Subject Code: EC2L009 Name: Analog Communications L-T-P: 3-1-0 Credits: 4

Subject Code: EC2L009 Name: Analog Communications L-T-P: 3-1-0 Credits: 4

Pre-requisite(s): Signals and Systems

Introduction: Signals, Fourier Series, Complex Fourier Spectrum, Fourier Transform, Convolution, Parseval's Theorem,
Linear Systems; Analog Modulation: Concept Of Modulation, Amplitude modulation: Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier,
Double-Sideband Full Carrier, Single Sideband and vestigial sideband modulation; Demodulation: Carrier Recovery in AM,
coherent Demodulation, Envelope Detector, Square-Law Demodulator; Integrated Circuit Modulators And Demodulators,
Super heterodyne Receiver; Angle Modulation: Frequency Modulation, Phase Modulation, Narrow Band Angle Modulation,
Wideband FM, Modulators, Demodulators, Broadcast FM And Stereo, QAM; Effects Of Noise In Analog Modulation
Systems. Sampling, Pulse amplitude modulation, pulse width modulation, pulse position modulation, PCM.
Textbooks:
1. J. G. Proakis and M. Salehi, “Fundamentals of Communication Systems,” Prentice Hall, 2004.
2. S. Haykin, “Communication Systems,” John Wiley & Sons, 5th Ed., 2009.
Reference Books:
1. B.P. Lathi and Z. Ding, “Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems,” 4th Ed., Oxford University Press, 2009.
2. Louis E. Frenzel, “Principles of Electonic Communication Systems,” 3rd Ed., Tata McGraw-Hill, 2008.

3. Dennis Roddy and John Coolen, “Electronic Communications,” 4th Ed., Pearson, 2008.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a special form of A/D conversion. It consists of sampling, quantizing, and
encoding steps. It is widely popular because:
- Used for long time in telephone systems
- Inexpensive electronics exists
- Errors can be corrected during long haul transmission
- Can use time division multiplexing

PCM
signal
Signals in PCM Process
 Design Issues for PCM
- Analog to Digital Conversion
Aliasing
Sample timing accuracy
Quantization noise
D/A accuracy
Reconstruction filter

- Digital Communication Technique

Encoding and decoding
Signal format
Transmit and receive filters
Channel effects
Statistical decision making error
 Bandwidth of PCM

Assume w(t) is bandlimited to B hertz.

Minimum sampling rate = 2B samples / second
A/D output = n bits per sample (quantization level M=2n)
Assume a simple PCM without redundancy.
Minimum channel bandwidth = bit rate /2

 Bandwidth of PCM signals:

BPCM  nB (with sinc functions as orthogonal basis)
BPCM  2nB (with rectangular pulses as orthogonal basis)
 For any reasonable quantization level M, PCM requires
much higher bandwidth than the original w(t).
 Effects of Noise
Types of Noise
• Quantizing noise (during A/D conversion)
• Environment noise (e.g., EM interference)
• Filtering noise (low pass filtering at decoder)

Types of Quantization Noise

• Overload noise (input too large)
• Random noise (input too small)
• Granular noise (non uniform error jump)
• Hunting noise (too long of quite time)

 Special quantizers are used (µ-law, A-law quantizers)

peak signal to noise ratio : signal power is measured at it peak value .
S 3M 2
    2


 N  pk out 1  4M  1 Pe
2
3

M (when Pe is negligible .)

average signal to noise ratio : signal power is measured at it average value.

S M2
    M 2 (when Pe is negligible .)

 N out 1  4 M  1 Pe
2

M : quantizati on levels
Pe : probabilit y of bit error in channel

S 2
Let M  2n     M 2  2n  22 n  
 N  out
S S
 
   10 log    10 log 2  20 n log 2  6.02 n
2n

 N dB  N out

This equation states that for each bit added to the PCM scheme, about 6 - dB is gained
in the signal - to - noise ratio.
 Performance of PCM
(Pe  0, uniform quantization steps)
Example) PCM used in telepho ne systems

Voice is considered to be bandlimite d at 4 kHz (  B).  f s  8,000 samples per second

Each sample is converted into an 8 - bit binary number.  n  8 bits per sample
Bit rate of binary PCM signal, R :
R   f s samples/se cond n bits/sampl es  64 kbits/seco nd (this is known as DS - 0 signal.)

minimum bandwidth : B min 

1
R  32 kHz (when sinc function is used.)
2
null bandwidth : BP CM  R  64 kHz (when rectangula r pulse is used)
S
   
 3 28
2
 52.9dB
 N  pk out
 Quantization

Quantization is a non linear transformation which maps elements

from a continuous set to a finite set. It is also the second step
required by A/D conversion.

Analog Signal Sample Quantize Digital Signal

- Continuous time - Discrete time
- Continuous value - Discrete time - Discrete value
- Continuous value
 Uniform Quantization
output w2(t)
V

-V V
input w1(t)

-V
Region of operation
For M=2n levels, step size :
 = 2V /2n = V(2-n+1)
 Quantization Error, e
output w2(t)
V

-V V
input w1(t)

-V

Error, e
/2
-/2 input w1(t)
 

Error is symmetric 
around zero. 0

Average error power :

   3 

  
1
V
2 2
2   2   2
V 2 
 n 1 2
V 2  2n
2V V
e ( s )ds   x dx  
2 2
   2
0  3  12 12 3
 
 
Suppose the input signal is a triangula r wave between  V and  V .
V2
Then the average signal power is .
3
S
    22 n
 N out
Definition. The dynamic range of an input signal is the
ratio of the largest to the smallest power levels which the
input signal can take on and be reproduced with the
acceptable signal distortion.

The dynamic range of the quantizer input in the PCM

system is 6n dB.
 Nonuniform Quantizer

Used to reduce quantization error and increase the dynamic

range when input signal is not uniformly distributed over its
allowed range of values.

allowed
values input

values
for most time
of time
“Compressing-and-expanding” is called “companding.”
Nonuniform quantizer

Discrete Uniform digital

samples Compressor Quantizer signals

••••
Channel
••••

Decoder Expander output

received
digital
signals
 Compression Techniques
A - law compressor
w1 (t )  1, A0
 A w1 (t ) 1
 0  w1 (t ) 
 1  ln A A
w2 (t )  
1  ln A w1 (t )  1
  w1 (t )  1
 1  ln A A

 - law compressor
(very popular internatio nally)

w1 (t )  1
ln 1   w1 (t ) 
w2 (t ) 
ln 1   
In the U.S.,   255 is used.
Output SNR of 8-bit PCM systems
with and without companding.
 Baseband Signaling

Transmitter Receiver
w(t) w#(t) Optimal
Baseband Channel
Filter
Signaling H(f)

• Once the sending end prepared digital signals (e.g.,

PCM) to send, now it is the job of Baseband Signaling
to prepare the signals suited for the channel.
• What should w(t) be?
 Orthogonal set of signals {k (t), k=1,2,3, ..., N}
N
w(t )   wkk (t ), for 0  t  To
k 1
Note
• For practical implementation, we can only use a finite
number, N, of the orthogonal set of signals {k (t), k=1,2,3, ..., N}.
• Again, for practical implementation, the time duration must be
finite, To < .
• The goal is to find a set {k (t), k=1,2,3, ..., N} such that
w(t) represents the digital signals prepared (e.g., PCM) and
a small amount of distortion in the channel does not
affect the recovery of w(t) from the received signal, w#(t).
Example. In ASCII character, “X” is 0001101. Then, using a certain
{k (t), k=1,2,3, ..., 7}, “X” is represented (for 0 < t < To) as
w(t )  w11 (t )  w22 (t )  w33 (t )  w44 (t )  w55 (t )  w66 (t )  w77 (t )
where w1  0, w2  0, w3  0, w4  1, w5  1, w6  0, w7  1.

Or we can view the coeffients wk ' s as components of a vector. Then,

w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 , w5 , w6 , w7   0,0,0,1,1,0,1

Generally, we can use a vector space notation.

N
w   wk φk  w1 , w2 , w3 ,..., wN 
k 1

where k ,1,2,3,... N is a set of N - dimensiona l orthogonal unit vecto rs.
Definition. Baud (symbol) rate D = N / To.

Definition. Bit rate R = n / To where n is the number of

data bit sent in To seconds.If wk is binary, n = N and w(t)
is a binary signal.
If wk is not binary, n  N and w(t) is a multilevel signal.

T
1 o #
K k 0
At the receiver, w #
k w (t ) k (t ) dt , for k  1,2,3,..., N .
*

This process is called the matched filter (i.e., use the same orthogonal
basis to get the original signal back.) Then, the receiver reconstruc ts w(t ) by
N
w(t )   wk#k (t ), for 0  t  To . If the channel was clean (i.e., no noise),
k 1

w(t) is recovered without error.

Example. 3 - bit binary signal in the figure. ( N  3)
3
  1 
s (t )   d j p j (t ) where p j (t )  p t   j  T .
j 1   2 
d  d1 , d 2 , d 3   1,0 ,1

p j (t ) p j (t )
Let  j (t )  
To
 p 2j (t )dt 25To
0

 1
 T  j  1T  t  jT

 j (t )  
 0 elsewhere



s  s1 , s2 , s3   5 T , 0, 5 T 
3
s (t )   s j j (t )
j 1
Binary signaling with M  256 messages. To  8 ms. M  2n  22  256 .  n  8
Given a codeword 01001110 : w  w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 , w5 , w6 , w7 , w8   0,1,0,0,1,1,1,0

Case 1. Retangular pulse as basis set

Pulse duration Tb  1 ms
Amplitude  1
 first null bandwidth B  D  1,000 Hz

Case 2. Sinc functions as basis set

 
sin  t  kTs 
k (t )   s 
T

t  kTs 
Ts
Ts is a sampling frequency.
For this case, Ts  Tb .
1
 minimum bandwidth B  D  500 Hz
2
Multilevel signaling ( L  4 levels) with M  256 messages. To  8 ms.
L  2l. Then, we need to encode l-bit binary data into one signal level (out of L levels).
If L  4, then the following might be used

Binary Input Output Voltage

11 +3
10 +1
00 -1
01 -3
Example. 01 00 11 10  -3 -1 +3 +1
w1 = -3, w2 = -1, w3 = +3, w4 = +1

Note that 2ms is allowed for sending each symbol.