves this hypothesis.

E.J.H. Mackay, Lambrick and John Marshall suggest that the decline of the Harappan
Civilization was mainly due to the vagaries of the Indus river, Shereen Ratnagar of
Jawaharlal Nehru University, proposed in 1986 that lift-irrigation may have resulted in an
over-reaching of its ecological limits.

The Harappans are also said to have suffered from several suicidal weaknesses. The
Harappans, for instance lacked plasticity of mind as seen in the non-changing successive
layers of the cities, non- adoption of the technical advancement of the Mesopotamians
(iron technology). Also the Harappans ignored defence, as suggested by the paucity of
sharp edged effective weapons.
The eclipse of sea- trade might have contributed to the decline of the Harappan
civilization but it cannot be held as the main cause. Thus, as seen above, there are several
important causes for the decline of the civilisation. Also, there is enough evidence to
show that the great Harappan civilisation did not come to a sudden ‘dead end’ instead it
seems to have faded away gradually.