Legend – Word (Important); Word (examples; subtopics) Check out the mineral in figure 1. What is the mineral’s color?
l’s color? What is its
What is a mineral?
A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid, with a definite chemical
composition, and an ordered atomic arrangement. This may seem a bit of a
mouthful, but if you break it down it becomes simpler.
Minerals are naturally occurring
They are not made by humans
Minerals are inorganic
They have never been alive and are not made up from plants or
animals
Minerals are solids
They are not liquids (like water), or gases (like the air around you)
Minerals have a definite chemical composition
Each one is made of a particular mix of chemical elements
Minerals have an ordered atomic arrangement
The chemical elements that make up each mineral are arranged in a
particular way - this is why minerals 'grow' as crystals
How are Minerals Identified?
Minerals can be identified by their physical characteristics. The physical
properties of minerals are related to their chemical composition and
bonding. Some characteristics, such as a mineral’s hardness, are more
useful for mineral identification. Color is readily observable and certainly
obvious, but it is usually less reliable than other physical properties.
Mineralogists are scientists who study minerals. One of the things
mineralogists must do is identify and categorize minerals. While a
mineralogist might use a high-powered microscope to identify some
minerals, most are recognizable using physical properties.
shape? Are the individual crystals shiny or dull? Are there lines (striations)
running across the minerals?
Color, Streak, and Luster
Diamonds are popular gemstones because the way they reflect light makes
them very sparkly. Turquoise is prized for its striking greenish-blue color.
Notice that specific terms are being used to describe the appearance of
minerals.
Color
Color is often useful, but should not be relied upon. Different minerals may
be the same color
Additionally, some minerals come in many different colors. Quartz, for
example, may be clear, white, gray, brown, yellow, pink, red, or orange. So
color can help, but do not rely on color as the determining property. Figure
3 shows one sample of quartz that is colorless and quartz that is purple. A
tiny amount of iron makes the quartz purple. Many minerals are colored by
chemical impurities.
Luster
Luster describes the reflection of light off a mineral’s surface. Mineralogists
have special terms to describe luster. One simple way to classify luster is
based on whether the mineral is metallic or non-metallic. Minerals that are
opaque and shiny, such as pyrite, have a metallic luster. Minerals such as
quartz have a non-metallic luster.
Luster is how the surface of a mineral reflects light. It is not the same thing
as color, so it crucial to distinguish luster from color. For example, a mineral
described as “shiny yellow” is being described in terms of luster (“shiny”)
and color (“yellow”), which are two different physical properties. Standard
names for luster include metallic, glassy, pearly, silky, greasy, and dull. It is
often useful to first determine if a mineral has a metallic luster. A metallic
luster means shiny like polished metal. For example cleaned polished pieces
of chrome, steel, titanium, copper, and brass all exhibit metallic luster as do
many other minerals. Of the nonmetallic lusters, glassy is the most common
and means the surface of the mineral reflects light like glass. Pearly luster is
important in identifying the feldspars, which are the most common type of
mineral. Pearly luster refers to a subtle irridescence or color play in the
reflected light, same way pearls reflect light. Silky means relecting light with
a silk-like sheen. Greasy luster looks similar to the luster of solidified bacon
grease. Minerals with dull luster reflect very little light. Identifying luster
takes a little practice. Remember to distinguish luster from color.
Streak
Streak is the color of a mineral’s powder. Streak is a more reliable property
than color because streak does not vary. Minerals that are the same color
may have a different colored streak. Many minerals, such as the quartz in
the figure 3, do not have streak.
Yellow-gold pyrite has a blackish streak, another indicator that pyrite is not
gold, which has a golden yellow streak.
Specific Gravity
Density describes how much matter is in a certain amount of space: density
= mass/volume.
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object. The amount of
space an object takes up is described by its volume. The density of an object
depends on its mass and its volume. For example, the water in a drinking
glass has the same density as the water in the same volume of a swimming
pool.
The specific gravity of a substance compares its density to that of water.
Substances that are more dense have higher specific gravity.
Hardness
Hardness is the strength with which a mineral resists its surface being
scraped or punctured. In working with hand samples without specialized
tools, mineral hardness is specified by the Mohs hardness scale. The Mohs
hardness scale is based 10 reference minerals, from talc the softest (Mohs
hardness of 1), to diamond the hardest (Mohs hardness of 10). It is a
relative, or nonlinear, scale. A hardness of 2.5 simply means that the
mineral is harder than gypsum (Mohs hardness of 2) and softer than calcite
(Mohs hardness of 3). To compare the hardness of two minerals see which
mineral scratches the surface of the other.
With a Mohs scale, anyone can test an unknown mineral for its hardness.
Imagine you have an unknown mineral. You find that it can scratch fluorite
or even feldspar, but apatite scratches it. You know then that the mineral’s
hardness is between 5 and 6. Note that no other mineral can scratch
diamond.
Cleavage and Fracture
Breaking a mineral breaks its chemical bonds. Since some bonds are weaker
than other bonds, each type of mineral is likely to break where the bonds
between the atoms are weaker. For that reason, minerals break apart in
characteristic ways.
Cleavage
Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along certain planes to make
smooth surfaces. Halite breaks between layers of sodium and chlorine to
form cubes with smooth surfaces
A mineral that naturally breaks into perfectly flat surfaces is exhibiting
cleavage. Not all minerals have cleavage. A cleavage represents a direction
of weakness in the crystal lattice. Cleavage surfaces can be distinguished by
how they consistently reflect light, as if polished, smooth, and even. The
cleavage properties of a mineral are described in terms of the number of
cleavages and, if more than one cleavage, the angles between the
cleavages. The number of cleavages is the number or directions in which the
mineral cleaves. A mineral may exhibit 100 cleavage surfaces parallel to
each other. Those represent a single cleavage because the surfaces are all
oriented in the same diretion. The possible number of cleavages a mineral
may have are 1,2,3,4, or 6. If more than 1 cleavage is present, and a device
for measuring angles is not available, simply state whether the cleavages
intersect at 90° or not 90°.
To see mineral cleavage, hold the mineral up beneath a strong light and
move it around, move it around some more, to see how the different sides
reflect light. A cleavage direction will show up as a smooth, shiny, evenly
bright sheen of light reflected by one set of parallel surfaces on the mineral.
One reason gemstones are beautiful is that the cleavage planes make an
attractive crystal shape with smooth faces.
Fracture
Fracture is a break in a mineral that is not along a cleavage plane. Fracture is
not always the same in the same mineral because fracture is not
determined by the structure of the mineral.
Minerals may have characteristic fractures (figure 9). Metals usually fracture
into jagged edges. If a mineral splinters like wood, it may be fibrous. Some
minerals, such as quartz, form smooth curved surfaces when they fracture.
All minerals have fracture. Fracture is breakage, which occurs in directions
that are not cleavage directions. Some minerals, such as quartz, have no
cleavage whatsoever. When a mineral with no cleavage is broken apart by a
hammer, it fractures in all directions. Quartz is said to exhibit conchoidal
fracture. Conchoidal fracture is the way a thick piece of glass breaks with
concentric, curving ridges on the broken surfaces. However, some quartz
crystals have so many flaws that instead of exhibiting conchoidal fracture
they simply exhibit irregular fracture. Irregular fracture is a standard term
for fractures that do not exhibit any of the qualities of the other fracture
types. In introductory geology, the key fracture types to remember are
irregular, which most minerals exhibit, and conchoidal, seen in quartz.
Crystal Shape
All minerals are crystalline, but only some have the opportunity to exhibit
the shapes of their crystals, their crystal forms. Many minerals in an
introductory geology lab do not exhibit their crystal form. If a mineral has
space while it grows, it may form natural crystals, with a crystal shape
reflecting the geometry of the mineral’s internal crystal lattice. The shape of
a crystal follows the symmetry of its crystal lattice. Quartz, for instance,
forms six-sided crystals, showing the hexagonal symmetry of its crystal
lattice. There are two complicating factors to remember here: (1) minerals
do not always form nice crystals when they grow, and (2) a crystal face is
different from a cleavage surface. A crystal face forms during the growth of
the mineral. A cleavage surface is formed when the mineral is broken.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
REFRACTIVE INDEX (RI)
The refractive index value measures how much slower light travels in the
gemstone than in the air. For example, the refractive index of Diamond is
2.42. This means that the speed of light in Diamond is 2.42 times slower
than the speed of light in air.
Refractive indices of minerals range from 1.2 to about 3. However,
gemstones with a refractive index greater than Diamond (2.42) are either
synthetic or are too soft for practical gemstone use. The greater the
refractive index of a gemstone, the more brilliant or lustrous it is.
The refractive index of a gemstone is measured with a refractometer, a tool
that measures angle of refraction. This tool is used by almost all gemologists
and professional jewelers, for it provides simple, inexpensive, and accurate
gem identification. However, a refractometer cannot read values greater
than 1.86. Gemstones with refractive indices greater than 1.86 can only be
tested by placing them in a liquid with a known refractive index, and then
calculating the difference in refraction between the liquid and the gem.
DOUBLE REFRACTION (DR)
Another optical property, known as double refraction or birefringence, is
present in all non-amorphous minerals that do not crystallize in
the isometric crystal system. When light rays enter birefringent minerals
(minerals with double refraction), the light divides into two rays. The two
rays differ in their angle of refraction. Therefore, all birefringent minerals
have two refractive indices, one for each ray. The double refraction in most
minerals is so weak that it cannot be observed with the naked eye.
However, a small number of minerals have a strong double refraction,
which is easily seen when the crystal placed over an image appears to
"double" the image.
Double refraction is an important guide to gem identification. When viewed
through a refractometer, birefringent minerals show two readings – one for
each refracted ray of light. Double refraction is a characteristic trait,
meaning every specimen of the same gem always has the same double
refraction.
Double refraction is measured by the difference of refraction in each light
ray. For example, if a gem is placed in a refractometer and shows a double
reading of 1.62 and 1.63, its double refraction is .01.
Highly birefringent gemstones, such as Zircon, must be cut in a way where
the double refraction is least noticeable in the finished gem, for it otherwise
appears blurry.
DISPERSION & FIRE
Dispersion is the splitting of white light into the colors of the spectrum. This
effect is observable in faceted, transparent, colorless gems, where the white
light disperses in the gem and reflects on its inner surfaces, giving the gem a
colorful sparkle. This effect is known as fire in the gem trade. Generally,
gems with higher refractive indices display greater fire. Diamond has the
greatest fire of all true, non-synthetic gems. Room lighting conditions play
an important role in fire, for the stronger the light, the more intense the fire
appears to be.
The design of the brilliant cut was extensively researched to offer a
gemstone its maximum amount of fire. For this reason, many transparent
gems with high dispersion are faceted with the brilliant cut.
ABSORPTION SPECTRUM
The absorption spectrum describes the spectral wavelengths absorbed by a
gem. The chemical structure of each gem allows only certain wavelengths to
be absorbed (the rest are reflected or pass through). The wavelengths
absorbed into a gem can be detected with an instrument known as
a spectroscope. Color alone cannot be used to identify a gem, for many
gems have identical colors. A spectroscope examines the "true" color of a
gem. Examining the absorption spectrum of a gem is one of the most useful
and practical methods of gem identification.
SILICATE
The mineral quartz (SiO2) is found in all rock types and in all parts of the
world. It occurs as sand grains in sedimentary rocks, as crystals in
both igneous and metamorphic rocks, and in veins that cut through all rock
types, sometimes bearing gold or other precious metals. It is so common on
Earth's surface that until the late 1700s it was referred to simply as "rock
crystal." Today, quartz is what most people picture when they think of the
word "crystal."
Quartz falls into a group of minerals called the silicates, all of which contain
the elements silicon and oxygen in some proportion. Silicates are by far the
most common minerals in Earth's crust and mantle, making up 95% of the
crust and 97% of the mantle by most estimates. Silicates have a wide variety
of physical properties, despite the fact that they often have very similar
chemical formulas. At first glance, for example, the formulas
for quartz (SiO2) and olivine ((Fe,Mg)2SiO4) appear fairly similar; these
seemingly minor differences, however, reflect very different
underlying crystal structures and, therefore, very different physical
properties. Among other differences, quartz melts at about 600° C while
olivine remains solid to temperatures of nearly twice that; quartz is
generally clear and colorless, whereas olivine received its name from its
olive green color.
The variety and abundance of the silicate minerals is a result of the nature
of the silicon atom, and even more specifically, the versatility and stability
of silicon when it bonds with oxygen. In fact, pure silicon was not isolated
until 1822, when the Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius (see
the Biography link in our Resources section) finally succeeded in separating
silicon from its most common compound, the silicate anion (SiO4)4-. This
anion takes the shape of a tetrahedron, with an Si4+ ion at the center and
four O2-ions at the corners (see Figure 1); thus, the molecular anion has a
net charge of -4.
Non Silicate
A mineral that does not hold the silica tetrahedron is termed to be a non-
silicate mineral. The second chief combination of minerals is those
composed of chemical structures other than the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron.
Non-silicate minerals are extremely different in their foundation and in its
physical properties; and as such, are extremely significant for our
understanding of a wide range of Earth processes. The majority basic group
of non-silicate minerals is known as the native elements. These elements
are those with chemical formulae consisting of an only one element. In the
conversation of the polymorphs two significant native element minerals
were discussed, graphite and diamond. Further minerals of this group
comprise native sulfur, gold, silver and copper. The left over five main
groups of non-silicate minerals are prepared based upon their anionic
chemistry - the oxides, sulfides, sulfates, halides, and carbonates. Each of
these groupings has extensively diverse chemistries; it is predictable that
each will likewise exhibit different physical properties.
Properties
Non-Silicate minerals are brilliantly varied in their physical appearance.
Almost unrestricted range of colors, sizes & shapes are displayed by well-
formed crystals. Obviously, this geometric beauty and elegant equilibrium
initially drew the scientists to the systematic study of minerals. Though,
with advance study, scientists discovered that there exists an extensive
range of both intrinsic and extrinsic physical properties possessed by
minerals beyond those obvious ones listed above.
● List Of Non-Silicate Minerals
● Oxides
●
● Sulfides
Sulfates
● Halides
● Carbonates
Clay Minerals
Definition: Clay minerals are the characteristic minerals of the earths near surface
environments. They form in soils and sediments, and by diagenetic and
hydrothermal alteration of rocks. Water is essential for clay mineral formation and
most clay minerals are described as hydrous alumino silicates. Structurally, the clay
minerals are composed of planes of cations, arranged in sheets, which may be
tetrahedrally or octahedrally coordinated (with oxygen), which in turn are arranged
into layers often described as 2:1 if they involve units composed of two tetrahedral
and one octahedral sheet or 1:1 if they involve units of alternating tetrahedral and
octahedral sheets. Additionally some 2:1 clay minerals have interlayers sites
between successive 2:1 units which may be occupied by interlayer cations, which
are often hydrated. The planar structure of clay minerals give rise to characteristic
platy habit of many and to perfect cleavage, as seen for example in larger hand
specimens of micas.
The classification of the phyllosilicate clay minerals is based collectively, on the
features of layer type (1:1 or 2:1), the dioctahedral or trioctahedral character of the
octahedral sheets (i.e. 2 out of 3 or 3 out of 3 sites occupied), the magnitude of any
net negative layer charge due to atomic substitutions, and the nature of the
interlayer material.
The basis on which clay minerals are classified is shown below; see Hillier (2003) for
a more detailed introduction to clay mineralogy.