GUN PROLIFERATION & VIOLENCE

&RPSOLFDWLQJ&RQÁLFW'\QDPLFV 3HDFH%XLOGLQJ

Jennifer Santiago Oreta, Ph.D.

Cover Artworks
JUN PORLARES with
+63 929.555.4829
Davao
Arjan Aguirre
Bernadette Eugenio
Ma. Victoria Caranay
Layout & Design Vladimir Reyes
Aimee Tagasa

RYAN G. PALACOL
rgpalacol@yahoo.com Edited by
AX Digital Pallete Designs Jasmin Nario Galace,PhD
+63 927.654.4785
www.axdpdesigns.com
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER
1 Introduction & Context
Jennifer Santiago Oreta
3

CHAPTER
2 The State of Affairs: Gun
Proliferation in the Philippines
8

Jennifer Santiago Oreta

CHAPTER
3 History of Firearms Proliferation
in the Philippines
25

Arjan Aguirre & Jennifer Santiago Oreta

CHAPTER
4 The Legal Terrain
of Firearms Ownership
36

Jennifer Santiago Oreta with Bernadette Eugenio

CHAPTER
5 The Firearms Industry
Jennifer Santiago Oreta & Arjan Aguirre
54

CHAPTER
6 Perceptions of Social Insecurity
& Community Safety
67

Jennifer Santiago Oreta with Ma. Victoria Caranay,

Bernadette Eugenio,Vladimir Reyes
CHAPTER
7 The Peace Process & the Need
for Arms Control & Management
76

Jennifer Santiago Oreta & Ma. Victoria Caranay

APPENDICES
Appendix 4.1 Annual License Fees Civilian Ownership of FA 53
Appendix 5.1 Small Arms Producers 65
Appendix 5.2 Private Gun Ownership Per 100 residents 66
Appendix 7.1 Comparative Analysis of DDR: Select Countries 91

TABLES
;HISL +PZ[YPI\[PVUVM-PYLHYTZ-(3PJLUZLZI`8\HSPÄJH[PVU  9
;HISL +PZ[YPI\[PVUVM3PJLUZLKHUK3VVZL-PYLHYTZ:LSLJ[LK7LYPVKZ 11
;HISL 5\TILYVM-PYLHYTZ0U]VS]LKPU*YPTLZ:LSLJ[LK7LYPVKZ 13
Table 2.4 Weapons Holding of Insurgent Groups 18
;HISL ;OL3HYNLZ[(YTZ7YVK\JPUN*VYWVYH[PVUZPU[OL>VYSK 54
Table 5.2 Licensed Firearms Purchased from Gun Dealers (1990 to 2008) 60
Table 5.3 Type of Registered Firearms 62
Table 7.1 Pressure Points where Firearms Proliferate 88
Table 7.2 SALW Pressures Points in the Horn of Africa 94

REFERENCES 95

Gun Proliferation & Violence

 CHAPTER 1
Introduction & Context

The issue of gun proliferation is contentious.

One,[OL[VWPJP[ZLSMPZJVU[YV]LYZPHS0U[OL<UP[LK:[H[LZN\UV^ULYZOPWOHZ
Z[PYYLKJVUZ[P[\[PVUHSKLIH[LZ0U[OL7OPSPWWPULZLU[O\ZPHZ[ZH[[LTW[[VPU]VRL
the right to self-defense as a constitutional guarantee to gun ownership. There
are “pro” and “anti” positions as regards gun ownership. The topic is polarizing.

TwoUV[]LY`THU`WLVWSL]PL^gun-proliferation as thePZZ\L:\YL[OLYLHYL
KLH[OZPU]VS]LKI\[PUHZVJPL[`[OH[OHZILLUKLZLUZP[PaLKI`]PVSLUJL[OLZL
L]LU[ZHYLKPZTPZZLKHZWHY[VM[OLº^H`[OPUNZHYL»0UMHJ[WLVWSLOHKMV\UK
^H`Z[VTHRLN\UYLSH[LK]PVSLUJLWHSH[HISL-VYPUZ[HUJL[OLLSLJ[PVU
^P[OYLWVY[LKS`KLH[OZHZJVTWHYLK[V PU7579LWVY[^HZ
considered a “relatively” WLHJLM\SLSLJ[PVU"JP]PSPHUKLH[OZK\L[V[OLJVUÅPJ[
between the government forces and rebels are considered as “collateral
damage”"HKYP]LYNL[[PUNZOV[ILJH\ZLVMH[YHMÄJHS[LYJH[PVUPZYLNHYKLK
HZHU¸PZVSH[LKL]LU[¹>OH[»Z\Z\HSS`NP]LUH[[LU[PVUHYL[OLJYPTLYH[L[OL
PUZ\YNLUJ`HUK[OLLSLJ[PVU]PVSLUJL>OPSL[OLZLPZZ\LZHYLPTWVY[HU[[OL
TVZ[VI]PV\ZPZVM[LUNSVZZLKV]LY¶HSSVM[OLZLPU]VS]LKN\UZHUKHSSVM[OLZL
became issues precisely because of the easy access to guns.

Three,N\UZVYÄYLHYTZPUHZVJPL[`^P[O^LHRZLJ\YP[`LUMVYJLTLU[HYL
regarded ambivalently. Those who doubt the capacity of security law enforcers
to carry out their job well view it as an instrument of protection. This is
LZWLJPHSS`[Y\LPUJVUÅPJ[HYLHZ6U[OLV[OLYOHUK[OVZL^OVKVUV[WVZZLZZ
N\UZ]PL^N\UV^ULYZ^P[OKPZ[YLZZ4VYLZVPU[OLOHUKZVMVYNHUPaLK
NYV\WZ¶^OL[OLYZ[H[LVYUVUZ[H[LÄYLHYTZILJVTLHUPUZ[Y\TLU[VMWV^LY
HUKJVLYJPVU7VZZLZZPVUVMÄYLHYTZPUOLYLU[S`JYLH[LZHZLJ\YP[`PZZ\LPUH
JVTT\UP[`ZL[[PUN0UV[OLY^VYKZN\UZUV[VUS`OH]LHZVJPHSS`JVUZ[Y\J[LK
value; their value and appreciation is also contextual.

;OPZYLZLHYJOYLÅLJ[Z[OLZLJVU[YV]LYZPLZ0[H[[LTW[Z[VU\HUJL[OLZ\IQLJ[
beyond the binary positions of gun possession and ownership versus those
who do not approve of the same. It presents the social and policy-level dilemma
[OH[JVU[L_[\HSPaL^O`WVSPJ`THRLYZZLLT[VHS^H`ZWLYMVYTHIHSHUJPUNHJ[
>OPSL[OLYLZLHYJOHJRUV^SLKNLZ[OLYLHSP[`VM[OLWVSHYWVZP[PVUZYLNHYKPUN
ÄYLHYTZV^ULYZOPWP[H]VPKZ[OL[`WPJHSMVYT\SHVMLP[OLYZ\WWVY[PUNWVZZLZZPVU
or rejecting it.

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction & Context 3

 Framework of the Study
;OLZVJPHSS`JVUZ[Y\J[LK]HS\LVMN\UZVYÄYLHYTZPZJSVZLS`HZZVJPH[LK^P[O
OV^VUL]PL^Z[OLSVNPJILOPUK[OLZVJPHSVYNHUPaH[PVUWHY[PJ\SHYS`[OLSL]LSVM
social order and control in society.
6UVULOHUK[OLYLPZ[OL]PL^[OH[ZVJPL[`HUKZVJPHSVYKLYPZIHZLKVU[OL
consensual agreement and commonality of values of people in a community.
:[HIPSP[`PZTHPU[HPULKI`LUZ\YPUN[OH[L]LY`VULPZVU[OLZHTLWHNLHUK
there exists an implicit agreement among its members. It is apparent that this
view regards individuals as capable of voluntarily limiting their desires for the
ILULÄ[VM[OLNYV\W;OPZMYHTLOHZHZ[YVUNUVYTH[P]LZVTLOV^PK`SSPJ]PL^VM
society.
Social control in this context pertains to the willingness of individuals to change
[OLPY^H`ZPUVYKLY[VÄ[HNYV\W;OLPUKP]PK\HS»Z^PSSPUNULZZ[VZLSMYLWYVHJOPU
HZLUZLYLÅLJ[Z[OLLMMLJ[P]LULZZVM[OLZVJPHSPUZ[P[\[PVUZ»HIPSP[`[VYLN\SH[LHUK
temper the individual’s desire in exchange for societal harmony. For the most
WHY[ZVJPHSJVU[YVSPZ[OLV\[JVTLVMHUVYTH[P]LZVJPHSPaH[PVUWYVJLZZJYLH[PUN
[OLPTHNLVMHJVUZLUZ\HSZVJPL[`+LÅLT! "ZLLHSZV4LHK 
This view is based on the belief that social harmony is indeed possible based
on consensual peace among the members.
6U[OLOHUK[OLVWWVZP[L]PL^Z[H[LZ[OH[ZVJPHSVYKLYPZWVZZPISLVUS`PM[OLYL
PZHUH\[OVYP[`[OH[JV\SKJ\YI[OLPUKP]PK\HSZ»KLZPYLZHUKPUOLYLU[ZLSÄZOULZZ
for the collective good. It does not subscribe to the idea that individuals have
the magnanimity to voluntarily give up pursuing their own agenda for the
collective welfare.1
;OLRPSSPUNZHZZVJPH[LK^P[OHIPNV[LKHUKYHJPZ[]PL^VMJVTT\UP[`KYHTH[PaLK
LZWLJPHSS`K\YPUN[OL:LJVUK>VYSK>HY^LYLJSLHYPUKPJH[PVUZ[OH[H
harmonious peace based on community consensus is not only premised on
ZOHR`NYV\UKZI\[JHUHJ[\HSS`IL\ZLK[VQ\Z[PM`H[YVJPV\ZHJ[Z
;OLJVUJLW[VMZVJPHSJVU[YVSPZ[O\ZWLYJLP]LKHZHZL[VMPUZ[P[\[PVUZHUKH
system of mechanisms which main goal is to prevent and/or address deviant
behaviors in society. It is “employed to refer to the more repressive and coercive
MVYTZVMJVU[YVS[OH[HYLPUZ[P[\[LKUV[I`ZVJPHSPaH[PVUPU[VUVYTZI\[VU[OL
IHZPZVMWV^LYHUKMVYJL¹+LÅLT 
+L]PHU[ILOH]PVYZOH]LILLUYLNHYKLKHZ[OYLH[Z[V[OLZVJPHSOHYTVU`^P[O
some labeled as crimes. While crime is a legal concept2P[PZHSZVHZVJPHS
construction. An act that is considered as a crime in one context may be
WLYMLJ[S`SLNHSPUHUV[OLY-VYPUZ[HUJLHIVY[PVUPZH
JYPTLPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZI\[PZSLNHSPUJLY[HPUZ[H[LZ 1 for an extended discussion
PU[OL<:(4HYPQ\HUHPZIHUULKPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ on the topic, see Social
Contract theories of John
I\[PZHSSV^LKPUZVTL,\YVWLHUJV\U[YPLZHSILP[PU
Locke and Thomas Hobbes
SPTP[LKX\HU[P[`4VYLV]LYHKL]PHU[ILOH]PVYTH`IL 2 crime is formally defined
regarded as illegalI\[UV[ULJLZZHYPS`PSSLNP[PTH[L3 as a “behavior that is
considered so harmful that
-VYL_HTWSLIHZLKVU[OLPTWVZLKY\SLZVM[OL it is banned by criminal
law.” (Barkan 2005)
4 Gun Proliferation & Violence
JVSVUPaLYZN\UWVZZLZZPVUK\YPUN[OLYL]VS\[PVUMVYPUKLWLUKLUJL^HZPSSLNHS
but nonetheless supported by the population.
0UV[OLY^VYKZKL]PHU[ILOH]PVYZVYJYPTLZHYLJVU[L_[KLWLUKLU[HUK[PTL
KLWLUKLU[)HYRHUº+L]PHUJL»KLÄULKPZQ\KNLKUV[VUS`IHZLKVU[OL
behavior but also in the context and circumstance to which the action occurred.
(Ibid) The label ‘deviant’ or ‘criminal’ is based on the subjective agreement
VM[OLWV^LYOVSKLYZPUZVJPL[`0[PZ[OLHWWSPJH[PVUVMY\SLZHZKLÄULKI`[OL
WV^LYM\STHQVYP[`Y\SLZ[OH[HYLZ\WWVZLK[VILULÄ[ZVJPHSVYKLYHUKOHYTVU`
¸;OLW\UPZOTLU[VMKL]PHUJLJSHYPÄLZZVJPHSUVYTZHUKYLPUMVYJLZ
social ties among those doing or watching the punishing.“
+\YOLPT PU)HYRHU4
.\UWVZZLZZPVU[OLYLMVYLPZLP[OLYH[OYLH[[V[OLJVUZLUZ\HSWLHJLI\[JHU
also be viewed as an instrument to maintain it. If the community has been used
[VUVUJVLYJP]LTLHUZ[VLUMVYJLOHYTVU`PU[YVK\JPUNHN\U¶[LJOUPJHSS`H
foreign instrument - in such a setting can be viewed as a threat to consensual
WLHJL6U[OLV[OLYOHUKPM[OLJVTT\UP[`PZ\ZLK[VZLLPUN^LHWVUZVY
\ZPUN^LHWVUZ[VLUMVYJLJVU[YVSÄYLHYTZJHUIL]PL^LKHZHUPUZ[Y\TLU[[V
maintain peace.
The regulatory regime in gun ownership
:VJPHSJVU[YVSOHZHS^H`ZILLUPTWVZLKPUYLNHYK[VN\UZÄYLHYTZWVZZLZZPVU
for the simple reason that only the state should have the monopoly of the
legitimate use of violence. (Weber 1918) Despots resist gun ownership by
HZPNUPÄJHU[U\TILYVM[OLWVW\SH[PVUZPUJLOPZ[VY`ZOV^Z[OH[HUHYTLK
population has the capacity to rise up against a dictator. This is the context
of the right to bear of armsWYV]PZPVUPU[OL<:*VUZ[P[\[PVU;OLÄYZ[HJ[VM
4HYJVZ5PUMHJ[^OLUOLKLJSHYLKTHY[PHSSH^PU ^HZ[VYV\UK\WHSSN\UZ
in civilian possession.
Since most of the criminal acts utilize weapons - the most effective of which
are guns- the normal and expected reaction of law enforcers is to regulate
P[Z\ZL"OLUJL[OLYLN\SH[VY`YLNPTL[OH[PZLUMVYJLKPUN\UZHUKÄYLHYTZ
possession on civilians. This regulatory regime has
been in existence since the time of colonization until
3 Legitimacy is the
the present. subjective agreement of
the relevant population
on what is ethical and
Groups and individuals who favor civilian gun proper. It usually is based
ownership challenge this framing. They argue that on the acceptable ‘rules’
[OLZ[H[LZLJ\YP[`VYNHUZ¶[OLWVSPJLTPSP[HY`HUK – rules that are defined
either legally or based on
KLW\[PaLK\UP[Z¶MHPS[VTHRLWLVWSLMLLSZLJ\YL the customary, traditional
IV[OPU[OLPYOVTLZHUKJVTT\UP[PLZ;O\ZJP]PSPHUZ values of the community.
4 Emile Durkheim also
resort to arming themselves as a deterrent to the believes that deviance
criminal and hostile acts of those who challenge is necessary for social
change – deviance is
peace in the community. It is perceived as a way
the natural expression of
[VKL[LYHNNYLZZVYZ-PYLHYTZ[O\ZHYL]PL^LK freedom of thought.
as an instrument of protection. Acquiring guns 5 Philippine President
Marcos declared martial
HZWYV[LJ[PVUPUZ[Y\TLU[PZ[O\ZHreaction to law from 1972 to 1981
a
perceived external situation.
CHAPTER 1 | Introduction & Context 5
 ;OLWHYHKV_OV^L]LYPZ[OH[^OPSLN\UWVZZLZZPVUZLLTPUNS`THRLZWLVWSL
MLLSZLJ\YLP[ZWYVSPMLYH[PVUJHUHSZVTHRLWLVWSLMLLSTVYLPUZLJ\YL4VYL
N\UZPUJPYJ\SH[PVUJYLH[LNYLH[LYYPZRZMVYTPZ\ZL:LL-PN\YL(OPNO
incidence of violence caused by guns also creates some question on the
Z[YLUN[OVM[OLHYN\TLU[[OH[N\UZHYLPUZ[Y\TLU[ZVMWYV[LJ[PVU;OPZZWPRLZ
[OLKLTHUKMVYÄYLHYTZHUKJVUZLX\LU[S`PUJYLHZLZHSZV[OLWYLZZ\YLMVY
state security forces to enforce social control/ regulatory measures over gun
proliferation.
The demand for stronger regulatory measures usually comes from groups who
believe that order in society is possible based on the consensual agreement
VMP[ZTLTILYZ0U[OPZ]PL^WVZZLZZPVUVMÄYLHYTZOPUKLYZ[OLWVZZPIPSP[`VM
achieving community consensus since it provides the leeway of resorting to
MVYJLYH[OLY[OHUNLU\PULS`W\YZ\PUNHUHNYLLHISLZVS\[PVU[VJVUÅPJ[Z/LUJL
[OLOPNOLY[OLPUJPKLUJLVMN\U]PVSLUJL[OLNYLH[LY[OLWYLZZ\YL[OLZLNYV\WZ
exert on law enforcers to impose gun control.
WLYJLW[PVUVMH^LHRZ[H[LTV[P]H[LZWLVWSL[VZLJ\YLHYTZMVYWYV[LJ[PVU
“The demand for small arms and light weapons is often fuelled by
JVUKP[PVUZVMPUZLJ\YP[`VWWYLZZPVUO\THUYPNO[Z]PVSH[PVUZHUK
\UKLYKL]LSVWTLU[¹<5+7,ZZLU[PHSZ5V 5V]
0UºJVUÅPJ[»HYLHZ^OLYLYLILSNYV\WZOH]LZ[YVUNWYLZLUJL[OLLHZ`HJJLZZ
to guns can instigate or even intensify existing hostilities between and among
groups. More guns in circulation can further exacerbate the already volatile
ZVJPHSWVSP[PJHSHUKLJVUVTPJKP]PKLZ[OH[L_PZ[PU7OPSPWWPULZVJPL[`
This research argues that people generally acquire guns because of perceived
WO`ZPJHSZVJPHSPUZLJ\YP[`HUKUV[K\L[V[OLPUOLYLU[HNNYLZZP]LUH[\YLVM
PUKP]PK\HSZHUKNYV\WZHZZVTL^V\SKSPRL[VILSPL]L7 The way to mitigate
such is for state security forces to put their acts together and ensure the
physical protection and security of the peoples.

Perception of social and physical
insecurity is based on one’s
interpretation of the situation
I don’t feel safe-everyone has
a gun.
The situation is out of control/
too much crime is happening.
Figure 1: The social construction of demand and the consequent effect to gun
proliferation
The response is based on one’s
assessment of the situation;
arms/ guns construed as micro-
deterrence
I will get a gun to protect myself
I can defend myself against
attackers.
;OH[UV[^P[OZ[HUKPUN[OPZYLZLHYJOHSZVHYN\LZ[OH[ZPKLI`ZPKL^P[O[OL
need for the state apparatus to perform its mandated function is the need
for regulation and control as regards civilian gun ownership. While the
research does not discount the possibility of pursuing societal peace based
VUJVTT\UP[`JVUZLUZ\ZZ\JOJHUVUS`ILWVZZPISLPM[OLYLHYL¸UVI\SSL[Z
whizzing by.”8
Chapters of the Book
;OLÄYZ[JOHW[LYVM[OLIVVRWYLZLU[Z[OL[OLVYL[PJHSMYHTLHUKHYN\TLU[VM[OL
research. It poses the contending views of social control based on community
consensusHUKZVJPHSJVU[YVSIHZLKVUregulation and punishment. These
contending views largely frame the discourse as regards arms control and
management in the Philippine context.

;OPZOHZILLU[OLLIIHUKÅV^VM[OLN\UWYVSPMLYH[PVUKLIH[LPU[OL *OHW[LYSVVRZH[[OLZ[H[LVMHMMHPYZVMN\U
7OPSPWWPULZ>OLU[OLPUJPKLUJLVMN\U]PVSLUJLPZOPNO[OLWYLZZ\YLMVY WYVSPMLYH[PVUPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZHUK[OLSLNHSHUKPSSPJP[ 7 This argument challenges
the hasty generalization
YLN\SH[PVUPZOPNOHZ^LSS>OLUN\U]PVSLUJLPUJPKLU[ZHYLSV^[OLKLIH[L THYRL[Z^OPSL*OHW[LY[YHJLZ[OLOPZ[VY`VM[OL that there are individuals
[HRLZHIHJRZLH[ ÄYLHYTZPUK\Z[Y`HUK[OLWYVJSP]P[`VMJP]PSPHUZ[V[OPZ and groups who are
instrument. “trigger-happy,” have
a “culture of violence,”
Argument of the study or a “culture of guns.”
9LNHYKSLZZVMVUL»ZWVZP[PVUPU[OLKLIH[L[OLYLHSP[`YLTHPUZ[OH[[OLLHZ` Chapter 4 reviews the existing legal regime of It is the social structure
and condition and not
HJJLZZ[VÄYLHYTZHUK^LHWVUZL_HJLYIH[LZ[OLJVUÅPJ[MVYTH[PVUHUK ÄYLHYTZWYVSPMLYH[PVUPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ^OPSL*OHW[LY the inherent nature of
5
dynamics in the country. The Philippine Human Development Report (2004) L_HTPULZ[OLÄYLHYTZPUK\Z[Y`PU[OLJV\U[Y` individuals that motivates
people to secure weapons
posited that perceptions and experience of deprivation are an impetus for of protection. That humans
JVUÅPJ[MVYTH[PVUPU[OLJV\U[Y`;OLYLHSP[`VM\UTL[ULLKZIV[OLJVUVTPJHUK Chapter 6 problematizes on how gun proliferation are inherently violent is
WVSP[PJHSM\LSZ[OLWLYJLW[PVUVMKLWYP]H[PVU[OH[M\Y[OLYW\ZOWLVWSL[VYLZVY[[V PTWHJ[ZVU[OLZVJPHSPUZLJ\YP[`VMJP]PSPHUZ-PUHSS` also challenged in the
Seville Statement drafted
violence. Criminality and insurgency thrive in a context where the perception of *OHW[LYSVVRZH[OV^ÄYLHYTZWYVSPMLYH[PVUPTWHJ[Z by scientists and scholars
relative deprivation6 is high. VU[OLWLHJLTHRPUNHUKWLHJLHUKHYN\LZMVY in Seville Spain in 1988 a
comprehensive arms control and management 8 This term was used by
CHR Commissioner Etta
.\UV^ULYZZ[H[LH\[OVYP[PLZJYPTPUHSZHUK 6 The term “relative program. Rosales in the Round
deprivation” was Table Discussion held at
insurgents are able to wield power over others who
introduced by Ted Robert the Camp Aguinaldo-
do not possess guns. The perception of physical Gurr in his seminal work, Commissioned Officers
PUZLJ\YP[`HTVUNJP]PSPHUZQ\_[HWVZLK^P[OH Why Men Rebel (1971). Club, ___ August 2010

6 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 1 | Introduction & Context 7

 Table 2.1: Distribution of Firearms (FA)
CHAPTER 2 3PJLUZLZI`8\HSPÄJH[PVU
5
No. of FA
Qualification* No. of FA 2002
The State of Affairs: Businessmen 243,253
1st Semester 2008
283,522
Gun Proliferation in the Philippines1 Private individual 150,345 --
Scty Agencies -- 217,124
Jennifer Santiago Oreta Pvt. Employees 128,838 172,414
AFP/ PNP/ BJMP/ BFP* 93,688 134,000
Govt Employee/ Official 82,811 104,950
Govt Entities 30,711 54,858
Professionals 37,468 42,084
Elected Officials 14,621 25,632
0U[OLWYLZLU[Z[\K`[OL[LYTZguns, small armsHUKÄYLHYTZ – used Retired AFP/ PNP 13,369 17,270
Z`UVU`TV\ZS`PU[OPZWHWLYHYL[HRLU[VTLHUOHUKOLSK^LHWVUZVM Private Entities 10,353 12,494
TPSP[HY`JVTTLYJPHSVYZWVY[PUNZWLJPÄJH[PVU[OH[ÄYLHWYVQLJ[PSL[OYV\NOH Ret. Govt Employees/Officials 8,500 9,016
tube by explosive charge.2;OL[LYTJV]LYZN\UZ[OH[HYLVMÄJPHSS`HUKSLNHSS` Reservist -- 6,383
THU\MHJ[\YLKSPRLYL]VS]LYZHUKZLSMSVHKPUNWPZ[VSZYPÅLZHUKJHYIPULZZ\I Ret. Private Employee 605 819
THJOPULN\UZHZZH\S[YPÅLZSPNO[THJOPULN\UZ:THSS(YTZ:\Y]L`3HZ Religious Official -- 378
^LSSHZOVTLTHKLN\UZSPRL¸WHS[PR¹¸Z\TWHR¹HUKZ\JOV[OLYPTWYV]PZH[PVUZ Diplomatic Corps -- 130
[OH[ÄYLHWYVQLJ[P]L\ZPUNN\UWV^KLY TOTAL 814,562 1,081,074
* in italics: private/ civilian owners
Guns-in-circulationPU[OPZZ[\K`JV]LYZSLNHSHUKPSSLNHSÄYLHYTZHUK^PSSUV[ *AFP (Armed Forces of the Philippines), PNP (Philippine National Police), BJMP (Bureau
differentiate between those in government and in civilian hands. The basic of Jail Management and Penology), BFP (Bureau of Fire Protection)
consideration is access[OH[PZ[OLWLYJLU[HNLVM[OLOV\ZLOVSKWVZZLZZPUN
ÄYLHYTZ[OLL_[LU[[V^OPJOÄYLHYTZHYLYLN\SH[LKHUK[OLU\TILYVMÄYLHYTZ
in civilian hands. (JJVYKPUN[V[OL:THSS(YTZ:\Y]L`[OLLZ[PTH[LVM 0U[OLÄYZ[ZLTLZ[LYVM[OLYL^LYLlicensedÄYLHYTZOHSM
ÄYLHYTZPUJPYJ\SH[PVUPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZPZHWWYV_PTH[LS` TPSSPVUOPNOVM VM^OPJO^LYLPU[OL5H[PVUHS*HWP[HS9LNPVUVY5*94HSPNHSPN
million and low of 2.8million).4 2008)6 What is interesting here is that 69.85% of legal arms in circulation were
PUJP]PSPHUVYWYP]H[LOHUKZHUKVUS`^LYL^P[O[OLWVSPJLTPSP[HY`
;OLVMÄJPHSZ[H[PZ[PJZYLNHYKPUN[OLU\TILYVMN\UZPUJPYJ\SH[PVUJVTLZMYVT KLW\[PaLKNV]LYUTLU[LTWSV`LLZVMÄJPHSZLSLJ[LKVMÄJPHSZYLZLY]PZ[HUK
the Philippine National Police-Firearms and Explosives Division (PNP-FED). KPWSVTH[PJJVYWZJVTIPULK*VTWHYLK^P[OÄN\YLZ[OLWLYJLU[HNLVM
/V^L]LY[OL757MHPSZ[VZWLJPM`[OLZWLJPÄJKH[LZJV]LYLKI`[OLPYZ[H[PZ[PJZ"
YLWVY[LKÄN\YLZ[O\Z]HY`;OLKH[HNHWL_JLW[PU[OLSHZ[[OYLL`LHYZTHRLZ
Z`Z[LTH[PJHZZLZZTLU[VMHYTZWYVSPMLYH[PVUKPMÄJ\S[
It also affects the way the public and government A portion of this paper
1 0UHN\UV^ULY7ZOHYLK[OH[[OLJVZ[VMÄYLHYTZSPJLUZPUN^OPJOPUJS\KLK
VMÄJPHSZHWWYLJPH[L[OLNYH]P[`VM[OLPZZ\L has been presented in the
PNP Firearms Summit,
held at Camp Crame
5L]LY[OLSLZZHZMHYHZWYHJ[PJHISL[OPZYLZLHYJO in May 2009. Likewise,
\[PSPaLK[OLÄN\YLZPZZ\LKI`[OL757HZ^LSSHZ
some data have been
quoted by Ms. Gemma
VMÄJPHSYLWVY[ZMYVT]HYPV\ZNV]LYUTLU[\UP[Z;VÄSS Bagayuna Mendoza in her
[OLKH[HNHWZUL^ZWHWLYHUKJV\U[Y`HZZLZZTLU[ Newsbreak articles, Armed
and Dangerous: more
reports were also used for purposes of discussion. civilians own guns than
)\[[VKYP]LOVTL[OLWVPU[Table 2.1 and 2.2 military and police (Jan 29,
PSS\Z[YH[L[OLNHWZPUYLWVY[LKKH[H0[ZOV\SKILUV[LK
2011); and Gun Amnesties
don’t work (Feb 1, 2011)
[OV\NO[OH[ILNPUUPUN[OL-,+OHZYLN\SHYS` 2
The phrase “that fire a
updated statistics re gun ownership. projectile through a tube
by explosive charge” is
the current accepted gun-
definition by the UN, based
on the 1997 Report by
Government Experts
8 Gun Proliferation & Violence
WYP]H[LW\ISPJV^ULYZOPWOHZUV[JOHUNLKT\JO^OLYLVM-(Z^LYLHSZV
in private hands.
SPJLUZLMLLZWYVJLZZPUNMLLZHUKV[OLYKVJ\TLU[HY`HUK[LZ[ZMLLZ^HZH[
HWWYV_PTH[LS`7OWYV\NOS`<:^P[O[OLHTV\U[PUJYLHZPUN
proportionate with the gun caliber.8/V^L]LY[OLVMÄJPHSHTV\U[VMSPJLUZPUN
PZT\JOSV^LYIHZLKVU[OL9H[PVUHSPaLK-LLZHUK*OHYNLZVU-PYLHYTZ
Licensing (Exec. Order 256Z "ZLL(WWLUKP_*OHW[LY^OLYLHZOVY[
HYTJV\SKILSPJLUZLKMYVT7OW<:[V7OW 
>OPSL[OLL_PZ[PUNSH^VUÄYLHYTZ7+Z[H[LZ 7
legal gun owner; name
that a civilian is allowed ownership of only one long withheld upon request
8
Former FED head, Gen.
HYTHUKVULZOVY[HYTVY[OL¸VULSVUNVULZOVY[¹
Caccam, however, stated
Y\SL[OPZY\SPUN^HZºYLSH_LK»K\YPUN[OL[PTLVM that the basic amount for
Former President Estrada. Despite the absence of a firearm license is just
about P720 or about US$
PTWSLTLU[PUNY\SLZHUKYLN\SH[PVU099N\UNYV\WZ 17. (Interviewed June 3,
still view Executive Order 1649 issued by President 2008, PNP-FED Office, 2
pm)
Estrada on February 2000 as a general repeal not only
CHAPTER 2 | The State of Affairs 9
 VM[OLºVULSVUNVULZOVY[»Y\SLI\[HSZVHYLWLHSVU[OLIHUYLNHYKPUNJP]PSPHU
V^ULYZOPWVMOPNOJHSPILYÄYLHYTZ10 Executive 171 (2003) issued by Former
7YLZPKLU[(YYV`VOV^L]LYYL]LYZLK[OL,6Y\SPUNVU[OLTH[[LYVMN\U
JHSPILYI\[^HZZPSLU[VU[OLU\TILYVMN\UZ[OH[TH`ILV^ULKI`JP]PSPHUZ
5L]LY[OLSLZZP[^HZ[OL757[OH[PZZ\LKHJHWVM[LUÄYLHYTZWLYJP]PSPHU7HWH
2006)11
Gun Proliferation and Violence
,HYS`PU ZP_WLVWSL^LYLOP[I`Z[YH`I\SSL[Z\WI`[^VH[[OLZHTL[PTL
PUWYVTW[PUNHJYHJRKV^UVUSVVZLÄYLHYTZPU[OLHYLHZVM*HSVVJHU
4HSHIVU5H]V[HZHUK=HSLUa\LSH5H[P]PKHK 16 Almost every day there is
HYLWVY[VUN\U]PVSLUJL^OL[OLYHJJPKLU[HSVYPU[LU[PVUHS:LL(WWLUKP_
LooseÄYLHYTZHYL[OVZL^LHWVUZ[OH[HYLIV\NO[MYVTSLNHSKLHSLYZI\[
HYL\UYLNPZ[LYLK7H[[\NHSHU17 or whose license have expired or have
not been renewed; illegalHYTZVU[OLV[OLYOHUKHYL[OVZL[OH[HYLPSSLNHSS`
THU\MHJ[\YLKKVTLZ[PJVYMVYLPNUTHKL[YHKLKHUKZVSK3VVZLÄYLHYTZ
[OLYLMVYLJHUILLZ[PTH[LKI\[PSSLNHSÄYLHYTZHYLOHYKLY[VNH\NL;OL757
OV^L]LYPU[LYJOHUNLHIS`\ZLZºSVVZL»HUKºPSSLNHS»HZPM[OL`TLHU[[OLZHTL
There may be reasons for doing so. Combining these two concepts gives
[OLPTWYLZZPVU[OH[[OL757RUV^ZOV^THU`SVVZLHUKPSSLNHSN\UZHYLV\[
there.18;OLYLHSP[`OV^L]LYPZ[OH[[OLHNLUJ`KVLZUV[I\[YH[OLYOH]LVUS`HU
estimate of looseÄYLHYTZ

Chinese-made guns
)L[^LLU[OLWLYPVKZ [V[OLYL^HZHZ[LHK`PUJYLHZLPU[OLU\TILY
available in the local
market.
VMSPJLUZLKN\UZ`L[[OLU\TILYVM\USPJLUZLKN\UZ^HZUV[KLJYLHZPUN
:[H[PZ[PJZVUYLWVY[LKSVVZLÄYLHYTZ^LYLHSZVPUJVUZPZ[LU[;HISLMVY
PUZ[HUJLZ\NNLZ[ZHKYHTH[PJKLJYLHZLVU[OLU\TILYVMSVVZL-(ZMYVT 
The seeming indecisiveness of the state as regards civilian gun ownership
[VI\[ÄN\YLZMYVTPUKPJH[LZHZOHYWYLIV\UK3PRL^PZL
YLÅLJ[ZVU[OLL_LTW[PVUZNYHU[LK[VNYV\WZHUKPUKP]PK\HSZ-VYPUZ[HUJL
ÄN\YLZYLWVY[LKPUVUSVVZL-(ZPUKPJH[LHSHYNLSLHWMYVTÄN\YLZ
JLY[PÄLKN\UJS\ITLTILYZHYLHSSV^LK\W[VÄM[LLUOHUKN\UZHUKÄ]L
reported in 2003. There are two possibilities here: either the PNP was extremely
ZLTPH\[VTH[PJYPÅLZMVY[YHPUPUNHUKJVTWL[P[PVU12 The famous boxer Manny
unsuccessful in running after loose FAs between 2003 and 2006 or these
Pacquiao applied for twenty FAs for his security detail at the height of the
reported data are extremely inaccurate.
LSLJ[PVUN\UIHUPUHUKOPZHWWSPJH[PVU^HZNYHU[LK13 The alleged
mastermind of the Maguindanao Massacre Datu Unsay Ampatuan has “19
;O\ZP[PZPTWVY[HU[MVY[OL757[VJSHYPM`HUKKPMMLYLU[PH[LIL[^LLUºSVVZL»HUK
OPNOWV^LYLKÄYLHYTZYLNPZ[LYLK^P[O[OL7OPSPWWPUL5H[PVUHS7VSPJL¹-LSPWL
ºPSSLNHS»ÄYLHYTZHUK[VYLSLHZLZ[H[PZ[PJZVUÄYLHYTZVUHYLN\SHYIHZPZ
2009)14;OPZNVLZ[VZOV^[OH[^OPSL[OLYLHYLVMÄJPHSSPTP[ZL_LTW[PVUZ\Z\HSS`
KL[LYTPULKI`VUL»ZJVUULJ[PVUHYL]LY`YHTWHU[
;HISL!+PZ[YPI\[PVUVM3PJLUZLKHUK3VVZL-PYLHYTZZLSLJ[LKWLYPVKZ
(ZHZPKLUV[L[OLYLPZUVJHWVU[OLHTV\U[VMammunitions one can Year Licensed FA Loose FA
W\YJOHZL(ºWLYTP[[VW\YJOHZL»PZPZZ\LK[V[OVZL^P[OÄYLHYTZSPJLUZL 199919 706,148 349,782
allowing one to purchase ammunitions. Kramer (2008) reports that the round of 200220 814,562 284,100
200321 -- 328,000
ammunitions allowed to be purchased at a time are as follows.
200622 800,000 500,000
Shotgun of any gauge: 300 rounds
3V^WV^LYLKYPÅLZ! YV\UKZ 106,686
200623 --
(as of 3rd Q of 2006)
Revolvers (.22 caliber): 300 rounds
1,081,074
Pistols (.22 caliber): 300 rounds 200824 482,162
(as of 2 Sept 2008)
All other FA: 100 rounds 1,103,616 --
200825
(as of 9 Oct 9, 2008)
Republic Act 8294Z[H[LZ[OH[¸PSSLNHSWVZZLZZPVUVMÄYLHYTZOHZHWLUHS[`VM
prision correccionalPUP[ZTH_PT\TWLYPVKHUKHÄULVMUV[SLZZ[OHUÄM[LLU
757LZ[PTH[LVMSVVZLÄYLHYTZPU[OLJV\U[Y`
[OV\ZHUK7LZVZ7OWVYHIV\[<:¹153LNHSS`N\UZJHUUV[IL 18
It is no surprise, then that the
PU ^HZH[26 “approximate number of loose
brought outside the home without a permit-to-carry (PTC) which is issued only
-VY[OLW\YWVZLVMJSHYP[`[OPZZ[\K`^PSS firearms” statistics released by the
I`[OL*OPLM757L_JLW[K\YPUNLSLJ[PVUWLYPVK^OLUPZZ\HUJLVM[OL7;* PNP is exact to the last digit – because
distinguish between the labels ‘loose’ and
YLZ[Z^P[O[OL*VTTPZZPVUVU,SLJ[PVU*64,3,*;OLYLHSP[`OV^L]LYWHPU[Z these are the firearms that used to be
‘illegal’ and use them with care. licensed whose license have expired
HKPMMLYLU[WPJ[\YLHZWLUHS[PLZZLLT[VWVZLSP[[SLKL[LYYLUJLMVYPSSLNHSN\U or not renewed. In other words, loose
holders. firearms can be accurately gauged, but
The highest numbers of illegal27ÄYLHYTZ^LYL illegal guns cannot.

10 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 2 | The State of Affairs 11

 YLWVY[LKPU[OLHYLHZVM(\[VUVTV\Z9LNPVUMVY4\ZSPT4PUKHUHV(944 “The raid followed the discovery of an arms cache—enough to supply two
*H]P[L3HN\UH)H[HUNHZ9PaHS8\LaVUHYLHZ*(3()(9A65*LU[YHS=PZH`HZ battalions—buried in a vacant lot some 500 meters from the mansion of
:V\[OLYU4PUKHUHVHUK4L[YV4HUPSH:PUM\LNV0SHNHU28 This is not Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao Gov. Zaldy Ampatuan.
Z\YWYPZPUNJVUZPKLYPUN[OH[JLY[HPUWHY[ZVM[OLZLYLNPVUZHYLJVUZPKLYLK 0U[^VZOHSSV^WP[ZZVSKPLYZVM[OLYK0UMHU[Y`)H[[HSPVUMV\UK[^VHU[P[HUR
ºJVUÅPJ[»HYLHZ IHaVVRHZ"MV\YTTTVY[HYZ"[^VTTTVY[HYZ"H TTYLJVPSSLZZYPÅL"
[OYLL4THJOPULN\UZ"HTTYLJVPSSLZZYPÅL"H)HYYL[[ZUPWLYYPÅL"[^V
The PNP reported in 09 October 2008 that “In the Autonomous Region of )YV^UPUNH\[VTH[PJYPÅLZ"HJHSOLH]`THJOPULN\U"H TTWPZ[VS"ZL]LU
4\ZSPT4PUKHUHV[OLYLHYLHULZ[PTH[LK\UYLNPZ[LYLKN\UZ" WPZ[VSZ"HU<S[PTH_SPNO[THJOPULN\U"H)\ZOTHZ[LYJHYIPUL"H/LJRSLY

PU4L[YV4HUPSH" PU>LZ[LYU4PUKHUHV"PU,HZ[LYU=PZH`HZ" Koch 11 light support machine gun; and thousands of rounds of ammunition for
PU5VY[OLYU4PUKHUHV"PU>LZ[LYU=PZH`HZ"HUKTVYLPU[OLYLZ[VM[OL 4YPÅLZZ[PSSPUIV_LZTHYRLK¸(YTZ*VYWVYH[PVUVM[OL7OPSPWWPULZ¹^P[O[OL
JV\U[Y`¹29[V[HSPUN October 2008 date of Manufacture stamped on them.
(ZWVRLZTHUMVY[OLTPSP[HY`3[*VS9VTLV)YH^ULYZHPKZVTLVM[OL
)HZLKVU757KH[HVM[OLLZ[PTH[LK4SVVZLHUKPSSLNHSÄYLHYTZPU  T\UP[PVUZ^LYLJVTTLYJPHS^OPSLV[OLYZJHTLMYVT[OLHYTVY`VM[OL+LMLUZL
 OH]LL_WPYLK\UYLUL^LKSPJLUZLZ"PSSLNHSHYTZHYLPU[OLOHUKZ Department.”35
VM[OYLH[NYV\WZSPRL[OL4VYV0ZSHTPJ3PILYH[PVU-YVU[403-5L^7LVWSL»Z
(YT`57(HUK(I\:H`HMM.YV\W(:.0U[OLJVUZLY]H[P]LLZ[PTH[L ;OLSPTP[H[PVUZVU[OLJHSPILYVUÄYLHYTZ[OH[HJP]PSPHUTH`V^UPTWVZLKI`
PZ[OH[ÄYLHYTZHYLPUYLILSZ»OHUKZ"30 HUKPSSLNHSHYTZHYLPU[OL 7+M\Y[OLYHMÄYTLKI`Executive Order 171 leaves questions on why and
hands of criminal elements.31 ;OL(-76MÄJLVM[OL+LW\[`*OPLMVM:[HMMMVY OV^[OL(TWH[\HUMHTPS`^HZHISL[VZLJ\YL[OLZL[`WLZVM^LHWVUZZVTLVM
0U[LSSPNLUJL(-761JSHPTZ[OH[HZVM¸SVVZL¹ÄYLHYTZ^LYLPU which are exclusively issued to the PNP and AFP.36
[OL(944-LI >OPSL[OL(-7\ZLZ[OL[LYTºSVVZL»ÄYLHYTZOLYL[OL
TVYLHWWYVWYPH[L[LYTWLYOHWZPZºPSSLNHS»ÄYLHYTZ Data also show that a considerable number of illegal guns are used in crimes.
Figures in Table 2.3 indicate that almost all guns used in crimes are illegal. One
While the ‘usual’ suspected users of illegal arms are members of the New ZOV\SKUV[L[OV\NO[OH[HU\TILYVMJYPTLZNV\UYLWVY[LK/LUJLP[PZZHML[V
7LVWSLZ»(YT`57(4VYV0ZSHTPJ3PILYH[PVU-YVU[403-HUK(I\:H``HM assume that the number of illegal guns used in crimes may be higher than what
.YV\W(:."[OL*(-.<Z*P[PaLUZ»(YTLK-VYJL.LVNYHWOPJHS<UP[Z is actually reported.
WYP]H[LHYTLKNYV\WZ7(.ZHUKJP]PSPHU]VS\U[LLYVYNHUPaH[PVUZ*=6ZZLLT
[VLZJHWLW\ISPJZJY\[PU`\U[PS[OLTHZZHJYLH[(TWH[\HU4HN\PUKHUHV ;HISL!5\TILYVM-PYLHYTZ0U]VS]LKPU*YPTLZ:LSLJ[LK7LYPVKZ
PU5V]LTILY [\YULK[OLZWV[SPNO[VU[OLT;OL*(-.<ZHUK*=6Z Year No. of FAs involved in crimes
moonlighting as private bodyguards of political personalities (thereby becoming 1993-200337
Of the 13,365 firearms used during this period, only 1,953 (15%)
members of a private armed group) while simultaneously performing their legal are licensed while 11,412 (85%) are unlicensed
M\UJ[PVUZM\Y[OLYL_HJLYIH[L[OLJVUÅPJ[K`UHTPJZPUJLY[HPUHYLHZ Of the 4,034 firearms used, only 831 (21%) are licensed and
200238
3,203 (79%) are unlicensed
Of the 1,731 firearms involved, only 12 (1%) are licensed and
(-761JSHPTZ[OH[VM[OLPKLU[PÄLK7YP]H[L(YTLK.YV\WZHYLPU
200439 1719 (99%) are unlicensed
Mindanao. (9 Feb 2011)
Of the 4846 firearms involved, only 52 (1%) are licensed and
200640
4794 (99%) unlicensed
0U[OLZ[\K`KVULI`7OPSHUZH7OPSPWWPUL(J[PVU5L[^VYRVU:THSS(YTZ in 32
Of the 5,752 crime incidents recorded, there were 6,030 firearms
¸MHYTLYZMYVT4PUKHUHV¯OH]LKLZJYPILK¯HUPTWYLZZP]LYHUNLVM 200841 involved therein – 5,999 (99%) of which were loose firearms and
^LHWVUZPUJPYJ\SH[PVUPU[OLPYYLZWLJ[P]LWYV]PUJL!(2Z4Z4Z only 31 licensed
4ZHUKWPZ[VSZHUKYL]VS]LYZWHS[PRSVJHSS`THU\MHJ[\YLKN\UZ Of the 6,537 firearms involved in crimes, 6,505 (99.5%)are
200942
YVJRL[WYVWLSSLKNYLUHKLZ97.Z4 Z7= ZSHUKTPULZTHJOPULN\UZ loose/ illegal, while 32 (.05%)are licensed
HUKTTTVY[HYZ¹7OPS(5:(33(WWLUKP_SPZ[Z[OLRPUK
and caliber of guns reportedly used in crimes.
36
It is useful to note here that an Independent
“If you don’t have a gun here in Sulu (Mindanao), if your home is not armed, you >P[OZ\JOÄN\YLZNV]LYUTLU[PZ
Commission against Private Armies (ICAPA) was
will be crushed. Instead we use our guns for defense, expected to exert more effort into convened in late 2009 until mid-2010. ICAPA,
ZV[OH[^OLUWLVWSLNP]L\Z[YV\ISL^LJHUÄNO[[V If the figures are simply
31
addressing the proliferation of loose and also known as the Zenarosa Commission,
estimation, it then begs submitted its full report to Pres. Arroyo in May
our deaths.” 34
the question on how the illegal weapons. One concrete step is to 2010, prior to the transfer of power to Pres.
PNP is able to accurately strengthen the monitoring mechanism Aquino. The report contains useful information
declare the exact number regarding the breadth of firearms proliferation
0U[OLTHZZHJYLH[(TWH[\HU4HN\PUKHUHVPU of firearms in the hands of
it imposes on legal manufacturers to in the country. The report has not been
5V]LTILY P[^HZYLWVY[LK[OH[[OLHYTZ insurgents and criminals. THRLZ\YL[OH[SLNHSÄYLHYTZ^PSSUV[ declassified as of this writing.
recovered were enormous.
12 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 2 | The State of Affairs 13
 JYVZZV]LY[OLPSSLNHSTHYRL[0[TPNO[HSZVILWY\KLU[MVY[OLNV]LYUTLU[[VIL
more circumspect as regards it’s seeming intention to beef-up the economic
WV[LU[PHSVM[OLÄYLHYTZPUK\Z[Y`¶H[SLHZ[\U[PSZ\JO[PTL[OH[TVYLJVU[YVSHUK
regulation is effectively instituted in the industry.) The issuance of Executive
Order 95PZZ\LK(WYPSVMÄJPHSS`SPM[PUNMVYLPNUPU]LZ[TLU[YLZ[YPJ[PVUZ
VU[OLJV\U[Y`»ZZTHSSHYTZPUK\Z[Y`PZ[OLYLMVYLHJH\ZLMVYJVUJLYU,6
95 is an obvious move to position the country to become the next weapons-
producing country in the region.43 Civil society groups have criticized the
Executive Order since its existence can further exacerbate the already thriving
PSSPJP[HYTZ[YHKLPU[OLJV\U[Y`:[PSS[OL,6PZHJSLHYYLJVNUP[PVU[OH[N\U
production is actually a thriving industry in the Philippines.
0U[OL-PYLHYTZHUK,_WSVZP]LZ+P]PZPVU-,+VM[OL757LHYULK
PhP212M in gun licensing alone. This increased to PhP314.4M in 2006.
(Papa 2006). A more liberal estimate even pegs the income generated by FED
anywhere between PhP350 to 650M annually. (Esguerra and Del Puerto 2004)44
Members of PhilANCA
(Phil. Action Network
to Control Arms)
meeting with PNP-FED
representatives.
(from left) Col Roldan,
Jennifer Santiago
Oreta, Jasmin Nario
Galace, Arjan Aguirre,
Col. Maligalig,
Jaymelyn Nikki Uy,
Meg Villanueva, Bev
Orosco
Sources of Guns: Legal Channels
1. Legal manufacturers (local and foreign)
(ZVM+LJLTILY [OL757-PYLHYTZHUK,_WSVZP]LZ+P]PZPVU-,+YLJVYKZ
[OPY[`[OYLLYLNPZ[LYLKÄYLHYTZTHU\MHJ[\YLYZ[^LU[`Ä]LÄYLHYTZ
PTWVY[LYZ[OYLLÄYLHYTZL_WVY[LYZHUKVULO\UKYLK[OPY[`LPNO[ÄYLHYT
authorized dealers.45 These numbers are lower compared to the last decade.
0U(WYPS 757-,+ÄN\YLZYLJVYKLKSLNHSÄYLHYTZTHU\MHJ[\YLYZ
H\[OVYPaLKKLHSLYZN\UYLWHPYZOVWZ4HRPUHUVHUK3\IHUN
2001)464HRPUHUVHUK3\IHUNHSZVJSHPTLK[OH[PU [OLYL^LYL
HWWYV_PTH[LS`PSSLNHSN\UZTP[OZUH[PVU^PKL3LNP[PTH[LN\UKLHSLYZZVSK
HIV\[ÄYLHYTZHUU\HSS`(-(+
;OLU\TILYVMTHU\MHJ[\YLKÄYLHYTZPZZ[LHKPS`PUJYLHZPUN0U(YTZ
*VYWVYH[PVUVM[OL7OPSPWWPULZ:JVWYV6W[PJHS*V0UJ:OVV[LYZ.\UZHUK
(TTV*VYWVYH[PVU;^PU7PULZ*VYWVYH[PVUHUK-SVYV0U[LYUH[PVUHS*VYWVYH[PVU
L_WVY[LK[OLPYÄYLHYTZHUKHTT\UP[PVUZ[V[OLMVSSV^PUNJV\U[YPLZ!0UKVULZPH
=LULa\LSH(\Z[YHSPH*HTIVKPH*HUHKH*OPUH*VZ[H9PJH+VTPUPJHU
9LW\ISPJ,J\HKVY,S:HS]HKVY-YHUJL/VUN2VUN0[HS`4HSH`ZPH:PUNHWVYL
;OHPSHUK<:1HWHU5L^ALHSHUK)VSP]PH:^P[aLYSHUK7LY\.\H[LTHSH
14 Gun Proliferation & Violence
7HYHN\H`/VUK\YHZ7HUHTH/\UNHY`0ZYHLS5VY^H`;HP^HUHUK[OL<UP[LK
Kingdom. (PNP-FED-CSG 2008).
+HUHV*P[`^PKLS`HJRUV^SLKNLK[VOH]L[OLILZ[N\UZTP[OZPU[OLJV\U[Y`
IVHZ[ZVMOH]PUN[OL+HUHV(YTZ*VYWVYH[PVU+(4*69HUK[OL>VYRLYZ
League of Danao Multi-Purpose Cooperative (WORLD-MPC) as the legitimate
N\UTHRLYZHUK[YHKLYZPU[OLHYLH¸;OLZL[^VTHU\MHJ[\YLYZHYLH\[OVYPaLK
[VWYVK\JLH[V[HSVMHZZVY[LKÄYLHYTZHUU\HSS`IHZLKVU[OLPY
manufacturers’ license issued by the PNP Chief.”47/V^L]LYº+HUHV»PZHSZV
widely perceived to be the sanctuary of illegal gun manufacturers.
2. Procurements to arm the state security forces. While there are a number
VMN\UTHU\MHJ[\YLYZPU[OLJV\U[Y`LN(YTZJVY+(4*69:OVV[LYZ
(YTZ4HU\MHJ[\YPUN0UJTVZ[VM[OLPTWVY[LKN\UZJVTLMYVT[OL<UP[LK
:[H[LZ*HJJHTHUKTVZ[PMUV[HSSVM[OLN\UZPZZ\LK[V757HUK(-7
personnel are also imported.
([[OLTVTLU[[OLWVSPJLMVYJLOHZTLTILYZ`L[H[SLHZ[VM
[OLTHYL^P[OV\[ZLY]PJLÄYLHYTZK\L[VI\KNL[JVUZ[YHPU[Z48;OL(-7VU[OL
V[OLYOHUKOHZHJHJOLVMZTHSSHYTZHUKSPNO[^LHWVUZHUKLX\PWTLU[HUK
OHZHZ[HUKPUNWYVWVZHS[VW\YJOHZLTVYLHZWHY[VM[OL(-74VKLYUPaH[PVU
Program.
The military also organizes and trains CAFGU Active Auxiliary units (CAA) and
:WLJPHS*P]PSPHU(YTLK(\_PSPHY`:*((IV[OVM^OPJOHYLHYTLKHUK\UKLY
[OLSLHKLYZOPWHUKZ\WLY]PZPVUVM[OL(-7;OLÄYLHYTZPZZ\LK[V*((ZHUK
:*((ZPUJS\KL44)(9*HYIPULHUK.HYHUKHUKHZVM[OLYL
HYLHWWYV_PTH[LS`ÄYLHYTZPZZ\LK[V*((ZHUK:*((ZUH[PVU^PKL(-7
2010)
3. Military aid(YTZKVUH[PVUZTHRL\WHJVUZPKLYHISLZPaLVM[OLWVSPJLHUK
military hardware. The Foreign Military Financing (FMF) program is meant to
WH`MVY[OLWYVJ\YLTLU[VMTPSP[HY`LX\PWTLU[MYVT[OL<:PUJS\KPUNZ\YWS\Z
MYVT[OL<:TPSP[HY`Z[VJRWPSL+VJLUH490U[OL7OPSPWWPULZ
YLJLP]LKMYVT[OL<UP[LK:[H[LZH<:TPSSPVUNYHU[\UKLY[OL-VYLPNU4PSP[HY`
-PUHUJPUN-4-WYVNYHT(M[LY[OL H[[HJRVU[OL>VYSK;YHKL*LU[LYHUK
[OLZ\IZLX\LU[>HYVU;LYYVYSLKI`[OL<:[OL-4-NYHU[IHSSVVULK[V<:
  TPSSPVUPU¸)L[^LLUHUK[OL7OPSPWWPULZYLJLP]LK
TPSSPVUPU-VYLPNU4PSP[HY`-PUHUJPUNHUKHUV[OLYTPSSPVUPUTPSP[HY`[YHPUPUN
HPKMVYH[V[HSVMTVYL[OHUTPSSPVU¹)LYYPNHU/HY[\UN500U
[OL-4-NYHU[YLHJOLKHSTVZ[<:TPSSPVU51
47
Under the Revised Administrative
(NVVKU\TILYVMHYTZKVUH[LKOV^L]LYOH]L Code, the power to approve
and disapprove applications for
JYVZZLK[OLPSSLNHSHYLUHK\L[VZ\YWYPZLH[[HJRZ firearms manufacturing license
HNHPUZ[TPSP[HY`WLYZVUULSHUKVYPUZ[HSSH[PVUZ is vested on the President of the
[OLM[agaw armas (arms-grabbing) during armed Philippines. However, this power
is delegated to the Chief, PNP
LUJV\U[LYZHUKJVYY\W[PVUPU[OLWVSPJLHUK[OL under Section 27 (f) of Republic
military. Act 6975. PCTC Paper on Illicit
Trafficking and Manufacturing
of Firearms: Philippine Context
(Ibid)
CHAPTER 2 | The State of Affairs 15
 Sources of Guns: Illegal Channels ;OLJYHM[ZTHUZOPWHUKZRPSSVM+HUHVN\UZTP[OZH[[YHJ[LK[OLPUMHTV\Z1HWHU
1. Illegal manufacturers. ¸;^VN\UTHRLYZ^LYLHYYLZ[LKHUKOPNOWV^LYLK IHZLK@HR\aHJYPTPUHSNYV\W;OL7OPS*LU[LYVU;YHUZUH[PVUHS*YPTL7*;*
N\UZ^LYLZLPaLKI`WVSPJLTLUPU+HUHV*P[`¯;OLN\UTHRLYZHPKOLJHU released a +YHM[5H[PVUHS7SHUVM(J[PVUHNHPUZ[PSSPJP[[YHMÄJRPUNPUZTHSSHYTZ
ÄUPZOTHRPUNH2. PUHTVU[O¯^P[OHJHWP[HSV\[SH`VMHIV\[7OW and light weapons 2000. ;OLYLWVY[UV[LK[OH[¸[OLUV[VYPV\Z@HR\aHJYPTL
HIV\[<:HUKZLSSP[MVYHIV\[7[V7HIV\[<:[V Z`UKPJH[L¯IYV\NO[[V1HWHU-PSPWPUVN\UTHRLYZ\ZPUN[OLJV]LYVM[V\YPZ[VY
240).” (Aragon 2008)52 HJVU[YHJ[^VYRLYHUKOPYLK[OLT[VTHU\MHJ[\YLN\UZPUZPKL1HWHU¹*HYSVZ
2002).57.LU*HJJHT[OLUJOPLMVM[OL757-PYLHYTZHUK,_WSVZP]LZ
¸+HUHV*P[`KVLZU»[NL[[OLTVUPRLYHZ[OL¸N\UJHWP[HSVM[OL7OPSPWWPULZ¹ Division even claimed that illegally manufactured guns are loaded in vessels that
MVYUV[OPUN4HU`PU[OLHYLHHYLZRPSSLKN\UZTP[OSLHYUPUN[OLJYHM[MYVT ply the Cebu-Japan route causing Japan to complain on the rising number of
NLULYH[PVUZWHZ[;OLZRPSSPUN\UTHU\MHJ[\YPUNPZJSVZLS`[PLK^P[O[OL illegal guns coming from the Philippines. (Caccam 2008)58 Garrido (2003) wrote
JVSVUPHSWHZ[VM[OLJV\U[Y`9VISLHSVJHSYLZPKLU[HZZLY[Z[OH[N\UTHRPUN [OH[¸[OL7OPSPWWPULZYHURZ[OPYKHTVUNJV\U[YPLZPU[OLWYVK\J[PVUVMZLPaLK
ZRPSSPU+HUHVKH[LZIHJR[V[OL:WHUPZOWLYPVK^OLUguardia civils would OHUKN\UZPU1HWHUHUK[OPYKHNHPUPU[OLU\TILYVMN\UZOPWTLU[ZMVPSLKI`
IYPUN[OLPYN\UZMVYYLWHPY9VISL53. During the Japanese period (1940- the Japanese.”59
 ZTHSSJHUUVUZ^LYLTHU\MHJ[\YLKPU[OLHYLH5V[SVUNHM[LY[OL`^LYL
THU\MHJ[\YPUNN\UZHUKV[OLYHY[PSSLYPLZ,SKLYZWHZZVU[OLZRPSS[VJOPSKYLU *YPTPUHSNYV\WZPU1HWHU¸^P[OZWLJPHSTLU[PVUVM¸BORYOKUDAN” have been
ZV[OH[[OL`JHUHZZPZ[PU[OLTHU\MHJ[\YPUNWYVJLZZ-VYL_HTWSLJOPSKYLU PU]VS]LKPUTHU`JYPTLZPU]VS]PUN[OL\ZLVMPSSPJP[ÄYLHYTZMYVT[OL7OPSPWWPULZ¹
HJJVYKPUN[V9VISLJHUKV[OL¸ZHUKPUN¹VY[OLWVSPZOPUNVM[OLÄUPZOLKTL[HS (PCTC Report) This prompted the Phil. government to establish a ‘Japan’s
N\UZ\ZPUNZHUKWHWLY^OLYL[OL`NL[WHPK7OWWLYWPLJL<:;OL +LZR»^OPJOPZUV^PUM\SSVWLYH[PVU4HSPNHSPN60
[HZRHUKYLZWVUZPIPSP[`NP]LU[VHJOPSKHK]HUJLZHZ[OLJOPSKNYV^ZVSKLY
6YL[H  But Danao is not the only source of illegal guns in circulation. Smuggling and
PSSLNHSTHU\MHJ[\YLPUJVUÅPJ[HYLHZ"[OLJYVZZPUNV]LYVMSLNHSN\UZ[V[OL
¸+HUHVTHKL*LI\OHUKN\UZZ\JOHZ[OLJHSJHSYPÅLZJHS PSSLNHS[YHKLK\L[VJVYY\W[PVUZ\YWYPZLH[[HJRZVUTPSP[HY`WLYZVUULS[OLM[HUK
revolvers and cal. 45 pistols are the most commonly traded small arms in MHIYPJH[PVUTHRPUNMHRLYLWSPJHVMVYPNPUHSÄYLHYTZHSZVJVU[YPI\[L[V[OLZ[LHK`
[OLJV\U[Y`(ZPKLMYVTILPUNYLSH[P]LS`JOLHWLY[OLZLÄYLHYTZHYLOPNOS` increase of illegal guns in circulation.
THYRL[HISLHUKLHZPLY[VWYVJ\YL[OHUMVYLPNUTHKLOHUKN\UZ¹7*;*
Report)54 :T\NNSPUNHUKPSSPJP[THU\MHJ[\YLPUJVUÅPJ[HYLHZ. There were reports coming
from foreign papers claiming that North Korea had sold thousands of arms to
0UN\U[YHKLPU+HUHVPU]VS]LKYV\NOS`[VTLTILYZVM[OL 403-PU [V(;HP^HUIHZLKJYPTPUHSYPUN^HZHSZVYLWVY[LK[V[YHMÄJ
JVTT\UP[`VYHIV\[VULPUVM[OLWVW\SH[PVU9L\[LYZ55¸7HS[PR¹VY arms in the country in 2004.610UHZ^LSS[OLUL^ZWHWLYPhilippine Star
home-made gun56 is among the most common product of the area. YLWVY[LK[OH[[OL¸403-OHKYLJLP]LK H\[VTH[PJYPÅLZHUKO\UKYLKZVM
[OV\ZHUKZVMHTT\UP[PVUPU[^VZOPWTLU[ZVU1\S`PU7HSLTIHUN:\S[HU
While the local government of Danao is putting serious effort to bring the 2\KHYH[HUK2HWH[HNHU[V^UPU3HUHVKLS:\Y¹;OL(YTLK-VYJLZVM[OL
¸PSSLNHSZ¹PU[V[OLSLNHSMVSKP[PZZ[PSS[VVLHYS`[VKL[LYTPULPMP[ZLMMVY[Z 7OPSPWWPULZ(-7OHKJVUÄYTLK[OPZZH`PUNP[^HZHISL[VYLJLP]LPU[LSSPNLUJL
^PSSILZ\JJLZZM\S4VYLV]LYP[PZUV[LHZ`[VPTTLKPH[LS`W\[HZ[VW[V YLWVY[ZHIV\[[OLHYTZZOPWTLU[;OPZOV^L]LY^HZKLUPLKI`[OL403-62
PSSLNHSTHU\MHJ[\YPUNZPUJLP[PZHJSHUKLZ[PULHJ[P]P[`HUK[VHSHYNLL_[LU[
THU\MHJ[\YPUNPZYLNHYKLKHZHºIHJR`HYK»
“The most common form of the
56
PUK\Z[Y`HUKHYLTVZ[S`KVULPUMHYÅ\UNHYLHZ weapon was a gas pipe attached
- only the ‘ÄUPZOPUN’ is done in the city (e.g. to a rifle stock. Usually some sort
WVSPZOPUNX\HSP[`JVU[YVS[LZ[PUNHUKIHSSPZ[PJZ of wire was wrapped around
the barrel to keep the pipe from
The materials used in gun manufacture are expanding from the fire. There
also locally available as these are the same was a small hole at the bottom
end of the barrel that a cigarette
materials used in house or building constructions. or match was placed to ignite
Most of the gunsmiths are home-based or the primer, which made aiming
difficult. This also gave it the Sniper rifle confis-
PU[OLTV\U[HPUZHUKTHU\MHJ[\YPUNN\UZPZ
nickname the “Cigarette Gun”. cated by PNP-FED
PU[LYZWLYZLK^P[O[OLPYMHYTPUNVYÄZOPUNHJ[P]P[PLZ It was muzzle loaded and fired from a private
(SZV[OLSHJRVMH]HPSHISLQVIZPU[OLHYLHTHRLZ a medium sized bullet or musket
owner (civilians are
ball. The accuracy was poor
N\UTHRPUNHUH[[YHJ[P]LHS[LYUH[P]L;OLZL and the mechanism of firing the not supposed to
MHJ[VYZTHRLP[KPMÄJ\S[[V[YHJRKV^U[OVZL^OV weapon made it even worse.” own high-powered
are involved in illegal manufacture. (Oreta 2009) http://www.nationmaster.com/ firearms)
encyclopedia/Paltik accessed Jan
15, 2008 1004am

16 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 2 | The State of Affairs 17

 The PNP admitted that it did not have a good estimate on the amount of HZZH\S[YPÅLZLX\PWWLK^P[OUPNO[]PZPVUZJVWLZ:VUV[VUS`KVLZ[OL7OPSPWWPUL
ÄYLWV^LY[OH[[OLPUZ\YNLU[ZOH]L;OLJVUZLY]H[P]LTL[OVKVMJV\U[PUN TPSP[HY`OH]L[OVZLI\[B[OL403-JVTTHUKLYDOHZHSZVIV\NO[[OLTMYVT[OL
HZZ\TLZHVULN\UVULTLTILYYH[PV[O\Z[OLU\TILYVMN\UZHYL[OLZHTL Philippine security forces.”(Guevara 2007)67
HZ[OLU\TILYVMTLTILYZ)\[[OH[VI]PV\ZS`PZ]LY`JVUZLY]H[P]L
3. Crossing of Legal to Illegal. “The United States has supplied the Armed
0U[OLÄYZ[ZLTLZ[LYVM[OLÄYLWV^LYZ[YLUN[OVM*VTT\UPZ[7HY[`VM[OL Forces of the Philippines with high-tech weaponry that some members of the
7OPSPWWPULZ5L^7LVWSL»Z(YT`*7757(^HZWLNNLKH[ -LYYLY63 B7OPSPWWPULTPSP[HY`DOH]LNVULVU[VZLSS[V[OLPUZ\YNLU[Z¯¹.YPZ^VSK68
The group reportedly brings in guns through Palawan and Mindoro. Much of its
ÄYLWV^LYJVTLZMYVT*OPUH(YNLU[PUHHUK)YHaPS;OL`LU[LY[OYV\NO[OLWVY[Z .YHM[HUKJVYY\W[PVUPU[OLTPSP[HY`HUKWVSPJL^LHRPUZ[P[\[PVUZHUKKPZYLNHYK
HUKHYLKLJSHYLKHZº\ZLKLX\PWTLU[»[OV\NO[OLYLHYLHJ[\HSS`N\UZ[\JRLK for the rule of law are among the major reasons why legal guns cross over to
inside. (Caccam 2008)64 Table 2.4SPZ[Z[OL^LHWVUZOVSKPUNVMPUZ\YNLU[NYV\WZ the illegal trade. “Insurgent groups have long admitted that their most important
based on available reports. ZV\YJLVM^LHWVUZPZ[OL(YTLK-VYJLZVM[OL7OPSPWWPULZ(-7[OL7OPSPWWPUL
National Police (PNP) and the various well-armed citizens’ militias.” (Capie
Table 2.4: Weapons Holding of Insurgent Groups65 ! 0UTHZZP]LN\UY\UUPUN^HZYLWVY[LKPU[OLHYLHZVM(N\ZHU
Estimated 4PZHTPZ:\YPNHV:\S\)HZPSHU;H^P[H^PHUKAHTIVHUNHWYV]PUJLZHSSWHY[VM
Group Weapons Holdings
Membership the Mindanao group of islands. (Carlos 2002)
(1998) 13,459 10,227
MILF (2007) 11,769 7,747 *VYY\W[PVUPU[OLTPSP[HY`PUMHJ[^HZHTHQVYNYPL]HUJLYHPZLKI`[OLQ\UPVY
(2010)a 7,500 TPSP[HY`VMÄJLYZHRH4HNKHSV^OVZ[HNLKHT\[PU`PU1\S`!
(1998) 1,148 386
CPP/NPA (2002) 9,388 6,149 ¸-PYZ[[OL.4(NV]LYUTLU[[OYV\NO[OL(-7SLHKLYZOPWHUK:LJYL[HY`(UNLSV
(2010) 4,972 9L`LZOHZILLUZLSSPUNI\SSL[ZHUKHYTZMYVT[OLNV]LYUTLU[HYZLUHS[V[OL
Abu Sayyaf Group 403-(I\:H``HMHUK[OL57(;OLZLI\SSL[Z^OPJORPSSV\YZVSKPLYZHJ[\HSS`
(2007) 383
(ASG) JHTLMYVT[OL]LY`NV]LYUTLU[[OH[^LÄNO[PUNZPJ[VKLMLUK;OPZPZ^O`
[OLYLPZH^HYMVYV]LY`LHYZUV^HUKZ[PSSV\YLULTPLZOH]LUV[Y\UV\[VM
(YLWVY[THKLI`[OL(-76MÄJLVM[OL+LW\[`*OPLMVM:[HMMMVY0U[LSSPNLUJL I\SSL[Z(ZL]PKLUJLHSS[OLI\SSL[Z[OH[^LYLYLJV]LYLKMYVT[OLLULT`OHK[OL
61WVZP[LK[OH[MYVTHWLHRVMÄYLHYTZOVSKPUNPU [OL THYRPUNZ[OH[[OL`JHTLMYVT[OL+5+HYZLUHS¹Magdalo statement made
*VTT\UPZ[7HY[`VM[OL7OPSPWWPULZ5L^7LVWSL»Z(YT`»ZÄYLWV^LY^HZKV^U K\YPUN[OL6HR^VVK4\[PU`VM1\S`69
[V PU3PRL^PZL[OL403-OHKÄYLHYTZPU ¶JVUZPKLYLK
P[ZWLHR¶I\[ÄYLHYTZOVSKPUN^HZKV^U[VPU(-761 4VYL[OHUÄ]L`LHYZHM[LY[OLT\[PU`JVYY\W[PVUYLTHPUZ^PKLZWYLHKPU[OL
7YLZLU[LKPU07:7(ZZLZZTLU[7SHUUPUNHUK+L]LSVWTLU[>VYRZOVW*HTW TPSP[HY`HUK[OL(-7ZVNYH]L[OH[L]LU¸H janitor at the Philippine National
(N\PUHSKV -LI Police (PNP) headquarters has been arrested for selling revolvers and
HZZH\S[YPÅLZ[OH[^LYL[VILKLZ[YV`LKILJH\ZL[OL`^LYL\UZLY]PJLHISL
In 1999 there was a controversial report claiming that the MILF had already … ,K^HYK=PSSHY[HOLHKVM[OL5H[PVUHS)\YLH\VM0U]LZ[PNH[PVU5)0VMÄJL
developed the capacity to manufacture its own weapons and artillery. “In PU[OLJHWP[HSZHPK[OLTHUSLKVMÄJLYZ[VHJHJOLVMWPLJLZVMJHSPIYL
 YLWVY[ZLTLYNLKJSHPTPUN[OL403-OHKI\PS[HUHYTZMHJ[VY`PUJLU[YHS YL]VS]LYZHUKUPUL4HZZH\S[YPÅLZ¹9L\[LYZ70*\YYLU[S`[OLYLHYL
4PUKHUHV(ZWVRLZTHU<Z[HKa:HOYPMM4VOZPU1\SHIIP[VSK[OLPhilippine HIV\[HYTZPU[OL757Z[VJRWPSL*HJJHT
Daily Inquirer that the factory had nearly one hundred employees and produces
OPNOJHSPILY^LHWVUZHUKHTT\UP[PVUZPUJS\KPUNYLWSPJHZVM[OL9\ZZPHU97. ;OLWVSPJLMVYJLPZUV[[OLVUS`ZV\YJLVMSLHRHNLHJJVYKPUN[V*HJJHT
TTTVY[HYZHUK\UZWLJPÄLKI\SSL[ZHUKIVTIZ4VYLYLJLU[HJJV\U[Z - even the military and NBI (National Bureau of Investigation) and other law
OV^L]LYYHPZLKX\LZ[PVUZHIV\[[OLX\HU[P[`HUKX\HSP[`VM[OLHYTZILPUN enforcement agencies of the government employees authorized to use FAs are
produced.”(Capie 2004: 198; Kramer 2001)66 Small Arms Survey also reported also to blame. Corruption is endemic.
[OH[[OL403-¸OHZMHIYPJH[LKYLWSPJHZVM<:HUK:V]PL[TT97.Z¹
15) (UV[OLYZV\YJLUV[\Z\HSS`UV[PJLKHYL[OLÄYLHYTZ\UKLYcustodia legis or
[OVZL[OH[HYLRLW[PUJV\Y[HZL]PKLUJL[VHJHZL;OL:\WYLTL*V\Y[JPYJ\SHY
,SPaH.YPZ^VSKHQV\YUHSPZ[^OVPU[LY]PL^LK
64
Other smuggling modus include KPYLJ[ZHSSJV\Y[Z[VKLWVZP[[OLZLÄYLHYTZPU[OL757-,+/V^L]LY^OPSL[OL
mixing the guns with metal items
members of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front or machinery parts, door-to-door N\PKLSPULZHYLPUWSHJL¸[OLYLHYLUVZWLJPÄJPUZ[Y\J[PVUZVUOV^[V\S[PTH[LS`
403-PU^YV[L!¸0OH]LUL]LYZLLU[OLSL]LS deliveries of packages, or thrown HJJV\U[MVYHUKKPZWVZLVM[OLÄYLHYTZ\ZLKHZL]PKLUJL\WVU[OLPYJVTWSL[L
from vessels in prearranged
of military hardware that I saw in the MILF camp. areas and later picked up by
[\YUV]LY[V[OL-,+¹0*(7(9LWVY[
A MILF commander showed me several M-16 small boats.

18 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 2 | The State of Affairs 19

 4. Improvised or Fabricated guns. The ingenuity of Filipinos to imitate
the original is also a concern in as far as gun production is concerned.
Improvisation is primarily a consequence of one’s economic standing. In the
7OPSPWWPULZP[PZTVZ[S`[OLWVVY^OVYLZVY[[VPTWYV]PZH[PVU\ZPUNH]HPSHISL
local and inexpensive materials
;OLZLTHRLZOPM[^LHWVUZ¶Z[PSSJVUZPKLYLKHZÄYLHYTZILJH\ZLVM[OL\ZLVM
bullet/ metal ball discharged by using gun powder - usually emerge when there
is trouble or “gang wars.” They usually surface in areas commonly believe to
be ‘havens’ of notorious gangs. “Marta (not her real name) disclosed that in
her neighborhood in Tondo- an urban poor community that has gained national
prominence because of the numerous incidents of violent confrontations
among squabbling groups- “P[»ZJVTTVURUV^SLKNL[OH[HSTVZ[L]LY`VULOHZ
H^LHWVU0M[OLYL»ZHJVUÅPJ[PU[OLJVTT\UP[`SPRLHNHUN^HY[OLZL^LHWVUZ
Z\YMHJL4VZ[VM[OLN\UZHYLWHS[PROVTLTHKLN\UHUKHYL\USPJLUZLK4`
V^UMYPLUK^OV^HZ^HSRPUNILZPKLTLVULKH`^HZZOV[PU[OLOLHK0^HZ
ZVHRLKPUOPZISVVKHUK^HZYLHSS`HMYHPK¹71 (Oreta, 2009)
A gun smith
employee of the
Workers League
of Danao Multi-
Purpose Cooperative
(WORLD-MPC)
In the Aeta community of :HWHUN<^HR72 an improvised “gun” is also a
common household item. They use it for hunting wild boars and other animals
PU[OLMVYLZ[;OL(L[HZJSHPTLK[OH[LHJOMHTPS`RUL^OV^[VTHRLVULHUK
L]LY`VUL¶THSLHUKMLTHSLRUL^OV^[V\ZL[OLT)\[[OL`HSZVJSHPTLK[OH[
there had never been an incident when these guns were used against humans.
;V[HRLIHJRN\UZ[V[OLSLNHSHYLUH[OLNV]LYUTLU[PU[YVK\JLKHCash for
guns program. This program is meant especially for the members of the CPP-
57(*VTT\UPZ[7HY[`VM[OL7OPSPWWPULZ5L^7LVWSL»Z(YT`^P[OH[^VWYVUL
VIQLJ[P]L![VYL[YPL]LTVYLN\UZHUK[VS\YLTLTILYZVM[OL*7757(IHJR
[V[OLSLNHSMVSK0U6J[/LYTVNLULZ,ZWLYVU[OLNV]LYUTLU[»ZJOPLM
WLHJLHK]PZLYZHPK[OH[[OLNV]LYUTLU[^V\SK
WH`7OWHIV\[<:MVYL]LY`4 Aeta is an indigenous group
72
New People’s Army (NPA) rebel turning over a new leaf.” The Communist Party
of the Philippines has been waging war against the Philippine government
ZPUJL  6MÄJPHSLZ[PTH[LZWLNNLK[OL57(MVYJLH[ K\YPUN[OLst
semester of 200273[VHIV\[H[WYLZLU[¸KV^UMYVTTVYL[OHUPU
[OL ZMVSSV^PUN[OLJVSSHWZLVMJVTT\UPZT^VYSK^PKLHUKKLMLH[ZVU[OL
IH[[SLÄLSK¹ (Agence France 2008)74
Allegations abound that the ‘cash for guns’ is only used by insurgents and
sympathizers to get more cash to buy newer and more sophisticated weapons.
Whether this allegation is true or not remains to be proven.
The Philippine government is also seriously supporting efforts to address the
PZZ\LZLTHUH[PUNMYVT[OLPSSPJP[[YHMÄJRPUNVMHYTZ7*;*YLWVY[Z[OLMVSSV^PUN
efforts:
• The Philippine government signed an agreement on Information Exchange
HUK,Z[HISPZOTLU[VMJVTT\UPJH[PVUWYVJLK\YLZVU4H`^P[O[OL
NV]LYUTLU[ZVM4HSH`ZPHHUK0UKVULZPHHUKP[PZHSZVPU[OLWYVJLZZVM
drafting a Memorandum of Agreement with the Indonesian government to
ZWLJPÄJHSS`HKKYLZZ[OLZTHSSHYTZHUKSPNO[^LHWVUZ:(3>PZZ\L"
• The Philippines actively participates in the ASEANAPOL (Asean’s Chief or
Police) and the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Transnational crime;
• Updates on Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) issues are incorporated
in the PNP’s community relation service; the media are also regularly
updated;
‹ ;OL6MÄJLVM[OL:WLJPHS,U]V`VU;YHUZUH[PVUHS*YPTLZ6:,;*JVUK\J[Z
JVUMLYLUJLZ^P[OV^ULYZVMWYP]H[LZLJ\YP[`HNLUJPLZYLJVNUPaLKN\UJS\IZ
KLHSLYZTHU\MHJ[\YLYZHUK5.6Z"HUK
• JICA has given the PNP Crime Laboratory an Automated Fingerprint
0KLU[PÄJH[PVU:`Z[LT(-0:
Closing Remarks
Security is not just about defense and order. A broader understanding of
ZLJ\YP[`YLSH[LZP[[V¸WLYZVUHSHUKZ[H[LZHML[`HJJLZZ[VZVJPHSZLY]PJLZ
HUKWVSP[PJHSWYVJLZZLZ0[PZHJVYLNV]LYUTLU[YLZWVUZPIPSP[`ULJLZZHY`MVY
LJVUVTPJHUKZVJPHSKL]LSVWTLU[HUK]P[HSMVY[OLWYV[LJ[PVUVMO\THUYPNO[Z¯
:LJ\YP[`TH[[LYZ[V[OLWVVYHUKV[OLY]\SULYHISLNYV\WZLZWLJPHSS`^VTLU
HUKJOPSKYLUILJH\ZLIHKWVSPJPUN^LHRQ\Z[PJLHUKWLUHSZ`Z[LTZHUK
JVYY\W[TPSP[HYPLZTLHU[OH[[OL`Z\MMLYKPZWYVWVY[PVUH[LS`MYVTJYPTLPUZLJ\YP[`
HUKMLHY¹6,+*+(*/HUKIVVRVU:LJ\YP[`:LJ[VY9LMVYT
Curbing the proliferation of illegal guns remains a big challenge for the state
and warrants a concerted effort among social and political institutions. People
will not feel the need to arm themselves if they feel safe and secure in their
OVTLZHUKJVTT\UP[PLZHUKPM[OL`ILSPL]L[OH[[OLZLJ\YP[`ZLJ[VYPZLMMLJ[P]L
impartial and trustworthy.

HZZH\S[YPÅLZ\YYLUKLYLKI`HUPUZ\YNLU[^OV^HZ found mostly in Northern Luzon. ;OLMHJ[[OH[HU\TILYVMÄYLHYTZHYLPU[OLOHUKZVMJP]PSPHUZJSLHYS`ZOV^Z

willing to abandon the long-running rebellion.
This money would be given on top of another
7OWHIV\[<: PUJLU[P]L¸PUJHZO
and livelihood assistance to be extended to any
This particular community,
that the perception of physical insecurity and/or threat to safety remains high.
“Sapang Uwak,” is located in
Porac, Pampanga. The interview
was held in the kiosk of the
community’s cooperative store
last September 12, 2008, 10 am.

20 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 2 | The State of Affairs 21


a
AFP-OJ2, 2010
3
Small Arms Survey 2008: Risk and Resilience. Cambridge University Press, p. 3
4
Small Arms Survey 2007. Cambridge University Press. p. 47. available online http://www. smallarmssurvey.org/
files/sas/publications/year_b_pdf/2007/CH2-Stockpiles.pdf accessed Feb 2, 2009, 104pm
5
2008 data source: PNP-FED, presented during the PNP Summit of Firearms, 18 May 2008
2002 data source: National Report on the Implementation of Programme of Action to prevent, combat, eradicate
the illicit trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in all its aspect. July 3, 2003 available online http://disarmament.
un.org/CAB/nationalreports/2002/philippines.pdf accessed Jan 21, 2009 1152am
6
Col. Maligalig of PNP-Firearms and Explosive Division-Civil Security Group (FED-CGS) presentation to Phil. Action
Network on Small Arms (Philansa) on Sept. 2, 2008
9
Executive Order 194, issued Feb. 14, 2000, Amending Gen. Order No. 7, dated Sept. 23, 1972; General Order
No. 7-A dated Sept. 30, 1973; General Order No. 7-B dated January 17, 1973, and Gen. Order No. 7-C dated
Feb. 21, 1973.
10
see Pro-Gun open discussion on Facebook http://www.facebook.com/topic.php?uid=113303732048357&topic=2
8 accessed March 21, 2011
11
Papa, Alcuin. (2006). “Gun Dealers Oppose Amnesty for Loose Firearms.” Inquirer.net. Nov. 1. http://newsinfo.
inquirer.net/breakingnews/metroregions/view_article.php?article_id=30002 accessed Jan 21, 2009 1059am
12
see http://ffforum.110mb.com/introfaq.html accessed March 21, 2011
13
Pacquiao, in a TV interview, argued that he needed said number of FAs to protect his family from criminals and/or
terrorists. The calibers of the firearms were not specified to the media. COMELEC Commissioner Ferrer “estimated
the number of gun ban exemptions to be about 17,000. Of the figures, 6,000 have been granted exemption as
these were from military and police personnel.” GMA News TV The Official Website of GMA News and Public
Affairs. (2007). COMELEC Oks 20 guns to Pacquiao. Jan 23. http://www.gmanews.tv/story/27901/Comelec-OKs-
20-guns-for-Pacquiao accessed 07 Feb 2009, 430pm Based on Republic Act 7166 Synchronized Election Law, a
gun ban is issued during election period; only the Commission on Election or COMELEC is granted the power to
issue permit-to-carry during these period.
14
Felipe, Cecille. 2009. “PNP revokes Mayor Ampatuan’s 19 gun licenses.” The Philippine Star. Nov 30. available
online http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=528121&publicationSubCategoryId=63 accessed Jan 18,
2010
15
Republic Act 8294 “An Act Amending The Provisions of Presidential Decree No. 1866, as amended, entitled
“Codifying the Laws on Illegal/Unlawful Possession, Manufacture, Dealing in, Acquisition or Disposition of Firearms,
Ammunition or Explosives or Instruments Used in the Manufacture of Firearms, Ammunition or Explosives, and
Imposing Stiffer Penalties for Certain Violations Thereof, and for Relevant Purposes” amends Presidential Decree
1866. RA 8294 (Sec. 1.) states that ‘Unlawful Manufacture, Sale, Acquisition, Disposition or Possession of Firearms
or Ammunition or Instruments Used or Intended to be Used in the Manufacture of Firearms or Ammunition.
The penalty of prision correccional in its maximum period and a fine of not less than Fifteen Thousand Pesos
[P15,000.00] shall be imposed upon any person who shall unlawfully manufacture, deal in, acquire, dispose, or
possess any low powered firearm, such as rifle handgun, .380 or .32 and other firearm of similar firepower, part
of firearm, ammunition, or machinery, tool or instrument used or intended to be used in the manufacture of any
firearm or ammunition: Provided, That no other crime was committed.’
16
Natividad, Beverly. (2009). “Operations vs loose firearms ordered.” Inquirer.net Jan 9. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/
breakingnews/metro/view/20090109-182459/Operations-vs-loose-guns-ordered accessed Jan 18, 2009 533pm
17
Pattugalan, Gina Rivas. (2003). “Two Year After: Implementation of UN Programme of Action on Small Arms in
the Asia Pacific Region.” Center for Humanitarian Dialogue. October. http://www.iansa.org/regions/asiapacific/
documents/asia_pacific_occasional_paper_oct2003.pdf accessed Jan 18, 2009 629pm
19
Dursin, Kanis. (2009). “Worried governments target small arms trade.” Asia Times online May 12. http://www.
atimes.com/se-asia/BE12Ae01.html accessed Jan 21, 2009 1121am
20
Baja, Lauro L. Jr. (2003). “Report to the First Biennial Meeting of States on the Implementation of the Program
of Action of the 2001 United Nations Conference on the Illicit Trade of Small Arms and Light Weapons in all
its aspects.” New York. July 8. Available online http://disarmament.un.org/CAB/salw-2003/statements/States/
Philippines.pdf accessed Jan 18, 2009 612pm ; also National Report on the Implementation of Programme of
Action to prevent, combat, eradicate the illicit trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in all its aspect. July 3, 2003
available online http://disarmament.un.org/CAB/nationalreports/2002/philippines.pdf accessed Jan 21, 2009
1152am
21
Agence France Presse. (2003). “Philippines bans owners from carrying guns in public.” Jan 30. http://www.
thehighroad.org/archive/index.php/t-6612.html accessed Jan 21, 2009 1128am
22
Papa, Alcuin. (2006). (Ibid)
23
Loose FA as of 3rd quarter of 2006. Gen. Florencio Fianza, Special Envoy on Transnational Crime (OSETC).
(2007). “OSETC and Initiatives on Regulation.” Presented at the Asian Parliamentarians Workshop on SALW and the
proposed ATT. House of Representatives, Philippines. Feb. 6-7
24
Mailgalig (Ibid)
25
PNP Press Release No. 08-1007. “Verzosa orders nationwide crackdown on illegal guns.” Available online http://
www.pnp.gov.ph/ accessed Jan 27, 2009, 535pm
26
Felipe, Cecille. 2009. “PNP revokes Mayor Ampatuan's 19 gun licenses.” The Philippine Star. Nov 30. available
online http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=528121&publicationSubCategoryId=63 accessed Jan 18,
2010
27
PNP uses the term ‘loose’ FA in this report
28
Sinfuego, Roy and Ilgan, Aris. (2005). “PNP Orders Crackdown on 150,000 loose firearms.” Manila Bulletin. April
16. http://www.articlearchives.com/crime-law-enforcement-corrections/law-police-forces/753556-1.html accessed
22 Gun Proliferation & Violence
Jan 19, 2009, 953am
29
Ibid
30
http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/08/18/09/pnp-moves-recover-million-illegal-guns accessed March 20, 2011
32
PhilANSA now called PhilANCA or Phil. Action Network to Control Arms
33
2008. “Voices to Silence Guns.” PhilANSA (Phil. Action Network on Small Arms) Publication, p. 12.
34
De Guzman, O. (2008). “Guns in southern Philippines.” PRI’s The World. Audio File. Retrieved March 2008 from
http://www.theworld.org/?q=node/16981, cited in Voices to Silence Guns.” 2008. Phil. Action Network on Small
Arms Publication
35
Manila Standard Today. 2009. Ampatuan Arms Cache enough for two Battalions. December 5-6 available online
http://www.manilastandardtoday.com/insideNews.htm?f=2009/december/5/news1.isx&d=/2009/december/5
accesses December 5, 2010
37
Baja, Lauro L. Jr. (2003). (Ibid) and Phil. Information Agency (PIA). “Philippine Police prioritizes campaign vs loose
firearms.” May 18, 2005. http://www.gov.ph/news/default.asp?i=9415 accessed Jan 18, 2009 536pm
38
Police Chief Superintendent Vidal E. Querol, Acting Director for Operations. (2003) “Lecture on Firearms and its
impact on Peace and Order.” Ateneo de Manila University. Feb. 18.
39
Phil. Information Agency. (2005). “Philippine Police prioritizes campaign vs loose firearms.” May 18. http://www.
gov.ph/news/default.asp?i=9415 accessed Jan 18, 2009 536pm
40
Gen. Florencio Fianza, Special Envoy on Transnational Crime (OSETC). (2007) “OSETC and Initiatives on
Regulation.” Presented at the Asian Parliamentarians Workshop on SALW and the proposed ATT. House of
Representatives, Philippines. Feb 6-7.
41
Felipe, Cecille. 2009. “PNP revokes Mayor Ampatuan’s 19 gun licenses.” The Philippine Star. Nov 30. available
online http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=528121&publicationSubCategoryId=63 accessed Jan 18,
2010
42
PNP 2009 data, “Statistical Report on Crime Incidents Involving the Use of Firearms”
43
Lucas, Daxim. (2002). Palace allows foreigners to manufacture guns, ammo in Business World. April 19.
44
Phil. Daily Inquirer, 2004
45
PNP-FED figures, 4 December 2009
46
Makinano, M. and Lubang A. (2001). Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration: The Mindanao Experience
http://www.international.gc.ca/arms-armes/isrop-prisi/research-recherche/intl_security-securite_int/makinano_
lubang2001/section05.aspx accessed Feb 2, 2009, 1005am
48
See, Charlemame. 2008. “20,000 cops don’t have guns, PNP chief says.” GMA News. July 17. Available online
http://www.gmanews.tv/story/107560/20000-cops-dont-have-guns-PNP-chief-says accessed Jan 18 2010
49
Docena, Herbert. (2005). “US Military Aid to the Philippines.” May 10. Available online http://www.zmag.org/
content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=44&ItemID=7829 accessed Jan 16, 2009, 1041 am; also cited in Lao, Melissa
J., and Oreta, Jennifer S. (2009). “Appropriating terror in the Arroyo Administration: Radicalizing State-Civil Society
Relations” in Conflict, Religion and Culture: Domestic and international implications for SEA and Australia.
50
Berrigan, Frida and Hartung, William D, (with Leslie Heffel). (2005). “U.S. Weapons at War 2005:
Promoting Freedom of Fueling Conflict? U.S. Military Aid and Arms Transfers Since September 11” A World
Policy Institute Special Report. June 2005 available online http://www.worldpolicy.org/projects/arms/reports/
wawjune2005.html#10 accessed Jan 16, 2009, 1031am
51
Phil. Information Agency. http://www.pia.gov.ph/?m=12&fi=p070610.htm&no=3 accessed Jan 16, 2009 1102
am
52
Aragon, Chito. O. (2008) “High Powered Firearms seized.” Cebu Daily News. March 18. http://globalnation.
inquirer.net/cebudailynews/metro/view/20080318-125448/High-powered-firearms-seized accessed Dec 18, 2009
53
Mr. Jose Thaddeus Roble, Jr., Secretary to the Mayor, Danao City,” interviewed on August 27, 2008, Danao
City Hall, 9:00 am. Cited in Oreta. 2009. Women and Security: Gun Violence in Select areas in the Philippines.
Dissertation paper
54
PCTC (bid)
55
Reuters. (2003) “Illegal guns flourish in trigger happy Philippines.” Taipei Times. Dec. 8. http://www.taipeitimes.
com/News/world/archives/2003/12/08/2003078798 accessed Jan 14, 2008 135pm
57
Carlos, Clarita. (2002) “Coping with terrorism and other transnational threats: The view from the Philippines.”
Paper presented at the National Defense University’s 23rd Annual Pacific Symposium on “ Addressing transnational
threats in the Asia Pacific region”, February 20-21. Fort McNair, Washington, DC, USA. Available online http://www.
ndu.edu/inss/symposia/Pacific2002/carlospaper.htm#_ednref37 accessed Jan 14, 2009 147pm
58
Gen. Caccam, Chief of PNP-Firearms and Explosive Division, interviewed on June 3, 2008, PNP-FED Office
59
Garrido, Marco. (2003) “Philippines Crazy about Guns.” Asia Times online. Jan. 23. http://www.atimes.com/
atimes/Southeast_Asia/EA23Ae03.html accessed Dec 16, 2009
60
Col. Maligalig (Ibid)
61
Asia Africa Intelligence Wire. (2004) “Taiwan, Philippine police crack arms Trafficking.” June 4. available online
http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-21556587_ITM accessed Jan 12, 2009, 1050am; and
Asia Africa Intelligence Wire. (2005) “Japanese paper alleges North Korea arms link to Philippine Moro group.”
Jan 3. available online http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-18383977_ITM accessed Nov 12,
2009 1105am
62
World Sources online. (2004) “Philippine Military fails to intercept arms shipment to rebels, Xinhua.” Aug. 3.
available online http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-4327312_ITM accessed Jan 12, 2009,
1046am; and Asia Africa Intelligence Wire. (2004) “Phil. Moro group denies receipt of arms shipment.” Aug 6.
http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-12887208_ITM accessed Nov 12, 2009, 1108am
63
Military Intelligence Report cited in Ferrer, Miriam. (2003). “Philippine Political Context-Challenges of Democratic
Consolidation.” Paper presented to the CIDA’s Country Development Programming Framework for the Philippines,
EDSA Shangrila, August 29.
65
2007 data: Former Nat’l Intelligence Coordinating Agency (NICA) official (identity withheld). Lecture given on Nov.
CHAPTER 2 | The State of Affairs 23
 14, 2008, Discovery Suites
2002 data: Military Intelligence Report cited in Ferrer, Miriam. 2003. (Ibid)
1998 data: Rojas, Felipe L. Phil. Center on Transnational Crime Paper on Terrorism. Available online http://www.
pctc.gov.ph/papers/InternationalTerrorism.htm (accessed Feb 2, 2009)
CHAPTER 3
66
Capie, David. (2004). “Trading the tools of Terror: Armed groups and light weapons proliferation in Southeast Asia”
in Terrorism and Violence in Southeast Asia Transnational Challenges to States and Regional Stability. Paul J. Smith
(ed). Armonk, New York & London: M.E. Sharpe Inc., p. 198; and Kramer, Katherine. (2001). “Legal to Illegal:
History of Firearms Proliferation
Southeast Asia’s Illegal Arms Trade.” Kasarinlan, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 45 (available online http://journals.upd.edu.
ph/index.php/kasarinlan/article/viewFile/1088/1120 accessed Jan 15, 2009 931am); Small Arms Survey 2008. in the Philippines
Cambridge University Press.
67
Guevara, Marina Walker. (2007) “Sustaining an Unpopular Regime In the Philippines, U.S. aid has helped bolster Arjan Payongayong Aguirre, M.A.1 and
a government whose military is tied to extrajudicial killings.” The Center for Public Integrity. May 3. available online
http://projects.publicintegrity.org/militaryaid/report.aspx?aid=878 accessed Jan 16, 2009 1052 am
Jennifer Santiago Oreta
68
Eliza Griswold (2006) quoted by Guevara, Marina Walker. “Sustaining an Unpopular Regime In the Philippines, U.S.
aid has helped bolster a government whose military is tied to extrajudicial killings.” The Center for Public Integrity.
May 3, 2007 http://projects.publicintegrity.org/militaryaid/report.aspx?aid=878 accessed Jan 16, 2009 1052 am
69
available online at http://magdaloparasapagbabago.blogspot.com/2007/01/magdalo-group-message-at-
oakwood-last_11.html accessed Jan 14, 932pm
70
Reuters. (2008) “Janitor Arrested for selling police guns.” The Australian. Nov 24. http://www.theaustralian.news.
com.au/story/0,25197,24700159-12377,00.html accessed Jan 14, 2008. 140pm.
Historicizing the Philippine Firearms Industry:
The Philippine National Police Firearms and Explosives Division (FED) is mandated to stockpile the following: (a) ;YHJPUN[OLOPZ[VY`VMN\UPUK\Z[Y`PU[OL7OPSPWWPULZPZUVLHZ`[HZR+LZWP[L
Commercial FA (those imported from other countries and/or manufactured in the Phils., for selling); (b) Evidence [OLSHJRVMZJOVSHYS`^VYRVU[OLOPZ[VY`VMN\UZÄYLHYTZPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ
FA (FA that are stored for evidence in court proceeding and awaiting final disposition); and (c) Confiscated,
Captured, Surrendered and Deposited FA. PNP Stockpile Management and Records Keeping. Available online the major research hurdle was addressed through the extant narratives on
http://72.14.235.132/search?q=cache:2DQx6-ouNOMJ:disarmament.un.org/rcpd/pdf%2520bali/Puapo. 7OPSPWWPULN\UTHRPUNHUKHYTZ[YHKL
pdf+loose+firearms+Philippines&hl=tl&ct=clnk&cd=3&gl=ph accessed Jan 18, 2009 552 pm
71
Interview with “Ana”, an inmate at Women’s Correctional. July 31, 2008. 10 am
73
Military Intelligence Report cited in Ferrer, Miriam. 2003.(Ibid) Pre-Spanish period7YPVY[V[OLTVKLYUKH`7OPSPWWPULÄYLHYTZPUK\Z[Y`[OL
74
Agence France Presse. (2008) “Govt lures communist rebels with cash for guns.” ABS-CBN News. Oct 19. http:// LHYS`N\UTHYRL[^HZKVTPUH[LKI`SVJHSN\UZTP[OZZTHSSTL[HS^VYRZOVWZ
www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/10/19/08/govt-lures-communist-rebels-cash-guns accessed Jan 19, 2009, 940am
HUKY\KPTLU[HY`Z`Z[LTVM[YHKL<ZPUN[OL^VYRVM(IPUHSLZHUK(TVYVZV
[OLPU[LYSVJRPUNZVJPVWVSP[PJHSHUKLJVUVTPJMLH[\YLZVM[OL[PTLJHUIL
ascertained.

;OLWYLJVSVUPHS-PSPWPUVZVJPL[`^HZWYLKVTPUHU[S`SVJHSPaLKYLSH[P]LS`
MYHNTLU[LKZTHSSJVTT\UP[PLZ^OPJO^LYLOLH]PS`PUÅ\LUJLKI`OPLYHYJOHS
YLSH[PVUZYLSPNPV\ZHUKHUPTPZ[PJILSPLMZHUKZ[YVUNRPUZOPW[PLZ,JVUVTPJ[YHKL
YLSH[PVUZILJHTLWVZZPISLK\L[V[OLPYZ[YH[LNPJSVJH[PVUHUKHMÄUP[`^P[OV[OLY
JVTT\UP[PLZPU[OLYLNPVU0UMHJ[HZPKLMYVT[OL:\TH[YHUJVTT\UP[PLZ[OH[
[PTL[OLLHYS`-PSPWPUVZHSZVOHKLJVUVTPJ[PLZ^P[O[OLNYV^PUNLJVUVTPJZLH
trade centers in India and China. The economic trade relations also facilitated
the exchange of cultural and belief systems. The political system was relatively
WHYVJOPHSHUKZ[Y\J[\YLKHJJVYKPUN[VRPUZOPW[PLZ([[OL[VWVM[OLbarangay
[OLºKH[\»LUQV`LKYLSH[P]LS`Z[YVUN\ZPUN[OLJVU[LTWVYHY`WHYSHUJLL_LJ\[P]L
SLNPZSH[P]LHUKQ\KPJPHSWV^LYZ/L^HZL_WLJ[LK[VZL[[SLKPZW\[LZL_OPIP[
TPSP[HY`WYV^LZZHUKILHRLLULJVUVTPJ[HJ[PJPHU;OLºKH[\»LTIVKPLKIV[O
the secular and spiritual authority in the community.
1
Mr. Arjan Aguirre received
;OPZWLYPVKZH^U\TLYV\ZPU[LYTP[[LU[HYTLKJVUÅPJ[Z his M.A. in Political Science,
between and among communities within and outside major in Global Politics
degree from the Ateneo
the archipelago. The constant interaction with other
de Manila University.
settlers in the archipelago created more occasions He is a lecturer at the
MVYJVUÅPJ[HTVUN[OLLHYS`-PSPWPUVZ(ZHW[S`W\[ Department of Political
Science, School of Social
I`(IPUHSLZHUK(TVYVZV!¸(c)ommon Sciences, Ateneo de Manila
YLHZVUZMVYNVPUN[V^HYPUJS\KLKH]LUNPUNHRPSSPUN University and currently
engaged in research
mistreatment, or abduction.” At around fourteenth projects on contentious
JLU[\Y`HZ*OPUH»ZYLNPVUHSWV^LYILNHU[VNYV^ politics, revolutions, and
(IPUHSLZ (TVYVZV[OLYLJVUÄN\YH[PVUVM social movements in
the Philippines. (email:
[OLZLH[YHKLTVZ[SPRLS`MHJPSP[H[LK[OLZOPWTLU[ aaguirre@ateneo.edu)
of gunpowder to the Philippines. As pointed out by
24 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 3 | History of Firearms Proliferation in the Phili ppines 25
 TVZ[ZJOVSHYZVU[OLVYPNPUZVMÄYLHYTZ[OLJVUZVSPKH[PVUVMWV^LYVM[OL4PUN +\[JOHUK[OLUSH[LYVU[OLFilipinos themselves (Phelan 1959; Scott 1970;
K`UHZ[`TH`OH]LOLSWLKZWYLHK[OLRUV^SLKNLHUK[LJOUVSVNPLZ 4HSSHYP  "3V`YL "(IPUHSLZ (TVYVZV
VMN\UWV^KLY[OYV\NO[OLPYTPSP[HY`HUKLJVUVTPJLUNHNLTLU[Z.VVKYPJO 
Chia-Sheng 1946; Ling 1947).2 These interactions may have given the local 0U)PJVS-Y-YHUJPZJV4HSSHYP:1PUOPZYLHKPUNVM[OLEreccion de Pueblos—
‘datus’ the opportunity to upgrade their military equipment. In the absence of a Albay (1799-1864) said that:
JLU[YHSPaLKZ`Z[LTVMJVU[YVSHUKYLN\SH[PVUPU[OLHYJOPWLSHNVP[TH`ILZHML[V The petitions for weapons ring with a tone of piteous urgency born of
Z\YTPZL[OH[[OL\UYLN\SH[LKMV\Y[LLU[OJLU[\Y`[YHKPUNJLU[LYZPU;VUKV4HSHP years of seemingly irremediable and unrelenting torment at the hands
TVKLYUKH`4PUKVYVHUK:\S\^LYL[OLÄYZ[HYLHZPU[OL7OPSPWWPUL[VHJ[\HSS` of the Muslims. Of the twenty seven pueblos and VUL]PZP[HVUS`[OL
WVZZLZZ\ZLKPZWVZLHUKTH`ILSH[LYVUTHU\MHJ[\YL[OLLHYS`HUK`L[[VIL W\LISVVM(SIH`KPKUV[HZRMVYHYTZHUKHTT\UP[PVUThe arms in its
KPJOVTP[PaLKPLSLNHSHUKPSSLNHSÄYLHYTZPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ possession, including those of private individuals, its report claimed,
^LYLZ\MÄJPLU[MVYKLMLUZLW\YWVZLZ. (italics supplied) (Mallari 1987:
+\YPUN[OLLTIY`VUPJ`LHYZVM[OL:WHUPZOJVSVUPHSY\SL[OLJVUÅPJ[Z[OH[ZH^ 194)
the death of Magellan and eventual crush of most sea trade centers of the
HYJOPWLSHNVYL]LHSLK[OLPUP[PHSZ[HNLVM[OL7OPSPWWPULÄYLHYTZPUK\Z[Y`0U[OL ;O\Z[OLKLTHUKMVYÄYLHYTZK\YPUN[OLJVSVUPHSWLYPVK^HZ[VHSHYNLL_[LU[
HJJV\U[ZVM4VSPUH [OLWLYZVUHSUHYYH[P]LZVMZVTL:WHUPZOOPZ[VYPHUZ M\LSLKI`[OLJVUÅPJ[^P[O[OL4VYVZ
that were present in the expeditions all implied the existence of the pre-Spanish
ÄYLHYTZPUK\Z[Y`(JJVYKPUN[V4VSPUH H]HPSHISLMVY\ZLI`-PSPWPUVZPU 0UKLHSPUN^P[O[OLYLZPZ[HUJL[OL:WHUPZOJVSVUPHSNV]LYUTLU[PTWVZLKH
[OLLHYS``LHYZVMJVSVUPaH[PVU^LYLSVUNHYTZHUKJHUUVUZ0IPK;HRLUMYVT JLU[YHSPaLKJVU[YVSV]LY[OLW\YJOHZLWVZZLZZPVUHUK\ZLVMÄYLHYTZVM[OL
his quotation of a letter from a certain Guido de Lavezares to then King Felipe native indios.
Segundo (Philip II of Spain): “The people are the most valiant yet found in these
regions; they posses much good armor… and some arquebuses and culverins” ;OL[OYLH[WVZLKI`-PSPWPUVZIV[O[OLindios and ChineseMVYJLK[OL:WHUPZO
KL3H]LaHYLZ"0U)LUP[La  !"JP[LKPU4VSPUH !3 It is JVSVUPaLYZ[VPTWVZLHJVTWYLOLUZP]LJVU[YVSVUÄYLHYTZHJYVZZ[OLJV\U[Y`
HZZ\TLK[OH[[OL\ZLVMTL[HSZTLS[PUN[LJOUVSVNPLZHY[VMTL[HSJHZ[PUNHUK ;OPZ^HZ[OLÄYZ[L_WLYPLUJLVMKPJOV[VTPaPUNSLNHSHUKPSSLNHSÄYLHYTZPU
N\UWV^KLYJV\WSLK^P[O[OLRUV^SLKNLHUKZRPSS[OH[HYLZOHYLK[OYV\NO[OL the Philippines. Only the central government had the sole control of legal
LJVUVTPJHUKWVSP[PJHSSPURZ[OH[[PTLTH`OH]LWH]LK[OL^H`MVY[OL-PSPWPUV»Z ÄYLHYTZHUKHYTHTLU[Z\WWS`T\ZRL[ZJHUUVUZHUKN\UWV^KLY[OYV\NO
\ZLVMTL[HSHUKÄYLPU^HYMHYL [OLJVU[YHJ[ZIL[^LLU]HYPV\ZZ[H[LZ5L[OLYSHUKZ*OPUHVY)YP[HPUVYWYP]H[L
companies or individuals (local gunsmiths) operating in Spain and in the
+\YPUN[OLL_WLKP[PVUZ[OL:WHUPHYKZ(U[VUPVKL4VYNHPTWSPLK[OL Philippines (Arenas 1850; In Diaz-Trechuelo 1964; Mallari 1987). It is assumed
Z\IZPZ[LUJLVMSVJHSÄYLHYTPUK\Z[Y`PU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ! [OH[[OPZJVU[YVSSPUNWV^LY^HZYPNPKS`PTWVZLK[V[OLPUKPVZHUK^HZSVVZLS`
¸:PUJL[OL`OH]LZLLU[OL:WHUPHYKZ\ZL[OLPY^LHWVUZTHU`VM[OL imposed to the Spaniards living in the Philippines.
natives handle the arquebuses and T\ZRL[ZX\P[LZRPSSM\SS`)LMVYL[OL
arrival of Spaniards they had bronze culverins and other pieces of ;OLJVSVUPHS»ZNV]LYUTLU[»ZKLZPYL[VPTWVZLºJVU[YVS»VUÄYLHYTZWVZZLZZPVU
JHZ[PYVU^P[O^OPJO[OL`KLMLUKLK[OLPYMVY[Z (to address the resistance) versus the need to defend the territory against
HUKZL[[SLTLU[ZHS[OV\NO[OLPYWV^KLYPZUV[ZV The use of sulphur (liu),
2
H[[HJRZMYVTP[ZLULTPLZH[[OL[PTL[OL4VYVZ^HZHZLYPV\ZJVUJLYUMVY[OL
saltpetre or potassium
^LSSYLÄULKHZ[OH[VM[OL:WHUPHYKZ¹KL4VYNH nitrate (hsiao) and charcoal Spanish government. In the letter sent by a representative from the Consulado
1595: Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, PU.HYJPH as the main ingredients de Manila, Spanish authority tried to explain its reluctance to supply guns and
in producing gunpowder
  !"JP[LKPU4VSPUH ! was already perfected by
ammunitions to the devastated Bicol territories:
the Chinese as early as
Spanish Period. The coming in of Spaniards A.D. 85. This therefore ;OLYLHYLTHU`KPMÄJ\S[PLZPUHYTPUNHSS[OLW\LISVZZV[OH[[OL`JHU
goes beyond and obviously
catalyzed a major change in the political and social transcends the use of KLMLUK[OLTZLS]LZ^OLUH[[HJRLK![OLÄYZ[PZ[V[YHPUHUKZ\WWS`
state of affairs in Philippine society. The used-to-be ‘fire’ in warfare by the ^P[OHTT\UP[PVUHZ\IQ\NH[LKWLVWSL"HUK[OLZLJVUKPU[OLÄUHS
early Assyrian and Greek
fragmented Filipino communities were drawn to the civilizations. See also
HUHS`ZPZILPUNWLHZHU[ZKL]VPKVMVYKLYSLHKLYHUKJV\YHNLH[[OL
centralized Spanish colonial power. Carman, W. (1965). SLHZ[Z\YWYPZL[OL`ÅLL^OLYL]LY[OL`JHUHIHUKVUPUN[OLPYHYTZHUK
3
Arquebuses are the old HTT\UP[PVUZ^OPJOMHSSPU[V[OLOHUKZVM[OLLULTPLZ0U[OPZTHUULY
long arm rifle which
The Spanish government asserted its supremacy uses wood and a metal the Muslims have seized many cannon. (italics supplied) (Paterno
over the Filipino inhabitants through religion and civil tube to propel an object. 1872:2; In Mallari 1987: 206)
Culverins, on the other
and military power. Throughout the more than three hand, are those early
JLU[\YPLZVMY\SL[OPZUL^Z`Z[LTVMNV]LYUTLU[^HZ cannons called ‘Lantaka’ The supply of armaments for most of the rebel and resistance movements
used by native Filipinos.
tested by internecine clashes in the islands brought \Z\HSS`JVTLMYVTN\UYL[YPL]HSZHUKYHPKZI\[[OLYLPZHSZVYLHZVU[VILSPL]L
See Molina, M. (1993),
I`[OLUH[P]LPUOHIP[HU[Z4VYV[VNL[OLY^P[O[OL p.17. that the Moros get their supply through the unregulated international sea

26 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 3 | History of Firearms Proliferation in the Phili ppines 27
 [YHKL;OL4VYVZYHPKLK:WHUPZOHYTVYPLZHUKYL[YPL]LK:WHUPZOT\ZRL[ZHUK
JHUUVUZHM[LY[OLHYTLKJSHZOLZ4HSSHYP  0UHUHJJV\U[KLWPJ[PUN
the fate of the Spanish forces during a series of Moro offensives in a Spanish
0SPNHU-VY[MYVT[OL4VYVZ^LYLRUV^U[VILJHWHISLVMLHZPS`
adapting to the ways of their enemies:
¯B:WHUPHYKZDJVU[PU\LKP[ZZ[Y\NNSLMVYZ\Y]P]HS^P[OV\[HU`PUJYLHZL
in troops while the Moros became more and more daring. They copied
the Spaniards’ coats, mail, helmets and increased their number of
ÄYLHYTZ0[PZLHZ`[V\UKLYZ[HUK^O`:WHUPZOZVSKPLYZKPKUV[SPRL
being detailed in Mindanao. (italics supplied) (Loyre 1987: 166)
(UV[OLYZV\YJLVMPSSLNHSÄYLHYTZK\YPUN[OPZ[PTL^HZ[OLZ[H[LHJ[VYZ
[OLTZLS]LZ([[OLOLPNO[VM[OL:WHUPZOJVSVUPaH[PVUSVJHSVMÄJPHSZ^LYL
often accused of selling or leasing guns to unauthorized individuals (Mallari
 4VYLV]LY[OLLULTPLZVM:WHPU^LYLHSZVRUV^U[VZ\WWS`HYTZ[V
(TVYVZV+\YPUN[OPZWLYPVK
YLILS-PSPWPUVZ+\YPUN[OL5L[OLYSHUKZ:WHPUHUK.YLH[)YP[HPU:WHPU^HYZ
[OLÄYLHYTZ\ZLKPU[OL4VYVL_WLKP[PVUZ[V:WHUPZO[LYYP[VYPLZ^LYL\Z\HSS`
ZV\YJLKMYVT[OL+\[JOHUK[OL)YP[PZOMVYJLZ4HSSHYP  
+\YPUN[OLSH[LZ[OLJYHJRZPU[OL:WHUPZONV]LYUTLU[PU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ
ÄUHSS`LTLYNLK-PYZ[[OYV\NO[OLPUÅ\_VM[OLilustrado class to the European
JVU[PULU[HUL^MVYTVMHU[P:WHUPZOZLU[PTLU[LTLYNLKPU[OLYLMVYTPZ[
7YVWHNHUKHTV]LTLU[:JO\THJOLY 0U[OLPYU\TLYV\Z[YH]LSZHJYVZZ
,\YVWL[OPZÄYZ[NLULYH[PVUVM-PSPWPUVUH[PVUHSPZ[ZOHKZV^U[OLZLLKZVM
revolution through ideational diffusion of liberalism and nationalism (Arcilla 1991;
(IPUHSLZ
(TVYVZV"(UKLYZVU:LJVUKHZHYLZWVUZL[V[OLZL immediately mobilized in 1899 to resist the American occupation (Zaide 1954).
KL]LSVWTLU[Z-PSPWPUVZX\PJRS`VYNHUPaLKHU\UKLYNYV\UKHYTLKTV]LTLU[
called Katipunan(NVUJPSSV "(IPUHSLZ
(TVYVZV ÄYLHYTZHUKTVYLL_WLYPLUJLK(TLYPJHUTPSP[HY`JVU[PUNLU[+LZWP[L[OL
KatipunanNV[P[ZÄYLHYTZ[OYV\NOZLPa\YLZHUKYL[YPL]HSZ(NVUJPSSV 
:VTLSVJHSVMÄJPHSZSPRL[OL[OLU`V\UN4H`VYVM2H^P[*H]P[LHUKSH[LYVUÄYZ[
7YLZPKLU[VM[OL7OPSPWWPUL9LW\ISPJ,TPSPV(N\PUHSKVHSZVOLSWLKPUYHPKPUN
HYTVYPLZVYL]LUZLPaPUNÄYLHYTZMYVT[OL:WHUPZOTPSP[HY`MVYJLZ(NVUJPSSV
 3PRL^PZL[OL<UP[LK:[H[LZKL;VNVYLZ HUK;HP^HU(UKLYZVU
MHJPSP[H[LK[OLÅV^VMTPSP[HY`Z\WWSPLZ[V[OLKatipunan through smuggling
(illicit trade) and underground arms transfer.
American Period (and the Second World War). After the brief yet bloody
7OPSPWWPUL(TLYPJHU^HY  [OL(TLYPJHUJVSVUPHSYLNPTLYLZ[Y\J[\YLK
the residual colonial state through the policy of “benevolent assimilation”
or the institutionalization of the democratic values and practices in the
7OPSPWWPULZ(IPUHSLZ
(TVYVZV7HY[VM[OLJOHUNLZPU[YVK\JLK^HZ[OL Sections 879
replacement of the old guardia civil^P[O[OL7OPSPWWPUL:JV\[ZHUKSH[LYVU[OL
7OPSPWWPUL*VUZ[HI\SHY`3H\YPL  "/\[JOJYVM["(IPUHSLZ
(TVYVZV 7OPSPWWPUL*VUZ[HI\SHY`WYPZVUN\HYKZHUKNV]LYUTLU[
2005).
;OL(TLYPJHUZPUZ[P[\[LKHSPILYHSKLTVJYH[PJNV]LYUTLU[HSILP[Z[PSS^P[OPU
[OLMYHTLVMJVSVUPaH[PVU)` [OL-PSPWPUVZ^LYLNP]LU[OLJOHUJL[V
28 Gun Proliferation & Violence
Danao gun-smiths
allegedly acquired
the skill in gun
making during the
Spanish period.
According to
Roble (2009), the
Spaniards usually
bring their guns to
the black smiths in
Danao. These black
smiths eventually
learned how to
fabricate guns.
WHY[PJPWH[LPUWVSPJ`THRPUN(IPUHSLZ
-PSPWPUVZLUQV`LKHUPUJS\ZP]LZ`Z[LTVMLK\JH[PVUWYVMLZZPVUHSPaH[PVUVM[OL
I\YLH\JYHJ`HUKYLSH[P]LZ[HIPSP[`PU[OLWLHJLHUKVYKLYZP[\H[PVUHJYVZZ[OL
country.
;OLYL^LYLZL]LYHSKPMÄJ\S[PLZ[OH[JVUMYVU[LK[OL(TLYPJHUJVSVUPaH[PVU
-PYZ[Q\Z[ILMVYLP[MVYTHSS`HZZ\TLKWV^LYH[[OL[\YUVM[OLJLU[\Y`[OLHYT`
of the revolutionary government of President Emilio Aguinaldo posed a major
hurdle for the foundational period of the American government (Hutchcroft
(YTLK^P[OYPÅLZ4H\ZLYZ9LTPUN[VUZ4\YH[HZHUK(TILYZ
[OLYLTHPUPUNTLTILYZVM[OLYL]VS\[PVUHY`HYT`VM(N\PUHSKV^LYL
-YVTVULWYV]PUJL[VHUV[OLY[OPZJV\U[Y`^PKLYLZPZ[HUJLIYH]LK[OLZ\WLYPVY
announcement of the American president Theodore Roosevelt of the end of
OVZ[PSP[PLZPU ]HYPV\ZMVYTZVMHYTLKYLZPZ[HUJLHNHPUZ[[OL(TLYPJHUZ
continued across the country.
The Administrative Code of the Philippines (ACP) (1917) attempted to re-
institutionalize gun regulation by deputizing the Philippine Constabulary
[VYLN\SH[L[OL\ZLWVZZLZZPVUTHU\MHJ[\YPUNHUK[YHKPUNVMN\UZPU[OL
7OPSPWWPULZ4VSPUH 7LY[PULU[WYV]PZPVUZVM[OL(*7HYLHZMVSSV^Z!
:LJ[PVU¶7YV]PKLZ[OLSLNHSKLÄUP[PVUVMN\UZ¸º-PYLHYT»VYºHYT»HZOLYLPU
\ZLKPUJS\KLYPÅLZT\ZRL[ZJHYIPULZZOV[N\UZYL]VS]LYZWPZ[VSZHUKHSS
V[OLYKLHKS`^LHWVUZMYVT^OPJOHI\SSL[IHSSZOV[ZOLSSVYV[OLYTPZZPSLTH`
be discharged by means of gunpowder or other explosive.”
Section 878 – Prohibits the use of unlicensed guns
– Listed those who are exempted from Section 878. The list
PUJS\KLZTPSP[HY`WLYZVUULSWLHJLVMÄJLYZPUJS\KPUN[OL
VMÄJPHSZ
Section 882 – Exemption given to those people who are involved in hunting
Section 883 – Prohibits the involvement of any individual in an unlicensed
[YHKLVYKLHSVMÄYLHYTZ
CHAPTER 3 | History of Firearms Proliferation in the Phili ppines 29
 Sections 884 – Empowered the Chief of the Philippine Constabulary to issue JHSSPUNMVY[OLZ\YYLUKLYVMHSSÄYLHYTZHJYVZZ[OLJV\U[Y`5L]LY[OLSLZZPUP[Z
license to dealers and sellers of guns [^VKLJHKLZVMVWLYH[PVU[OLL]LU[\HSYL[YLH[VM[OL727:[HSPUPZ[JVTT\UPZ[
:LJ[PVU ¶ 7YP]H[LPUKP]PK\HSZHYLHSSV^LK[V\ZLÄYLHYTZMVYZLSM movement and the persistence of the use of private armies in the Philippines
defense and other lawful purposes did not help much on the state’s effort to address the continued proliferation of
ÄYLHYTZPU[OLJV\U[Y`
+\YPUN[OL:LJVUK>VYSK>HY[OL(TLYPJHUNV]LYUTLU[^HZMVYJLK[V
surrender the Philippine colonial sovereignty to the Japanese forces. To Marcos Era0U -LYKPUHUK4HYJVZ^VU[OLWYLZPKLUJ`HNHPUZ[[OL
THPU[HPUWLHJLHUKVYKLYZWLJPÄJHSS`[VJVU[YVS[OLNYV^[OVM[OLOVTLNYV^U PUJ\TILU[7YLZPKLU[+PVZKHKV4HJHWHNHS;OLWYVSPMLYH[PVUVMWYP]H[LHYTPLZ
N\LYPSSHMVYJL7HY[PKV2VT\UPZ[HUN7PSPWPUHZ727¶/\RIVUN)H`HU3HIHU of prominent political families and the rising criminality in the metropolis caused
ZH/HWVU/<2)(3(/(7[OL1HWHULZLLUKVYZLK7OPSPWWPULNV]LYUTLU[ PU[LYUHSZLJ\YP[`WYVISLTZMVY[OL4HYJVZHKTPUPZ[YH[PVU(KRPUZ "2YL\aLY
and the Japanese military forces imposed a total gun ban across the islands  (SZV[OLWLYZPZ[LU[HYTLKJVUÅPJ[ZPUZVTLWHY[ZVMZV\[OLYU7OPSPWWPULZ
*VUZ[HU[PUV
*VUZ[HU[PUV "0U4VSPUH 4 and delegitimized the arms indicated the inability of the Philippine state to pacify the Muslim armed
and ammunitions registered under the American government. The Japanese NYV\WZPU4PUKHUHV)` 4HYJVZOHUKLKKV^U7YVJSHTH[PVUVY[OL
JVU[YVSSLK[OLTHU\MHJ[\YLVMÄYLHYTZ^OPSL[OL\UKLYNYV\UKTV]LTLU[ Declaration of Martial Law to quell moves to oust and undermine the Philippine
HJX\PYLKP[ZÄYLHYTZMYVT[OLHYTHTLU[ZVM[OLVSKJVTTVU^LHS[ONV]LYUTLU[ KLTVJYH[PJNV]LYUTLU[(IPUHSLZ
(TVYVZV
HUK[OL<:TPSP[HY`MVYJLZ>OLU[OL(TLYPJHUZHUK-PSPWPUVZÄUHSS`YLJSHPTLK
[OL7OPSPWWPUL0ZSHUKZMYVT[OL1HWHULZLPU HSS[OH[^HZTHKLPSSLNHS\UKLY 0U[OLSH[L Z[OL4HYJVZNV]LYUTLU[ZH^[OLYPZLVM[OL4HVPZ[JVTT\UPZ[
the Japanese government was again made lawful. NYV\W*VTT\UPZ[7HY[`VM[OL7OPSPWWPULZ*77HUKP[ZHYTLK^PUN5L^
People’s Army (NPA) as a major threat to national security. With the impending
Post-Second World War Era.(M[LY[OL^HY[OLLZ[HISPZOTLU[VM[OLUL^ LJVUVTPJJYPZPZHUK[OLKLLWLUPUNWVSP[PJHSWYVISLTZJH\ZLKI`JVU[PU\LK
7OPSPWWPULZ[H[LMHJLK[^VTHPUJOHSSLUNLZPUP[ZLMMVY[[VYLN\SH[LÄYLHYTZ YLSPHUJLVU[OL(TLYPJHUZ[OLJVTT\UPZ[TV]LTLU[YHWPKS`NYL^HUK
across the archipelago: emergence of private armies in the rural areas and the developed into a strong armed movement in the mid-seventies (Daroy 1988;
YHKPJHSPaH[PVUVM[OLJVTT\UPZ[TV]LTLU[[OL7HY[PKV2VT\UPZ[HUN7PSPWPUHZ 9VJHTVYH ";OVTWZVU :PUJLP[ZPUJLW[PVUPU  [OLJVTIPULK
(PKP). The PKP-HUKBALAHAP5 was the only organized and stable non-liberal armaments of the old PKP cadres and captured weapons from the military
democratic political force since the arrival of the Americans at the turn of the allowed the new communist movement to arm its growing number of cadres
twentieth century. It became a formidable force during the reconstruction period K\YPUN[OLOL`KH`VM[OLTHY[PHSSH^LYH;PNSHV (SZVK\YPUN[OLWLYPVK
of the post-World War II Philippines. Inspired by its successful operations during VM   [OL4HYJVZHKTPUPZ[YH[PVUMHJLKHUV[OLYJOHSSLUNLMYVT[OL
[OL:LJVUK>VYSK>HY[OL727/<2)(3(/(7^OPJO[OLUTL[HTVYWOVZLK Muslim local politicians and warlords. Despite the government efforts to mollify
PU[V/\RIVUN4HWHNWHSH`HUN)H`HUB/4)D [OLNYV^PUN\UYLZ[PU4PUKHUHV4\ZSPTHYTLKTPSP[PHZHUKPKLHSPZ[Z[\KLU[Z
during this period continued its struggle against the According to Constantino
4 VYNHUPaLK[OLTZLS]LZ[V^OH[PZUV^RUV^UHZ[OL4VYV5H[PVUHS3PILYH[PVU
continued presence of the elite-dominated Philippine & Constantino, 1978, Front (MNLF). In addition to the military equipment and armaments it obtained
the Japanese made such
WVSP[PJZKLUV\UJLK[OLKLUPHSVMJVUNYLZZPVUHS declaration on 19 February
[OYV\NOMVYLPNUIHJRPUN453-YLJLP]LKV[OLYMVYTZVMMVYLPNUZ\WWVY[Z\JO
seats of the Democratic AllianceJHUKPKH[LZHUK 1942. HZÄUHUJPHSLN2HKKHÄVM3PI`HTPSP[HY`[YHPUPUN4HSH`ZPHHUKZ\WWSPLZ;\U
asserted the Filipinos’ right to arms through armed Hukbalahap or Hukbo
5
Mustapha of Brunei) (Noble 1981; Thompson 1995).
ng Bayan Laban sa
N\LYPSSHZ[Y\NNSL4VSPUH "(IPUHSLZ
(TVYVZV Hapon started as a
2005). -VY[OLMVYTLY[OLYLJVUZ[Y\J[PVUWLYPVKVM
6 anti-Japanese guerilla 7YVJSHTH[PVUPZZ\LKVU:LW[LTILY ^HZ4HYJVZ»JVUJYL[L
movement. After the war
the post Second World War Philippines also allowed and after independence, the
YLZWVUZL[V[OLZLJOHSSLUNLZ(IPUHSLZ
(TVYVZV0UP[ZLMMVY[[V
the local leaders to further consolidate their powers Hukbalahap merged with SLNP[PTPaL[OLTPSP[HY`NV]LYUTLU[HUK[V\UKLYTPUL[OL\ZLVMÄYLHYTZVMIV[O
through the mobilization of private armies in their the communist forces. PUZ\YNLU[ZHUKZLJLZZPVUPZ[TV]LTLU[Z4HYJVZWYVT\SNH[LK[OLMVSSV^PUN
Democratic Alliance
6

SVJHSP[PLZ2YL\aLY >P[O[OLYLSH[P]L^LHRULZZ was a radical political state policies under the Martial law regime (Molina 1993):
VM[OLJLU[YHSNV]LYUTLU[[OH[[PTLTVZ[VM[OLSVJHS party of the post-second .LULYHS6YKLY5V ¶ WYVOPIP[PVU[V\ZL\USPJLUZLKÄYLHYTZ
world war composed of
WVSP[PJHSMHTPSPLZYLZVY[LK[V[OL\ZLVMÄYLHYTZHUK former nacionalistas and
.LULYHS6YKLY5V ¶ H\[OVYPaPUN\UPMVYTLKWLYZVUULS[VJHYY`ÄYLHYTZ
NVVUZPUHZZLY[PUN[OLPYWVSP[PJHSPUÅ\LUJLHTVUN[OL members of PKP. In 1957, General Order No. 07-A – inclusion of other government agents to the
people in their respective territories (Molina 1993; the Philippine government, authorization order (National Bureau of Investigation
under President Carlos
;OVTWZVU "2YL\aLY 0UYLZWVUZL[V[OL P. Garcia, passed the and Prison Guards)
growing tension between HMB and the Philippine anti-Subversion law which .LULYHS6YKLY5V ¶ SHPKKV^U[OLN\PKLSPULZVU[OLJSHZZPÄJH[PVUVM
made it illegal to join or to
government and the proliferation of armed groups be part of the communist
ÄYLHYTZ
PU[OLSVJHSP[PLZ[OL9V_HZHKTPUPZ[YH[PVUZV\NO[[V insurgency group and
bolster the extant regulative measures through the participate in any of its +\YPUN[OLTHY[PHSSH^`LHYZ]HYPV\ZZLJ[VYZYLZWVUKLK[V[OLYLWYLZZP]L
operations. See Abinales
WYVT\SNH[PVUVM9LW\ISPJ(J[UVVU 1\S`  and Amoroso (2005). tendencies of the Marcos government through the mobilization of anti-Marcos

30 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 3 | History of Firearms Proliferation in the Phili ppines 31
 movements. Some members of social democratic organizations (e.g. Partido HZLYPLZVMJV\WZ^OPJOHSTVZ[SLK[VHKPZHWWVPU[PUNKLMLH[VM[OLÅLKNPUN
+LTVRYH[PRV:VZ`HSPZ[HUN7PSPWPUHZVY7+:7HUK:(5+0.(5LUNHNLKPU Philippine democratic state: May 1986-Loyalist Failed Coup; 06 July 1986-
underground insurrectionist activities. The Light a Fire Movement (LAFM) was Manila Hotel Proclamation; 23 November 1986-God Save the Queen Fiasco;
VYNHUPaLKPU(WYPS MVSSV^PUN[OLMHPS\YL[VNHPUSL]LYHNLPU[OLLSLJ[VYHS 1HU\HY` .4(:PLNL"(WYPS )SHJR:H[\YKH`9LILSSPVU"1\S` 
exercise. The group used arson and explosives to vilify the Marcos regime. MIA Foiled Hostage Attempt; August 1987-August Bloody Coup Attempt;
;OVTWZVU 0U ^P[O[OLJHW[\YLVMZVTL3(-4VWLYH[P]LZ[OL +LJLTILY  ;OYLL+H`:PLNL(IPUHSLZ (TVYVZV"-LYUHUKLa7
(WYPS:P_3PILYH[PVU4V]LTLU[(:34\ZLK[OLZHTLZ[YH[LN`HUKUL[^VYR 0UHUVKK[^PZ[VMMH[L[OLZLJVUK7YLZPKLU[HM[LY[OL,+:(9L]VS\[PVU-VYTLY
for weapons use and operations against the dictatorship (Thompson 1995). 7YLZPKLU[(YYV`VHSZVMHJLKHU\TILYVMTPSP[HY`HK]LU[\YPZTHUKYHKPJHSPZT!
;OYV\NOV\[[OPZWLYPVK[OLNV]LYUTLU[VM4HYJVZ\ZLKHSSP[ZYLZV\YJLZ 1\S`6HR^VVK4\[PU`"-LIY\HY`-VPSLK,+:((UUP]LYZHY`<WYPZPUN8;
PLTPSP[HY`WLYZVUULSZ[H[LHNLUJPLZTLKPHL[J[VX\LSS[OLHU[P4HYJVZ November 2007-Manila Peninsula Siege (Montesanto 2003; Coronel 2007;
TV]LTLU[ZHUK[VIVSZ[LYP[ZJVU[YVSV]LYÄYLHYTZ0[JVKPÄLKHSSWYLZPKLU[PHS /PJRLU":HU[VZJ
KLJYLLZVUÄYLHYT\ZHNLTHU\MHJ[\YPUNHUKKLHSPUNPU[V7+PZZ\LKPU
1983 (Molina 1993). (KKP[PVUHSS`LMMVY[Z[VW\[HJSVZ\YL[V[OLJLU[\YPLZVSK4PUKHUHVJVUÅPJ[KPK
not succeed. Despite the success of the Ramos administration to appease
Contemporary Regulative Philippine State [OL453-PU 4\ZSPTHYTLKNYV\WZJVU[PU\LK[VNYV^PUU\TILYHSVUN
and The Philippine Firearms Industry
(ZWVPU[LKV\[LHYSPLY[OLIPY[OVM[OLJVU[LTWVYHY`YLN\SH[P]LZ[H[LHUK
ÄYLHYTZPUK\Z[Y`PU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ[YHJLZP[ZYVV[ZMYVT]HYPV\ZOPZ[VYPJHS
L]LU[Z:[HY[PUN^P[O[OL(TLYPJHUWLYPVK[OL\ZLVM[OLHKTPUPZ[YH[P]LJVKLVM
the Philippines allowed the Philippine colonial state to formally institutionalize
[OLYLN\SH[PVUVMÄYLHYTZPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ+\YPUN[OLWVZ[>VYSK>HY00LYH
the new Philippine independent state adopted this measure to ensure the
legitimization of state monopoly over the use of arms across the country. Under
[OLTHY[PHSY\SLVM4HYJVZ[OL7OPSPWWPULNV]LYUTLU[Z[YLUN[OLULK[OPZJSHPT
VU[OL\ZLVMÄYLHYTZ[OYV\NO[OLWYVT\SNH[PVUVMNLULYHSVYKLYZ^OPJOM\Y[OLY
Z[YLUN[OLULK[OLYLN\SH[PVUVMÄYLHYTZPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ-VY[OLWVZ[4HYJVZ
LYH 7YLZLU[[OLZLYLN\SH[P]LTLHZ\YLZWYV]PKLKZVTLZ[HIPSP[`VU[OL
WVSP[PJHSLJVUVT`VMÄYLHYTZV^ULYZOPWPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ

Notwithstanding the restoration of freedom and the promise of restructuring Illegal firearms
[OL7OPSPWWPULLJVUVT`[OL`LHYZ[OH[JHTLHM[LY[OL4HYJVZKPJ[H[VYZOPW proliferation is
were predominantly unstable due to the periodic assaults made by numerous a long-standing
armed groups from the post-Marcos era. The post-Marcos Philippine state problem that dates
Z[PSSMHJLKHULUVYTV\Z[HZRVMTHPU[HPUPUNWLHJLHUKVYKLY[OYV\NOV\[[OL back from the time
of colonization.
country by addressing challenges posed by the remaining insurgent groups
57(453-403-HZ^LSSHZI`JVU[YVSSPUNWYP]H[LHYTPLZWYVSPMLYH[PVUVM
UVUZ[H[LHYTLKNYV\WZLNRPKUHWMVYYHUZVTNYV\WZHUKL]LUWSHJH[PUN[OL
7
Depending on how one
various orientations. With the eventual integration defines the concept of
NYV^PUNKPZPSS\ZPVUTLU[VMP[ZTPSP[HY`(IPUHSLZ (TVYVZV"+VULSS`" VMZVTLVM[OL453-MVYJLZPU [OLZWSPU[LY ‘coup’, the number of the
Fernandez 2006; Kreuzer 2009; Kraft 2010; Santos 2010b). For the Philippine NYV\W403-PUOLYP[LK[OLZLJLZZPVUPZ[Z[Y\NNSLVM[OL attempted military takeover
during the time of Aquino
NV]LYUTLU[[OLLMMVY[[VHZZLY[P[ZH\[OVYP[`HUKSLNP[PTHJ`V]LY[OLZLHYTLK Moro population in the southern Philippines (Santos ranges from seven to ten.
NYV\WZOLH]PS`PUÅ\LUJLK[OLYLN\SH[PVUVM[OLÄYLHYTZPUK\Z[Y` H"(IPUHSLZ (TVYVZV:PUJLP[ZPUJLW[PVU For this paper, I used the
works of both Fernandez
PU [OL403-THUHNLK[VYLJY\P[[OV\ZHUKZVM (2006) and Santos (2010c)
Compared to the previous periods during which the old Philippine state armed personnel and establish huge military bases in to quantify the coups during
M\UJ[PVULKHJJVYKPUN[V[OLKLTHUKZVM[OLJVSVUPHSWV^LYZ[OLJVU[LTWVYHY` 4PUKHUHV:HU[VZH;VKH[LKLZWP[LP[ZPUP[PHS the Aquino administration.
8
This military uprising
exercise of political power is conditioned by challenges from an array of armed YL[YLH[PU[OLTPSP[HY`Z[YLUN[OVM403-YLTHPULK is divided into two: 25
NYV\WZL_[LUKPUNMYVTIV[OL_[YLTLZVM[OLWVSP[PJHSZWLJ[Y\T;V[OLYPNO[PZ relatively stable due to its strong military presence February foiled plan to
mobilize in EDSA and 26
[OLTPSP[HY`Z[PSS[Y`PUN[VJSPUN[VWV^LYP[LUQV`LKK\YPUN[OLTHY[PHSSH^`LHYZ PUZVTLWHY[ZVM4PUKHUHV(WHY[MYVT403-[OL February stand-off in the
OLUJLH[V[HSVMLSL]LUJV\WK»L[H[Z^LYLLUK\YLKI`7YLZ*VYHaVU(X\PUV culmination of the MNLF’s struggle also led to the Marine barracks in Fort
K\YPUNOLY[LYT(IPUHSLZ (TVYVZV":HU[VZJ-YVT [V   IPY[OVMHUV[OLYOVTLNYV^U4\ZSPTZLWHYH[PZ[NYV\W Bonifacio. See Coronel
(2007) for the detailed
the Aquino government braved the ire of the disgruntled military personnel in JHSSLKº(S/HYHRH[\S0ZSHTP``H»VY0ZSHTPJ4V]LTLU[VY accounts.

32 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 3 | History of Firearms Proliferation in the Phili ppines 33
 WVW\SHYS`RUV^UHZAbu SayyafNYV\W+VULSS`":HU[VZ
+PUHTWV The vestiges of the old armed entities of the local political families still remained
As a distinct group that was borne out of a dream to have an independent
)HUNZHTVYVZ[H[LAbu Sayyaf appropriated both the ideals and principles of
the MNLF nationalistic stance and MILF Islamic orientation. Due to its size and
JVTTP[TLU[[VP[ZPKLVSVNPJHSVYPLU[H[PVUZHUKWYPUJPWSLZAbu Sayyaf uses
[LYYVYHJ[P]P[PLZHZP[ZTHQVYZ[YH[LN`:PUJL (I\:H``HMOHZILLUHJ[P]L
PUHZZHZZPUH[PVUH[[LTW[ZIVTIPUNZRPKUHWWPUNZT\[PSH[PVUHUKKLJHWP[H[PVU
(IPUHSLZ
(TVYVZV0UZ\JJLLKPUN`LHYZ4\ZSPTZLJLZZPVUPZ[NYV\WZ HUKJP]PSPHU]VS\U[LLYVYNHUPaH[PVU*=6TLTILYZ^LYLJOHYNLKMVYHSSLNLKS`
mushroomed rapidly (i.e. Rajah Sulayman Group) and later on became
º[LYYVYPZ[Z»I`UH[\YL:HU[VZI0UMHJ[[OLPU[LYUH[PVUHSJVTT\UP[`HM[LY
[OL:LW[LTILYH[[HJRZPUJS\KLK[OLZLNYV\WZ[VHSHYNLYUL[^VYRVMºQPOHKPZ[»
operating around the world.
;\YUPUNUV^[V[OLVWWVZP[LZPKLVM[OLZWLJ[Y\T[OLYLTV]HSVM4HYJVZ
and the eventual return of democracy in the Philippines forced the Philippine
Left to rupture into factions and to burgeon into numerous movements with
KPMMLYPUNSLM[PZ[VYPLU[H[PVUZ6U[OLVULZPKL[OLJVTT\UPZ[3LM[VY[OLUH[PVUHS
KLTVJYH[PJTV]LTLU[Z*7757(HUKP[ZKLTVJYH[PJHYT5H[PVUHS+LTVJYH[PJ
-YVU[B5+-DNYLL[LK[OLUL^KLTVJYH[PJ7OPSPWWPULZ[H[L^P[OZLYPV\ZMHSSV\[
HTVUN[OLYHURZVM[OLVUJLZ[YVUNUL[^VYRVMJVTT\UPZ[JHKYLZ;OLPU[LYUHS
Z[YPML^HZYVV[LKPU[OLNYV^PUNKPMMLYLUJLZHTVUNWHY[`VMÄJPHSZV]LY[OLM\[\YL
of the communist Left under the new Philippine state (Rocamora 1994; Quimpo
+\LP[Z\U`PLSKPUNJVTTP[TLU[[V[OL4HY_PZ[3LUPUPZ[4HVPZ[WYPUJPWSLZ
[OL*77YLZWVUKLK^P[O[OLW\ISPJH[PVUVM¸9LHMÄYTV\Y)HZPJ7YPUJPWSLZHUK
9LJ[PM`[OL,YYVYZ¹3P^HUHN [VZPSLUJL[OLPU[YHWHY[`IPJRLYPUNHUKLUK
the open objections of the ‘counter-revolutionaries’ against the leadership of
Jose Maria Sison of CPP-NPA-NDF (Rocamora 1994; Quimpo 2009). This later
VUSLK[V^PKLZWYLHKWHY[`IYLHR\WHSVUNYLNPVUHSSPULZ^P[OZVTLYLJVNUPaPUN
[OLKVJ[YPUHS]HSPKP[`VM[OL¸9LHMÄYT¹Z[HUJL9LHMÄYTPZ[ZVY9(ZHUKV[OLYZ
VWLUS`YLQLJ[PUN[OL¸:[HSPUPZ[MHJ[PVU¹VM:PZVU9LQLJ[PVUPZ[ZVY91Z8\PTWV
(ZHUVMMZOVV[VM[OPZZWSP[[OPZPUÄNO[PUNLY\W[LKPU[V[OLLZ[HISPZOTLU[
VMZWSPU[LYNYV\WZSPRL[OH[VM[OL9LIVS\Z`VUHY`VUN7HY[PKVUN4HUNNHNH^H
7PSPWPUHZ9747PU4H` 7HY[PKVUN4HUNNHNH^HUN7PSPWPUV747PU
1HU\HY` HUK[OL9LIVS\Z`VUHY`VUN7HY[PKVUN4HUNNHNH^H4PUKHUHV
97448\PTWV0U[OL`LHYZHM[LY[OLIYLHR\W[VNL[OLY^P[O[OL*77
57([OLZLNYV\WZHSZVHKVW[LKHYTLKZ[Y\NNSLHZ[OLPYTLHUZ[VLUNHNL[OL
Philippine state (Rodriguez 2010).
HZHZLYPV\Z[OYLH[[VWVZ[4HYJVZYLNPTLZ2YL\aLY +\YPUNLSLJ[PVUZ
private armies are still used by local politicians to harass voters and opponents
to entrench themselves to power (Kreuzer 2009; Paredes 2010). Prior to the
LSLJ[PVUZ[OLWYVISLTVMWYP]H[LHYTPLZÄUHSS`LY\W[LKPU[VHUPU[LYUH[PVUHS
media frenzy when close to sixty bodies were discovered in an isolated place
PU[OLWYV]PUJLVM4HN\PUKHUHV(WWYV_PTH[LS`[^VO\UKYLKWVSPJLVMÄJLYZ
executing about sixty civilians and media operatives upon the alleged orders of
Z\ZWLJ[LKTHZ[LYTPUK(UKHS(TWH[\HU1Y7OPSPWWPUL+HPS`0UX\PYLY
Final note
;OLWHZ[H[[LTW[ZH[ZVJPHSJVU[YVSVYYLN\SH[PVUVM[OLÄYLHYTZPUK\Z[Y`PU[OL
Philippines was a product of its state-building effort.
;OLJVU[LTWVYHY`MYHTL^VYRVMNV]LYUHUJLPZOLH]PS`PUÅ\LUJLKI`P[ZLMMVY[[V
consolidate the legitimate use of force by state actors and undermine the armed
JHWHJP[`VMUVUZ[H[LHJ[VYZ:VTLJSHYP[`PZULJLZZHY`OV^L]LY[V^HYKZ
civilian gun ownership.
It has been elucidated in the chapter that the state has exerted efforts to
¸UL\[YHSPaL¹[OLJHWHJP[`VMUVUZ[H[LHYTLKNYV\WZ/V^L]LYPUHZMHYHZ
destructive capacity is concerned; there is a very thin line that separates a
civilian gun owner from a non-state armed group member. A civilian gun owner
can claim that its motivation to hold a gun is to protect property and family;
a member of a non-state armed group can also say the same to justify its
TLTILYZOPW[V[OLNYV\W>OPSL[OL`KPMMLYPUHJ[\HSPaPUN[OLPYTV[P]H[PVU[OL
JHWHJP[`VMIV[O[VPUÅPJ[OHYTVUV[OLYZUVUL[OLSLZZPZ[OLZHTL
/LUJL[OPZWHWLYHYN\LZ[OH[HJSLHYWVZP[PVUHZYLNHYKZJP]PSPHUN\U
possession be woven in the state’s effort to address non-state armed groups.

6U[OLV[OLYOHUK[OLL_PZ[LUJLVMWYP]H[LHYTLKNYV\WZVYHYTLKPUKP]PK\HSZ
tends to challenge or undermine the government’s monopoly over the use of
MVYJLHJYVZZ[OLHYJOPWLSHNV;OLZWH[LVMRPSSPUNZHSSLNLKS`WLYWL[YH[LKI`
]PNPSHU[LZN\UMVYOPYLPUKP]PK\HSZHZZHZZPUNHUNZZ`UKPJH[LZHUKL]LU[OL
dreaded private armies reveal government’s failure to control peace and order
IV[OPU[OL\YIHUHUKY\YHSHYLHZ-YVT [V[OLH]LYHNL[V[HSJYPTL
JVTTP[[LKWLYWVW\SH[PVU^HZ 5:*)0U[OL Z
[OL7OPSPWWPULZ^HZJVUMYVU[LK^P[ORPKUHWMVYYHUZVTJHZLZPU]VS]PUN*OPULZL
UH[PVUHSZPU[OL\YIHUHYLH4J*V` +\YPUN[OPZ[PTLHSZVZLJLZZPVUPZ[
NYV\WZSPRLAbu Sayyaf[\YULKPU[VHRPKUHWMVYYHUZVT2-9NYV\W[OH[ZL[VMM
HZLYPLZVM2-9JHZLZPU]VS]PUNIV[O-PSPWPUVZHUKMVYLPNULYZ:HU[VZI"
:HU[VZ +PUHTWV

34 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 3 | History of Firearms Proliferation in the Phili ppines 35

CHAPTER 4
The Legal Terrain of Firearms’ Ownership
Jennifer Santiago Oreta
with Bernadette Eugenio
¸4VZ[WYP]H[LJP[PaLUZHYLUV[X\HSPÄLK[VWVZZLZZÄYLHYTZ)\[THU`
JP[PaLUZUVUL[OLSLZZRLLW\USPJLUZLKÄYLHYTZPU[OLTVZ[ZLJYL[
WSHJLZPU[OLPYYLZPKLUJLZ;OPZPZ[Y\LHSZVHTVUNNV]LYUTLU[VMÄJPHSZ
HUKLTWSV`LLZ[VPUJS\KLTLTILYZVM[OL(YTLK-VYJLZHUK[OL
7VSPJL0U[OL7OPSPWWPULZ[OLYLHYLJSHUZHUKL]LUZTHSSMHTPSPLZ^OV
KVUV[ZLLL`L[VL`L^P[OLHJOV[OLYLP[OLYMVYYLHZVUZVMWVSP[PJZ
HNYHYPHUWYVISLTZVYI\ZPULZZJVTWL[P[PVUZ;VOH]LÄYLHYTZPU[OL
7OPSPWWPULZTVYLV]LYPZHZ[H[\ZZ`TIVS¶VMHTHJOVPTHNLHUK
WV^LY>P[ON\UY\UUPUNHYV\UKÄYLHYTZJHUILLHZPS`VI[HPULKHUK
RLW[MYVT[OLL`LZVM[OLSH^LUMVYJLYZ:VTLOV^PUHJVTT\UP[`
VUL^V\SKRUV^^OVOHZ[OLTVZ[HUKKLHKS`PU]LU[VY`VMÄYLHYTZ¹
(Phil. Center on Transnational Crime)1
The Philippine government has implemented various initiatives to address the
PZZ\LZHZZVJPH[LK^P[O[OLPSSPJP[[YHMÄJRPUNPUHYTZ;OL7OPSPWWPUL5H[PVUHS
7VSPJLOHZPUJVUÄZJH[LKÄYLHYTZHUKWLYZVUZ^LYLHYYLZ[LK
MVYPSSLNHSN\UWVZZLZZPVU3PRL^PZLI`(\N\Z[ [OLYL^LYL 
HWWSPJH[PVUZMVYN\UHTULZ[`HUK ^LYLHWWYV]LK20U ^OLUHUV[OLY
N\UHTULZ[`^HZSH\UJOLK1\S`[V5V] [OL757^HZHISL[VYLNPZ[LY
PSSLNHSÄYLHYTZ757-,+;OLZLU\TILYZOV^L]LYYLTHPUHMHYJY`
from the number of illegal guns in circulation (see Chapter 2).
Critics argue that the problem lies with the failure to 1
No date. Office of the
M\SS`PTWSLTLU[L_PZ[PUNSH^ZHUK[OLHZZ\TW[PVU[OH[ President-Phil. Center
on Transnational
[OLYLPZUVKLÄJPLUJ`^P[OL_PZ[PUNY\SLZ;OPZWHWLY Crime (PCTC) Paper
]PL^ZP[V[OLY^PZL0[HYN\LZ[OH[[OLYLPZKLÄJPLUJ` On Illicit Trafficking
and Manufacturing of
in the legal measures due to society’s ambivalence
Firearms: Philippine
VUN\UZHUK[OLZ[H[L»ZZ^PUNPUNWVZP[PVUHZYLNHYKZ Context. Available online
civilian gun possession. http://www.pctc.gov.
ph/papers/FA’s%20illicit%
20Trafficking%20&%20Ma
Several directives had been issued during pre- nufacturing.htm accessed
Feb 2, 2009, 753am
PUKLWLUKLUJLI\[P[^HZK\YPUN4HYJVZ»ZYLNPTL[OH[ 2
Col. Maligalig of PNP-
SH^ZWLY[HPUPUN[VJP]PSPHUWVZZLZZPVUVMÄYLHYTZOH]L Firearms and Explosive
ILLUJVKPÄLK-LYKPUHUK4HYJVZZPNULKPresidential Division-Civil Security
Group (FED-CGS)
+LJYLLVU1\UL  WYV]PKPUNMVY[OL presentation to Phil. Action
NLULYHSY\SLZVUWVZZLZZPVUTHU\MHJ[\YLHUK Network on Small Arms
(Philansa) on Sept. 2,
[YHKLVMÄYLHYTZHUKHTT\UP[PVUHZ^LSSHZ[OL 2008
36 Gun Proliferation & Violence
JVYYLZWVUKPUNWLUHS[PLZMVY]PVSH[PVUZ:PTPSHYS`P[HSZVWYV]PKLZMVY[OLY\SLZ
[OH[NV]LYUTLUHUK^VTLUPU\UPMVYTPUHZMHYHZÄYLHYTZWVZZLZZPVUHUK\ZL
are concerned.
State Control and Civilian Possession: Legal Domain
Rules and laws are social control measures imposed by the state to create
Z[HUKHYKZHUKWHYHTL[LYZHZYLNHYKZHWHY[PJ\SHYJVUJLYU;OL`OH]L[O\Z[OL
ÅH[[LUPUN effect such that their implementation is sweeping and indiscriminate.
<USPRLPU[OL<UP[LK:[H[LZ^OLYLJP[PaLUZLUQV`JVUZ[P[\[PVUHSWYV[LJ[PVU[V
ILHYHYTZPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZN\UV^ULYZOPWYLTHPUZHWYP]PSLNL/LUJL[OL
state has within its power the authority to issue stringent measures on civilian
possession. The 9L]PZLK(KTPUPZ[YH[P]L*VKL9(*VM  particularly
:LJ[PVUZ[V WYV]PKLK[OLÄYZ[SLNHSKLÄUP[PVUVMHÄYLHYTHUKNYHU[LK
the Police Constabulary regulatory powers over it.3-PYLHYTZ\UKLY[OL9(*
PUJS\KL¸YPÅLZT\ZRL[ZJHYIPULZZOV[N\UZYL]VS]LYZWPZ[VSZHUKHSSV[OLY
KLHKS`^LHWVUZMYVT^OPJOHI\SSL[IHSSZOV[ZOLSSVYV[OLYTPZZPSLTH`IL
discharged by means of gun powder or other explosive.”44VYLV]LYSection
VM9(*YLX\PYLZ[OLSPJLUZPUNVMÄYLHYTZ:LJ[PVU Q\Z[PÄLZ[OLPZZ\HUJL
VMZLY]PJLÄYLHYTZ[VZ[H[LZLJ\YP[`MVYJLZHUKKLW\[PaLKVMÄJLYZSection
YLX\PYLZHSSPUKP]PK\HSZ^OV^PZO[VZ[HY[HI\ZPULZZVMÄYLHYTZKLHSPUN
T\Z[ZLJ\YLHSPJLUZLMYVT[OLNV]LYUTLU[HUK:LJ[PVU allows private
PUKP]PK\HSZ[VWVZZLZZÄYLHYTZMVYZLSMWYV[LJ[PVU5
>OLU[OL1HWHULZLJHTLHSSÄYLHYTZPUJP]PSPHUWVZZLZZPVU^LYLJVUÄZJH[LK
U\SSPM`PUN^P[OVULZ[YVRL[OLWYV]PZPVUZVM[OL9L]PZLK(KTPUPZ[YH[P]L*VKL
;OH[UV[^P[OZ[HUKPUNÄYLHYTZJVU[PU\L[VJPYJ\SH[LHSILP[PSSLNHSS`PU[OLISHJR
THYRL[HUKKHYRHSSL`ZHUKOLSWLKM\LS[OLN\LYPSSHTV]LTLU[
The defeat of the Japanese occupation forces and the end of the Second World
>HYPU ZH^HZVJPL[`H^HZO^P[OÄYLHYTZ;OL7OPSPWWPUL*VUZ[HI\SHY`
H[[LTW[LK[VYLNHPUJVU[YVSHUKYLX\PYLKHNLULYHSYLNPZ[YH[PVUVMÄYLHYTZ
PUJP]PSPHUOHUKZ¸ZLUKPUNWLYZVUULSPU[OLÄLSK[VYLNPZ[LYN\UZVU[OL
ZWV[¹4VSPUH )\[JVU[YHY`[V^OH[[OL
NV]LYUTLU[^HU[LK[OLWLVWSL»ZYLZWVUZL^HZHU This move must be
3
articulation of the demand to allow open and legal understood in its proper
civilian gun ownership. The Pambansang Kaisahan context. The Revised
Administrative Code was
UN4HNI\I\RPKVY724HUK[OL/\RSLHKLYZ 6
promulgated during the
PUZPZ[LKVUHSSV^PUNJP]PSPHUZ[VWVZZLZZÄYLHYTZ7 American occupation
The government opposed the idea especially since
hence, assigning
jurisdiction over civilian
the demand came from a group whose ideology is firearms possession
directly opposed to that of the government in power. under a police-military
organization is within
6U1\S`  7YLZPKLU[4HU\LS9V_HZPZZ\LK the frame of subjugation
Republic Act No. 4YLX\PYPUN[OLZ\YYLUKLYVMHSS and control, and prevent
the possibility of another
ÄYLHYTZ4VYLV]LYHSSY\SLZYLNHYKPUNN\UZÄYLHYTZ uprising for independence.
that were imposed prior to the Japanese occupation Pambansang Kaisahan ng
6
^LYLYLPUZ[H[LK;OL/\RSLHKLYZYLZPZ[LK[OLVYKLYZ Magbubukid or PKM and
the Hukbalahap, or Huk
]PL^PUN[OLTHZH[[LTW[ZHPTLKH[724HUK/\R were the guerilla forces
members. (Ibid) that fought the Japanese
colonial forces during the
Second World War
CHAPTER 4 | The Legal Terrain of Firearms’ Ownershi p 37
 What ensued was a tug-of-war between the government’s effort to strengthen KL[LYYLU[LMMLJ[HZYLNHYKZPSSLNHSWVZZLZZPVUVMÄYLHYTZ;OLYLHSP[`PZ[OH[H
P[ZJVU[YVSV]LYJP]PSPHUWVZZLZZPVUVMÄYLHYTZVUVULLUKHUK[OL724[OL NVVKU\TILYVMPSSLNHSN\UZYLTHPU\UHJJV\U[LK4VYLV]LY7+OHZVM[LU
/\RZHUK[OLPYZ\WWVY[LYZ»JVUZJPV\ZYLZPZ[HUJL[V[OLZ[H[LPTWVZP[PVUVU[OL ILLU\ZLK[VÄSLJOHYNLZHNHPUZ[Z\ZWLJ[LKYLILSZH^H`[VNVYV\UKHIV\[
other. the Hernandez Doctrine.9
9
The Hernandez Doctrine
Because of the failure of the post-war government to demobilize the guerilla Not much has changed when Cory Aquino requires authorities to file
rebellion charges against
TV]LTLU[[OLVSPNHYJOPJLSP[LNYL^PUJYLHZPUNS`LKN`K\L[V[OLJVU[PU\LK HZZ\TLK[OL7YLZPKLUJ`L_JLW[HM[LY[OL  
suspected rebels. Since
WVW\SHYP[`VM[OLN\LYPSSH»ZHNLUKHMVY[OLWVVY:SV^S`[OL`Z[HY[LKHTHZZPUN coup attempt. National Emergency Memorandun rebellion is a bailable
ÄYLHYTZHUKYLJY\P[PUNWYP]H[LIVK`N\HYKZ[OH[L]LU[\HSS`[\YULKPU[VWYP]H[L Order No. 65,46PZZ\LKPU ^HZHRULL offense, most often, however,
authorities use “regular”
armies. QLYRYLHJ[PVU[V[OLH[[LTW[LKJV\WYLX\PYPUN[OL criminal/ non-bailable offenses
YLYLNPZ[YH[PVUVMHSSJP]PSPHUÄYLHYTZ[OLPU]LU[VY`VM in the filing of charges.
Violation of PD 1866 is one of
0U ^OLU4HYJVZKLJSHYLKTHY[PHSSH^[OLZ[H[LVM[OLUH[PVU^HZMHYMYVT HSSNV]LYUTLU[PZZ\LKÄYLHYTZHUK[OLJVUÄZJH[PVU
the most often used charges.
what Weber had idealized8– it was a society with several nodes of governance VMHSS\USPJLUZLKÄYLHYTZ4VSPUH ;OL 10
United Nations-Program of
operating in spaces that was beyond the reach of the state. (Shearing 2006) subsequent Executive Order 22 (1993) mandated Action on Small Arms and
Light Weapons (UNPoA-SALW),
4VYLZVZLJ\YP[`VWLYH[PVUZ^LYLMHYIL`VUK[OLJVU[YVSVM[OLNV]LYUTLU[ [OLZ\YYLUKLYHUKSPJLUZPUNVMHSSSVVZLÄYLHYTZ 2001
¶JLY[HPUWHY[ZVM[OLHYJOPWLSHNV^LYLJVU[YVSSLKI`N\LYYPSSHMYVU[ZHZ^LSSHZ and the establishment of a central records unit. 11
FED function includes
1. To supervise and control the
by private armed groups under the tutelage of political landlords. ;VKH`[OLYLJVYKZ\UP[JSHPTZ[VOH]LJVTWSPLK importation/exportation,
to the UNPoA10 requirement of computerizing the manufacture, dealership,
;OLÄYZ[HJ[VM[OLTHY[PHSY\SL^HZ[VJVUÄZJH[L[OLÄYLHYTZPUJP]PSPHUOHUKZ FED records.) The synchronized election law (RA ownership, sale, transport,
repair and carrying of
VI]PV\ZS`[VWYL]LU[HU`ZPNUPÄJHU[MVYJL[VJOHSSLUNLP[ZWVSP[PJHSH\[OVYP[` 7166WHZZLKPU WYV]PKLKMVY[OLSLNHSIHZPZ firearms and ammunition.
>OPSLP[LMMLJ[P]LS`ZPSLUJLKHSSP[ZJYP[PJZHUKYV\UKLK\WHZPNUPÄJHU[HTV\U[ VMN\UIHUK\YPUNLSLJ[PVUWLYPVK(WHY[MYVT[OLZL 2. To supervise and control the
importation/exportation,
VMÄYLHYTZPUJP]PSPHUOHUKZ[OLN\LYPSSHNYV\WYLTHPULKHUKPYVUPJHSS`^HZ UVZPNUPÄJHU[SLNPZSH[PVUOHZILLUWHZZLKPU[OL manufacture, dealership,
strengthened during the repressive years. Marcos’ iron grip continued even after WVZ[4HYJVZWLYPVK;OLYLHYLVMJV\YZL3L[[LY purchase, sale, transport,
[OLVMÄJPHSSPM[PUNVMTHY[PHSSH^PU  +PYLJ[P]LZPZZ\LKI`[OL757+PYLJ[VY.LULYHSI\[ possession and use of
explosives, blasting agents,
these are more elucidation of implementing rules explosives ingredients and
6U1\UL  7YLZPKLU[PHS+LJYLL^HZPZZ\LK7+JVKPÄLK and regulations of existing laws. other explosives materials.
3. To supervise and control
¸SH^ZVUPSSLNHS\USH^M\SWVZZLZZPVUTHU\MHJ[\YLKLHSPUNPUHJX\PZP[PVU the manufacture,
VYKPZWVZP[PVUVMÄYLHYTZHTT\UP[PVUVYL_WSVZP]LZVYPUZ[Y\TLU[Z\ZLKPU 0UZ\TY\SLZHUKYLN\SH[PVUVUÄYLHYTZHYLMVY[OL dealership, purchase and
[OLTHU\MHJ[\YLVMÄYLHYTZHTT\UP[PVUVYL_WSVZP]LZHUKPTWVZPUNZ[PMMLY TVZ[WHY[JHW[P]LI`[OLNV]LYUTLU[»Z^H]LYPUN sale of firecrackers and
pyrotechnics and their
WLUHS[PLZMVYJLY[HPU]PVSH[PVUZ[OLYLVM¹>OPSLZLLTPUNS`PUUVJ\V\Z[OPZKLJYLL WVZP[PVUYPNPKP[`]ZÅL_PIPSP[`V]LYJP]PSPHUÄYLHYTZ» ingredients.
was widely viewed as directed against the leftist rebels. possession. 4. To supervise and control the
operation of repair shops,
gun clubs, hunting clubs
PD 1866 was amended by 9LW\ISPJ(J[ ZPNULKPU[VSH^VU1\UL Managing The Legal Gun Trade and firing ranges.
5. To support the PNP Units
 HUKRepublic Act 9516ZPNULKVU+LJLTILY9(  Firearms laws in the Philippines basically rests on
and other law enforcement
PUJYLHZLK[OLWLUHS[PLZMVYPSSLNHSWVZZLZZPVUVMÄYLHYTZHUKPUJS\KLKPU[OL the premise that civilian possession is a privilege agencies in the operation
KLÄUP[PVUVM¸\USPJLUZLKÄYLHYTZ¹ those with expired license and/or those with NYHU[LKI`[OL:[H[L/LUJLJP]PSPHUV^ULYZHUK and investigation of
firearms and explosives
SPJLUZLI\[HYL\ZLK^P[OV\[H\[OVYPaH[PVUPU[OLJVTTPZZPVUVMHJYPTL:LJ L]LUZ[H[LMVYJLZHJX\PYPUNÄYLHYTZMVYWYP]H[L\ZL related cases.
9( VU[OLV[OLYOHUKJSHYPÄLKM\Y[OLY[OLYLZWVUZPIPSP[PLZVM[OLV^ULY must secure a license. This is still within the frame 6. To act as the final repository
of all firearms records in
ÄUHUJPLYTHU\MHJ[\YLYVML_WSVZP]LZHUKPUJLUKPHY`KL]PJLZHUKM\Y[OLY VMZ[H[LJVU[YVSHPTLKH[W\ISPJZHML[`I\[TH`ILH
the country.
JSHYPÄLK[OLYLZWVUZPIPSP[PLZVMSH^LUMVYJLTLU[HNLUJPLZHUKNV]LYUTLU[ way to control and monopolize the legitimate use of 7. To formulate rules and
VMÄJPHSZ instruments of violence. regulations pertinent to
laws relative to firearms,
ammunition, explosives,
;V[OPZKH`[OL9L]PZLK(KTPUPZ[YH[P]L*VKL9(*VM[OL7OPSPWWPULZHUK The law enforcement agency mandated to firecrackers and
pyrotechnics, explosives
PD 1866 (as amended) remain to be the overarching rule in as far as civilian HKTPUPZ[LY[OLSPJLUZPUNVMÄYLHYTZPZ[OL-PYLHYTZ ingredients and other
ÄYLHYTZ»WVZZLZZPVUPZJVUJLYULK/V^L]LY9(*HUK[OLWYV]PZPVUZVM7+ and Explosives Division (FED)11 of the Philippine explosives materials.
1866 (plus the subsequent amendments) seem (delete “direly”) inadequate as National Police (PNP). The unit is also responsible in 8. To conduct education on
firearms and explosives
they are focused on penalizing those in possession [YHJRPUNKV^UPSSLNHSN\UZPUJPYJ\SH[PVU laws, rules and regulations;
VMPSSLNHSN\UZI\[KVUV[PUJS\KLTLHZ\YLZVUOV^ Weber argues that only
8
and gun safety and
the state should have the responsible gun ownership
to go after the illegal guns in circulation. The punitive monopoly of the legitimate
Under the Civil Security Group (CSG) of the seminars. (PNP-FED,
aspects of these laws obviously fail in creating a use of violence 7OPSPWWPUL5H[PVUHS7VSPJL-,+PZ[OLWYPTHY`\UP[ 2010:6)

38 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 4 | The Legal Terrain of Firearms’ Ownershi p 39
 YLZWVUZPISL^P[O[OLPTWSLTLU[H[PVUVM[OLÄYLHYTSH^ZPU[OLJV\U[Y`0[OHZ
[OLWV^LYZVMZ\WLY]PZPVUHUKJVU[YVSV]LYSPJLUZPUNTHU\MHJ[\YPUN[YHKPUN
[YHUZMLYYPUNHUKJHYY`PUNVMÄYLHYTZHUKHTT\UP[PVUPUJS\KPUN[OLVWLYH[PVU
VMYLWHPYZOVWZN\UJS\IZO\U[PUNJS\IZHUKÄYPUNYHUNLZ(SZVP[MVYT\SH[LZ
PTWSLTLU[PUNY\SLZHUKYLN\SH[PVUZWLY[PULU[[V[OLÄYLHYTZSH^ZPU[OLJV\U[Y`
and carries out the corresponding public education necessary in disseminating
the rules and regulations. Its function of ‘issuing the implementing rules’ seems
paradoxical to its function of ‘supervision and control’: the unit that issues the
Y\SLZPZHSZV[OLVUL[OH[PTWSLTLU[ZP[*OLJRHUKIHSHUJLTH`ILULJLZZHY`
for greater effectiveness.
Licensing and control. Licensing is the central method employed by the PNP
[VJVU[YVSÄYLHYTZWYVSPMLYH[PVU0[KYH^Z[OLSPUL[OH[ZLWHYH[LZSLNHSMYVTPSSLNHS
ÄYLHYTZ;OLSPJLUZPUNWYVJLZZHWWSPLZ[VIV[O[OLPUKP]PK\HS^HU[PUN[VSLNHSS`
WVZZLZZHÄYLHYTHUK[OLI\ZPULZZLU[P[`[OH[KPZ[YPI\[LZÄYLHYTZYL[HPSVY
whole sale).
There are different licenses issued by the government depending on the
HWWSPJHU[HUK[OLW\YWVZLVM[OLÄYLHYT
1. Regular License (RL) – issued to a private individual for his/her personally-
V^ULKÄYLHYTHUK[VZLJ\YP[`HNLUJPLZJVTWHU`N\HYKMVYJLZMVYÄYLHYTZ
used by their security guards.
 3VUN9LN\SHY3PJLUZL393¶PZZ\LK[VWYP]H[LÄYTZLZ[HISPZOTLU[ZVY
JVYWVYH[PVUZMVYÄYLHYTZ^OPJOHYL[VIL\ZLKI`[OLPYLTWSV`LLZZLJ\YP[`
guards not included).
3. Short Regular License (SRL) – for a private employee who was issued by
OPZOLYLTWSV`LYHÄYLHYTJV]LYLKI`393
 :WLJPHS7LYTP[:7¶PZZ\LK[VNV]LYUTLU[VMÄJPHSZHUKLTWSV`LLZMVY
WYP]H[LS`V^ULKÄYLHYTZ
 3VUN*LY[PÄJH[LVM9LNPZ[YH[PVU3*9¶0ZZ\LK[VNV]LYUTLU[HNLUJPLZVY
VMÄJLZHUKNV]LYUTLU[V^ULKVYJVU[YVSSLKJVYWVYH[PVUZMVYÄYLHYTZ^OPJO
HYL[VIL\ZLKI`[OLPYVMÄJPHSLTWSV`LLZL_JS\KPUNZLJ\YP[`N\HYKZ
 :OVY[*LY[PÄJH[LVM9LNPZ[YH[PVU:*9¶MVYHNV]LYUTLU[VMÄJPHSVY
LTWSV`LL^OV^HZPZZ\LKI`OPZOLYLTWSV`LYHÄYLHYTJV]LYLKI`3*9
Only Filipino citizens who are at least 21 years of age and of good moral
JOHYHJ[LYHYLLSPNPISL[VHWWS`MVYHSPJLUZL4VYLV]LYHJ[P]LVYYL[PYLKWLYZVUULS
VM[OL7OPSPWWPUL5H[PVUHS7VSPJL757(YTLK-VYJLZVM[OL7OPSPWWPULZ(-7
)\YLH\VM1HPS4HUHNLTLU[HUK7LUVSVN`)147)\YLH\VM-PYL7YV[LJ[PVU
)-7[OL7OPSPWWPUL*VHZ[.\HYK7*.JVTTPZZPVULKVMÄJLYZHUKLUSPZ[LK
WLYZVUULSVM[OL9LZLY]LK-VYJLVM[OL(-7VUPUHJ[P]LZ[H[\ZWYP]H[LÄYTZ
LZ[HISPZOTLU[ZVYJVYWVYH[PVUZHUKNV]LYUTLU[HNLUJPLZVYVMÄJLZHUK
NV]LYUTLU[V^ULKVYJVU[YVSSLKJVYWVYH[PVUZTH`HWWS`MVYÄYLHYTZSPJLUZL
(:675V-PYLHYTZ3PJLUZPUN).
Private ownership. While it is true that application is open to private
PUKP]PK\HSZUV[L]LY`VULJHUHWWS`MVYHSPJLUZL-VYJP]PSPHUZ[OYLL
X\HSPÄJH[PVUZHWWS`![OH[ZOLPZH-PSPWPUVJP[PaLUH[SLHZ[`LHYZVMHNL
L_JLW[MVYZOVV[PUNZWVY[H[OSL[LZHUKVMHNVVKTVYHSJOHYHJ[LY;OL[OPYK
X\HSPÄJH[PVUWYV]LZ[VILTVZ[WYVISLTH[PJ;OLX\HSPÄJH[PVU¸VMNVVKTVYHS
40 Gun Proliferation & Violence
character” is meant to ensure that the applicant is responsible and compliant
[V[OLTHUKH[LVML_PZ[PUNSH^Z/LUJLPUKP]PK\HSZT\Z[NV[OYV\NOUL\YV
WZ`JOPH[YPJ[LZ[ZHUKKY\N[LZ[ZMYVTNV]LYUTLU[HJJYLKP[LKHNLUJPLZHUKH
gun safety seminar conducted by the PNP or duly accredited gun clubs.
These tests are mandatory apart from the various required documents that
ULLK[VILZ\ITP[[LKSPRL[OLLTWSV`TLU[JLY[PÄJH[LPUJVTL[H_JLY[PÄJH[L
WYVMLZZPVUHSSPJLUZLI\ZPULZZWLYTP[HZZLZZLK]HS\LVMSHUKHTVUNV[OLYZ
(SSWLY[PULU[HWWSPJH[PVUKVJ\TLU[ZT\Z[ILÄSLKPUWLYZVULP[OLYKPYLJ[S`[V[OL
757-PYLHYTZHUK,_WSVZP]LZ+P]PZPVU-,+VY[OYV\NO[OLVMÄJL7YV]PUJPHS*P[`
Police Directors (that serves as the FED conduit).
(M[LYHSSKVJ\TLU[ZHYLÄSLKHWWSPJHU[WH`Z[OLHUU\HSSPJLUZLMLLZWYLZJYPILK
by Executive Order No. 256HZHTLUKLK;OLHWWSPJHU[^PSS[OLUYLJLP]LH
Temporary License to Possess a Firearm issued by the Chief of FED-PNP that
is valid until the issuance of the computerized license card. This computerized
SPJLUZLJHYKPZNVVKMVYHWLYPVKVMMV\Y`LHYZYLUL^HISLL]LY`[^V`LHYZ0M
[OLPUKP]PK\HSOV^L]LYSVZLZOPZOLYÄYLHYTZOLOHZ[VWH`[OLÄULIHZLKVU
,_LJ\[P]L6YKLY.
Renewal of the license is not an automatic process and will again subject the
SPJLUZLL[VHUV[OLYZLYPLZVMWHWLY^VYRZHUKYLX\PYLTLU[Z5L]LY[OLSLZZ
YLUL^HSPZJVTW\SZVY`"V[OLY^PZL[OLSPJLUZLLT\Z[Z\YYLUKLY[OLÄYLHYT5V[
going through the process of renewal will subject the person or entity under the
penalties imposed in Section 1 of P.D. No. 1866 as further amended by R.A.
5V MVY[OLZPTWSLYLHZVU[OH[HU¸\USPJLUZLKÄYLHYT¹PUJS\KLZ[OVZL^P[O
expired licenses (Sec.5 of RA 8294). The penalty of prison correccional in its
TH_PT\TWLYPVKHUKHMLLVM\W[V-PM[LLU;OV\ZHUKWLZVZ7JHU
be levied against the owner.12
Note that while these various documents and tests allow for a more stringent
JVU[YVSV]LYJP]PSPHUV^ULYZOPW[OLZLHSZVWYV]PKLZL]LYHSVWWVY[\UP[PLZ
for corruption. It is an open secret that some centers can be bribed to get
HMH]VYHISLKY\NHUKUL\YVWZ`JOPH[YPJ[LZ[Z"HUKJLY[PÄJH[LZJHUHSZVIL
MHIYPJH[LK0UV[OLY^VYKZ[OLVSKJSPJOt[OH[PTWSLTLU[H[PVUVMSH^ZPZ[OL
persistent challenge remains very true in as far as gun licensing is concerned.
This is therefore a matter to be considered for those advocating for greater state
control on civilian gun ownership. While the intention is to ensure that only the
TVZ[X\HSPÄLKZOV\SKILLU[P[SLK[VZLJ\YLHSPJLUZLHKKPUNTVYLYLX\PYLTLU[Z
can also mean additional possibilities for corruption.
There are also restrictions to the number of guns and caliber that one can own.
1. Each individual may hold under license a maximum of only one (1) low-
WV^LYLKYPÅLJHSPILYVYZOV[N\UUV[OLH]PLY[OHUNH\NL"HUKVUL
WPZ[VSVYYL]VS]LYUV[OPNOLY[OHUJHSPILYL_JLW[JHSPILYHUKJHSPILY
JLU[LYÄYLTHNU\THUK[OVZL^OPJOTH`SH[LY
ILJSHZZPÄLKI`[OL*OPLM7OPSPWWPUL5H[PVUHS7VSPJL This amount is obviously
12
*757HZOPNOWV^LYLKYLNHYKSLZZVM[OL[`WL too small in the present
THRLVYJHSPILYGen. Order No. 22) This is also context. Note that PD 1866
was enacted in 1983.
referred to as the “one-long-one-short” rule as to
CHAPTER 4 | The Legal Terrain of Firearms’ Ownershi p 41
 [OLU\TILYVMÄYLHYTZVULJHUV^U
 6MÄJLYZHUKUVUJVTTPZZPVULKWVSPJLVMÄJLYZLUSPZ[LKWLYZVUULSPU[OL
active service and in the retired list of the Philippine National Police (PNP)
and Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) may hold under license a
TH_PT\TVMVUS`VULSV^WV^LYLKYPÅLJHSPILYVYZOV[N\UUV[OLH]PLY
than 12 gauge and one (1) sidearm of any type or caliber.
 *VTTPZZPVULK6MÄJLYZPUNVVKZ[HUKPUNH[[OL9LZLY]L-VYJLVM[OL(-7
who are on inactive status may hold under license a maximum of only one (1)
SV^WV^LYLKYPÅLJHSPILYVYZOV[N\UUV[OLH]PLY[OHUNH\NLHUKVUL
ZPKLHYTUV[OLH]PLY[OHUJHSPILYL_JLW[JHSPILYHUKJHSPILY
JLU[LYÄYLTHNU\THUK[OVZL^OPJOTH`SH[LYILJSHZZPÄLKI`[OL*OPLM
757HZOPNOWV^LYLKYLNHYKSLZZVM[OL[`WLTHRLHUKJHSPILY
VM[OLTV]LTLU[VMÄYLHYTI`N\UJS\IZLUZ\YPUN[OH[[OL`JVTWS`^P[O[OL
ÄYLHYTSH^ZPUWSHJLVYLSZLYPZRWLUHS[`VY^P[OKYH^HSVMYLJVNUP[PVUI`757
Dealership. Also required to secure FED licenses are those who intend to
VWLYH[LN\UZ[VYLZN\UYLWHPYZOVWZHUKVY[VVWLYH[LHZindentor THYRPUN
system).14;OLSPJLUZLZKLJSHYL[OLHWWYV]LKTH_PT\TU\TILYVMÄYLHYTZ
HTT\UP[PVUHUKYLSH[LKP[LTZ[OH[TH`ILPTWVY[LKJV\U[PUN[OLHJ[\HSZ[VJR
H]HPSHISL^OLU[OLHWWSPJH[PVU^HZÄSLKRepublic Act No. 1937 or the “Tariff
and Customs Code of the Philippines” subjects all articles imported to duty
L]LU[OV\NO[OL`^LYLWYL]PV\ZS`L_WVY[LKMYVT[OL7OPSPWWPULZ:WLJPÄJHSS`
[OLX\HU[P[`VMPTWVY[LKÄYLHYTZHTT\UP[PVUYH^TH[LYPHSZMVYTHU\MHJ[\YPUN
HUK[OLSPRLI`HSPJLUZLKKLHSLYPZIHZLKVU¸[OLOPNOLZ[`LHYS`PTWVY[H[PVU
THKLI`JVUJLYULKKLHSLYK\YPUN[OLWHZ[[OYLLJHSLUKHY`LHYZTPU\Z
What about air rifles? Under Executive Order 712 (s. 1981), the Chief of the
Philippine Constabulary (now PNP) is mandated to regulate the manufacture,
sale, and possession of air rifles/ pistols whose type/ caliber are enough to cause
permanent maiming or death. Currently, the Department of Trade and Industry
has issued guidelines on which air rifles/ pistols can be classified as toys and
which must be regulated by the PNP.
Some groups, however, continue to challenge the ruling, arguing that air rifles/
pistols should be classified as toys and must not be subjected to police regulations.
However, EO 712 is no different from the rules in countries like Austria, Canada,
Belgium, Israel, Austria, France, Germany, Sweden, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Poland,
Portugal, and United Kingdom, that distinguish air guns as toys or as real firearm
by measuring the muzzle velocity and/or muzzle energy capacity of the air gun.
Currently, the (unofficial) guide that PNP/authorities employ is simple – if the
air gun has the capacity to eject a shot that penetrates a plywood, it is already
considered a firearm.
>OPSLHUPUKP]PK\HSTH`SLNHSS`V^UHN\UHKPMMLYLU[WLYTPZZPVUPZYLX\PYLK
to carry it outside one’s residence/ business establishment. The law heavily
YLN\SH[LZJHYY`PUNÄYLHYTZV\[ZPKL[OLZLWYLTPZLZHUKP[ZIHZPJHZZ\TW[PVUPZ
[OH[[OLÄYLHYTPZZ\WWVZLK[VILWLYTHULU[S`RLW[H[OVTLVY[OLI\ZPULZZ
establishment (as a source of protection). Under General Order No. 6
WYVT\SNH[LKVU:LW[LTILY WLYZVUZVYLU[P[PLZHYLYLX\PYLK[VOH]L
HWLYTP[[VJHYY`VY[YHUZWVY[[OLÄYLHYTV\[ZPKLVM[OLV^ULY»ZYLZPKLUJL
Application for “Permit to Carry Firearm Outside of Residence” (PTCFOR)
YLX\PYLZHUV[OLYZL[VMKVJ\TLU[ZHUKYLX\PYLTLU[ZHUK-,+^PSSKL[LYTPUL
if the applicant’s purpose and credentials are enough to merit the permission.
Note further that the PTCFOR does not allow the owner to brandish the gun in
HU`WSHJLV\[ZPKL^OH[PZZ[H[LKPU[OL7;*-69;OLWLYTP[JSLHYS`ZWLJPÄLZ[OL
HYLHZVYWSHJLZ^OLYL[OLÄYLHYTZJHUILIYV\NO[
e.g. from one’s residence to one’s business address; Hence, upon purchase,
13
VYMYVTVUL»ZYLZPKLUJL[VHZWLJPÄLKZOVV[PUNYHUNL the owner will have to
0M[OLV^ULYIYPUNZ[OLÄYLHYT[VHYLHZUV[ZWLJPÄLK
apply for a PTCFOR to be
able to bring his/her new
in the PTCOR (or the route is outside the range of firearm from PNP-FED to
[OLZWLJPÄLKHYLHZ[LJOUPJHSS`ZOLJHUHSYLHK`IL his/her residence. Without
the PTCFOR, the firearm
arrested.13 PNP Circular No. 7 issued on February
cannot be moved from
1993 serves as a guide to the control and monitoring one place to another.
42 Gun Proliferation & Violence
J\YYLU[Z[VJRVUOHUKMVSSV^PUN[OLYH[PVVMHUKMVYSV^WV^LYLKHUK
OPNOWV^LYLKOHUKN\UYLZWLJ[P]LS`IHZLKVU[OLPYWYLZLU[X\HU[P[`HZYLÅLJ[LK
in their approved LTO and/or Import Authority.” (757*PYJ\SHY5V )15
<WVUHYYP]HS[OLPTWVY[LKVIQLJ[ZHYLZ\IQLJ[[VMLLZPTWVZLKI`[OL)\YLH\
of Customs and deposited to the PNP-Firearms and Explosives Division.
:HTWSLZVMUL^TVKLSZVMÄYLHYTZ^OLUPTWVY[LKHYLZ\IQLJ[[VHWWYV]HSI`
[OL-PYLHYT*SHZZPÄJH[PVU)VHYK[VLUZ\YLX\HSP[`HUKZHML[`ILMVYL[OL`HYL
THKLH]HPSHISL[V[OLW\ISPJ;OLH\[OVYP[`[VPTWVY[PZPZZ\LKI`[OL*OPLM757
]HSPKVUS`MVY[OYLL`LHYZHUKWLYTPZZPVU[VPTWVY[PZNYHU[LKVUS`[V[OLTHPU
branch that has the main license.
0U[OLJHZLVML_WVY[H[PVUKLMLJ[P]LP[LTZHYLHSSV^LK[VSLH]L[OLJV\U[Y`[V
be re-exported to the country of origin. (Ibid)16(SZVSPJLUZLKTHU\MHJ[\YLYZ
can only “export their products to countries with whom the Philippines maintain
KPWSVTH[PJYLSH[PVUZPUHJJVYKHUJL^P[O4LTV*PYJ\SHY  dated March
 ¯¹9LWVY[VU[OL0TWSLTLU[H[PVUVM[OL0U[LYUH[PVUHS;YHJPUN
Instrument and of the SALW PoA)17
,U[P[PLZVYPUKP]PK\HSZ^OVOH]LZ\JJLZZM\SS`VI[HPULKÄYLHYTSPJLUZLZZOV\SK
NL[[OLPYÄYLHYTMYVT[OLZLSPJLUZLKKLHSLYZMYVT
local sources or through importation or purchase
Marking system. As per
14
MYVTHIYVHK0M[OLÄYLHYT^HZHJX\PYLK[OYV\NO FED Memorandum dated
[YHUZMLYVYZHSLMYVTHK\S`SPJLUZLKOVSKLY[OLÄYLHYT Aug 15, 1997, major part
of the gun - barrel, slide,
should be delivered by the transfer/vendor to the and receiver – must have
transferee/buyer only after the latter has secured the distinctive or unique marks
corresponding license.186\[ZPKL[OLZLZV\YJLZ[OL of the manufacturer
Members of PNP and AFP
16
ÄYLHYTPZJSHZZPÄLKHZPSSPJP[VYSVVZLÄYLHYTZ3VVZL with authority to purchase
ÄYLHYTZPUJS\KL[OVZLHJX\PYLKMYVT\UHJJYLKP[LK FAs while travelling abroad
is subject to the following
ÄYLHYTZKLHSLYZPSSLNHSPTWVY[H[PVUWYP]H[L requirements 1) Letter
PUKP]PK\HSZN\UY\UUPUNHUKZT\NNSPUNSVJHSS` of request addressed to
OVTLTHKLN\UZHNLUJ`[VHNLUJ`SVZZLZLN the Chief PNP; 2) Letter
of authorization of the
MYVT(>63:LJ\YP[`WLYZVUULSHUKMYVTJYPTPUHS unit commander to travel
elements. abroad; and 3) Command
Clearance from the
Director of Intelligence (DI)
*SLHYS`[OLNV]LYUTLU[PZ]LY`Z[YPJ[^P[O[OL for PNP members, and
Deputy Chief of Staff for
compliance of applicants to the many requirements
Intelligence (J2) for AFP
[VZLJ\YLHÄYLHYTSPJLUZL5V[L[OH[PU[OLJHZLVM members
CHAPTER 4 | The Legal Terrain of Firearms’ Ownershi p 43
 PUKP]PK\HSHWWSPJHU[Z[OLYLHYLHKKP[PVUHSYLX\PYLTLU[Z[OH[HYLZWLJPÄJ[V[OL
RPUKVMSPJLUZL[OH[PZILPUNHWWSPLKMVYHUK[OLWYVMLZZPVUVM[OLHWWSPJHU[
:VTLÄYLHYTKLHSLYZVYZLSSLYZVMMLY[VHYYHUNLHSS[OLWHWLY^VYRMVY[OL
J\Z[VTLY^OV^V\SKVUS`OH]L[VZ\ITP[[OLKVJ\TLU[ZULLKLK)\[[OPZYV\[L
PZZ[PSSHSVUNYPNPKHUKKL[HPSLKWYVJLZZ
Other rules relevant to Dealership are: (1) Memorandum Circular No. 03-2006,
dated 8 March 2006, “Export of Defense/ Military Items, Commercial Firearms,
Ammunitions, and Explosives”; (2) HPC SOP No. 4, dated 2 Nov 1972, “Sale
of Firearms to Police Forces and Security Agencies”; (3) Memorandum Circular
99-009, dated 16 March 1999, “ Policy on Firearms and Ammunition Dealer-
ship”; and (4) PNP Circular No. 9, dated 14 Feb 2008, “Policy on Firearms and
Ammunition Dealership/ Repair.
Record-keeping;OLO\NLHTV\U[VMWHWLY^VYRPZLZZLU[PHSMVY[OL
NV]LYUTLU[[VÄSLYLJVYKZVM[OLLU[P[PLZHUK[OLPYYLZWLJ[P]LÄYLHYTZ
JPYJ\SH[PUNPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ9LJVYKRLLWPUNPZH[HZR[OH[MHSSZ\UKLY[OL-,+
(WLYTHULU[YLJVYKVMHSS[OL[YHUZHJ[PVUZPUYLSH[PVU^P[O[OLÄYLHYTZPZRLW[I`
the FED and will be open for inspection if necessary.
A Ballistic Test Report and Stencil form must also be attached to the application
MVY[OLÄYLHYTSPJLUZL,]LY`ÄYLHYT\UKLYHWWSPJH[PVUPZ[LZ[ÄYLKMVYIHSSPZ[PJZ
HUKP[ZTHRLJHSPILYHUKZLYPHSU\TILYPZZ[LUJPSLK;OL-,+PZZ\LKH
memorandum on “Firearms Description¹VU(\N\Z[ YLX\PYPUN[OL
THYRPUNHUKZ[LUJPSPUNVMZLYPHSU\TILYZPUH[SLHZ[[OYLLTHPUWHY[ZVM[OL
ÄYLHYTZ¶[OLYLJLP]LYIHYYLSHUK[OLZSPKL;OLZLTHYRPUNZHYL\UPX\L[VLHJO
ÄYLHYTPKLU[PM`PUN[OLTHU\MHJ[\YLY[OYV\NO[OLPY[YHKLTHYRZYLX\PYLKI`[OL
-,+MVYLHZ`PKLU[PÄJH[PVUHUKJV\SKHSZVIL\ZLK[VPKLU[PM`P[ZJV\U[Y`VM
origin.
;OLZL[LZ[ZJHUILKVULLP[OLYH[-,+VMÄJLH[*HTW*YHTLVYPU[OLVMÄJLVM
the Provincial/City Police Directors. The Ballistic and Stencil Reports are useful
PU[YHJRPUNKV^U[OLV^ULYVMÄYLHYTZPM\ZLK\USH^M\SS`
([WYLZLU[-,+OHZJVTW\[LYPaLK[OLYLJVYKZ[VZ`Z[LTH[PJHSS`[YHJRKV^U
ÄYLHYTZ[OLPYWHY[ZHUKJVTWVULU[Z*HSSLK-04:-PYLHYTZ0UMVYTH[PVU
4HUHNLTLU[:`Z[LTP[HSSV^Z[OLPKLU[PÄJH[PVUHUK]LYPÄJH[PVUVMHUV^ULY»Z
ÄYLHYTZ/V^L]LY[OPZZ`Z[LTPZZ[PSSYLSPHU[VU[OL]VS\U[HY`JVVWLYH[PVUVM
dealers. A legal rule is still necessary to require companies to fully disclose
relevant information as regards arms production and sales. (2008 Report on
the Implementation of the International Tracing Instrument and of the SALW UN
PoA).
;OLYLHYLHSZVNHWZPU[OLYLJVYKRLLWPUNVM-,+HUK[OLHJ[\HS[YHJRPUN
VML_PZ[PUNYLJVYKZYLZ\S[PUN[VHZS\NNPZOJVSSLJ[PVUVMKVJ\TLU[ZHUK
PUMVYTH[PVUVUWLYZVUZLU[P[PLZHUKÄYLHYTZ;OLZLKH[HHYLUV[\[PSPaLK[V
[OLPYM\SSWV[LU[PHSK\L[V[OL]VS\TLVMPUMVYTH[PVUJV\WSLK^P[OHSHJRVMJSLHY
mechanisms to proactively use them to identify violators.
44 Gun Proliferation & Violence
Storage;OL-,+ZLY]LZHZ[OLYLJLP]PUNLUKVMHSS[OLÄYLHYTZYLJVYKZPU[OL
country and is the sole repository for all imported and locally manufactured
ÄYLHYTZHUKHTT\UP[PVUHZ^LSSHZ[OL*VUÄZJH[LK*HW[\YLK:\YYLUKLYLK
+LWVZP[LK(IHUKVULKHUK-VYMLP[LK**:+(-ÄYLHYTZ;OL:[VYHNL)YHUJO
VM-,+PZYLZWVUZPISLMVY[OLHSS[OLÄYLHYTZKLSP]LYLKMVYZHMLRLLWPUNHUKMVY
Z[VYPUN[OLPUZWLJ[LKHUKYLJVYKLKHYTZPUJSHZZPÄLK]H\S[ZSVJH[LKH[[OL757
National Headquarters in Camp Crame. The storage is given maximum security.
;OLMVSSV^PUNN\PKLSPULZHYLVIZLY]LK[VRLLW[OLZ[VYHNLZHMLHUKZLJ\YL!
‹ ¸;OLZ[VYHNL]H\S[ZOHSSVUS`IL\ZLKMVYZHMLRLLWPUNVMÄYLHYTZHUK
HTT\UP[PVU0[ZOHSSUV[IL\ZLKHZHUVMÄJLZSLLWPUNX\HY[LYZKPUPUN
HUKZUHJRHYLHZTVRPUNHYLHSVP[LYPUNHYLHHUKV[OLY;OLJVTWSLTLU[
VMHZ[VYHNLZWHJLPZZ[LLS]H\S[Z[OLZ[VJRZJVUZPZ[PUNVMÄYLHYTZHUK
HTT\UP[PVUHUKÄYLL_[PUN\PZOLY6MÄJL[HISLZJOHPYZ[`WL^YP[LYZJVTW\[LYZ
and voluminous records are not allowed inside storage vaults. Only the store
man and armorer of each dealer shall be allowed to stay inside the storage
vaults;
• Only licensed gun dealers with designated storage vaults shall be allowed
inside the storage vaults. The number of storage personnel per dealer shall
KLWLUKVU[OLZPaLVM[OLPYI\ZPULZZ0KLU[PÄJH[PVUJHYKZZOHSSILPZZ\LKMVY
this purpose;
‹ (¸5V0+5VLU[Y`¹WVSPJ`ZOHSSILPTWSLTLU[LK^P[OPU[OLZ[VYHNLHYLH
‹ -,+VYNHUPJWLYZVUULSHUKV[OLY757TLTILYZOH]PUNVMÄJPHSI\ZPULZZ
^P[O[OL:[VYHNL)YHUJOZOHSSILHSSV^LK\W[V[OLZ[VYHNLVMÄJLVUS`
The storage vaults are declared off-limits to them
‹ (SSWLYZVUZ[YHUZHJ[PUNI\ZPULZZ^P[OHU`ÄYLHYTKLHSLYVYYLWYLZLU[H[P]L
T\Z[[YHUZHJ[I\ZPULZZV\[ZPKL[OLZ[VYHNLVMÄJL;OLZ[VYHNL]H\S[PZ
HIZVS\[LS`VMMSPTP[Z[VJ\Z[VTLYZVMÄYLHYTKLHSLYZ
• Only vehicles of FED personnel shall be allowed inside the storage
WHYRPUNHYLH
‹ ;OLZ[VYHNL]H\S[ZZOHSSILVWLULKH[ HTHUKJSVZLKH[WT4VUKH`
[V-YPKH`(M[LYWTUV[YHUZHJ[PVUZOHSSIL
Dealers whose total
19
LU[LY[HPULKL_JLW[MVY[OLKLSP]LY`VMÄYLHYTZMYVT
importation exceeds one
the Ninoy Aquino International Airport-Customs or thousand (1,000) firearms
local factories; shall be classified as big
‹ 6US`SPTP[LKWLYZVUULSHUKLTWSV`LLZVMÄYLHYTZ
dealers while those dealers
whose importation is less
and ammunition dealers will be allowed to enter than 1,000 down to 500
[OLZ[VYHNL]H\S[HYLH0U[OPZYLNHYKKLHSLYZ firearms shall be considered
as medium. Those
HYLJSHZZPÄLKHJJVYKPUN[V[OLPY]VS\TLVM dealers with importation
importation.19; and of less than 500 firearms
• Dealers in the provinces without any vault inside the
and those without any
importation are considered
storage shall be entitled to one (1) representative small dealers. Dealers with
each. several branches but owned
by a single proprietor shall
‹ ;VJSHPT[OLÄYLHYTZPTWVY[LKI`SPJLUZLKKLHSLYZ be considered as one
HUKZ[VYLKPU[OLPYKLZPNUH[LKZ[VYHNL]H\S[ZLHJO dealer. Each big dealer
is authorized five (5)
SPJLUZLKÄYLHYTZKLHSLYT\Z[IYPUN[OLHWWYVWYPH[L identification cards to be
SPJLUZLJHYKZPUJS\KPUNWLYTP[[VWVZZLZVYPM issued to them and their
UVWLYTP[L_PZ[ZHUHWWSPJH[PVUT\Z[ILTHKL storage personnel. Medium
dealers are authorized
then and there and the permit must be issued four (4) identification
ILMVYLHU`JSHPTPZTHKLHUKPKLU[PÄJH[PVUJHYKZ cards and small dealers
0M[OLJSHPTHU[PZHK\S`HZZPNULKHUKPKLU[PÄLK
are authorized three (3)
identification cards
CHAPTER 4 | The Legal Terrain of Firearms’ Ownershi p 45
 YLWYLZLU[H[P]LVMHNV]LYUTLU[HNLUJ`[OLYLWYLZLU[H[P]LT\Z[IYPUN^P[O
OPTPUHKKP[PVU[V[OLHIV]LTLU[PVULKYLX\PYLTLU[ZHUHWWVPU[TLU[VYKLY
from his government agency.”20
(SS[OLÄYLHYTZLU[LYPUN[OLJV\U[Y`HYLULJLZZHYPS`YLJVYKLKPU[OL-PYLHYTZ
Information Management System (FIMS) database. There also exists a Firearms
9LJVYKZ=LYPÄJH[PVU-9=[OH[[HSSPLZ[OL[V[HSU\TILYVMÄYLHYTZPU[OL
possession of an agency.
.P]LU[OLPU[YPJHJPLZHUKYPNPKP[`VMZ[VYHNLY\SLZVULJHUUV[OLSWI\[^VUKLY
how (allegations of) gun-running persists.
The Firearms and Explosives Division supports related PNP Units and various
V[OLYSH^LUMVYJLTLU[HNLUJPLZPU[OLVWLYH[PVUHUKPU]LZ[PNH[PVUVMÄYLHYTZ
HUKL_WSVZP]LZSH^;OLZLHNLUJPLZPUJS\KLI\[HYLUV[SPTP[LK[V[OL
+LWHY[TLU[VM5H[PVUHS+LMLUZLMVYP[ZKPYLJ[HJJLZZ[VHUK\ZLVMÄYLHYTZ[OL
Department of Justice for prosecution of the cases pending the illegality of the
ÄYLHYTZVY[OL\ZL[OLYLVMPUV[OLYJHZLZHUK[OL+LWHY[TLU[VM-PUHUJLMVY
[OLYLT\ULYH[PVUZYLSH[LK[VÄYLHYTZHUKV[OLYPTWVZP[PVUZMVYIV[OL_WVY[HUK
PTWVY[VMÄYLHYTZ
1\Z[[OLZHTLZPUJLJVU[YVSSPUNÄYLHYTZJHUUV[ILKVULI`[OL757-,+
HSVULPU[LYHNLUJ`JVVWLYH[PVUHTVUN[OLKPMMLYLU[\UP[ZPU]VS]LKPZJY\JPHSPU
ZVS]PUN[OLPZZ\LZJVUJLYUPUNÄYLHYTZ»JVU[YVSHUKZ\WLY]PZPVU
Gun Statue in Phnom
Penh, Cambodia
(courtesy of MP Son
Chhay, 2007)
Exerting Control on the Illegal domain
Expired license.5VUYLUL^HSVML_WPYLKSPJLUZLPZHTHQVYJVUJLYUVM-,+
given the consistently low turnout in annual renewal. This may be due to the
[LKPV\ZWHWLY^VYRHZZVJPH[LK^P[OYLUL^HS0[JHUHSZVILK\L[VHY\SL¶[OH[
PZVUJL[OLYLPZKLSH`PUYLUL^HSLNVULKH`[OLÄYLHYTPZH\[VTH[PJHSS`
JH[LNVYPaLKHZºPSSLNHS»HUKOLUJL[OLV^ULYMHJLZ[OLSLNHSJVUZLX\LUJLZVM
V^UPUNHUPSSLNHSÄYLHYT>OPSL[OLYLPZHWYVWVZHS[VHSSV^MVYHNYHJLWLYPVK
for owners whose situation would certainly result to delay in renewal (e.g. out
VM[OLJV\U[Y`VU[OLK\LKH[LVMSPJLUZLYLUL^HSZ\JOYLTHPUZPU[OLKYH^PUN
board of Congress.
46 Gun Proliferation & Violence
The non-renewal of license creates a multitude of problems to FED.
Fundamental of which is the fact that the agency has no way to determine if the
ÄYLHYTYLTHPUZPU[OLOHUKZVM[OLVYPNPUHSV^ULYOHZILLUPSSPJP[S`[YHKLKVY
was lost.
What the government has done to remedy the problem was to declare “gun
amnesties.” This is a grace period that removes the legal penalties associated
with expired license or having no license at all. It aims to entice people and
LU[P[PLZ[VJVVWLYH[L^P[O[OLNV]LYUTLU[HUKOH]L[OLPYN\UZSPZ[LKI`THRPUN
[OLWYVJLZZZPTWSLYHUK[OLMLLZSV^LY-YVT[OLWVPU[VM]PL^VMH\[OVYP[PLZ
OH]PUNHSPZ[VMPSSLNHSHUKSVVZLÄYLHYTZPZIL[[LY[OHUOH]PUNUVULH[HSS
;OLWYVISLTOV^L]LYPZ[OH[VMMLYPUN[VVTHU`N\UHTULZ[PLZKPZJV\YHNL
owners from going through the licensing process (which is meant to weed out
undeserving owners) and simply wait for the next declaration of gun amnesty. It
KVLZUV[VUS`YLK\JL[OLPUJVTLVM[OLNV]LYUTLU[MYVTÄYLHYTZYLUL^HSMLLZ
it also allows non-deserving owners to slip through the process.
The last of these amnesties21 was ,_LJ\[P]L6YKLY5V providing for the
implementation of a Final General Amnesty for all individual and juridical entities
[VYLUL^[OLPYL_WPYLKSPJLUZLZHUKVYYLNPZ[LY[OLPY\UYLNPZ[LYLKÄYLHYTZ^P[O
the PNP from October 1 to 30 of 2009 (Section 2).
9LUL^HSVML_WPYLKÄYLHYTSPJLUZLZPZQ\Z[VULPZZ\LV\[VMTHU`[OH[HNNYH]H[L
[OLZP[\H[PVUVMSVVZLÄYLHYTWYVSPMLYH[PVUPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ7VSPJPLZOH]L
[VILTHKLYLNHYKPUNHIHUKVULKHYTZHZ^LSS5LNSLJ[PUTHRPUNZ\YL[OH[
abandoned arms are in the possession of the proper authorities contributes to
[OLU\TILYVMSVVZLÄYLHYTZ
CCSDAF Firearms. Based on the Implementing Rules and Regulations of
,_LJ\[P]L6YKLY1\S` 22*HW[\YLK*VUÄZJH[LK:\YYLUKLYLK
+LWVZP[LK(IHUKVULKHUK-VYMLP[LK**:+(-ÄYLHYTZHUKHTT\UP[PVUHYL
as follows (also found on 757*PYJ\SHY5V:LYPLZKH[LK+LJ!
1) Captured Firearms: those recovered during military and/or law enforcement
encounters;
2) *VUÄZJH[LK-PYLHYTZ![OVZLZLPaLKMYVT[OLWVZZLZZPVUVMV^ULYZI`
]PY[\LVMSH^LUMVYJLTLU[VWLYH[PVUZSPRLZLY]PUNZLHYJO^HYYHU[Oplan
)HRHS or any operation of Special Laws;
3) Surrendered Firearms!HYLÄYLHYTZ[\YULKPUI`V^ULYVYHU`WLYZVU
(natural or juridical) at authorized repositories of PNP-FED;
4) Deposited Firearms!HYLÄYLHYTZKLWVZP[LK[V[OL757I`PUKP]PK\HSZVY
Q\YPKPJHSWLYZVUZMVYZHMLRLLWPUNMVYHWHY[PJ\SHYWLYPVKVM[PTLHZ^LSSHZMVY
future licensing and those deposited in court as evidence in pending cases;
5) Abandoned Firearms: are those deposited by the owner in the custody of
[OL757^OPJOOLZOLMHPSLK[VJSHPTHM[LYÄ]L`LHYZMYVT[OLKH[LVM
deposit. Same shall be forfeited in favor of the government without need of
any proceedings; and
6) Forfeited Firearms!HYLÄYLHYTZHJX\PYLKI`[OL
There were 11 other
21
government through summary process or by amnesties offered, from the
order of the court. time of Pres. Cory Aquino.
EO 817 is the 12th gun
amnesty.
CHAPTER 4 | The Legal Terrain of Firearms’ Ownershi p 47
 0UNLULYHS**:+(-ÄYLHYTZVI[HPULKI`[OL3VJHS7VSPJL<UP[ZHUK[OL(YTLK
Forces of the Philippines are turned over to the Storage Branch of the PNP-
-,+[VILYLJVYKLKJSHZZPÄLKHUKHJ[LK\WVU23(IHUKVULKÄYLHYTZHUK
HTT\UP[PVUMVYTVYL[OHUÄ]L`LHYZ^PSSILYL]LY[LK[VNV]LYUTLU[V^ULYZOPW
;OLMVSSV^PUNHYL[OLYLN\SH[PVUZPUHZMHYHZ**:+ÄYLHYTZHYLJVUJLYULK!
 (SS**:+ÄYLHYTZHTT\UP[PVUZHUKL_WSVZP]LZHYLHJJV\U[LKMVYI`
[OL*P[`4\UPJPWHS7VSPJL:[H[PVU7VSPJL+PZ[YPJ[7574VIPSL.YV\WZVY
Ordinance Unit. The PNP Provincial or Regional Directors and Chief are the
VMÄJLYZYLZWVUZPISLMVY[OLPUP[PHSZ[VYHNLHUKZLJ\YP[`VM[OLÄYLHYTZ;OL
YLZWLJ[P]L\UP[OHZ[VZ\ITP[HJVTWSL[LYLWVY[[V7577YV]PUJPHS6MÄJL
[OYV\NO[OLPYYLZWLJ[P]L7YV]PUJPHS7YVWLY[`6MÄJLYZ;OL**:+ÄYLHYTZHYL
[OLUYLHK`MVY[\YUPU[V757-,+OLHKVMÄJLH[*HTW*YHTL
 (M[LY[OLYLWVY[ZHYLTHKLHUKHM[LYZLJ\YPUNHJVYYLZWVUKPUNWLYTP[MYVT
[OL*OPLMVM-,+[V[YHUZWVY[[OLÄYLHYTZHYL[\YULKPUH[[OL-,+:[VYHNL
Warehouse. The FED then becomes the responsible agency for storing and
ZLJ\YPUN[OL**:+ÄYLHYTZHTT\UP[PVUHUKL_WSVZP]LZ
 :OV\SK[OLZLHYTZIL]LYPÄLKHZSPJLUZLKVYYLNPZ[LYLK[OL`^PSSIL
KLWVZP[LKMVYZHMLRLLWPUN^P[O[OL-PYLHYTZHUK,_WSVZP]LZ+P]PZPVU
-,+^PSS[OLUKVHUPU]LU[VY`PUZWLJ[PVUHUKJSHZZPÄJH[PVUVU^OL[OLY
[OLÄYLHYTZHYL\ZHISLYLJ`JSHISLYLWHPYHISLVYKPZWVZHISL5V[L[OH[
HSS**:+ÄYLHYTZHYL[VILZ[VYLKZLWHYH[LS`MYVT[OLV[OLYHYTZPU[OL
custody of the PNP.
 3HZ[S`[OLHJ[VMKPZWVZP[PVUKLWLUKZVU[OLÄYLHYTZ»JSHZZPÄJH[PVU0MP[
PZJSHZZPÄLKHZZLY]PJLHISL[OLÄYLHYTZ^PSSIL[YHUZMLYYLK^P[OV\[JVZ[
[V757^P[OHJVYYLZWVUKPUNJLY[PÄJH[LVMYLNPZ[YH[PVUPZZ\LKI`-,+0MP[
PZJSHZZPÄLKHZ9LWHPYHISL[OLZHTLY\SLHZ[OH[VMHZLY]PJLHISLÄYLHYT
applies.24
9L\ZHISLWHY[Z^PSSILZHS]HNLKMVY\ZLMYVTUVU\ZLHISLÄYLHYTZ^OPSL[OL
remaining parts will be destroyed and disposed through melting under the
WYLZLUJLVM*VTTPZZPVUVU(\KP[*6(YLWYLZLU[H[P]LZPUHJJVYKHUJL^P[O
other existing policies and audit regulation.
7HY[VM[OLKPMÄJ\S[`^P[O**:+(-ÄYLHYTZPZHNHPUYLJVYKRLLWPUN(IL[[LY
HJJV\U[PUNVMHSS[OL**:+(-ÄYLHYTZPZULLKLKPUVYKLY[VLUZ\YL[OH[[OL`
^PSSUV[JYVZZV]LY[V[OLPSSPJP[[YHKL0UJHZLH\UP[SVZLZ[OL**:+(-ÄYLHYTZ
PUP[ZJ\Z[VK`[OLYLHYLHKTPUPZ[YH[P]LWLUHS[PLZ[OH[T\Z[ILSL]PLK;OPZ
OV^L]LYPZHUV[OLYSVVWOVSL;OL757-,+PZVISP]PV\ZVU[OLHTV\U[VM
**:+(-ÄYLHYTZPU[OLJ\Z[VK`VMV[OLY\UP[ZHUKPZ[V[HSS`KLWLUKLU[VU
YLWVY[ZZ\ITP[[LK[VP[/LUJL[OLYLPZHOPNOYPZRVM\UKLYYLWVY[PUNVU[OL
HJ[\HSHTV\U[VM**:+(-ÄYLHYTZHUK[OL\UYLWVY[LK-(ZLU[LYPUN[OLPSSPJP[
THYRL[;OLYLPZHSZVHWVZZPIPSP[`VM^OVSLZHSLUVUYLWVY[PUNVM**:+(-
ÄYLHYTZ^OPJOL]LU[\HSS`LUK\WHSZVPU[OLPSSLNHS[YHKL
;OLVYL[PJHSS`ZWLHRPUNP[PZ[OLVMÄJLYPUJOHYNL[OH[ 24
However, repairing will be
the responsibility of PNP
is responsible in ensuring that rules and regulations Logistic Support Service.
48 Gun Proliferation & Violence
HYLMVSSV^LK0U[OLLUKOV^L]LY[OLLMMLJ[P]LULZZVM[OLZVJPHSJVU[YVS
mechanisms spells the difference.
0U[LYTZVMPU[LYHNLUJ`JVVWLYH[PVU[OLSH^PZ]LY`JSLHY[OH[**:JHW[\YLK
JVUÄZJH[LKZ\YYLUKLYLKÄYLHYTZ\UKLY[OLJ\Z[VK`VM[OL(-7T\Z[IL
[YHUZMLYYLK[V[OL757;OLYLPZHUPZZ\LOV^L]LYVM[\YMPU[OLZL\UP[Z:PUJL
ZVTLVM[OL**:ÄYLHYTZHYLZ[PSSYL\ZHISL[OLYLZLLTZ[VILZVTLZPSLU[
competition regarding which agency- the AFP or PNP- is entitled to reuse these
ÄYLHYTZ25;O\Z^OPSL[OLY\SLZVMWYVJLK\YLYLX\PYLHSSNV]LYUTLU[\UP[Z[V
[\YUV]LYHSS**:+(-ÄYLHYTZ[V[OL757-,+PUHJ[\HSWYHJ[PJL[OVZL[\YULK
V]LY[V[OL-,+HYLVUS`[OLUVU\ZHISLVYKPZWVZHISLÄYLHYTZ26
;OLMHJ[[OH[[OLYLPZUVZWLJPÄJ\UP[^P[OPU-,+[OH[OHUKSLZ**:+(-JHZLZ
adds to the problem of accounting. This is an issue that needs to be seriously
[HJRSLKPUZ[LHKVMZPTWS`SVVRPUNH[P[HZVULVM[OLTHU`MHJ[VYZ[OH[JVU[YPI\[L
[V[OLWYVSPMLYH[PVUVMSVVZLÄYLHYTZ
Firearms in custodia legis are those that are in the custody of a court or the
prosecutor’s office for safekeeping, and intended to be used as evidence in
the prosecution of a case. On September 11, 1998, the Supreme Court issued
Circular no. 47-98, “Disposition of Firearms, Ammunition or Explosives in
Custodia Legis,” directing all judges and clerks of court of municipal, regional,
and Shari’a courts, to turn over all firearms to the PNP-FED only upon the
termination of the cases or when they are no longer needed as evidence.” (italics
supplied)
Along this line, the PNP Letter of Instruction (LOI) of 23 July 2009 created a Joint
Firearm Control Desk (JFCD) in all AFP Camps, law enforcement agencies,
local government units, government-owned and controlled corporations, and
other judicial entities. The LOI laid down the procedures for the accounting of
firearms under custodia legis.
Whether or not PNP-FED subjects the turned-over custodia legis firearms to the
same rules as that of the CCSDAF firearms, is, however, not clear.
Moreover, other issues that must be raised are: who monitors the pendency and
the eventual closure of court cases that involve firearms as evidence? Is there a
deadline or a grace period for courts when it is supposed to turn over the firearms
after the resolution of the case? Are there penalties in case the court loses the
firearm-evidence?
The challenge with the rules of custodia legis exhibits exactly how coordination
between the agencies affects the state of firearms control in the country.
The concerns above not only highlight the necessity to re-envision a
restructuring of PNP-FED to allow it to develop more responsive strategies
HUKN\HYHU[LLHULMÄJPLU[PTWSLTLU[H[PVUVMÄYLHYTZSH^Z0[HSZVIYPUNZ
into discussion the importance of inter-agency
cooperation. Note that the UN Program
25
of Action (2001) on Small
Arms and Light Weapons
The National Law Enforcement Coordinating suggests that all CCSDAF
Committee (NALECC) has been formed to help in firearms are destroyed,
to prevent their possible
the communication between different implementing leakage to the illicit trade.
CHAPTER 4 | The Legal Terrain of Firearms’ Ownershi p 49
 HNLUJPLZPU]VS]LKHZ^LSSHZPUL]HS\H[PUN[OLHJ[PVUZVM[OLZLHNLUJPLZ;OL
LMMLJ[P]LULZZVM[OPZJVVYKPUH[PUNIVK`OV^L]LYYLTHPUZ[VILZLLU
Fighting Fire with Fire – Penalizing Violators
;OLWLUHSJVTWVULU[ZYLNHYKPUN[OL]PVSH[PVUZVMÄYLHYTZSH^PZNV]LYULKI`
7YLZPKLU[PHS+LJYLL5VHZHTLUKLKI`9( HUK9( ;OLYL
HYLOV^L]LYSPTP[Z[V[OLSH^[OH[ULLKZ[VILHKKYLZZLK!
;OL\USH^M\STHU\MHJ[\YLZHSLHJX\PZP[PVUKPZWVZP[PVUVYWVZZLZZPVUVM
ÄYLHYTZVYHTT\UP[PVUVYPUZ[Y\TLU[Z\ZLKVYPU[LUKLK[VIL\ZLKPU[OL
THU\MHJ[\YLVMÄYLHYTZHUKHTT\UP[PVUYLJLP]LHWLUHS[`VMWYPZPVUJVYLJPVUHS
PUP[ZTH_PT\TWLYPVK^P[OHÄULVMUV[SLZZ[OHU7;OLZLWLUHS[PLZ
PTWVZLKI`9(5V [HRLPU[VJVUZPKLYH[PVU[OL[`WLVMN\UPUX\LZ[PVU
(ZZ\JOHOPNOWV^LYLKÄYLHYTMVYPUZ[HUJL^V\SK^HYYHU[HTVYLZL]LYL
W\UPZOTLU[;OLWLUHS[PLZVMWYPZVUTH`VYPUP[ZTPUPT\TWLYPVKHUKHÄULVM
7HYLPTWVZLKMVYWVZZLZZPVUVMPSSLNHSOPNOWV^LYLKN\UZ
It should be noted that these penalties are operative in the instances that no
other crimes are committed. Should these unlawful acts be committed in aid
VMOVTPJPKLVYT\YKLY[OLWVZZLZZPVUVMPSSLNHSÄYLHYT^V\SKILYLNHYKLK
HZHNNYH]H[PUNJPYJ\TZ[HUJLI\[[OLJOHYNL[OH[^PSSILÄSLKPZ[OH[VM[OL
(supposedly) graver offense. Critics argue that this procedure undervalues the
JYPTLVMPSSLNHSWVZZLZZPVUVMÄYLHYTZHUKWYVWVZLPUZ[LHK[OH[YH[OLY[OHU
Z\IZ\TL[OL¸SLZZLY¹JYPTLVMPSSLNHSWVZZLZZPVUVM-([V[OLNYH]LYVMMLUZL
the offender must be charged with separate offenses – that of illegal possession
VMÄYLHYTZHUK[OLJYPTLZOLJVTTP[[LK\ZPUN[OLPSSLNHSÄYLHYT
8\P[LVI]PV\ZS`[OLHTV\U[ZZWLJPÄLKPU[OLSH^HYLNYVZZS`\UKLY]HS\LK
another reason why the existing laws have to be amended. But more than the
HTV\U[[OLSH^HSZVULLKZ[VIL\WKH[LK-VYPUZ[HUJL[OLMHJ[[OH[PSSLNHS
WVZZLZZPVUVMÄYLHYTZZPTWS`ILJVTLZHUHNNYH]H[PUNVMMLUZL[V[OLºTHQVY»
VMMLUZLKLMLH[Z[OL^OVSLZVJPHSJVU[YVSHNLUKHVUÄYLHYTZWYVSPMLYH[PVU27 The
JSHZZPJJHZL[OH[JHUILJP[LKOLYL^HZ[OL(TWH[\HU4HN\PUKHUHVTHZZHJYL
in November 2009. Despite the cache of arms and ammunition found in the
WVZZLZZPVUVM[OL(TWH[\HUMHTPS`[OLSH^`LYZ[YPLK[VOH]L[OLJOHYNLZ
ÄSLKHZ¸YLILSSPVU¹28YH[OLY[OHUT\YKLYVYTHZZHJYLVI]PV\ZS`H[[LTW[PUN[V
V]LYZOHKV^HS[VNL[OLY[OLMHJ[[OH[[OLÄYLHYTZ^LHWVUZHUKHTT\UP[PVU
YLJV]LYLKHYLLUV\NO[VHYTH^OVSLIH[[HSPVUSP[LYHSS`
;OLI\YKLUVM[OLWLUHS[PLZOV^L]LYPZUV[VUS`IVYULI`[OLWLYZVU^OV
^PLSKLK[OLÄYLHYTZVYHTT\UP[PVU\USH^M\SS`;OLV^ULYWYLZPKLU[THUHNLY
KPYLJ[VYVYV[OLYYLZWVUZPISLVMÄJLYVMHU`W\ISPJVYWYP]H[LÄYTJVTWHU`
JVYWVYH[PVUVYLU[P[`PZHSZVSPHISLZOV\SKZOL^PSSM\SS`VYRUV^PUNS`HSSV^[OL
\ZLVMHU`VM[OLPYÄYLHYTZ=PVSH[PVUZYLSH[PUN[VL_WSVZP]LZHUKKL[VUH[PVU
receive a different and greater penalty.
;HTWLYPUNVM[OLZLYPHSU\TILYZVM[OLÄYLHYTZ^OPJO
HYLJY\JPHSPUPKLU[PM`PUNHUK[YHJRPUNÄYLHYTZHYL Currently, there is a
27
pending proposal in
also penalized. Section 5 of PD 1866 as amended Congress, meant to treat
[HJRSLZ[OPZ]PVSH[PVUI`PTWVZPUN[OLWLUHS[`VMprision the illegal possession of
firearms as a separate
correccional[VHU`WLYZVU^OVZOHSS¸\USH^M\SS`
offense from that of the
other crime committed.
50 Gun Proliferation & Violence
[HTWLYJOHUNLKLMHJLVYLYHZL[OLZLYPHSU\TILYVMHU`ÄYLHYT¹
Executive Order 256 is the basis of fees that must be paid related to
ÄYLHYTSPJLUZPUN;OPZPZZ\HUJLPZJVTWSLTLU[LKI`,_LJ\[P]L6YKLY
^OPJOPTWVZLZHUHKTPUPZ[YH[P]LÄULMVYSVZZVMÄYLHYTZYLNHYKSLZZVM[OL
[`WLVYJHSPILYJV]LYLKI`:WLJPHS7LYTP[VY*LY[PÄJH[LVM9LNPZ[YH[PVUHUK
WLYTHULU[S`KPZX\HSPÄLZ[OLWLYZVUMYVTVI[HPUPUNHSPJLUZLHM[LYSVZPUN[OL
YLNPZ[LYLKÄYLHYTMVYH[OPYK[PTL29
/H]PUNVUL»ZÄYLHYTZSPJLUZLKHSSV^Z[OLSH^LUMVYJLYZ[VL_LYJPZL[OLPY
ZVJPHSJVU[YVSM\UJ[PVU;OLWLUHS[PLZHYLHSSTLHU[[V[PNO[LUÄYLHYTJVU[YVS
[OYV\NO[OLPTWVZP[PVUVMZ[YPJ[LYY\SLZHUKZ[PMMLYWLUHS[PLZ:[PSS[OLZ[H[LVM
SVVZLÄYLHYTZPU[OLJV\U[Y`PZ^VYZLUPUN0UVYKLY[VJVTIH[[OLPUJYLHZPUN
U\TILYVMSVVZLÄYLHYTZ[OLNV]LYUTLU[OHZ[VPTWYV]L[OLPYHJ[PVU)\[
TVYL[OHU[OPZ[OLZ[H[LOHZ[VJSLHYS`ZWLSSV\[P[ZWVZP[PVUHZYLNHYKZJP]PSPHU
V^ULYZOPWVMÄYLHYTZ([[OLTVTLU[[OLH[[P[\KLVM[OLZ[H[L^H]LYZ¶MYVT
tightening control (e.g. during the time of Pres. Cory Aquino) to relaxing the
rules (e.g. during the time of Pres. Estrada). This wavering attitude sends mix
ZPNUHSZ[V[OLWVW\SH[PVUHUKZPUJL[OLISHJRHUK^OP[L rules are not clearly
JVTT\UPJH[LK[OLgray area expands further.
Global-Local dynamics
;OLWYVISLTVMWYVSPMLYH[PVUVMSVVZLÄYLHYTZPZUV[JVUÄULK[VHZPUN\SHYZ[H[L
;OPZ^HZ[OLZWPYP[ILOPUK[OL¸<57YVNYHTTLVM(J[PVU<576([V7YL]LU[
Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW)
0U(SSP[Z(ZWLJ[Z¹[OH[^HZHKVW[LKPU[OL<5TLL[PUNPU5L^@VYRVU1\S` [V
20 of 2001.
PhilANCA members
during the Peoples
Consultation 2007
;OL6MÄJLVM[OL:WLJPHS,U]V`VU 29
Circular No. 2 or the “Annual Verification
of Firearms” promulgated on September
Transnational Crime (OSETC) is the 11, 1990, gives the Chief of the Philippine
Philippines’ national coordinating National Police the authority to inspect all
the firearms in the custody/ possession of
HNLUJ`[OH[SPURZ^P[OUH[PVUHSYLNPVUHS
the police force. Administrative penalties are
and global institutions that address imposed on police officers that lose a firearm.
CHAPTER 4 | The Legal Terrain of Firearms’ Ownershi p 51
 transnational crimes. It is the primary unit that monitors the Philippine state’s Appendix 1
compliance to the UN-POA on SALW. 30 Annual License Fees: Civilian Ownership
)HZLKVU,_LJ\[P]L6YKLY!9H[PVUHSPaPUN-LLZHUK*OHYNLZVU-PYLHYTZ
(ZVM [OLWLYTHULU[TPZZPVUVM[OL7OPSPWWPULZ[V[OL<UP[LK5H[PVUZ (TT\UP[PVU:WHYL7HY[Z(JJLZZVYPLZ*VTWVULU[Z,_WSVZP]LZ,_WSVZP]LZ
enumerated what the Philippine government has done so far to accomplish the 0UNYLKPLU[7`YV[LJOUPJHUK+L]PJLZVU+LJ YL]PZPUN,_LJ6YKLY
mission of the UN-POI against the illicit trade in SALWs
 ¸THPU[HPUPUNHWWYVWYPH[LWHY[ULYZOPWZ^P[O[OLSVJHSÄYLHYTPUK\Z[Y`  9PÅL*HSPILY 7HWWYV_<:
WYP]H[LZLJ\YP[`WYV]PKLYZN\UJS\IZHUKJP]PSZVJPL[`¹MVYL_HTWSL757  :OV[N\UHSSNH\NLZ 7
Circular No. 7 issued on February 1993 serves as a guide to the control  7PZ[VS9L]VS]LY*HSPILYVYKPUHY` 7
HUKTVUP[VYPUNVM[OLTV]LTLU[VMÄYLHYTI`N\UJS\IZLUZ\YPUN[OH[ 4. Pistol/ Revolver Caliber .25; .32; .38;
[OL`JVTWS`^P[O[OLÄYLHYTSH^ZPUWSHJLVYLSZLYPZRWLUHSPaH[PVUVY  " TT"""HUK4HNU\TYPTÄYL 7
withdrawal of recognition by PNP); 5. Pistol/ Revolver caliber .357; .40; .41; .44;
(2) enforcement of existing laws to prevent the illicit transfer of SALWs (3)  "4HNU\TJLU[LY-PYL 7 
ZOHYPUN¸PUMVYTH[PVUVUPSSPJP[[YHUZMLYZ^P[OSPRLTPUKLK:[H[LZ[OYV\NO  /79PÅLZ 7
PU[LYUH[PVUHSPUZ[Y\TLU[Z¹MVYL_HTWSL[OL¸(NYLLTLU[VU0UMVYTH[PVUHUK  3PJLUZL*HYK 7
Exchange and Establishment of Communication Procedures”);
(4) controlling export and import of SALWs and not re-exporting or re-
[YHUZMLYYPUNWYL]PV\ZS`PTWVY[LK:(3>ZMVYL_HTWSLYLX\PYPUN\ZPUN,UK
<ZLY*LY[PÄJH[LZVY3L[[LYZVM0U[LU[PUL_WVY[PTWVY[[YHUZHJ[PVUZ31 at conversion rate of
<:$7O7
0U[OLÄUHSHUHS`ZPZP[YLTHPUZ[VKVPU[LYHNLUJ`JVVWLYH[PVU^P[OPU[OL
7OPSPWWPULNV]LYUTLU[HUK^P[OV\[ZPKLHNLUJPLZYLNPVUHSHUKPU[LYUH[PVUHS 5V[L!WSLHZLTHRLZ\YL[OPZNVLZ[V[OLZLJ[PVUVU(WWLUKP_
agencies) to effectively address the implementation issue. But as equally
important with the consistent implementation of laws is the updating of existing
Y\SLZHUKYLN\SH[PVUZ[VJVWL^P[OUL^JOHSSLUNLZPUYLNHYK[VÄYLHYTZ
proliferation.

4
Cited in Molina 1993: 27
5
ibid, 28-29; Sec 887 of RAC is the precursor of the present rule re civilian gun ownership
7
Constantino 1987, cited in Molina 1993, 38
15
PNP Circular No. 9 or the “Policy on Firearms and Ammunition Dealership/Repair” dated February 14, 2008
17
also available online, see http://www.un.org/disarmament/convarms/BMS/bms3/1BMS3Pages/1NationalReports/
Philippines.pdf
18
Standard Operating Procedure No. 13 revised October 08, 2008
20
Information based on Report of the Republic of the Philippines on implementation of the UN PoA on SALW; and PNP
memorandum issued on 20 June 1995
22
Available online, http://www.pnpcsg.org/CSG/irrtoexo817.html accessed April 22, 2011
23
PNP Circular No. 5 Series 2005 approved for implementation on December 10, 2005
25
Note that the UN Program of Action (2001) on Small Arms and Light Weapons suggests that all CCSDAF firearms
are destroyed, to prevent their possible leakage to the illicit trade.
26
Based on formal and informal discussions with former PNP-FED officials between May to Aug, 2010.
28
There are several reports re the Ampatuan massacre. See for instance http://www.gmanews.tv/story/187771/
charges-mulled-vs-ampatuans-over-illegal-firearms accessed Dec 23, 2010
30
See OSETC webpage http://www.poa-iss.org/CountryProfiles/CountryProfileInfo.aspx?CoI=156&pos=1000
accessed April 22, 2011
31
Statement by Mr. Raphael S.C. Hermoso at the Thematic Debate on Conventional Weapons of the First Committee.
64th General Assembly. New York, 20 October 2009.

52 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 4 | The Legal Terrain of Firearms’ Ownershi p 53
 5V[L[OH[[OLWSH`LYZHYLTVYLVYSLZZ[OLZHTLJVTWHYLK[VÄ]L`LHYZWHZ[
CHAPTER 5 [V^OLYL[OL[VWÄ]LZ\WWSPLYZVMJVU]LU[PVUHS^LHWVUZ^LYL
[OL<UP[LK:[H[LZ9\ZZPH.LYTHU`-YHUJLHUK[OL
The Firearms Industry United Kingdom (4%). “Around 71 per cent of Russian arms were exported
[V[OL(ZPH¶7HJPÄJYLNPVUMVY¶^P[OKLSP]LYPLZVMHK]HUJLKJVTIH[
Jennifer Santiago Oreta & aircraft and naval vessels to China and India accounting for a considerable
Arjan Aguirre ZOHYL¹:0790)HJRNYV\UK7HWLY 

Global Context
0[PZ\ZLM\S[VWYLZLU[ZVTLÄN\YLZ[VJVU[L_[\HSPaL[OPZJOHW[LY»ZKPZJ\ZZPVU
0U[OL]HS\LVMJVU]LU[PVUHSHYTZ[YHUZMLYKLSP]LYPLZPU[OL^VYSK
HTV\U[LK[V<:IPSSPVU*9:1HUK[OL[VWÄ]LHYTZL_WVY[LYZPU
[OLKL]LSVWPUNUH[PVUZHZVM^LYL[OL<UP[LK:[H[LZLHYUPUN<: 
IPSSPVU"9\ZZPH<: IPSSPVU"<UP[LK2PUNKVT<:IPSSPVU"0ZYHLS<:
IPSSPVU"HUK-YHUJL<:IPSSPVU*9:5V[PJL[OH[[OLZLZHTL
JV\U[YPLZL_JLW[MVY0ZYHLSHYLHSZV[OLWLYTHULU[TLTILYZVM[OL<5:LJ\YP[`
Council. It is hard to ignore that the countries that are supposedly responsible
MVYTHPU[HPUPUNWLHJLPU[OLNSVIHSJVTT\UP[`HYLHSZV[OLVULZ^OVWYVÄ[[OL
TVZ[MYVTWYVK\JPUN[OLPUZ[Y\TLU[Z\ZLKPUWLYWL[\H[PUNJVUÅPJ[
6U[OLV[OLYOHUK[OLSHYNLZ[PTWVY[LYZVMTHQVYJVU]LU[PVUHS^LHWVUZ
continuously change. “-VY[OLWLYPVK ¶ [OLÄ]LSHYNLZ[YLJPWPLU[ZVM
TPSP[HY`LX\PWTLU[·0YHX0UKPH3PI`H:`YPHHUK,N`W[·HJJV\U[LKMVYWLY
JLU[VM[V[HSPTWVY[Z-VY[OLWLYPVK¶[OL[VWÄ]L·*OPUH0UKPH[OL
<(,:V\[O2VYLHHUK.YLLJL·HJJV\U[LKMVYWLYJLU[VMHSSPTWVY[Z¹0IPK
>OPSLP[TH`ZLLT[OH[[OLYLPZHULTLYNPUNZOPM[PUKLZ[PUH[PVUMYVT[OL4PKKSL
,HZ[[V(ZPHYLJLU[KH[HZ\NNLZ[Z[OH[[OLYLPZHYL]LYZLZOPM[THRPUNHNHPU
[OL4PKKSL,HZ[HZ[OLTHQVYKLZ[PUH[PVUVMTPSP[HY`LX\PWTLU[¸5VUL[OLSLZZ
in recent years the composition of the list of largest recipients has remained
relatively stable. China and India were the world’s two largest arms importers for
both 1999–2003 and 2004–2008.” (Sipri 2009)2
)HZLKVU]HS\LHUK]VS\TLVMWYVK\J[PVU[V[HSLTWSV`TLU[YHUNLVMZTHSS
HYTZWYVK\J[ZPUJS\KPUNHTT\UP[PVUU\TILYVMJVTWHUPLZNSVIHSKPZ[YPI\[PVU
HUK\ZLVMWYVK\J[Z[OL7OPSPWWPULZPZJVUZPKLYLKHºZTHSS»HYTZWYVK\JLYZLL
Appendix 1)

;VKH[L[OLMVSSV^PUNHYL[OLTHQVYHYTZWYVK\JLYZPU[OL^VYSK :VTL[LYTPUVSVNPLZULLK[VILKLÄULKILMVYLWYVJLLKPUN!
Ammunition: are cartridges (rounds) for small arms; shells and missiles for
Table 5.1. : The Largest Arms-Producing light weapons; mobile containers with missiles or shells for single-action anti-
*VYWVYH[PVUZPU[OL>VYSK HPYJYHM[HUKHU[P[HURZ`Z[LTZ"HU[PWLYZVUULSHUKHU[P[HUROHUKNYLUHKLZ"HUK
Overall Company landmines. (Report of the UN Panel of Government Experts on Small Arms 27
Company Country Continent Arms Sales
Profit Aug 1997)
United
1 BAE Systems Europe US$ 32.420 bn US$ 3.250 bn
Kingdom Illegal black market transfers (from Small Arms Survey 2001): “In clear
Lockheed ]PVSH[PVUVMUH[PVUHSHUKVYPU[LYUH[PVUHSSH^ZHUK^P[OV\[VMÄJPHSNV]LYUTLU[
2 United States N. America US$ 29.880 bn US$ 3.217 bn
Martin
JVUZLU[VYJVU[YVS[OLZL[YHUZMLYZTH`PU]VS]LJVYY\W[NV]LYUTLU[VMÄJPHSZ
3 Boeing United States N. America US$ 29.200 bn US$ 2.672 bn
acting on their own for personal gain.” (Small Arms Survey 2001 167)
Northrop
4 United States N. America US$ 26.090 bn US$ 1.262 bn (loss)
Grumman
General Illicit grey market transfers (from Small Arms Survey
5 United States N. America US$ 22.780 bn US$ 2.459 bn
Dynamics !¸.V]LYUTLU[Z[OLPYHNLU[ZVYPUKP]PK\HSZ 2
The most significant
6 Raytheon United States N. America US$ 21.030 bn US$ 1.672 bn exploiting loopholes or intentionally circumventing change in the composition
of the five largest arms
7 EADS
Trans-
Europe US$ 17.900 bn US$ 2.302 bn
national and/or international laws or policies” (Ibid)
importers in recent years
European
has been the entry of the
8 Finmeccanica Italy Europe US$ 13.240 bn US$ 0.996 bn Legal Transfers (from Small Arms Survey 2001): UAE, which rose from
L-3 Communi- “These occur with either the active or passive
being the 16th largest
9 United States N. America US$ 12.160 bn US$ 0.949 bn importer in the period
cations
involvement of governments or their authorized 1999–2003 to being
10 Thales France Europe US$ 10.760 bn US$ 0.952 bn the third largest for the
HNLU[ZHUKPUHJJVYKHUJL^P[OIV[OUH[PVUHSHUK
period 2004–2008. SIPRI
:V\YJL!:[VJROVST0U[LYUH[PVUHS7LHJL9LZLHYJO0UZ[P[\[L1\UL international law.” (Ibid) Background paper April
2009. Available online
http://www.unidir.org/pdf/
Small arms: are revolvers and self-loading pistols; activites/pdf14-act432.pdf
YPÅLZHUKJHYIPULZ"Z\ITHJOPULN\UZ"HZZH\S[YPÅLZ" accessed July 1, 2011

54 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 5 | The Firearms Industry 55

 light machine guns. (Report of the UN Panel of Government Experts on Small
Arms 27 Aug 1997)
Light weapons: heavy machine-guns; hand-held under-barrel and mounted
NYLUHKLSH\UJOLYZ"WVY[HISLHU[PHPYJYHM[N\UZ"WVY[HISLHU[P[HURN\UZ
YLJVPSSLZZYPÅLZ"WVY[HISLSH\UJOLYZVMHU[P[HURTPZZPSLHUKYVJRL[Z`Z[LTZ"
portable launchers of anti-aircraft missile systems; mortars of calibers of less
than 100 mm. (Report of the UN Panel of Government Experts on Small Arms
27 Aug 1997)
;OLÄYLHYTZPUK\Z[Y`HJ[ZHZ[OLMVYTHSO\I[OH[MHJPSP[H[LZ[OL[YHUZMLYHUK
[YHKLPUÄYLHYTZPUHNP]LUZVJPL[`30UHKKYLZZPUN[OLKLTHUKMVYN\UZ[OL
PUK\Z[Y`Z`Z[LTH[PJHSS`MHJPSP[H[LZ[OLJYLH[PVUKPZ[YPI\[PVUVYV^ULYZOPWVM
ÄYLHYTZ[OYV\NOP[ZPU[LYYLSH[LKTHYRL[PUZ[P[\[PVUHSTLJOHUPZTZ>PU[LT\[L
2002).
;OLÄYLHYTZI\ZPULZZPZUV^HTVUN[OLPTWVY[HU[PUK\Z[YPLZPU[OLNSVIHSPaPUN
THYRL[LJVUVT`*\RPLYHUK:PKLS0UTVYL[OHUJVTWHUPLZ
^VYSK^PKLYLNPZ[LYLKHZ[HNNLYPUN[V[HSPUJVTLVMIPSSPVU:THSS(YTZ:\Y]L`
;OPZÄN\YL[YHUZSH[LZ[VTVYLVYSLZZTPSSPVUZTHSSHYTZ^VYSK^PKL
[OLTHYRL[PUNVMÄYLHYTZ[VJVUZ\TLYZPZL]PKLU[VUHKHPS`IHZPZ[OYV\NO
HK]LY[PZPUNHZZVJPH[PVUZHUKL]LULU[LY[HPUTLU[TLKPH¹*\RPLYHUK:PKLS
2006: 86)
>P[O[OL*VSK>HYVMÄJPHSS`V]LY[OLNSVIHSÄYLHYTZPUK\Z[Y`OHZWYVNYLZZP]LS`
ZOPM[LK[V[OLJP]PSPHUTHYRL[;OPZOHZKYHTH[PJLMMLJ[ZPUM\LSPUNPU[YHZ[H[L
JVUÅPJ[ZI`PUJYLHZPUNHJJLZZHUKH]HPSHIPSP[`VMÄYLHYTZ[VJP]PSPHUZ
(TVUN[OLKYP]LYZVMPUJYLHZLK\ZHNLVMZTHSSHYTZPUJVUÅPJ[PUJS\KL!:LL
*\RPLYHUK:PKLS!"0*9* 
‹ +\YHIPSP[`!HZZH\S[YPÅLZJHUYLTHPUVWLYH[PVUHSMVY[^LU[`[VMVY[``LHYZ^P[O
minimal need for maintenance
‹ 7VY[HIPSP[`HUKLHZPULZZ[VJVUJLHS!ILJH\ZLVMP[ZZTHSSZPaL[OL`HYLLHZ`[V
transport and/or smuggle along legitimate goods
‹ :PTWSPJP[`![OL`KVUV[YLS`VU[OL\ZLYZZ[YLUN[O[OL`W\[^LHRLYPUKP]PK\HSZ
on an equal defensive footing
‹ 3L[OHSP[`!ZVTLH\[VTH[PJYPÅLZHYLJHWHISLVMÄYPUNZL]LYHSYV\UKZISHURL[
ÄYPUNHUKYLX\PYLTPUPTHSZRPSSZ[V\ZL
)LOPUKLHJOZ[HNLVM[OLWYVK\J[PVUSPULHUKTHYRL[[YHUZHJ[PVUZPZHJOHPU
:THSS(YTZ:\Y]L`5V[L[OH[PU[VVM[OL[V[HS[YHKL^HZ VMPU[LYJVUULJ[LKWOHZLZHUKVWLUPUNZMVY[OLPSSLNHSPUK\Z[Y`VMN\UTHRPUN
reported to have been done illicitly (Small Arms Survey 2001: 167-168).4 HUK[YHKL[VÅV\YPZO*\RPLY
:PKLS",MYH[3PRL[OLSLNHS[YHKL[OL
JV]LY[THYRL[ZOHYLZZVTLZ`Z[LTPJHUKVYNHUPaH[PVUHSMLH[\YLZWYLZLU[PUHSS
Production and Trade. The production stage entails a long production line of the gun businesses. The underground manufacturing and trade of guns uses
N\UKLZPNUJVUJLW[\HSPaH[PVUHZZLTIS`VMJVTWVULU[ZKL[HPSPUNVMÄUPZOLK [OLZHTLLJVUVTPJSVNPJVMOV^[VNHPUWYVÄ[PU[OLJHWP[HSPZ[THYRL[+\L
WYVK\J[ZIHSSPZ[PJZJOLJRHUKTHYRPUNZ:PTPSHY[VV[OLYPUK\Z[YPLZ[OL [VP[ZHIPSP[`[VZRPY[SLNHSUVYTZHUKWYHJ[PJLZVM[OLSHYNLYJHWP[HSPZ[THYRL[
components needed for gun production are not manufactured by one singular P[NLULYH[LZTVYLWYVÄ[[OHUP[ZSLNHSJV\U[LYWHY[(ZZLLUPUTVZ[JV\U[YPLZ
JVTWHU`I\[VMTHU`:VTLWHY[ZHYLJSLHYS`PKLU[PÄLK^P[ON\UWYVK\J[PVU [VKH`[OLLJVUVTPJZ\JJLZZVM[OLSPILYHS\UYLZ[YPJ[LKHYTZ[YHUZHJ[PVUZPZ
SPRL[OLIHYYLSÄYPUNWPUHUKT\aaSLHTVUNV[OLYZ;OLTHQVYWHY[ZVMH usually higher during moments of crisis or times when there is relaxation of
ÄYLHYTPUMHJ[HYL[OLWHY[ZWYVWVZLK[VILºTHYRLK»HUKYLN\SH[LKPU[OL Z[H[LYLN\SH[P]LWV^LY2YHTLY"+LSSH=PNUH
3H-LYYLYH^OLYL
UN Program of Action (UN-POA). [OLYLSH[P]L^LHRULZZVMZ[H[LJVU[YVSVWLUZ[OLKVVY[V[OLLJVUVTPJHJ[VYZ
[VPU[LUZPM`[OLPYPSSLNHS[YHUZHJ[PVUZ+\YPUNWLYPVKVMºUVJVUÅPJ[»[OLPSSLNHS
But other parts are innocuous and are in fact used for other purposes (also industry uses every moment of state ineptitude to transact more than what are
YLMLYYLK[VHZºK\HS\ZL[LJOUVSVN`»LN[OLZWYPUNJHTLYHSLUZLZ\ZLK HSSV^LK*VVR4VSSPJVUP
*VSL ")YPURLY[".YLLU"2VWLS"
PUYLJVUUHPZZHUJLZ`Z[LTNSHZZHUKZLTPJVUK\J[VYJOPWZ1HWHUHUK Wintemute 2002).
.LYTHU`MVYPUZ[HUJLHYLSLHKPUNWSH`LYZPU[OLPU[LYUH[PVUHSTHYRL[MVYºK\HS
use’ technology. A number of its non-military export actually ends up as a Brokers and Agents.;OLJOHPU[OH[SPURZ[OLWYVK\JLYHUK[OLI\`LYPZ[OL
JVTWVULU[WHY[VMJVU]LU[PVUHSHYTZL_WVY[:PUJL[OLZLP[LTZZLLTOHYTSLZZ ºIYVRLY»VY[OLHNLU[)YVRLYZHYL[OLVULZ[OH[MHJPSP[H[LHUKVYNHUPaL^LHWVUZ
PUJS\KPUN[OLTPU[OLSPZ[VMP[LTZ[VILYLN\SH[LKILJVTLZ[YPJR`5 ÅV^.P]LUP[ZUH[\YLHUKM\UJ[PVUIYVRLYZHYL:(:! !
;OLÄUPZOLKWYVK\J[ZHYLZLU[[V]HYPV\ZSVJHSHUK • Independent/ autonomous: Most act as ‘middlemen’ and brings together
foreign distributors. Gun retailers allow civilians to In 2004, Small Arms
3
buyers and sellers. They often serve as arbitrators or third party witnesses to
Survey, in its count,
OH]LHJJLZZ[V[OLZLPUZ[Y\TLU[Z^OPSL^OVSLZHSL estimated that there more
the transaction.
KPZ[YPI\[VYZ[HYNL[UV[Q\Z[[OLYL[HPSLYZI\[TVYL or less 1,200 companies ‹ ,_WLY[Z!;OL`WVZZLZZJVUZPKLYHISL[LJOUPJHSHUKTHYRL[PUNRUV^OV^
PTWVY[HU[S`Z[H[LJSPLU[Z operating in the industry. HIYLHZ[^P[O[OLLHZPLZ[[YHUZWVY[YV\[LZHUKÄUHUJPHSTVKHSP[PLZHUKOH]LH
See Small Arms Survey
[Graduate Institute of SHYNLUL[^VYRVMJVU[HJ[ZJVSSHIVYH[VYZHUKL_WLY[ZPU[OLI\ZPULZZ
State to state transfer occurs through bilateral International Studies, ‹ 4HUHNLYZ!;OL`OH]LHOPNOSL]LSVMTHUHNLTLU[ZRPSSZ[VILHISL[V
Geneva]. 2004. Oxford:
ZHSLZVYTPSP[HY`HZZPZ[HUJLWYVNYHTZ^OPSLJP]PSPHU Oxford University Press, 7.
THPU[HPUHJVTWSL_UL[^VYRVMJVU[HJ[ZPU[LYTLKPHYPLZHUKWVZZPISLZ\I
THYRL[ZJV]LYIV[OSVJHSHUKMVYLPNUTHYRL[Z¸>OPSL 4
The Small Arms Survey is contractors that are involved in any given transaction
THYRL[PUNVMZTHSSHYTZ[VNV]LYUTLU[ZPZIHZLK a project of the Graduate
Institute of International
VUOPNOSL]LSULNV[PH[PVUZILOPUKJSVZLKKVVYZ Studies, Geneva

56 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 5 | The Firearms Industry 57

 international arms control regulations.” They can create fronts or holding
Supplier Buyer JVTWHUPLZHUKKPZN\PZL[OLTVUL`[YHPS[OYV\NOTVUL`SH\UKLYPUN
(Producer or Broker (Recipient or ZJOLTLZ¸)`JVUZ[HU[S`YLNPZ[LYPUNHUKJSVZPUNKV^UMYVU[JVTWHUPLZ
Dealer) end-user) HYTZ[YHMÄJRLYZJHUL]HKLHJJV\U[HIPSP[`MVY[OLPYHJ[PVUZ¯)YVRLYZ
VM[LUL_WSVP[KPZJYLWHUJPLZIL[^LLUUH[PVUHSHYTZJVU[YVSZ`Z[LT[HRPUN
HK]HU[HNLVMPUJVUZPZ[LU[KVJ\TLU[H[PVUYLX\PYLTLU[ZHUKPULMMLJ[P]L
]LYPÄJH[PVUTLJOHUPZTZ¹:(:!
Facilitate and organize arms transaction
)YVRLYZVWLYH[PUNPU[OLPSSPJP[THYRL[MHJPSP[H[L^LHWVUZ[YHUZMLY\UKLY[OL
Contact
Bring together buyers Arrange finance & UVZLZVMH\[OVYP[PLZ;OLZLNYL`THYRL[WSH`LYZM\LSHUKZ\Z[HPUPSSLNHSHYTZ
Financial agents,
and sellers payment
banks [YHKLHUKI`PTWSPJH[PVUZ\Z[HPUJVUÅPJ[Z
Consultation & Obtain necessary
technical advice re authorizations
Government ;OLSVJHSÄYLHYTPUK\Z[Y`. ;OLLU[PYLHUH[VT`VMSVJHSÄYLHYTZPUK\Z[Y`PU
officials
(licenses, certificates) [OL7OPSPWWPULZJV]LYZ[OLTHU\MHJ[\YLKPZ[YPI\[PVUSPJLUZPUNV^ULYZOPW
Sourcing/procurement [YHUZMLYHUK\ZLVMÄYLHYTZ;OLWPVULLYZPU[OLHYTZTHU\MHJ[\YPUNHUK
of weapons Organize transpo. of KLHSPUNPUK\Z[YPLZPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZHYL(94:*69HUK7)+PVUPZPV *V
goods Transport agents
respectively.6
Contractual negotiation,
facilitation
3VVRPUNH[[OLZPTWSLÄN\YLILSV^[OPZJHUILPSS\Z[YH[LK[OYV\NO[OLZWLJPÄJ
Z[HNLZVMWYVK\J[PVU[OH[JV]LY[OLHJ[\HSJYLH[PVUJPYJ\SH[PVUHUK\ZHNLVM
ÄYLHYTZIL[^LLU[OLTHYRL[HUKPUKP]PK\HSZVJPL[HSHJ[VYZ!
-PN\YL:PTWSPÄLKZJOLTHVM[OL)YVRLY»ZYVSL
IHZLKVU:(:! 
Foreign Foreign Foreign
¸*VUZPKLYPUN[OL[YHUZPLU[PU[HUNPISLHUKPU]PZPISLUH[\YLVMMHJPSP[H[PUNHUK Manufacturers Distributor Retailers
HYYHUNPUNKLHSZIYVRLYZVM[LUKVUV[L]LUZLLT\JOSLZZ[HRLJVUJYL[L
WVZZLZZPVUVM[OL^LHWVUZ[OL`WYVJ\YL(ZHYLZ\S[[OL`JHUUV[LHZPS`ILOLSK
legally accountable under contractual arrangements based on the notion of
V^ULYZOPW¹0IPK .P]LU[OLPTWVY[HU[PMUV[JLU[YHSYVSL[OH[IYVRLYZWSH`
HZ^LSSHZ[OLPYZLLTPUNS`PTWLYJLW[PISLUH[\YL[OL`HYL\Z\HSS`Z\ZWLJ[LKVM
LUNHNPUNPMUV[M\LSSPUN[OLPSSLNHS[YHKL Licensed Private
Manufacturers Distributor
Retailer Individual
0SSPJP[[YHUZHJ[PVUZ\Z\HSS`VWLYH[LPU[OLºNYL`^LHWVUZTHYRL[»¸.YL`THYRL[
[YHUZHJ[PVUZ¯HYLJVTTVUS`\UKLYZ[VVK[VLUJVTWHZZVUS`[OVZLZTHSSHYTZ
[YHUZMLYZ[OH[HYLSLNHSS`LUKVYZLKVYUV[YLN\SH[LKVY[OVZL[OH[[HRLWSHJL -PN\YL!:PTWSPÄLK-SV^VM.\UZPU[OL7OPSPWWPUL3LNP[PTH[L-PYLHYTZ
JV]LY[S`^P[OLP[OLY[OL[HJP[VYL_WSPJP[Z\WWVY[VMNV]LYUTLU[Z*V]LY[ZLJYL[ Industry (Shaded boxes are those stages that are regulated by the state)
[YHUZHJ[PVUZTH`LP[OLYILSLNHSVYPSSPJP[KLWLUKPUNVU^OL[OLY[OL`OH]L
violated the sanctioning state’s laws. Organizing arms transfers beyond the pale ([[OLZ[HY[VM[OLSLNP[PTH[LN\UWYVK\J[PVUTHU\MHJ[\YLYZVYTHU\MHJ[\YPUN
of the law – yet not in open violation of it – is a form of expertise that only the LU[P[PLZHYLYLZWVUZPISLPU[OLKLZPNUJVUJLW[\HSPaH[PVUHZZLTIS`VM
TVZ[HZ[\[LIYVRLYZWVZZLZZ;OL`JHUIYPUN[OPZ[V[OLULNV[PH[PUN[HISLPUH[ JVTWVULU[ZKL[HPSPUNVMÄUPZOLKWYVK\J[ZIHSSPZ[PJZJOLJRHUKTHYRPUNZVM
least two ways: guns (G. Angangco 2010)7-YVT[OLWYVK\J[PVUSPUL[OLN\UZHYL[YHUZMLYYLK
H ¸4HU`IYVRLYZKLWLUKVULP[OLY[OLHJ[P]LVYWHZZP]LJVTWSPJP[`VM to gun distributors who then facilitate the initial sale of guns to traders and
NV]LYUTLU[ZHUKVMÄJPHSZ[VVI[HPU[OLULJLZZHY`H\[OVYPaH[PVUMVYHNP]LU YL[HPSLYZ;OLKPZ[YPI\[VYZHYL[OLSVJHS]LYZPVUVMºIYVRLYZ»:THSSHUKIPN
HYTZ[YHUZHJ[PVUYLNHYKSLZZVMP[ZSLNHSZ[H[\Z¹,P[OLY[OLW\YJOHZPUN I\ZPULZZLZ[HISPZOTLU[ZJVUZ\TL[OLI\SRVMN\UZHSLZVMYL[HPSLYZ
NV]LYUTLU[[YPLZ[VJVUJLHS[OL^LHWVUZW\YJOHZLK[VRLLW[OLTV\[VM Foreign arms industries participate in this process through direct and indirect
[OLW\ISPJZJY\[PU`VY[OLZ\WWSPLYZ[H[LWYV]PKLZHYTZ[VX\LZ[PVUHISL ZHSLZ(ZZLLUPU-PN\YL[OLMVYLPNUTHYRL[HJ[VYZLUNHNL[OLTZLS]LZPU
NYV\WZLNYLILSNYV\WZZ[H[LZRUV^U[V]PVSH[LO\THUYPNO[ZHUKHJ[ [OLWYVK\J[PVUKPZ[YPI\[PVUHUKZHSLZJVU[YHJ[Z+LJRLY[".(UNHUNJV
[OYV\NOIYVRLYZ[VKPZN\PZL[OL[Y\LUH[\YLVMZ\WWSPLYHUKYLJPWPLU[ ([WYLZLU[[OL7OPSPWWPULNV]LYUTLU[JVU[YVSZH[V[HSVMVULO\UKYLK
I )YVRLYZJHUL_WSVP[¸SVVWOVSLZHUKPUHKLX\HJPLZPUUH[PVUHSHUK HUKUPUL[`UPUL YLNPZ[LYLKJVTWHUPLZLUNHNLKPU[OLÄYLHYTPUK\Z[Y`

58 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 5 | The Firearms Industry 59

 I`ZWLJPÄJHSS`YLN\SH[PUN[OL]HYPV\ZZ[HNLZPU[OL 6
Established in 1952,
JVU[YVS»H[]HYPV\ZSL]LSZPU[OLWYVK\J[PVUZHSLZHUK[YHKLPUÄYLHYTZ-VY
production line (Kramer 2001a; PNP-FED 2009; ARMSCOR was the first- PUZ[HUJL^OPSL[OL757-,+OHUKSLZ[OLSPJLUZPUNVMÄYLHYTZP[»ZYVSLPU
ever local company to
Government of the Republic of the Philippines 2010). WYVJ\YLTLU[LZWLJPHSS`OPNOWV^LYLKÄYLHYTZULLKLKI`[OL(YTLK-VYJLZ
be issued by a permit to
operate in the manufacture of the Philippines (AFP) is mainly perfunctory. Production of ammunition (by
(JJLZZ[VÄYLHYTZI`WYP]H[LPUKP]PK\HSZPZMHJPSP[H[LK of guns in the Philippines [OL.V]LYUTLU[(YZLUHSPZ\UKLY[OL+LWHY[TLU[VM5H[PVUHS+LMLUZL+5+
(D. Tuazon, personal
through a licensed company authorized to transact communication, 31 August
and the PNP-FED has no administrative control over the unit. Executive
VYZLSSÄYLHYTZHUKHTT\UP[PVU:*HSP_[V 8; 2010). From a small 6YKLY PZZ\LKVU(WYPSSPM[ZMVYLPNUPU]LZ[TLU[YLZ[YPJ[PVUZVU
printing and merchandizing
A. Serrano 20109). Actual ownership is established [OLJV\U[Y`»ZZTHSSHYTZPUK\Z[Y`HUKLTWV^LYZ[OL+5+[VIL[OLJSLHYPUN
shop in 1905 (in 1952,
once the private individual manages to register the Squires Bingham OV\ZL[VTVUP[VY¸UVU7OPSPWWPULUH[PVUHSZ[VTHU\MHJ[\YLYLWHPYZ[VYLHUK
ÄYLHYTHUKNL[ZHSPJLUZL[VV^UP[(:LYYHUV Co. became Squires KPZ[YPI\[LN\UZHUKHTT\UP[PVUZMVY^HYMHYL^LHWVUZYLWHPYHUKTHPU[LUHUJL
Bingham Manufacturing
The registration and licensing formally establish the Co.), ARMSCOR now LX\PWTLU[TPSP[HY`VYKPUHUJLHUKWHY[Z[OLYLVMJVTIH[]LZZLSTPSP[HY`
SLNHSP[`VM[OLV^ULYZOPWVM[OLÄYLHYT becomes one of the major JVTT\UPJH[PVUHUKLX\PWTLU[HTVUNV[OLYZ¹,6 10
manufacturing companies
The PNP-Firearms and Explosives Division (PNP-FED) in the country and in the
PZ[OLZWLJPÄJYLN\SH[P]LHNLUJ`VM[OLNV]LYUTLU[ region (Odaka, 1983). (ZVM757-,+YLNPZ[LYLKH[V[HSVMSLNP[PTH[LÄYLHYTZ
THUKH[LK[VHKTPUPZ[LYLUMVYJLHUKPTWSLTLU[[OL Under the leadership of 757-,+;OPZU\TILYPUJS\KLZ[OLÄYLHYTZYLNPZ[LYLKILMVYL
the current president,
ÄYLHYTZSH^ZY\SLZHUKYLN\SH[PVUZ757-,+ Demetrio Tuazon, the 5,465V"\UKLY(TULZ[`7YVNYHTVM HZ^LSSHZ[OL
0UP[ZKH[H757-,+YLJVYKLKH[V[HSVM company has managed to ÄYLHYTZ[OH[^LYLIV\NO[MYVTSLNP[PTH[LN\UKLHSLYZ;OPZKH[HHSZVPUKPJH[LZ
expand its operation from
W\YJOHZLKSLNHSÄYLHYTZPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ manufacturing, exporting,
[OH[H[V[HSVMPSSLNHSÄYLHYTZ^P[OL_WPYLKSPJLUZL^LYLYLNPZ[LYLK
importing, retailing, ;OLZLU\TILYZ[OLYLMVYL[YHUZSH[LPU[VH[V[HSVMVYTPSSPVU
Table 5.2: Licensed Firearms Purchased from Gun and shooting ranges YLNPZ[LYLKHUK\UYLNPZ[LYLKÄYLHYTZPU[OLJV\U[Y`PU5V[L[OH[ -,+
(D. Tuazon, personal
+LHSLYZ [V data showed that the number of loose FAs or those with un-renewed license
communication, 31
Purchased Purchased Purchased August 2010). Currently, was 1.1M; while licensed FAs were at 1.2M). The 2008 data also showed that
Year Year Year
Firearm FA FA the company continues to
operate around the world
ZOV[N\UZMVSSV^LKI`YL]VS]LYZ^LYL[OLTVZ[^PKLS`\ZLKÄYLHYTZPU[OL
1990 13,409 1997 90,480 2004 40,737
as the major exporting 7OPSPWWPULZZLL[HISL757-,+
1991 10,060 1998 41,815 2005 41,574 company to showcase
1992 18,418 1999 69,293 2006 56,651 Filipino made firearms
(D. Tuazon, personal Illicit trade. The illicit manufacture and trade has a parallel operation with
1993 18,418 2000 17,299 2007 50,851
communication, 31 August that of the legal trade. These illicit operations have the following mutually
1994 23,533 2001 31,162 2008 27,281 2010). For the firearms
independent conceptual qualities: unregistered
1995 34,757 2002 59,273 TOTAL 752,752 dealership, P.B. Dionisio &

1996 65,113 2003 49,418

Co., Mr. Paulino Dionisio, VWLYH[PVUZTHU\MHJ[\YLKPZ[YPI\[PVUHUKZLSSPUN"
as then sole proprietor Lucas, Daxim. (2002).
10

L_WPYLKSPJLUZL[VVWLYH[LTHU\MHJ[\YLKPZ[YPI\[PVU Palace allows foreigners

of the Philippine army,
Source: PNP-FED, 2008 pioneered the local firearm
industry in September 26,
1950 (P.B. Dionisio & Co.,
(SZVPU-,+PZZ\LKSPJLUZL[VL_WVY[[V 2010). Tracing its history to
(94:*69:JVWYV6W[PJHS*V0UJ:OVV[LYZ.\UZ the early years of the post-
World War II, Mr. Dionisio
(TTV*VYWVYH[PVU;^PU7PULZ*VYWVYH[PVUHUK
was the first one to be
-SVYV0U[LYUH[PVUHS*VYWVYH[PVU[VL_WVY[ÄYLHYTZN\U authorized by the Philippine
parts and ammunition to the following countries: government to expand
the firearms commercial
(\Z[YHSPH)VSP]PH*HTIVKPH*HUHKH*OPUH*VZ[H operation to private
9PJH+VTPUPJHU9LW\ISPJ,J\HKVY,S:HS]HKVY individuals (P.B. Dionisio &
Co., 2010). The company’s
-YHUJL.\H[LTHSH/VUK\YHZ/VUN2VUN/\UNHY`
rich history in the local
0UKVULZPH0ZYHLS0[HS`1HWHU4HSH`ZPH5L^ALHSHUK firearm industry made it
5VY^H`7HUHTH7HYHN\H`7LY\:PUNHWVYL one of the most established
firearm dealers of guns,
:^P[aLYSHUK;HP^HU;OHPSHUK<2<:(HUK gun parts, ammunitions,
=LULa\LSH757-,+ and accessories in the
country (P.B. Dionisio &
Co., 2010). Of late, the
Regulating the legal trade. The Philippine company also expanded
NV]LYUTLU[HZKPZJ\ZZLKPU*OHW[LYOHZH its operation to include
shooting ranges and sale
^LHRWYLZLUJLPU[OLN\UPUK\Z[Y`0[ZZ`Z[LTVM of world renowned guns
regulation can be described as ‘compartmentalized
and ammunitions.
and selling); operations going beyond those stipulated to manufacture guns,
ammo in Business World.
PU[OLSPJLUZL[VVWLYH[L"HUK\USPJLUZLKÄYLHYT: April 19. The EO allows
*HSP_[V ([[OLPU[LYUH[PVUHSSL]LS[OPZPSSLNP[PTH[L non-Philippine nationals
[YHKLOHWWLUZ^OLUMVYLPNUTHU\MHJ[\YLYZ to manufacture, repair,
store, and distribute
distributors and retailers establish transactions with guns and ammunitions
the underground and/or unregistered traders in the for warfare, weapons
repair and maintenance
7OPSPWWPULZ+;\HaVU11). This indicates that equipment, military
some legal entities are themselves engaged in illicit ordinance and parts
[YHKLJHW[\YPUNWYVÄ[PUIV[O[OLVWLUTHYRL[HUK thereof, combat vessel,
military communication
[OL\UKLYNYV\UKTHYRL[ and equipment, among
others, subject to clearance
of the Department of
;OL[OYP]PUNPSSPJP[THYRL[VMÄYLHYTZL_WSHPUZ[OL National Defense. The
proliferation of arms and persistence of armed groups Executive Order has been
in the Southern Philippines despite the draconian criticized by civil society
groups because of the
measures imposed by the Philippine government possibility that it will further
4PZHS\JOH;OLYLHYLHSSLNH[PVUZ[OH[7HRPZ[HU exacerbate the already
thriving illicit arms trade
Afghanistan and Libyan religious organizations in the country. Still, the EO
PUKPYLJ[S`SPURLK[V^LZ[LYUHSSPLKZ[H[LZZ\WWS`[OL is a clear recognition that
gun-making is actually
armaments of contemporary Muslim rebels (Misalucha
a thriving industry in the
Philippines.

60 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 5 | The Firearms Industry 61

 2004). There are also reports that insurgent groups have limited capacity to ;OLYLPZHUVI]PV\ZHIZLUJLVMZ[H[LYLN\SH[P]LJHWHJP[`PU[OLPSSPJP[THYRL[
THU\MHJ[\YL[OLPYV^UÄYLHYTZHUKL_WSVZP]LZ12 ZH]LMVY[OLUH[\YHSYLN\SH[P]LJHWHJP[`VMMYLLWYVÄ[VYPLU[LKTHYRL[>OPSL
the players in the gun industry continue to yearn for more state protection – e.g
Table 5.3 Type of Registered Firearms [H_PUJLU[P]LZOPNO[HYPMMVMPTWVY[LKWYVK\J[ZPUZ[P[\[PVUHSPaLKIYVRLYPUNHUK
Number YL[HPSPUN[VPUKP]PK\HSJVUZ\TLYZ;\HaVU[OLJVU\UKY\TPZ[OH[[OLZ[H[L
Type Caliber Type Caliber Number of FA
of FA is still ambivalent as regards its policy on private gun ownership (see argument
LP RIFLE 22 84,295 SHOTGUNS .12GA 152,290 PU*OHW[LY"HUKKPZJ\ZZPVUPU*OHW[LY(ZUV[LK[OLH[[P[\KLVM[OLZ[H[L
17 42 .16GA 1,229 pendulums from tightening control (e.g. during the time of Pres. Cory Aquino) to
relaxing the rules (e.g. during the time of Pres. Estrada). The wavering attitude
PISTOLS .22 26,228 .20GA 1,320
HSSV^ZMVY[OLL_WHUZPVUVM[OLNYH`HYLHZPUJL[OLISHJRHUK^OP[LKVTHPUZHYL
.25/6.35MM 7,519 410 GA/.22 1,004 not clearly spelled out.
.30 36
7.62MM 805 REVOLVER .22 94,022 While the police and other state security forces would argue that gun ownership
.32/4.65MM 7,956 .32 6,391
PU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ\USPRL[OL<UP[LK:[H[LZVM(TLYPJHPZHWYP]PSLNLNYHU[LK
I`[OLZ[H[LVUZLSLJ[PUKP]PK\HSZ[OLYLHSP[`PZ[OH[N\UWYVSPMLYH[PVU¶SLNHSHUK
.38 24,419 .38 205,019
illicit – remains to be a major challenge not only in addressing criminality but
.380 33,037 .357 4791 HSZVPUJVUÅPJ[K`UHTPJZ
9MM 188,413 .41 16
.357 403 .44 198 This ambivalenceL_[LUKZL]LUVUOV^[OLZ[H[LYLNHYKZ[OLÄYLHYTZPUK\Z[Y`
6UVULOHUK[OLSVJHSPUK\Z[Y`JVTWSHPUZ[OH[P[PZUV[NP]LUZWHJLHUK
10MM 74 .45 320
VWWVY[\UP[`[VNYV^HUKZLLTLK[VILKLZ[PULK[VWLYWL[\HSS`YLS`VUH
.40 17,416 HP RIFLE .223/5.56MM 6,828 JVUZ\TLYIHZLKTHYRL[LJVUVT`"VU[OLV[OLYOHUK[OLYLPZHSZVHZLLTPUN
.41 39 .30 2,032 invitation to foreign investors and an attempt to position the country to become
.44 54 .308/7.62MM 1,689 [OLUL_[^LHWVUZWYVK\JPUNJV\U[Y`HZPSS\Z[YH[LKI`[OLPZZ\HUJLVM,_LJ\[P]L
Order 95 (2002).
.45 209,901 9MM 307
.50 34 .45 105
The Private Security Providers
MPISTOLS .22 6 SUB MGUN 9MM 857
By Danielle de Castro
9MM 1,638 .45 161
.45 43 Of the 637 private security agencies that are registered and licensed to operate
until the year 2011, only 385 agencies are able to provide a list of security
personnel and firearms inventory. This presents a problem to regulatory agencies
Source: PNP-FED 2008 and researchers. For the former, this information is necessary because it is
required in the process of securing or renewing operating licenses, as well
as establishing a good business reputation. For the latter, the information is
invaluable to establish the legitimacy of the security agency, and their compliance
with regulatory agency protocols, or whether the security agency receives weapons
Foreign Foreign Foreign
Manufacturers Distributor Retailers
from dubious sources. From the available data on the National Capital Region,
12
Insurgent groups however, conclusions can still be drawn on issues such as (1) the prevalence
operating in Myanmar and of security agencies in certain areas, (2) the amount of personnel required for
the Philippines also have security agencies, (3) the problems with weapons surplus and deficits when
the capacity to produce applicable to individual agencies.
various types of small
Licensed Private arms. For instance, it has
Manufacturers Distributor Retailer Individual been reported that MILF Firstly, on the prevalence of security agencies in certain areas, it is evident in
alters rifles and produce the cities in the NCR that the 2 main factors that lead to the establishment of
rocket-propelled grenade many private security agencies are (1) the size of the population, and (2) the
launchers and shells business-industry significance of the city. Quezon City has a total population of
as well as anti-aircraft
Illegitimate Illegitimate Illegitimate Private guns (Business world, 29
2,679,450, and consequently has 156 licensed security agencies. Manila has a
Manufactures Distributor Retailer Individual June 1999) and Karen total population of 1,660,714 and has 57 security agencies. Although Makati only
National Liberation Army has a total population of 510,383, it is the Central Business District, home to the
in Myanmar allegedly can Philippine Stock Exchange, banks, and many local and international company
-PN\YL!:PTWSPÄLK-SV^VM.\UZPU[OL produce landmines and offices, as well as consular offices and embassies, which require numerous security
mortars (Jane’s Intelligence
Illegitimate Firearm Industry – International Review, 1 Nov 1998)

62 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 5 | The Firearms Industry 63

 Appendix 1: Small Arms Producers
personnel for their everyday activities. (population data sourced from Wikipedia) Major Medium Small Unassessed
For the top 3 cities with security agencies, the need to maintain peace and order
China Austria Argentina Albania
among large populations and prominent businesses provides the main reason for Russian Federation Belgium Armenia Algeria
the prevalence of security agencies. United States Brazil Australia Bangladesh
Bulgaria Canada Belarus
Secondly, on the issue of personnel, According to R.A. 5847, or the Private Security Czech Republic Chile Bolivia
Agency law, Section 16(a) “No agency operating in the City of Manila and suburbs Egypt Colombia Bosnia and Herzegovina
may employ more than 1,000 watchmen or security guards; (b) no agency France Croatia Burkina Faso
operating in other cities and first class municipalities may employ more than 500 Germany Denmark Cambodia
watchmen or security guards; (c) no agency operating in municipalities other than Hungary Finland Cameroon
first class may employ more than 200 watchmen or security guards.” If we do not India Greece Cuba
have the employment details of roughly 252 of the 637 agencies that are licensed Israel Indonesia Cyprus
to operate, or 39.5% of the total percentage of agencies, how can we ascertain Italy Japan Dominican Republic
that they comply with the requirements of this section? Pakistan Luxembourg Ecuador
Poland Malaysia Estonia
Romania Mexico Ethiopia
Thirdly, on the issue of weapons surplus and deficit, according to R.A. 5847,
Singapore Netherlands Guatemala
Section 13 “A watchman or security agency shall be entitled to posses firearms
South Africa New Zealand Guinea
after having satisfactorily passed the requirements prescribed by the Chief, South Korea Norway Iran
Philippine Constabulary pertinent to the possession of firearm of any caliber Spain Peru Iraq
not higher than 45 caliber in a number not exceeding one firearm for every two Switzerland Philippines Kazakhstan
watchmen or security guards in its employ: Provided, however, That a watchman Taiwan Portugal Kenya
or security agent shall be entitled to possess not more than one riot gun or Turkey Saudi Arabia Lithuania
shotgun in order to provide adequate security when circumstances so demand: United Kingdom Slovakia Macedonia
Provided, further, That all the firearms mentioned herein shall be carried by the Slovenia Malta
watchman or security guard only during his tour of duty in proper uniform within Sweden Moldova
the compound of the establishment except when he escorts big amounts of cash Thailand Monaco
or valuables in and out of said compound.” In the case of the excessive weapons Ukraine Morocco
surpluses, how can the agencies justify their stockpile of firearms? For instance, Venezuela Myanmar
here is a list of security agencies that have a weapons surplus that exceeds Yugoslavia Nigeria
100units: North Korea
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Eaglestar Security Services Inc. 201
Sudan
Trinity Investigation and SA Corp 236 Syria
Panther Integrated Services 223 Tanzania
Corporate Protection Services Phils 211 Uganda
Lockheed Detective and Watchman Agency 550 United Arab Emirates
Thunder Security and Investigation Agency 269 Uruguay
St. Thomas Sec & Gen Services Corp 210 Vietnam
Ultra Security Services Inc 152 Zimbabwe
ESA Protective and Security Services 170 Total: 3 Total: 23 Total: 29 Total: 40

Although each of these agencies have hired a sufficient number of security Source: Small Arms Survey 200113
personnel to justify the amount of weapons they have in storage, there are
no requirements for the assurance that these weapons will not be used at the
discretion of the security personnel, who may opt to carry more than 2 units
for more dangerous investigations or operations. In this situation, how is the
regulatory agency able to assure that the protocol is followed in all instances?

On the other hand, in order to determine the reasons for the prevalence of
security agencies in a certain area, a simpler system of evaluation must be applied
to the other regions in the country, namely: the level of urbanization in the area.
This is evident in the lack of security agencies in mainly rural-agricultural regions,
such as region 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and CARAGA, whereas in the developing areas such
as Laguna and Zamboanga, there are a fair number of security agencies, while
in developed urban centers, such as Cebu and Davao, security agencies are
relatively prevalent, thus reinforcing that the need for security agencies is largely
shaped by urbanization and business-industry.

64 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 5 | The Firearms Industry 65

 (WWLUKP_!7YP]H[L.\UV^ULYZOPWWLY9LZPKLU[Z
Country
Guns per 100 Rank CHAPTER 6
residents (2007) (2007)
Angola
Argentina
17.3
10.2
34
62
Perception of Social Insecurity
Australia 15.0 42 & Community Safety
Austria 30.4 14
Canada 30.8 13
Jennifer Santiago Oreta
China 4.9 102 with Ma. Victoria Caranay, Bernadette Eugenio
Cyprus 36.4 5 & Vladimir Reyes1
Finland 32.0 8
France 31.2 12
Germany 30.3 15
Greece 22.5 23 ¯^OLUWLVWSLJHU^HUKLYHYV\UKPU[OLPYJVTT\UP[PLZH[UPNO[^P[OV\[MLHY
India 4.2 110 VMILPUNKL[HPULKVYZOV[MVYUVHWWHYLU[YLHZVU^OLU[OL`JHUUVSVUNLYZLL
Iran 7.3 79 TPSP[HY`JHTWZULHY[OLPYJVTT\UP[PLZ^OLUWYP]H[LHYTPLZHYLKPZTHU[SLK
Iraq 34.2 7 ^OLU[OL`JHUUV[OLHYN\UZOV[ZHU`TVYL^OLU[OL`JHUZSLLWPU[OLPYO\[Z
Italy 11.9 55 ^P[OV\[^VYY`PUN[OH[»Z^OLUHJVTT\UP[`PZJVUZPKLYLKºZHML»4H`
Mexico 15.0 42 )YN`0U\N\N7PRP[5VY[O*V[HIH[V
New Zealand 22.6 22
Norway 31.3 11
Pakistan 11.6 57
;OLMLLSPUNVMPUZLJ\YP[`HTVUNJP]PSPHUZQ\_[HWVZLK^P[OHWLYJLW[PVUVMH^LHR
Russia 8.9 68
state2 motivates people to secure arms for protection. “The demand for small
Saudi Arabia 35.0 6
HYTZHUKSPNO[^LHWVUZPZVM[LUM\LSSLKI`JVUKP[PVUZVMPUZLJ\YP[`VWWYLZZPVU
Serbia 37.8 4
O\THUYPNO[Z]PVSH[PVUZHUK\UKLYKL]LSVWTLU[¹<5+7,ZZLU[PHSZ5V 5V]
2002)
South Africa 12.7 50
Spain 10.4 61
;OLWHYHKV_PZ[OH[¸¯JV\U[YPLZHUKYLNPVUZ^P[O[OLOPNOLZ[SL]LSVMÄYLHYT
Sweden 31.6 10
violence and ownership are less able to address them than countries with
Switzerland 45.7 3
SV^YH[LZVMÄYLHYT]PVSLUJLHUKV^ULYZOPW¹*\RPLY:PKLS:[PSSSLNHS
Thailand 15.6 39
and illegal gun-trade thrive because of the continued and increasing demand
Tunisia 0.1 178
MVYHYTZI`JP]PSPHUZ3H^SLZZULZZJYPTPUHSP[`IHUKP[Y`HUKPUZ\YNLUJ`HUK
Turkey 12.5 52
HJ\S[\YLVMPTW\UP[`JV\WSLK^P[O[OLPUHIPSP[`VMLUMVYJLYZ[VHKKYLZZ[OLZL
United States 88.8 1
concerns create the impression of chaos and danger in society. A number of
Uruguay 31.8 9
JP]PSPHUZSVVRH[N\UZHZWYV]PKLYVMZLJ\YP[`;OLPYVU`OV^L]LYPZ[OH[^OPSL
Yemen 54.8 2
N\UWVZZLZZPVUTHRLZWLVWSLMLLSZLJ\YLP[ZWYVSPMLYH[PVUJHUHSZVTHRL
people feel more insecure. More guns in circulation can further exacerbate the
Source: SAS 2007
HSYLHK`]VSH[PSLZVJPHSWVSP[PJHSHUKLJVUVTPJKP]PKLZ[OH[L_PZ[PU7OPSPWWPUL
society.
1
Ms. Eugenio, Ms. Caranay,
and Mr. Reyes conducted
>P[O[OLYPZLVMJYPTPUHSP[`HZZVJPH[LK^P[OÄYLHYTZ the main bulk of the FGDs.
WYVSPMLYH[PVUP[ILJVTLZPUL]P[HISLMVYNV]LYUTLU[Z They prepared reports
for each of the FGDs
1
Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 1997-2004, Congressional Research Service (CRS), 29 Aug
to increase its military and police spending to combat which, subsequently, are
2005. Available online http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/52179.pdf accessed 23 April 2011 lawlessness. Increased budget on military and police incorporated in this chapter.
Ballantyne, Robin. 2005. Japan’s Hidden Arms Trade. December 1. Available online http://atimes.com/atimes/ The final draft of the
means lesser funds available for other government
5

Japan/GL01Dh01.html accessed Sept 18, 2009 chapter, however, is written

7
Personal communication, 31 August 2010 ZLY]PJLZSPRLLK\JH[PVUOLHS[OJHYLPUMYHZ[Y\J[\YL by Dr Oreta and hence, is
8
Personal communication, 08 December 2009 OV\ZPUNSP]LSPOVVK[YHPUPUNTHZZ[YHUZWVY[H[PVUHUK responsible for the ideas put
9
Personal communication, 21 October 2010 forward by he chapter.
11
Personal communication, 31 August 2010
environmental protection – services that are most 2
Weak  state  here  means  
13
SAS 2001, The Graduate School of Geneva. Available online http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/publications/by- crucial especially to the most vulnerable groups ƚŚĞŝŶĂďŝůŝƚLJŽĨĂƵƚŚŽƌŝƟĞƐ
type/yearbook/small-arms-survey-2001.html in society. Less budgetary support in these areas to  enforce  rules  and  laws  
ŝŵƉĂƌƟĂůůLJĂŶĚĐŽŶƐŝƐƚĞŶƚůLJ

66 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 6 | Perception of Social Insecurity & Community Safety 67
 means more issues that can be used by insurgent groups to recruit members.
/LUJL[OLJ`JSLVM\UKLYKL]LSVWTLU[HUKYHKPJHSPaH[PVUVMWLYJLW[PVUVM
deprivation prevail. There is no doubt that both physical safety and human
KL]LSVWTLU[JVUJLYUZHYLNYLH[S`HMMLJ[LKI`[OLWYVSPMLYH[PVUVMÄYLHYTZ
The consequences of arms proliferation are most felt in the local level. Muggah
and Batchelor (2002)3 stated in their report that small arms proliferation
PTWHJ[ZVUJYPTPUHSP[`OLHS[OHUKLK\JH[PVUZLY]PJLZHUKLJVUVTPJHJ[P]P[`
0[JH\ZLZKPZWSHJLTLU[^HZ[HNLVMNV]LYUTLU[YLZV\YJLZKHTHNLVUZVJPHS
structures and withdrawal of development assistance. Below is a more detailed
description of the costs of small arms proliferation:
• Criminal violence: Arms in the hands of criminals directly impact on the
X\HSP[`VMSPMLVMJP]PSPHUZ¶ZWLJPÄJHSS`[OLWLHJLHUKVYKLYVMJVTT\UP[PLZ
‹ ;OLJVSSHWZLVMOLHS[OHUKLK\JH[PVUZLY]PJLZ!/LHS[OHUKLK\JH[PVU^VYRLYZ
HYLVM[LU[HYNL[LKVYH[[HJRLKPU[OLJVU[L_[VMHYTZYLSH[LK]PVSLUJL(JJLZZ
to these services are constrained or limited due to armed insecurity. “In
4PUKHUHVJOPSKTVY[HSP[`YH[LZL_JLLKWLY^OLYLHZ[OLUH[PVUHS
H]LYHNLPZSLZZ[OHUWLY¹4\NNHO)H[JOLSVY
‹ +PZWSHJLTLU[VMWLVWSL!-PYLHYTYLSH[LKPUZLJ\YP[`PZHZPNUPÄJHU[MHJ[VY[OH[
PUÅ\LUJLZWLVWSLZ»KLJPZPVUZ[VÅLLVYTPNYH[L
• Declining economic activity: Formal and informal trade and commercial
activities deteriorate in situations of armed insecurity.
• Reduced government resources: Armed violence can have a negative effect
on government revenue (low tax collection) and domestic savings which can
contribute to decline in economic activity.
• Damage to social structure: Small arms availability can have negative
PTWSPJH[PVUZ[VMHTPS`HUKJVTT\UP[`JVOLZPVUNLUKLYYLSH[PVUZHUK
customary institutions.
• Withdrawal of development assistance: Small arms availability generates
0U(\N\Z[HYLWVY[PU[OL7OPSPWWPUL+HPS`0UX\PYLYZ[H[LK[OH[¸757PZ
ZOPWWPUNH[OV\ZHUKZOV[N\UZ[V4PUKHUHV[VHYTX\HSPÄLKYLZPKLU[ZHZWVSPJL
auxillaries.”6
While the actual amount of guns in circulation is based on collective imagination
and approximation (see Chapter 2) - data from a research done in 2009
validates pervasiveness of gun ownership:
¸>OLUHZRLKPM[OL`HYLHZZVJPH[LK^P[OVYRUV^VMZVTLVULoutside their
family with gun(s)[OLYLZWVUZL^HZTVYLMVY[OYPNO[/HSMVM[OLZ\Y]L`
YLZWVUKLU[ZMYVTLPNO[HYLHZPU3\aVU=PZH`HZ4PUKHUHVYLZWVUKLU[Z
HKTP[[LK[VRUV^ZVTLVULV\[ZPKL[OLPYMHTPS`^OVV^UHN\U¯;VOH]LH
]LY`PUMVYTHSNH\NLVUOV^THU`[OLZLN\UV^ULYZHYL[OLYLZWVUKLU[Z
^LYLHZRLK[VNP]LU\TILYZÄN\YLZHZYLNHYKZ[OLU\TILYVMTHSLZHUK
females (outside their family) who owned a gun. The respondents reported a
[V[HSVMTHSLHUKMLTHSLN\UV^ULYZ¯;OLZLÄN\YLZVI]PV\ZS`¯HYL
poor measure of the actual amount of guns in circulation. The relevance of
[OLÄN\YLZOV^L]LYPZ[OLZLLTPUNH\KHJP[`VMN\UV^ULYZOPWPU[OLJV\U[Y`
¶H\KHJPV\ZPU[OLZLUZL[OH[VU[OLH]LYHNLLHJOYLZWVUKLU[RUV^H[SLHZ[
VULN\UV^ULY3PRL^PZLPM^L[HRL[OLYH[PVVMTHSLHUKMLTHSLN\UV^ULYZ
there is 1 female to every 5.8 male gun owners. The wide disparity of male and
female reported gun owners adds support to the argument that gun-possession
PZKVTPUHU[S`HºTHSL[OPUN»[OH[PZN\UHZHUPUZ[Y\TLU[VM]HS\LPZSPURLK
with the heteronormative conception of assigning the function of protection to
males.” (Oreta 2009) 7
;OPZÄUKPUNYLZVUH[LZ^P[O[OLÄN\YLWYV]PKLKI`[OL2000 UN The Eight
International Crime Victims Survey prepared by the Interregional Crime and
1\Z[PJL9LZLHYJO0UZ[P[\[L0UZHPKYLWVY[[OLWLYJLU[HNLVMOV\ZLOVSKZ
^P[OÄYLHYTZPU[OL7OPSPWWPULZPZÄ]LWLYJLU[;OLZHTLYLWVY[Z[H[LZ[OH[
PUZLJ\YP[`[VKL]LSVWTLU[HNLUJPLZYLZ\S[PUN[V^P[OKYH^HSVMHPK
Insecurity Fuelling Firearms Proliferation
(ZKPZJ\ZZLKPU*OHW[LYN\UZHYLLHZPS`H]HPSHISL(STVZ[L]LY`VUL^OV
participated in focus group discussions (FGDs) conducted to ascertain the
WLYJLW[PVUHUKMLLSPUNZVMWLVWSLYLNHYKPUNN\UÄYLHYTZWYVSPMLYH[PVUJSHPTLK
that it was “easy to acquire guns in their community especially if (one) has
money.”40U+H]HV*P[`YLZWVUKLU[ZZOHYLK[OH[MVY7OW<:
VULJHUHSYLHK`NL[HU4"MVY7HU4"MVY7O7H
JHSPILY"HUKMVY7OWHJHSPILY5
0U*V[HIH[VHJJVYKPUN[V-.+WHY[PJPWHU[Z!
Guns are easy to procure since they are given as gifts to esteemed
YLSH[P]LZHZNPM[ZMVYJLY[HPUZLY]PJLZVYHZWHY[VMHNYVVT»ZKV^Y`
-VYH4VYVOH]PUNHN\UPZH^H`VMSPML;OL`^LYLIYV\NO[\W
ILSPL]PUN[OH[N\UPZULJLZZHY`HZWHY[VM[OLPY^LHS[OZV\YJLVM[OLPY
pride and as tool of survival.
Guns are easy to sell since most households in the community have
N\UZMVYWYV[LJ[PVU0[PZYHYL[VÄUKHOV\ZLOVSKPUV\YJVTT\UP[`[OH[
OHZUVN\UZ¹-.+7PRP[5V*V[HIH[V4H`
68 Gun Proliferation & Violence
VM[OLZLOV\ZLOVSKZOH]LOHUKN\UZHUKTHPU[HPUN\UZMVYZLSM
WYV[LJ[PVU*\RPLYHUK:PKLS!
+\YPUN[OLLSLJ[PVUN\UIHUPUN\UV^ULYZJVTWSHPULK[OH[Z\JOTV]L
^HZLUJV\YHNPUNMVYPSSLNHSÄYLHYTOVSKLYZJYPTPUHSZZPUJL[OL`RUL^[OH[[OL
licensed holders could not use their guns and would not be able to defend
themselves.8
0UHYLZLHYJOJVUK\J[LKPU[OL[VWMV\YNYV\WZPKLU[PÄLKI`YLZWVUKLU[Z
HZZV\YJLZVM]PVSLUJLPU[OLPYJVTT\UP[PLZ^LYLH`V\[ONHUNZIJYPTPUHS
NYV\WZJULPNOIVYZHUKKWVSP[PJHSMHTPSPLZ0[PZ[O\ZUV[Z\YWYPZPUN[OH[
majority of respondents in said study declared that (1) violence exists in their
HYLHHUK[OH[THQVYP[`MLHYZ[VILH]PJ[PTVM]PVSLUJLVULKH`6YL[H 
;OLMLLSPUNVMPUZLJ\YP[`PZVI]PV\ZS`OPNOHUKPZTVYLWYVUV\UJLKPU
NYV\WZJVUZPKLYLKTVYL]\SULYHISL[VN\U]PVSLUJL[OHUV[OLYZ¶PL[OVZL
NLVNYHWOPJHSS`SVJH[LKPUJVUÅPJ[HMMLJ[LKYLNPVUZHUK[OL4VYVZ9 In
IV[ONYV\WZ[OLZ[YVUNMLLSPUNVMPUZLJ\YP[`PZ[PLK^P[O[OLSVUNZ[HUKPUN
JVUÅPJ[IL[^LLU[OL.97.V]LYUTLU[VM[OL9LW\ISPJVM[OL7OPSPWWPULZ
HUK[OLPUZ\YNLU[NYV\WZ*7757(ZLWHYH[PZ[ZNYV\WZ403-453-HUK
fundamentalist group (Abu Sayaff Group).
CHAPTER 6 | Perception of Social Insecurity & Community Safety 69
 Gun availability has in a way become a part of daily life of the
WLVWSL0[PZUV[Z\YWYPZPUN[VÄUKMHYTLYZHUKNVH[OLYKLYZ^P[ON\UZ
ZSPUNPUNVU[OLPYZOV\SKLYZVYOHUNPUNMYVT[OLPYILS[Z0UKPYLJ[S`N\U
availability has become the rule rather than an exception. Without the
WYV[LJ[PVUVM[OLN\U`V\HYL]\SULYHISLHUKLHZ`[HYNL[¹-.+7PRP[
N. Cotabato 6 May 2010)
In their community they have this understanding that if they heard
L_JOHUNLVMÄYLZMVYÄ]LTPU\[LZ[OH[»ZUVYTHSPMP[NL[ZSVUNLYSPRL
TPU\[LZ[OL`HYLVU[OLHSLY[HUK[Y`[VNH\NL^OLYLP[PZJVTPUN
from or if they are in immediate danger. If it gets to more than an hour
[OL`^PSSZSV^S`NH[OLY[OLJOPSKYLUWHJR[OLPY^VYSKS`WVZZLZZPVUHUK
^HP[MVYHS\SSPU[OLÄNO[PUN[VTV]LZVTL^OLYLZHML-.+7PRP[5
Cotabato 6 May 2010)
FGD, Pikit, North
Cotabato
6ULT\Z[UV[L[OV\NO[OH[H]HPSHIPSP[`VMÄYLHYTZJVYYLZWVUKZ^P[OKLTHUK
HUKKLTHUKPZ\Z\HSS`KPJ[H[LKI`[OLZLJ\YP[`JVU[L_[-VYPUZ[HUJL^OPSL
=PNHU10YLZWVUKLU[ZJSHPTLK[OH[P[^HZLHZ`[VHJX\PYLN\UZPU[OLPYHYLH[OL
issue of proliferation in the community is less serious compared to Cotabato.
The difference in the security context of the two areas is glaring – Cotabato
is proximate to sporadic armed clashes between the government forces and
M\UKHTLU[HSPZ[(:.ZLWHYH[PZ[Z403-HUKPUZ\YNLU[57(ZNYV\WZ^OPSL
=PNHUKVLZUV[L_WLYPLUJL[OLZHTL
Workshop/ FGD in
Quezon City
4VYLV]LY[OLZLJ\YP[`JVU[L_[PZHSZVKPJ[H[LKI`[OLWLYMVYTHUJLVMZLJ\YP[`
:TP[OL` 2007. “Rido Clan Feuding
forces in the area. Those who live in private subdivisions where people are more
ÄUHUJPHSS`Z[HISLHUKJHUHMMVYK[VOPYLWYP]H[LZLJ\YP[`N\HYKZVY[OVZL^OV
70 Gun Proliferation & Violence
OHPSMYVTJP[PLZ^OLYLWVSPJLWYLZLUJLPZTVYLWYVUV\UJLK^V\SKWYVIHIS`
have a better sense of security. This may not be the case in areas where police
visibility is scarce.
Others who do not have the luxury of living in gated subdivisions
^V\SKW\[NH[LZPU[OLPYJVTT\UP[`ZVTLVM^OPJOHYL[LJOUPJHSS`
illegal since the areas being cordoned off are actually public roads.
;OPZHJ[PVUOV^L]LYPZVI]PV\ZS`^LPNOPUN[OLVKKZILSPL]PUN[OH[
[OLPSSLNHSHJ[VMW\[[PUNNH[LZMHYV\[^LPNOZ[OLILULÄ[VMZLJ\YPUN[OL
JVTT\UP[`-.+3HN\UH(WYPS
A direct effect of gun availability in community relations is the
PUJYLHZLKYPZRVM]PVSLUJLPU[OLJVTT\UP[`0MWLVWSLHYLPUJVUÅPJ[
N\UWVZZLZZPVUPUJYLHZLZ[OLYPZRVM]PVSLUJL¸0UKPYLJ[S`JVTT\UP[`
relations may seem peaceful on the surface but can explode with just
HZSPNO[TPZ\UKLYZ[HUKPUN¹7PRP[5*V[HIH[V4H`
Purpose of Guns
There is ambivalence as regards people’s view on gun possession - on one
OHUKWLVWSLSVVRH[P[HZH\ZLM\SVIQLJ[VMWYV[LJ[PVU¶WYV[LJ[PUNVUL»ZMHTPS`
and one’s property - but at the same time they also recognize the dangers
associated with it. Those who favor civilian gun possession – based on the
responses in the FGDs - seem to be borne more out of necessity rather than
JVU]PJ[PVU;OPZ^H]LYPUNH[[P[\KLPZSPURLK^P[O[OLHWWYLJPH[PVUVMgun as an
instrument of value. It is not a neutral object but has ascribed social meanings:
protection and power.
Of particular interest here are the views of Moro respondents.11 They argue that
4\ZSPTZSVVRH[N\UWVZZLZZPVUILJH\ZLVM[OLPYL_WLYPLUJLVM¸TPUVYP[PaH[PVU¹
and marginalization by the State. More than just the reality of “rido” 12 in their
JVTT\UP[PLZHYTZVYN\UWVZZLZZPVUPZZLLTPUNS`[OL^H`[OL4VYVZTLKPH[L
the perceived discriminatory policies of the majority. Guns are necessary for
[OL4VYVZILJH\ZLP[THRLZ[OLNV]LYUTLU[SPZ[LU[V
[OLT:PUJL[OL`HYLHTPUVYP[`[OL`JVU[LUK[OH[PM
name withheld for security
11
[OL`KVUV[OH]LN\UZ[OLNV]LYUTLU[^PSSUV[WH` reasons; interview was
H[[LU[PVU[V[OLTHUK^PSSLUK\WSPRL[OL(TLYPJHU conducted on 27 Oct 2008
“Rido” is the term used to
12
Indians: seen but not heard. describe feuding or clan
conflict. Some “rido” are
latent, some are active.
Gendered Security
“Rido” is of particular
>OPSLVMÄJPHSYLWVY[ZZOV^[OH[TVYLTLUHYL interest among peace
]PJ[PTPaLKI`JYPTLZ^VTLUHYLWHY[PJ\SHYS`TVYL activists and policy makers
as it tends to interact and
fearful of getting victimized. “Fear of crime is a leading complicate the existing
social and political concern in western cities and armed violence in the
region instigated both by
women’s fear of male violence constitutes the core
the insurgents and the
of the problem in terms of its quantity and nature.” all-out-war principle of
(Pain 1997)13;OYLH[ZVMJYPTLHMMLJ[^VTLUTVYL the GRP. For an extensive
read on rido, see Torres
HUK[O\Z^VTLUHYLTVYLSPRLS`[VZ\WWVY[WYL]LU[P]L Wilfrido Magno III. (ed)
TLHZ\YLZ[OH[HKKYLZZJYPTPUHSP[`/\Y^P[a
and Conflict Management
1998)140U[OLWYLZLU[Z[\K`PUMHJ[IV[OTLUHUK in Mindanao.” USAID and
^VTLU[OPUR[OH[TVYL^VTLUHYL]PJ[PTPaLK The Asia Foundation.
CHAPTER 6 | Perception of Social Insecurity & Community Safety 71
 WYPTHYPS`ILJH\ZLVM[OLZVJPHSS`HZJYPILKUV[PVU[OH[[OL`HYLº^LHR»
;OLNLUKLYLKWHYHKPNTJYLH[LZHZLSMM\SÄSSPUNWYVWOLZ`¶ZPUJLZVJPL[`ZH`Z
[OH[^VTLUHYLVM[LU]PJ[PTPaLKILJH\ZLVM[OLPY]\SULYHIPSP[`PUKLLK[OL
^VTLUMLLS[OH[[OL`HYL]PJ[PTZHUK[OH[[OL`HYL^LHR¶^OL[OLYVYUV[[Y\L
¸0U[OLMHJLVMKHUNLY[O\Z[OL^VTLUYLZWVUKLU[ZLP[OLYYLTHPUWHZZP]L
LNWYH`SLH]L[OPUNZ[V.VKRLLWX\PL[VYNV[V[OLV[OLYL_[YLTL[OH[
PZ[VRPSSOLY[VYTLU[VY0UV[OLY^VYKZ[OLNLUKLYLKILSPLMZVUZLJ\YP[`HUK
safety seemingly push women to carry out two extreme acts – withdrawal or
extreme violence.” (Oreta 2009) The victimization syndrome further marginalizes
^VTLUZLY]PUNSPRLHIHYYPLY[OH[WYL]LU[Z[OLTMYVTM\SS`WHY[PJPWH[PUNPUW\ISPJ
discourse on security matters.
0U[OLHIZLUJLVMJVOLZP]LHUKLMMLJ[P]LJVTT\UP[`ZLJ\YP[`TLJOHUPZT
individuals (women in particular) continue to feel the tensions brought about by
an insecure environment.
“Women thus have to endure several layers of insecurity – she
is insecure in a society that has too many guns circulating and
JVUZLX\LU[S`OH]LOPNOJYPTLPUJPKLUJLHUKPUZ\YNLUJ`"ZOLPZ
insecure in a system where more power is extended to men; and she
PZPUZLJ\YLILJH\ZLZVJPL[`THKLOLYILSPL]L[OH[ZOLPZ^LHRHUKPZ
KLWLUKLU[VUTLUMVYWYV[LJ[PVU.P]LUZ\JOJVU[L_[P[ZVTLOV^
pushes the woman to the wall as regards the available options for
OLY^OLUP[JVTLZ[VPZZ\LZVMZHML[`6UVULOHUK[OL^VTLU
YLZWVUKLU[ZYLTHPULKWHZZP]LLNWYH`SLH]L[OPUNZ[V.VKRLLW
X\PL[VYVU[OLV[OLYOHUK^VTLUNV[V[OLV[OLYL_[YLTL[OH[PZ
[VRPSSOLY[VYTLU[VY0UV[OLY^VYKZ[OLNLUKLYLKILSPLMHWWHYLU[S`
leaves little room for the women respondents women in mediating her
safety. “ (Oreta 2009)
Responsibility for Safety
There is a general belief that the individual is primarily
15
This is the view of
responsible for one’s own and one’s immediate FGD participants from
family’s safety.15 Safety is mostly regarded as a private Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija,
16 April 2010
matter rather than a community responsibility.16
This adds burden and pressure for civilians to do something to address this
PUZLJ\YP[`HUKZLLTZ[VJYLH[L[OLJVUKP[PVUMVYWLVWSL[VZLJ\YLÄYLHYTZMVY
protection.17
)\[HZYLWLH[LKS`TLU[PVULKPU[OPZWHWLY[OLZHKYLHSP[`PZ[OH[HN\UPZ
HKV\ISLLKNLKPUZ[Y\TLU[¶P[HWWHYLU[S`WYV[LJ[ZI\[P[PZHSZV\ZLKI`
criminal elements to pursue their ends.18 There is therefore a need to search
MVYHS[LYUH[P]LTLHUZ[VTHRLWLVWSLMLLSZLJ\YL;OLZLHS[LYUH[P]LZSPRL^PZL
ZOV\SKUV[VUS`THRLWLVWSLZLJ\YLI\[ZOV\SKHSZVHSSV^WLVWSL[VJOHSSLUNL
and negotiate the boundaries of the traditional security discourse.
Bolstering the view that security is the responsibility of the individual is the
performance of state security institutions. There were mixed responses in regard
to satisfaction with security institutions. Others lament the ineffectiveness and
PULMÄJPLUJ`VM[OLWVSPJLI\[V[OLYZYLWVY[LKZH[PZMHJ[PVU
-.+WHY[PJPWHU[ZMYVT7PRP[5VY[O*V[HIH[VZHPK[OH[[OLIHYHUNH`
local and even the national government’s way of handling issues
VMZLJ\YP[`PZWVVYHUKILTVHU[OH[[OL)HUNZHTVYVWLVWSLOH]L
always been the receiving end of all violations practiced by the
UH[PVUHSH\[OVYP[`4H`
FGD Participants from Davao del Sur said that if only the Barangay leaders
^V\SKLUZ\YL[OH[[OL`HYLMHPYPULUMVYJPUN[OLY\SLZWLVWSL^PSSMVSSV^[OLSH^
¸;OLWYVISLTPZ[OH[[OL`[HSRTVYLHUKJV\SKUV[Z\IZ[HU[PH[L[OLPY[HSR¹;OL
JVTTP[[LLVMWLHJLHUKVYKLYPZHSZVUV[M\UJ[PVUPUN4H`
There is also the view that people close to power use the military and
NV]LYUTLU[YLZV\YJLZ[VÄNO[[OLPYLULTPLZ\UKLY[OLHLNPZVMYLWYLZZPUN[OL
separatist groups. “Ginagamit nila yung military to suppress the people.” They
HYL\ZPUN[OLTPSP[HY`[VZ\WWYLZZ[OLWLVWSL6J[4\ZSPT^VTLU
CDO)
)\[HWHY[MYVTWVSP[PJZ[OLYLHYLPUOLYLU[Z[Y\J[\YHSSPTP[H[PVUZ;OLbarangay
tanods]PSSHNLWH[YVSZMVYPUZ[HUJLHYLUV[HYTLKHUK\ZLVUS`H¸IH[\[H¹
(wooden club). A Barangay tanod-participant from Laguna recounted that he
VUJL[HPSLK[^VZUH[JOLYZI\[^OLUOLÄUHSS`JH\NO[\W^P[O[OLJYPTPUHSZ[OL
SH[[LYWVPU[LKHN\UH[OPTHUKOPZJVTWHUPVU"OLUJL[OL`OHK[VYL[YLH[HUK
let the criminals escape.
3PRL^PZL[OLWVSPJL[VWVW\SH[PVUYH[PVPZMHYMYVTPKLHS;OLYLHYL
police to 90M population (or 1:900) when the international accepted ratio is
!VULWVSPJLWLYWLVWSL4VYLV]LYVM[OLWVSPJLVUS`
are issued side arms while the rest have to wait for the even the view that the
17

increase in PNP appropriations to purchase additional it’s-ok-to-have-guns-but-

Jennifer Oreta with character-of-person-is-
arms. (Tor 2008)19 crucial is still within bounds
SACOP (Social of safety as personal matter
Action of Pampanga) 20
The people actually notice
The inadequacy of the police force to address the
guide, en route to the lack of visibility of
Sapang Uwak, Porac expectations of the population to provide peace and police forces, which actually

Pampanga for the order is complicated by their limitations both in actual affects the efficiency to
dispense justice. FGD,
FGD with Aetas U\TILYHUKPU[OLH]HPSHIPSP[`VMHYTZPZZ\LKJV\WSLK Muntinlupa, 22 April 2010

72 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 6 | Perception of Social Insecurity & Community Safety 73
 with the self-serving interest of some individuals in the police force who use the
institution for their own advantage.20
Self-help: Community as Locus of Safety
0UL]LY`JVTT\UP[`[OLYLPZHS^H`ZHJVUÅPJ[THUHNLTLU[TLJOHUPZT[OH[
KLHSZ^P[O[OLTHPU[LUHUJLVMWLHJL0U[YHKP[PVUHSJVTT\UP[PLZJVUÅPJ[
THUHNLTLU[PZOHUKSLKI`[YPILSLHKLYZVYLSKLYZ"PUV[OLYZP[PZ[OLSVJHSS`
LSLJ[LK)HYHUNH`]PSSHNLVMÄJPHSZ4HU`JVTT\UP[PLZYLS`VU[OLIHYHUNH`
chairpersons and councilors to maintain peace and order.
0U*V[HIH[VPUJHZLZULLKPUNJVUÅPJ[THUHNLTLU[LZWLJPHSS`^OLUIPN
MHTPSPLZHYLPU]VS]LKYLZWLJ[LK[YHKP[PVUHSSLHKLYZHYLJHSSLK[VPU[LY]LULHUK
ZL[[SLJVUÅPJ[Z0YVUPJHSS`[OLZLºJVUÅPJ[THUHNLYZ»HYLL_WLJ[LK[VOH]LN\UZ
[VMHJPSP[H[L[OLYLZVS\[PVUVM[OLWYVISLT7PRP[5VY[O*V[HIH[V4H`
0U7HJP[H3HN\UHKLSL[LHJJVYKPUN[V-.+WHY[PJPWHU[ZZOHYLK[OH[[OLYL
\ZLK[VILTHU`ZVSKPLYZSP]PUNPU[OLHYLHHUKJVUZLX\LU[S`THU`N\UZ
H]HPSHISL0U[LYLZ[PUNS`[OLYL^HZSP[[SLUVYLJVYKVMJYPTPUHSP[`K\YPUN[OL[PTL
¸;OLJVTT\UP[`[VVRJOHYNLVM[OLWLHJLHUKVYKLYHUK[OLN\UZOLSWLKHSV[
ILJH\ZL[OL`ILJVTLHKL[LYYLU[[VJYPTPUHSP[`¹3HN\UH(WYPS
0U+H]HV*P[`[OL-.+WHY[PJPWHU[ZJSHPTLK[OH[PU[OLWHZ[TLTILYZVM[OL
NPA were the ones who maintained peace and order in their place.
0U[OLZL[OYLLJHZLZP[PZHWWHYLU[[OH[[OLWYLZLUJLVMN\UZHPKLKPULUZ\YPUN
WLHJLHUKVYKLY/V^L]LYZ\JORPUKVMWLHJLYLZ[ZVUZOHR`NYV\UKZHUK
creates a false sense of security.
The dissatisfaction felt by respondents as regards the performance of the
IHYHUNH`VMÄJPHSZHUK[OLWVSPJLPUTHPU[HPUPUNWLHJLHUKVYKLYTH`ILK\L
to high expectations. The barangay is the local government unit that is closest
to the people in the community; while the police are expected to be visible in
communities.
;VHSHYNLL_[LU[[OLU[OLIHYHUNH`HUKWVSPJLWYV]PKL[OLºO\THUMHJL»[V[OL
amorphous concept of ‘the state’ among the people in the community. People’s
perception of safety is based on the actions of the barangay.
The barangay therefore has great potential in becoming an even more positive
MVYJLPUJVTT\UP[`ZLJ\YP[`/V^L]LYVULT\Z[
bear in mind that barangay members are civilians.
This is something to reflect
21
If the notion of security remains to be one that is
on since the Barangay
KLWLUKLU[VUN\UZP[MVSSV^Z[OH[[OLZ[H[LT\Z[HYT officials – the Barangay
patrols to be precise – are
IHYHUNH`VMÄJLYZMVY[OLT[VIL^PKLS`WLYJLP]LKHZ simply deputized security
an effective security force. :\JOHJ[PVUOV^L]LYPZ
21 forces where some are
issued arms/ guns but
reminiscent of the militarization of communities during most have none. The
[OLTHY[PHSSH^LYH0UMHJ[ZVTLJP]PSPHU]VS\U[LLYZ Barangay patrols are not
*(-.<ZLZWLJPHSS`PUJVUÅPJ[HYLHZHYLHSYLHK` even elected officials.
They are part of the ‘force
HYTLK.P]PUNN\UZ[VIHYHUNH`VMÄJLYZOLUJL^PSS multipliers’ of the police
further increase the number of guns in circulation. It and the military and do not
share the institutional and
PZ[OLYLMVYLILULÄJPHS[V[OPURVMHS[LYUH[P]LTLHUZ[V legal mandate as that of
maximize the potential of the barangay in promoting legitimate security forces.
74 Gun Proliferation & Violence
security. This is the context and the reason why there is a need to engage the
local government units. LGUs have great potential to secure its people the way
that they have the potential to oppress its constituents and perpetuate injustice.
There is obviously a need to collectively re-imagine a security paradigm that
PZSLZZKLWLUKLU[VUN\UZ(S[LYUH[P]LJVTT\UP[`JVUÅPJ[[YHUZMVYTH[PVU
management must be strengthened. Organizing the community can be an
LMMLJ[P]LPU[LY]LU[PVU[VTHRL[OLJVTT\UP[`ZHMLY;OLYLPZHSZVYLJVNUP[PVU
that the government must actively intervene in controlling guns in circulation.
Participation from civil society and local communities in carrying out the rule
VMSH^JHUKYHZ[PJHSS`SLZZLUZLUZLSLZZRPSSPUNZHUKJYPTLZMYVTOHWWLUPUN(
JYHJRKV^UVUJVYY\W[LSLTLU[ZPU[OLTPSP[HY`HUKWVSPJLPZULLKLK;OLYLPZ
HSZVHU\YNLU[ULLKMVY*VUNYLZZ[VYL]PL^L_PZ[PUNSH^ZY\SLZHUKYLN\SH[PVUZ
YLSH[PUN[VHYTZHUKHJJVYKPUNS`THRL[OLTYLSL]HU[[V[OLYLHSP[PLZVM[OL[PTLZ
FGD participants said the concrete ways by which the government can address
the issue of safety is by dismantling private armies; controlling gun smuggling;
giving enough salary to soldiers (to prevent bad behavior); and increasing the
I\KNL[VM[OLWVSPJL[VPTWYV]L[OLPY]PZPIPSP[`-.+*HIHUH[\HU5\L]H,JPQH
16 April 2010) There is also a need to improve the effective monitoring of the
O\THUYPNO[ZZP[\H[PVUPU[OLJVTT\UP[PLZ7PRP[5VY[O*V[HIH[V4H`
*VUÅPJ[PZIPNI\ZPULZZ4HRPUNWLHJLPZHSZVHNVVKI\ZPULZZ>P[O
HSS[OH[JYLH[PUNJVUÅPJ[HUKWYL[LUKPUN[OH[`V\HYLÄ_PUNP[[OLU
`V\HYLLHYUPUNTVUL`0[PZPTWVY[HU[[OH[WLVWSLRUV^[OLYLHS
ZJVYL¸;OLJVUÅPJ[PZUV[IL[^LLU4PUKHUHVHUK3\aVUVYIL[^LLU
4PUKHUHVHUK=PZH`HZ0[»ZIL[^LLU[OLOH]LZHUK[OLOH]LUV[Z¯
7LVWSLHYLILPUNTHUPW\SH[LK^P[OV\[[OLTYLHSPaPUNP[¹6J[
4\ZSPT^VTLU*+6
3
Muggah, Robert and Peter Batchelor. 2002. Development held Hostage: Assessing the Effects of Small Arms on
Human development. UNDP, New York, chapters 1 and 2
4
Focus group discussion (FGD), 6 May 2010, Brgy Inug-ug, Pikit, North Cotabato
5
FGD, 18 April 2010, Sitio Cabarisan, Brgy. Sibulan, Davao City
6
____. Phil. Daily Inquirer, 23 August 2008
7
Oreta, Jennifer Santiago. 2009. Women and Security: Issues on Gun Proliferation and Violence in Selected Areas on
the Philippines. Dissertation Study.
8
This view is shared by FGD participants from Laguna, 27 April 2010
9
see Appendix 6.1 Narrative Report of FGDs (Davao del Sur, Cotabato, Muslim women)
10
FGD 13 April 2010, Vigan Cathedral
13
Pain, Rachel H. (1997). Social Geographies of Women’s Fear of Crime. Transactions of the Institute of British
Geographers, New Series, Vol. 22, No. 2. Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with
the Institute of British Geographers) pp. 231-244
14
Hurwitz, Jan and Shannon Smithey. (1998). Gender Differences on Crime and Punishment. Political Research
Quarterly, Vol. 51, No. 1 (Mar., 1998), Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of the University of Utah pp. 89-115
16
see Appendix 6.1. FGD Narrative report, particularly Cavite, Nueva Ecija, Cotabato
18
see Appendix 6.1. Narrative Reports of FGDs (Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija)
19
Presentation by Rodolfo Tor, former PNP-Planning Director, in the Conference “Security Sector Reform and Budget”
held at the UP Hotel, Nov. 14, 2008
CHAPTER 6 | Perception of Social Insecurity & Community Safety 75
 ºL[OUPJP[`»PZU\HUJLKPU[OPZJHZL[VPU]VS]LHJVTT\UP[`HSHUN\HNLNYV\W
CHAPTER 7 HJVYWVYH[PVUHZZVJPH[PVUVYWVW\SH[PVU^P[OZPTPSHY[YHP[Z[OH[LUHISL[OLT
to identify with each other and to distinguish themselves from other ‘ethnic
The Peace Process & The Need for NYV\WZ»9LSPNPVUPZVM[LU\ZLKHZHZPNUPÄJHU[J\S[\YHSPKLU[PÄLY

Arms Control & Management .P]LUZHPKVWLYH[PVUHSKLÄUP[PVUP[PZPUKLLKWYVISLTH[PJ[V\ZL[OLWOYHZL

‘gun culture’ as this implies that communities are bound together by a similar
Jennifer Santiago Oreta & ML[PZOMVYN\UZ^P[O]PVSLUJLHZ[OLPYKPZ[PUN\PZOPUNTHYR/V^[OLYLMVYL
Victoria Caranay ZOV\SKVUL\UKLYZ[HUK[OL[LYTJ\S[\YLPM[HRLU^P[OPU[OLJVU[L_[VMN\U
saturated communities?

A study made in 2010 by the Ateneo School of Government – Political

+LTVJYHJ`HUK9LMVYT;LHT(:6.76+,9VU,SLJ[PVU9LSH[LK=PVSLUJLPU
;OLNV]LYUTLU[[OYV\NO[OL6MÄJLVM[OL7YLZPKLU[PHS(K]PZLYVU[OL7LHJL Abra distinguished the use of culture from “gun culture” – referring to the latter
Process (OPAPP) is engaged in formal peace negotiations with the (1) Moro as the current norms practiced in a community where there is visible and proven
0ZSHTPJ3PILYH[PVU-YVU[403-HUK5H[PVUHS+LTVJYH[PJ-YVU[VM[OL tolerance for guns as an assurance of personal security and power; while the
Philippines (NDFP). It is in the process of completing the implementation of the MVYTLY^HZKLZJYPILKHZ[OLUV[PVUHZZVJPH[LK^P[OYLSPNPVU[YHKP[PVUZHUK
1996 Peace Agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and the tribes.
1986 Peace Agreement with the Cordillera People’s Liberation Army (CPLA);
HUKPZW\[[PUNHJSVZ\YL[VWLHJL[HSRZ^P[O9LIVS\Z`VUHY`VUN7HY[PKVUN This research argues against the use and popularization of the term “gun
Manggagawa ng Pilipinas/ Revolutionary Proletarian Army/ Alex Boncayao culture” as the phrase is discriminatory. It also deems prejudicial the declaration
)YPNHKL974797(())HUK9LIVS\Z`VUHY`VUN7HY[PKVUN4HUNNHNH^HUN that ‘Mindanao has a ‘gun culture.’ It adopts the view that Mindanao has
Mindanao (RPMM.) developed a tolerance for small arms/ gun proliferation and the violence it
brings. Acquiring guns in these communities is a reaction to external factors
The reasons behind the various insurgencies are multi-faceted. The opinions on HUKWYVISLTZ[OH[JYLH[LWYLZZ\YLWHYHUVPHHUKPUZLJ\YP[`ZLL*OHW[LY(Z
how to address them are even more diverse and complicated. What is certain KPZJ\ZZLKPU*OHW[LY[OLYLHSP[`VMZVJPHSHUKWO`ZPJHSPUZLJ\YP[`VMWLVWSL
is that all rebel groups and the Government of the Philippines (GPh) recognize has some clear implications on arms control and management.
[OH[Z\JOJVUÅPJ[ZHYPZLK\LWYPTHYPS`[VZVJPHSWVSP[PJHSHUKLJVUVTPJ
PULX\HSP[PLZ(JJVYKPUN[V=HUKLY.YHHM HYTLKJVUÅPJ[HUKTPSP[HYPZT The Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) in the
are not themselves the problem but are mere symptoms of a deep systemic and Domestic Peace Process 1
Lodgaard served as the
Z[Y\J[\YHSÅH^PUHZ[H[LHUKP[ZZVJPL[` According to Sverre Lodgaard1H5VY^LNPHU7VSP[PJHS director of European
Security and Disarmament
:JPLU[PZ[HUK3HIVY7HY[`9LWYLZLU[H[P]L[OLYLHYL Studies from 1980 to 1986,
;OPZÄUHSJOHW[LYPZM\UKHTLU[HSS`PU[LYLZ[LKPUZP[\H[PUN[OLYVSLVMHYTZJVU[YVS three main reasons why arms must be managed. director of the International
and management in the overall domestic peace process and security in the The ÄYZ[reason is because modern states need to Peace Research Institute,
Oslo from 1987-1992
Philippines. It continues to problematize the issue through the contending have the monopoly of force.2 The existence of private and director of the United
lens of social control premised on the regulatory frameVYZVJPHSJVU[YVS[OH[PZ armed groups – regardless of ideology and motivation Nations Institute for
based on consensual agreement. – undermines the capacity of the state to enforce Disarmament Research
from 1992 to 1996 and
rules impartially. director of Norwegian
Gun Culture Institute of International
Affairs from 1997 to 2007.
The research reiterates that the term ‘gun culture’ is problematic. The concept The second YLHZVUHJJVYKPUN[V3VKNHHYKPZ[OH[ 2
Political analyst Weber
assumes a position that being violent and ‘macho’ are inherent traits of a given arms must be managed because states have the was the first to argue that a
J\S[\YHSPKLU[P[`;OPZV]LYHYJOPUNOVTVNLUPaPUNHUKZ\WLYÅ\V\Z[LYTPZVM[LU YLZWVUZPIPSP[`UV[VUS`[VLUZ\YLP[Z[LYYP[VYPHSPU[LNYP[` modern state is a corporate
group that has compulsory
H[[HJOLK[VZVJPL[PLZHUKJVTT\UP[PLZKLLW^P[OPU[OL[OYVLZVMHYTLKJVUÅPJ[ but also to ensure the security of its people. Charles jurisdiction, exercises
7LYOHWZP[^V\SKOLSW[VNVPU[VZLTHU[PJZHUKKLSPULH[LJ\S[\YLMYVT^OH[P[PZ Tilly argues that the state’s monopoly of force is a continuous organization,
and claims a monopoly of
and how it should be understood. means for the state to provide ‘protection’ for its force over a territory and
citizens against lawless individuals and groups. This its population, including
*\S[\YLPZHIYVHKHUKOPNOS`ÅL_PISL[LYT[OH[OHZ`L[[VYLHSS`ÄUKHZ[HUKHYK view legitimizes the use of force (or the threat of using
all action taking place in
the area of its jurisdiction.
KLÄUP[PVU/V^L]LYMVY[OLW\YWVZLZVM[OPZYLZLHYJOJ\S[\YLPZKLÄULKHZthe force) of state security forces –the police and the (Weber. 1919. Politics as a
WYPTHY`KLÄUPUNJOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJVMHUL[OUPJUH[PVUHSL[OUVSPUN\PZ[PJNYV\WThis TPSP[HY`1HJRZVUHUK9VZLILYN "3VKNHHYK" Vopcation. Lecture given to
the Free Students Union of
KLÄUP[PVUJVUZLX\LU[S`YLX\PYLZ[OH[VULZ\UKLYZ[HUKPUNVM[OL^VYKºL[OUPJ»VY ;PSS`  Munich University.)

76 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 7 | The Peace Process & The Need for Arms 77
Control & Management
 The thirdYLHZVUPZ[OLL_WLJ[LKSVUN[LYTÄZJHSHUKLJVUVTPJNHPUZPU
successfully managing illegal arms and rebel groups. Military expenditures due
[VL_[LUKLKWLYPVKVMJVUÅPJ[JHUHTV\U[[VZL]LYHSTPSSPVUZPUVWLYH[PVUHSHUK
intelligence costs. According to Lodgaard (1985) although rehabilitation and
YLPU[LNYH[PVUWYVNYHTZTH`ILL_WLUZP]L\UKLY[HRPUNZ[OL`HYL[LTWVYHY`HUK
^PSSVUS`ILPUJ\YYLKK\YPUN[OL[YHUZP[PVUWLYPVK(M[LY^OPJOJVZ[Z^PSSZL]LYLS`
drop as there will no longer be need to spend exorbitantly on security provisions
and military operations in affected areas.
(UV[OLYLJVUVTPJNHPUPZ[OH[HJVUÅPJ[YPKKLUZ[H[LPZZLLUHZHU\UZ[HISL
THYRL[HUK[OLYLMVYLKL[LYZ[YHKLHUKPU]LZ[TLU[MYVTL_[YHUH[PVUHSHUK
T\S[PUH[PVUHSJVYWVYH[PVUZ6UJLZLJ\YP[`PZPTWYV]LK[OLVYL[PJHSS`[YHKL
and investment will also increase. This is particularly true for resource- rich
JV\U[YPLZZ\JOHZ[OL7OPSPWWPULZ^P[OPTTLUZLTHYRL[WV[LU[PHSI\[OHTWLYLK
I`JOHV[PJWVSP[PJZHUKWSHN\LK^P[OJVUZ[HU[HYTLKJVUÅPJ[(JJVYKPUN[V
2\UPRV0UVN\JOP3H7VSP[PJHS:JPLUJL7YVMLZZVYMYVT:VWOPH<UP]LYZP[`[OL
WYVSPMLYH[PVUVM:(3>SLHKZ[V[OLYLJ\YYLUJLVM]PVSLUJLOPUKLYZWVZ[JVUÅPJ[
YLJVUZ[Y\J[PVUHUKILJVTLZVULVM[OLTHQVYZV\YJLZVMWV]LY[`HUKZVJPHS
insecurity. 3VKNHHYK "0UVN\JOP
There is also the issue of medical expenses. In the happenstance of armed
encounters the exorbitant costs of medical treatment only serve to further
deplete the already limited resources of communities.
3VKNHLLYKOV^L]LYMHPSLK[VUV[LHMV\Y[OYLHZVU[OH[[OPZZ[\K`HSZV^PZOLZ
to highlight -- the gender PZZ\L)HZLKVUZ[H[PZ[PJZ[OLYH[PVIL[^LLUTHSL
and female persons directly affected by small arms and light weapons (SALW)
WYVSPMLYH[PVUPZ!YLZWLJ[P]LS`/\NLUILYN(UQHUNV4^P[HHUK6WVUKV
>OPSLTVYLTLUHYLHJ[\HSS`]PJ[PTPaLKI`N\U]PVSLUJL^VTLUHYL
disproportionally affected. Women experience gun violence differently; often in
insidious ways.
In a study done in 2008 that attempted to view gun violence on a gendered
MYHTLP[^HZHZZLY[LK[OH[¸[OLNLUKLYLKWV^LYYLSH[PVU[OH[L_[VSZ[OL
Z[YLUN[OVMTLUHUK[OL^LHRULZZVM^VTLUTHRLZ^VTLUMLLSTVYL
vulnerable. The data generated by this study supports the argument that
women are conscious of being women and such awareness frames how
they view themselves in relation to society. The awareness of being a woman
seemingly ‘traps’ their paradigm that they themselves believe that women are
more vulnerable as compared with men.” (Oreta 2009)
Other related studies reported that “(f)ear of crime is a leading social and
WVSP[PJHSJVUJLYUPU¯JP[PLZHUK^VTLU»ZMLHYVMTHSL]PVSLUJLJVUZ[P[\[LZ[OL
core of the problem in terms of its quantity and nature.” (Pain 1993). Threats
VMJYPTLHMMLJ[^VTLUTVYLHUK[O\Z^VTLUHYLTVYLSPRLS`[VZ\WWVY[
WYL]LU[P]LTLHZ\YLZ[OH[HKKYLZZJYPTPUHSP[`/\Y^P[a
:TP[OL` ;VHSHYNLL_[LU[SVJHSWVSP[PJHSMHTPSPLZVYJSHUZ^P[O
;O\ZPUNLULYHSWYVSPMLYH[PVUVMÄYLHYTZKVLZUV[VUS` 3
Inoguchi also serves as
Special Assistant to the
cause physical damage to persons; it also hinders
Minister of Foreign Affairs,
SP]LSPOVVK[OYLH[LUZZLJ\YP[`HUKJH\ZLZZL]LYL Japan.
78 Gun Proliferation & Violence
trauma and paranoia among community members. It also exacerbates the
lopsided power relations of male and female in society. It perpetuates the cycle
of violence and poverty that affects all persons within a community.
;OLZLHYN\TLU[ZHYLOV^L]LYVI]PV\ZS`IHZLKVU[OL]PL^[OH[[OLZ[H[L
can have the monopoly on the legitimate use of violence.4 In the Philippine
JVU[L_[^P[OTVYL[OHUPZSHUKZTHU`VMP[ZHYLHZYLTHPU]\SULYHISL
to insurgencies that practically serve as private governments in their areas
VMJVU[YVS0UV[OLY^VYKZ[OLPKLHVM[OLZ[H[LOH]PUN[OLTVUVWVS`VU[OL
legitimate use of violence is more of a wish than a reality. From the time of
PUKLWLUKLUJL\U[PS[OLWYLZLU[UVHKTPUPZ[YH[PVUOHZZ\JJLZZM\SS`ZVS]LK[OL
YLILSSPVUZ,]LU[OLZVJHSSLKZ\JJLZZVM)LUPNUV¸5PUV`¹(X\PUVPUTHRPUN
Taruc surrender during the administration of Former President Magsaysay may
not be considered a resounding victory since the rebel group did not actually
fold up but has simply morphed into the current insurgent groups.
Private governments
7YP]H[LNV]LYUTLU[ZHYLUVUZ[H[LLU[P[PLZ[OH[HJ[HZWYV]PKLYZVMNV]LYUHUJL
H\[OVYPaLHUKKPYLJ[[OLÅV^VML]LU[ZPU[OLHYLHHUKJVU[YVS[OLZLJ\YP[`
ZP[\H[PVUPU[OLPYZWOLYLVMPUÅ\LUJL>VVKHUK+\WVU[!;OLX\HSPÄLY
‘private’ is added since these groups practically act as the authority in some
HYLHZHUKWLYMVYT[OLIHZPJM\UJ[PVUZVMNV]LYUTLU[PLTHUHNLYZVMWLHJL
HUKVYKLYHUK[OLH\[OVYP[`[OH[ZL[[SLZKPZW\[LZ(JY\JPHSMHJ[VYVMHºWYP]H[L
government’ is its control of private armies./LUJL^OL[OLYVYUV[[OLL_LYJPZL
of power and authority in a community is with consent or under duress is
another issue. The point here is that these ‘private governments’ are the de
facto authority in certain areas. And the existence of private governments is a
clear indication of the failure of the state to monopolize the legitimate use of
violence.
Private governments that thrive in a certain localities can be distinguished
based on their orientation and agenda – they can be political groups with
HYTLKJVTWVULU[ZSPRL[OL*VTT\UPZ[7HY[`VM[OL7OPSPWWPULZ5L^7LVWSL»Z
(YT`*7757(4VYV0ZSHTPJ3PILYH[PVU-YVU[403-4VYV5H[PVUHS
3PILYH[PVU-YVU[Rebolusyonaryong Partidong Manggagawa ng Pilipinas/
9L]VS\[PVUHY`7YVSL[HYPHU(YT`(SL_)VUJH`HV)YPNHKL974797(())
9LIVS\Z`VUHY`VUN7HY[PKVUN4HUNNHNH^HUN4PUKHUHV9744*VYKPSSLYH
7LVWSLZ»3PILYH[PVU(YT`*73()HUNZHTVYVIslamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF);
VYZLSMZLY]PUNVYPUNYV\WJLU[LYLKHYTLKNYV\WZSPRL(I\:H`HMM.YV\W(:.
JYPTPUHSZ`UKPJH[LZJVTT\UP[`IHZLKNHUNZMYH[LYUP[PLZHUKJ\S[Z^P[OHYTLK
unit. These are non-state entities that perform basic
ºNV]LYUHUJL»M\UJ[PVUZPLHZZLY[PUNH\[OVYP[`PU[OLPY ‘legitimacy’ must be
4
HYLHZVMJVU[YVSHUKWLYMVYTPUNZLJ\YP[`HUKVYKLY differentiated from
‘legality.’ Legitimacy is a
functions.
subjective concept that
attributes the rightness
or the ethics of the object
of inquiry. If used in
private armies are also ‘private governments.’ This the context of a leader,
type is even more insidious as they wield complete legitimacy can mean the
public acceptance of the
JVU[YVSLZWLJPHSS`PUWVSP[PJZLJVUVTPJZHUK ascendancy of the leader
security – in the communities they inhabit. They can (can be based on
CHAPTER 7 | The Peace Process & The Need for Arms 79
Control & Management
 dip their hands in the resources of the state – both economic and coercive
– and use the same to advance their private agenda. Since a member of the
WVSP[PJHSJSHUPZHUPUJ\TILU[LSLJ[LKVMÄJPHS[OL`HYLZLLTPUNS`\U[V\JOHISLI`
the national government (as they enjoy the ‘mandate’ of their people). The best
example of this would be the rise of the Ampatuan family in Maguindanao. This
issue is actually where political-electoral reform agenda converge with security
and peace- building agenda.
0UHYLHZ^OLYLIVZZPZTHUK^HYSVYKPZTJOHYHJ[LYPaLWVSP[PJZWVSP[PJPHUZHYL
somehow expected to have goons since their stature largely depends on the
number of guns in their possession and the armed people in their control.
7H[PUVHUK=LSHZJVHYN\L[OH[WVSP[PJPHUZOPYLgoons and build up
private armies not only for their protection but also
to intimidate their opponents. Given the abject The legitimacy of a given
6
administration, in a
WYVSPMLYH[PVUVMN\UZP[PZUV[KPMÄJ\S[MVYWVSP[PJPHUZ[V democracy, is based on
ÄUKN\UZMVYOPYL how acceptable is the
electoral exercise that
proclaim the government
The phenomenon of private government-private in power. Legitimacy is a
armies has been present for a long time. Kuhn (1967) subjective notion based
on the collective view of
accounts their proliferation to the people’s “intentional what is right and ethical.
collective blindness.” Since it is a subjective view,
it can be given, but the
people can also withdraw
The presence of private governments is a serious it. For instance, even if
challenge to the legitimacy of the elected government. a given administration is
unpopular, and the manner
“Governments are formed by groups that promote by which it assumes power
particular sets of policies designed to support and is questionable, political
legitimacy can still be
respond to the objectives and concerns of particular
gained by the administration
JVUZ[P[\LUJPLZ¹:OLHYPUN,]LUPMP[ZLY]LZ in power if it is able to
WHY[PZHUVIQLJ[P]LZNV]LYUTLU[ZZ[PSSH[[LTW[[V satisfy the expectations and
demands of the majority.
frame their agenda as ‘promoting the common good.’ Hence, legitimacy and
Legitimacy is seriously sought and there is more the performance of the
administration are closely
compulsion for the government to be more inclusive. intertwined.
Private governments,OV^L]LYHYLTV[P]H[LKI`
WHY[PZHUZLSMZLY]PUNPU[LYLZ[Z. Its management of The concept of a regime, on
the other hand, pertains to
the affairs of the locality is meant to support very the broader political system
WHY[PJ\SHYPZ[PJL_JS\ZP]LHUKWHY[PZHUVIQLJ[P]LZ by which the administration
is bound to. It is the
system of policies, laws,
In a context where the divide between the rich and rules, ideology/ worldview
WVVYPZ^PKLHUKLJVUVTPJTVIPSP[`PZKPMÄJ\S[[OL that govern a given
society. In the Philippines,
H]HPSHIPSP[`VMÄYLHYTZJSLHYS`PU]P[LZ[OLWVZZPIPSP[` all administration is
VMTPZ\ZL;OLTVIPSPaH[PVUVMWYP]H[LHYTLKNYV\WZ power is bound to
promote the democratic
[O\ZJHUILZLLUHZ[OLºJVUJS\ZPVU^HP[PUN[V system (materialized
OHWWLU»PUHZVJPL[`H^HZO^P[OÄYLHYTZ;OL 1987 Constitution, and
presence of these private governments clearly consequently, all the rules,
laws, policies, agreements
undermines the state building and democratization created within its bounds).
WYVJLZZVMZVJPL[PLZ[OYLH[LUPUNL]LU[VIYPUN[OL The concept ‘regime
legitimacy,’ therefore
society in the ‘failed state’ position. pertains to the acceptability
and rightness – in the eyes
of the majority – of the
The internal security challenge
political system and all of its
Alan Collins5 (2003) argues that for most of Southeast political rules and decisions.
80 Gun Proliferation & Violence
(ZPHZLJ\YP[`PZZ\LZHYLWYLKPJH[LKVU[OLYLNPTL»ZSLNP[PTHJ`6VYSHJR[OLYLVM
^LHRZ[H[LHUKVY[OL\UÄUPZOLKZ[H[LI\PSKPUN^VYRVM[OLWVSP[PJHSLSP[L
WVSP[PJPaLKTPSP[HY`HUKWVSP[PJPaLKWVW\SH[PVU;OLZLPZZ\LZJHUUV[ILYLNHYKLK
HZZLWHYH[LHUKKPZ[PUJ["[OL`HYLPUMHJ[JSVZLS`PU[LY[^PULK;OLZ[H[LPZ^LHR
HUKVYZ[H[LI\PSKPUNYLTHPUZ\UÄUPZOLKK\L[V[OLZ[H[LZ»MYHJ[PV\ZYLSH[PVU
^P[OHWVSP[PJPaLKWVW\SH[PVU0U[OL7OPSPWWPULJVU[L_[[OL[LU\V\ZYLSH[PVUZOPW
between political legitimacy and regime performance (largely rooted on the
JV\U[Y`»ZOPZ[VYPJHSIHNNHNLVMJVSVUPHSPZTHUK[OLZVJPHSS`JVUZ[Y\J[LK
KP]PKLZIYV\NO[HIV\[I`KPMMLYLUJLZPUL[OUPJP[`SHUN\HNLJSHZZKP]PKLZHUK
ideological differences) greatly contribute to the political stability (or instability)
of the state. The outcome of this correlation is also seen as a crucial factor in
the politicization of the military.
“Precisely because it is the body that actualizes the state’s inherent monopoly
VM[OLSLNP[PTH[L\ZLVM]PVSLUJL>LILY  7[OLTPSP[HY`PUZ[P[\[PVUPZUV[
Z\WWVZLK[VLUNHNLPU[OLPU[LYUHSWVSP[PJHSK`UHTPJZVM[OLZ[H[L0UMHJ[-PULY
(1975) argues that one should not be surprised if the military usurps political
power – because it can if it wants to; the surprise rather is on the fact that it
OHZUV[0UV[OLY^VYKZHSSV^PUN[OLPUZ[P[\[PVU[VKPWP[ZOHUKZVU[OLPU[LYUHS
WVSP[PJHSK`UHTPJZJYLH[LZ[OL\UH]VPKHISLWVSP[PJPaH[PVUVMYHURZ¹6YL[H8
0U[OL7OPSPWWPULZ[OLWVSP[PJPaH[PVUVM[OLTPSP[HY`PZHKPYLJ[JVUZLX\LUJLVM
the political decisions of the civilian leaders. The Philippine Scouts and the
*VUZ[HI\SHYPLZ[OLWYLJ\YZVYZVM[OL(-7^LYLJYLH[LKI`[OL<UP[LK:[H[LZ
in the early years of colonization. They had their guns trained (literally and
ÄN\YH[P]LS`PU[OLKPYLJ[PVUVMPU[LYUHSZLJ\YP[`[OYLH[Z;OLWYVISLTOV^L]LY
is that the training and doctrine of these institutions were patterned after that
of the US military – an institution that is primarily conceived to handle territorial
KLMLUZL;OPZTPZHSPNULK[YHPUPUNHUK[HZRHYYHUNLTLU[`PLSK\UH]VPKHISL
WYVISLTZ¸;OL]LY`UH[\YLVMTPSP[HY`VWLYH[PVUZKVUL^P[OPU[OLJVUÄULZVM
VUL»Z[LYYP[VY`\ZPUN[HJ[PJZHUKTHUL\]LYZHNHPUZ[
“The Politics of Vocation.”
7
VUL»ZV^UWLVWSLJYLH[LZKLSPJH[LZP[\H[PVUZ^OLYL
A lecture given to the Free
[OLTPSP[HY`[YH]LYZLZH[PNO[YVWLHUK]PVSH[PVUVM Students Society/Movement
rights was more the expectation than the exception.9 of the Munich University
in January. Max Weber
It is no surprise that the institution becomes embroiled famously defined the
in numerous complaints of abuse and human rights modern state as an entity
claiming a monopoly
]PVSH[PVUZ¸6YL[H
on the legitimate use of
violence to enforce order
.P]LU[OH[[OLTPSP[HY`PZ[OLJVLYJP]LHYTVM[OLZ[H[L over a specific territory. By
this definition, many of the
[OLWVSP[PJPaH[PVUHUKWVVYWYVMLZZPVUHSPZTVMP[ZYHURZ countries that constitute the
create numerous problems. Not only does it further international geopolitical
order fall well short of
JVTWSPJH[LHUKL_HJLYIH[L[OLJVUÅPJ[K`UHTPJZK\L being genuine states.
to the human rights abuses and power excesses of 9
For instance, entering a
ZVTLVMÄJLYZHUKLUSPZ[LKWLYZVUULSHSSLNH[PVUZVM community –without doing
anything – already puts the
N\UY\UUPUNJVU[PU\LPLTPSP[HY`VMÄJLYZHYLPU]VS]LK safety of the community in
PUZLSSPUNN\UZV[OLY^LHWVUZHUKHTT\UP[PVU[V jeopardy since the military
can be attacked, placing
insurgent groups). If indeed the issue of gun-running the safety of the entire
PZ[Y\LUVTH[[LYOV^LMMLJ[P]L[OLPU[LYUHSZLJ\YP[` community in peril. This
VWLYH[PVUZHYLHUK[OLJVUÄZJH[LJHW[\YLZLPaL is already tantamount to
violation of rights – even
ÄYLHYTZ»VWLYH[PVUZHYLHNHPUZ[PUZ\YNLU[HUKJYPTPUHS without doing anything!
CHAPTER 7 | The Peace Process & The Need for Arms 81
Control & Management
 NYV\WZ[OLJVUÅPJ[J`JSLOHZUVLUKPUZPNO[HZ[OLPUZ\YNLU[ZHUKJYPTPUHSZ
^PSSHS^H`ZOH]LYLHK`Z\WWS`VMÄYLHYTZHUKHTT\UP[PVU
(SZVK\L[V[OLSPTP[H[PVUPU[OLU\TILYVMLUSPZ[LKZVSKPLYZ[OH[[OLZ[H[LJHU
Z\WWVY[[OLHYT`OHZPUZ[P[\[LKZ[VWNHWTLHZ\YLZ[VH\NTLU[[OLYHURZ
Force-multipliers were recruited in the form of CAFGUs (Civilian Armed Forces
.LVNYHWOPJ<UP[Z\UKLY[OLZ\WLY]PZPVUVM[OLTPSP[HY`HUK*=6*P]PSPHU
=VS\U[LLY6YNHUPaH[PVU\UKLY[OLZ\WLY]PZPVUVM[OLSVJHSNV]LYUTLU[\UP[Z;OL
WYVISLTOV^L]LYPZ[OH[[OLZLHYLJP]PSPHUWHYHTPSP[HY`\UP[Z¶P[Z]LY`L_PZ[LUJL
is inimical to the principles of democracy.
4VYLV]LY^OPSL[OL*(-.<ZHYL\UKLY[OLZ\WLY]PZPVUVM[OLHYT`[OL`KVUV[
YLJLP]L[OLZHTLZHSHY`HUKILULÄ[ZVMHYLN\SHYLUSPZ[LKZVSKPLY;OL`ZLY]L
only for 15 days per month since the idea is to create a community-based
KLMLUZL[LHT/LUJL[OLYLJY\P[ZT\Z[ILMYVT[OLJVTT\UP[`HUKZOV\SK
UV[IL\WYVV[LKMYVT[OLPYYLN\SHY^VYR(ZVM[OL`YLJLP]L7MVY
KH`Z"^OPSLMVY[OLYLTHPUPUNKH`ZVM[OLTVU[O[OL`HYLL_WLJ[LK[V
JVU[PU\L^P[O[OLPYYLN\SHY^VYRVYÄUKV[OLYTLHUZVMSP]LSPOVVK10 Some of
these CAFGUs moonlight as bodyguards of politicians and/or business owners/
SHUKV^ULYZTPULYZ>OPSL[LJOUPJHSS`ZWLHRPUNP[PZ^P[OPU[OLPYYPNO[Z[VLHYUH
SP]PUNPU^OH[L]LY^H`[OL`ZLLÄ[TVYHSS`HUKL[OPJHSS`[OL`HYLZ[PSSYLNHYKLK
I`[OLJVTT\UP[`HZ*(-.<ZHUKHYLJSVZLS`HMÄSPH[LK^P[O[OLTPSP[HY`MVY
ZVTLWLVWSL[OLYLPZUVKPZ[PUJ[PVUIL[^LLU*(-.<ZHUKTPSP[HY`ZVSKPLYZ
This creates the unfortunate conclusion that the military serves the interest of
the rich rather than the state and the people. It does not help that there are also
SCAA units (Special CAFGU Active Auxilliary) whose primary function is to cater
[V[OLZLJ\YP[`YLX\LZ[ZVMI\ZPULZZLU[LYWYPZLWYP]H[LJVYWVYH[PVUZVY3.<:
¶M\Y[OLYZ[YLUN[OLUPUN[OL]PL^[OH[*(-.<ZHUKI`^H`VML_[LUZPVU[OL
military - have their eyes only for the elite.
;OL*=6ZVU[OLV[OLYOHUKHSSV^WVSP[PJHSMHTPSPLZ^OVOH]L[OLPYWYP]H[L
armies to ‘legitimize’ and ‘legalize’ their troops. Under Pres. Arroyo’s Executive
6YKLYPZZ\LKVU(\N[OL757^P[O[OLHWWYV]HSVM[OLSVJHS
L_LJ\[P]LZPZNP]LU[OLWV^LY[VYLJY\P[MVYJLT\S[PWSPLYZHNHPUZ[PUZ\YNLU[Z
(NHPU[OPZPZK\L[V[OLMHJ[[OH[[OLZ[H[LOHZSPTP[H[PVUPUYLJY\P[PUNHUK
Z\WWVY[PUNHZ\MÄJPLU[WVSPJLMVYJL:LJ[PVUMVYL_HTWSLVM,6WYV]PKLZ
the following:
0U[OLL_LYJPZLVMP[ZYLZWVUZPIPSP[`Z\IQLJ[[V[OLJVUJ\YYLUJLVM[OLHWWYVWYPH[L
3VJHS*OPLM,_LJ\[P]L[OYV\NO[OL3VJHS7LHJLHUK6YKLY*V\UJPS[OL757PZ
hereby authorized to deputize the barangay tanods as force multipliers in the
implementation of the peace and order plan in the area.
¸,HJOIHYHUNH`^PSSILH\[OVYPaLK[VKLW\[PaLÄ]LWVSPJLH\_PSPHYPLZ^OV^PSS
IL\UKLY[OLZ[YPJ[Z\WLY]PZPVUVM[OL7OPSPWWPUL5H[PVUHS7VSPJL¹HJJVYKPUN[V
MVYTLY0U[LYPVYHUK3VJHS.V]LYUTLU[:LJYL[HY`9VUHSKV=7\UV2VSHTI\NHU
HUK0SPNHU(\N\Z[11;OLZLKLW\[PaLKWVSPJLH\_PSPHYPLZHYLHSZVRUV^U
HZ[OLJP]PSPHU]VS\U[LLYVYNHUPaH[PVU*=6,U[LYWYPZPUNWVSP[PJPHUZOV^L]LY
LUSPZ[[OLPYWYP]H[LIVK`N\HYKZHZTLTILYZVM[OL*=6¶HTV]L[OH[UV[VUS`
SLNHSPaLZ[OLTI\[HSZVSLNP[PTPaLZ[OL\ZLVMNV]LYUTLU[TVUL`[VWH`MVY[OL
82 Gun Proliferation & Violence
ZHSHYPLZVM[OLZLIVK`N\HYKZKV\ISPUNHZ*=6Z
>OPSLUV[HSS*(-.<ZHUK*=6ZHYLHI\ZLYZ[OLYLOH]LILLUZL]LYHSPUZ[HUJLZ
[OH[[OL`ÄN\YLKPUHO\THUYPNO[ZHI\ZLWV^LYHI\ZLJHZL12 The most
YLJLU[HUKTVZ[JLSLIYH[LKJHZLVM*(-.<ZHUK*=6ZHI\ZL^HZ[OL 
4HN\PUKHUHVTHZZHJYL^OLYLWHYHTPSP[HY`\UP[Z^LYL\ZLKHSVUN^P[OZVTL
WVSPJLHUKTPSP[HY`I`[OL(TWH[\HUMHTPS`[VRPSSWVSP[PJHSVWWVULU[ZHUK[OLPY
Z\WWVY[LYZ;OLPUJPKLU[OV^L]LYPZQ\Z[VULVM[OLTHU`0U[OL(944HYLHZ
it is an open secret that certain political leaders are using not only the CAFGU
HUK*=6ZHNHPUZ[[OLPYWVSP[PJHSVWWVULU[ZI\[HSZV[OLM\SSMVYJLVM[OLTPSP[HY`
HUKWVSPJL\UKLY[OLJSVHRVMW\YZ\PUNHYTLKJVTIH[HU[ZVYJYPTPUHSIHUKP[Z13
There are even anecdotal reports that some members of insurgent groups
ºTVVUSPNO[»HZWYP]H[LIVK`N\HYKZVMWVSP[PJPHUZK\YPUNLSLJ[PVUWLYPVK6[OLYZ
VU[OLV[OLYOHUKL_[YHJ[JHTWHPNUWHZZLZMYVTJHUKPKH[LZ[VHSSV^[OLTZHML
passage in communities that are under the ‘authority’ of insurgent-controlled
private governments.
0UKLLK[OLPU[LYUHSZLJ\YP[`WYVISLTJV\WSLK^P[O[OLYLHSP[`VMWYP]H[L
NV]LYUTLU[ZPUJYLHZLZ[OLWYVSPMLYH[PVUVMHYTZPU[OLOHUKZVMJP]PSPHUZ
¶JVTWSPJH[PUNJVUÅPJ[K`UHTPJZHUKWVZPUNU\TLYV\ZJOHSSLUNLZ[V
WLHJLTHRPUNHUKWLHJLI\PSKPUNLMMVY[Z
*VUÅPJ[7YL]LU[PVUHUK7VZ[*VUÅPJ[9LJVUZ[Y\J[PVU
(JJVYKPUN[V2\UPRV0UVN\JOP14 a Political Science Professor from Sophia
<UP]LYZP[`proliferation of SALW leads to the recurrence of violence, hinders
WVZ[JVUÅPJ[YLJVUZ[Y\J[PVUHUKILJVTLZVULVM[OLTHQVYZV\YJLZVM
poverty and social insecurity. 3VKNHHYK "0UVN\JOP(YTZJVU[YVS
HUKTHUHNLTLU[PU[OLJVU[L_[VMWLHJLULNV[PH[PVUZHUKWVZ[JVUÅPJ[
YLJVUZ[Y\J[PVU[VILLMMLJ[P]LT\Z[HKVW[[OLMVSSV^PUNZ[YH[LNPLZ!HJVUÅPJ[
prevention programs must be comprehensive; (b) it must be able to enhance
security; (c) the rule of law must be promoted; (d) development must be
stimulated; (e) refugees/ internally displaced persons must be repatriated; (f) the
WVSP[PJHSZ`Z[LTT\Z[L_WHUKZV[OH[HSSNYV\WZVMZPNUPÄJHUJLTH`HY[PJ\SH[L
their interests within the system; and (g) reform must be done with the socio-
LJVUVTPJJVU[L_[3VKNHHYK "0UVN\JOP
*VUÅPJ[WYL]LU[PVUHUKWVZ[JVUÅPJ[YLJVUZ[Y\J[PVULU[HPS[OLZHTL
ºVWLYH[P]LYLX\PYLTLU[ZMYVT[OLZ[H[L7YL]LU[PVUHUKYLJVUZ[Y\J[PVUPM
JVYYLJ[S`THUHNLK^PSSZ\JJLZZM\SS`JVU[YVSHYTZ
WYVSPMLYH[PVUKLTVIPSPaLYLILSNYV\WZHUKHSSV^MVY
In the 1980’s, the case of
12
their reintegration into the mainstream society. The Fr. Tulio Favali, killed in
expanded sphere of political participation and more cold-blood by Manero – the
leader of a paramilitary
equitable socio-economic conditions will foster a state
group called Ilaga - was
and society that will include all previously marginalized the most controversial
ZLJ[VYZNYV\WZHUKPUKP]PK\HSZHUKJVUZLX\LU[S` case that highlighted the
abuses of the government’s
the armed-violent method of actualizing dissent will paramilitary groups.
eventually be rendered irrelevant. Inoguchi also serves as
14
Special Assistant to the
Minister of Foreign Affairs,
Japan.
CHAPTER 7 | The Peace Process & The Need for Arms 83
Control & Management
 Stakeholders in the domestic peace process
;OLYLHYL[OYLLTHPUHJ[VYZPU[OLKVTLZ[PJWLHJLWYVJLZZ[OLNV]LYUTLU[VY
[OLZ[H[LJP]PSZVJPL[`HUK[OLUVUZ[H[LHJ[VYZVY[OLYLILSNYV\WZ/V^L]LY
according to Sato (2003)15HMV\Y[OHJ[VYPU[OLKVTLZ[PJWLHJLWYVJLZZPZ[OL
international community (usually represented by the United Nations).
Arms reduction is closely related to prevention of future proliferation. The UN
Security Council reports (1997 and 1999) that for reduction and prevention to be
LMMLJ[P]L[OLPU[LYUH[PVUHSJVTT\UP[`T\Z[ILIYV\NO[PU[VWYV]PKLWYLZZ\YL
Z\WWVY[HUKHKKLKJHWHJP[`PUOHUKSPUNLUMVYJPUNHUKTHPU[HPUPUNNLU\PUL
peace. (Sato 2003)
A ‘rational’ approach16T\Z[IL[HRLUPUKLHSPUN^P[OZTHSSHYTZHUKSPNO[
weapons (SALW) and domestic peace and security issues to be able to
entice the international community to be more participative in matters that
can be considered as outside of their own interests as sovereign actors. The
‘rational’ approach will enable the states to see the interdependence between
[OLKVTLZ[PJZLJ\YP[`PZZ\LZVMHZV]LYLPNUZ[H[LHUKP[ZV^UPU[LYLZ[PU
[OH[JVUÅPJ[HMMLJ[ZT\S[PUH[PVUHSKPWSVTHJ`HUKPU[LYUH[PVUHS[YHKL;OPZ
interdependence means that no country is truly free from the impact of
KVTLZ[PJ:(3>HUKPUZ\YNLUJ`WYVISLTZHUK[O\ZHJJVYKPUN[VIV[O:H[V
HUK0UVN\JOPUVJV\U[Y`ZOV\SKILSLM[[VKLHS^P[O[OL:(3>
problem alone.
;OL<5Z\NNLZ[Z[OH[[VTHRLPU[LYUH[PVUHSPU[LY]LU[PVUTVYLPU[LNYHS[V[OL
KVTLZ[PJWLHJLWYVJLZZHUL^JOHPUVMJVTTHUKZOV\SKILLZ[HISPZOLK;OL
SVJHSIVKPLZZOV\SKJVVYKPUH[L^P[O[OLYLNPVUHSIVKPLZ[OLYLNPVUHS[V[OL
national and the national to the international. This ensures proper involvement
and communication between all levels of participation. However it should
be noted that the rebel groups are often wary of international intervention
viewing such involvement as strategies to extend authority and control. This
PZWHY[PJ\SHYS`[Y\LMVY4HY_PZ[4HVPZ[*VTT\UPZ[HUKVY3LUPUPZ[PKLVSVNPJHS
YLILSNYV\WZ0U[OL7OPSPWWPULZ[OL4VYVPUZ\YNLU[ZZLLT[VILTVYLVWLU
to international intervention. In fact there has been a documented increase in
MVYLPNUZ[HRLOVSKLYZPU[OL4PUKHUHVWLHJLWYVJLZZ:VTLUV[HISLWHY[PJPWHU[Z
are Japan and the United States of America.
It is also suggested that international aid should be directed to strengthening
PUMYHZ[Y\J[\YLHUKO\THUYLZV\YJLZMVYZLJ\YP[`MVYJLZPUJVUÅPJ[YPKKLUHYLHZ
(UHS[LYUH[P]LZ\NNLZ[PVU[V[OPZPU[OLSPNO[VMMLHYZ[OH[[OLTVUL[HY`HPK^PSS
SHUKPUJVYY\W[OHUKZHUKJVU[YPI\[L[V[OLWYVISLTM\Y[OLYPZ[OLIYPUNPUNPU
VMPU[LYUH[PVUHSWLHJLRLLWPUNIVKPLZ[VHJ[HZZ\WWSLTLU[HY`I\[[LTWVYHY`
security forces in affected areas until successful
In political science, the
16
rehabilitation and/or reform has been achieved. rational / rational choice
approach capitalizes on the
Weapons-for-cash or Guns-for-cash programs cost-benefit scenario the
decision makers consider.
Based on the experience of other countries The belief of the approach
\UKLYNVPUNWLHJLWYVJLZZLZZLL(WWLUKP_ is that decision makers
would always choose the
compelling and coercing the communities and option that provides the
greatest utility.
84 Gun Proliferation & Violence
JVTIH[HU[Z[V\UKLYNVHUKJVVWLYH[L^P[O++9LMMVY[ZKPZHYTHTLU[
KLTVIPSPaH[PVUYLPU[LNYH[PVUOH]LWYV]LUPULMMLJ[P]L0UJLU[P]LZOH]LILLU
peddled for groups to surrender their arms voluntarily. The most common
program under the approach to DDR is the weapons-for-cash/ guns-for-cash
program by the United Nations. Such programs have been employed in various
JV\U[YPLZZ\JOHZ:VTHSPH4VaHTIPX\L,S:HS]HKVY/HP[P3PILYPH5PJHYHN\H
Eastern Slovenia and Croatia. This program has successfully collected several
[OV\ZHUKZVM:(3>\UP[ZZPUJL[OL Z/V^L]LYP[ZPTWHJ[PZZHPK[VILH[
ILZ[^P[OH]LYHNLLMMLJ[P]LULZZ
(JJVYKPUN[VZJOVSHYZ[OPZWYVNYHTOHZVM[LUMHSSLUZOVY[VMP[ZNVHSZILJH\ZL
the combatants usually have more than one weapon and may choose to sell off
only the ones that s/he no longer wants. What is more disturbing is that there
have been anecdotal reports that sometimes the combatants sell their old guns
[VILHISL[VNL[JHZO[VW\YJOHZLUL^LYIL[[LYHUKTVYLKHUNLYV\ZN\UZ
;OPZPU[\YUJYLH[LZHSHYNLKLTHUKMVYHYTZ[YHKPUN^P[OPU[OLTHYRL[HUK[OL
J`JSLVMWYVSPMLYH[PVUILJVTLZPU]PNVYH[LKLUYPJOLKHUKYLUL^LKJYLH[PUNH
more serious problem than ever.
BARIL.0U[OL7OPSPWWPULZ[OL)YPUNH9PÅL0TWYV]L`V\Y3P]LSPOVVK)(90317
WYVNYHTOHZHSZVPUZ\MÄJPLU[S`TL[P[Z[HYNL[Z;OLWYVNYHT^HZPTWSLTLU[LK
for the MNLF and was successful in ‘reintegrating’ 4850 former combatants
^OV[\YULKV]LYÄYLHYTZ18/V^L]LY[OPZWYVNYHTMHPSLK[VZ\MÄJPLU[S`
disarm the former MNLF rebels. Some of the former rebels admitted to having
TVYL[OHUVUL^LHWVULHJOHUKZ\YYLUKLYPUNVUS`VUL[VH]HPSVM[OLILULÄ[Z
VM[OLWYVNYHT;OLV[OLY^LHWVUZ^LYLLP[OLYRLW[H[OVTLVYNP]LU[VV[OLY
JVTYHKLZ^OVZ[PSS^LU[VUÄNO[PUNZLLKPZJ\ZZPVUPU*OHW[LY
;OLHS[LYUH[P]L[V\ZPUNJHZOPZ]V\JOLYZMVYZ[VYLZHUKZ\WLYTHYRL[Z;OLZL
^LYL\ZLKPU,S:HS]HKVY^OLYLPU[OVZL^OV[\YULKPU[OLPYN\UZJV\SKNL[
basic necessities in exchange. However it is said that the most effective
PUJLU[P]L[OH[VULJHUNP]LHYLJYLKPISLWYVÄ[HISLZ[HISLHUKUVU]PVSLU[
sources of livelihood.
6U[OLUH[PVUHSSL]LS[OLLMMVY[ZOH]LMHPSLKK\L[VSHJRVMJHWHJP[`YLZV\YJLZ
and political will by the local leaders and the predatory nature of the states.
6U[OLPU[LYUH[PVUHSSL]LSLMMVY[ZOH]LMHPSLKK\L[VHSHJRVMIL[[LYHUKTVYL
cohesive coordination.
Efforts will only succeed if both national and international efforts are
JVVYKPUH[LKHUK\UP[ZJVVWLYH[L^P[OLHJOV[OLYJYLH[PUNHJVTT\UP[`IHZLK
NLU\PUL^LSSM\UKLK^LSSVYNHUPaLKHYTZJVU[YVSHUKTHUHNLTLU[WYVNYHT
that will re-establish law and order and bring in the long awaited development.
The Challenges of SALW proliferation in the Philippines
Both legal and illegal arms trading have been present in the Philippines since
[OLSH[LZ^OLU[OL,\YVWLHUJVSVUPaLYZÄYZ[
YLHSPaLK[OLTHYRL[WV[LU[PHSVMZLSSPUNHYTZ[V This program was for
17
intended for all armed
native dwellers. It would only be in the 1900s when
insurgents, not only the
MNLF
CHAPTER 7 | The Peace Process & The Need for Arms 85
Control & Management
 colonial governments would begin to impose stricter arms control due to rising
PUZ[HUJLZVMHYTLKJVUÅPJ[ZLL*OHW[LY;OPZPZ[Y\LMVYTVZ[VM:V\[O(ZPH
(Tagliacozzo 2005)
0[PZKVJ\TLU[LKPU[OL7OPSPWWPULJHZL[OH[:\S\0ZSHUKHUKWHY[PJ\SHYS`
the Taosug and Balangingi Samal indigenous peoples have been part of this
THYRL[ZPUJL[OLJVSVUPHS[PTLZ;OLYLHYLZ[PSSHSSLNH[PVUZ[OH[[OPZHYLHPZZ[PSS
active in modern day illicit arms trading.19 It is included in what is now called
[OLº:V\[OLYU*VYYPKVY»^OLYLTVZ[VM[OLZT\NNSLK:(3>ZHYL[YHMÄJRLK
/V^L]LYHZKPZJ\ZZLKPU*OHW[LY[OLPSSLNHSHYTZ[YHKLHJJVYKPUN[V[OL
757HUK(-7PZUVSVUNLY[OLTHPUZV\YJLVM^LHWVUY`MVYYLILSZHUKJP]PSPHUZ
HSPRL
(JJVYKPUN[V4HRPUHUVHUK3\IHUN[OLZP_THPUZV\YJLZVM:(3>
\ZLKI`JP]PSPHUZHUKYLILSNYV\WZWHY[PJ\SHYS`PU[OL4PUKHUHVHYLHHYL![OL
4PSP[HY`HUK[OL7VSPJL\USPJLUZLKTHU\MHJ[\YLYZ\UYL[\YULKÄYLHYTZ
MYVT[OLJV\WH[[LTW[PU[OL ZMVYLPNUZOPWTLU[ZYLWVY[LKS`MYVT
(MNOHUPZ[HUN\UY\UULYZHUK[OLYLILSZ[OLTZLS]LZ^OVHYLLUKV^LK
with manufacturing capacity.
Why Firearms Proliferate: Sources of Pressure
<ZPUN[OL+HY`S>OP[LOLHKHUHS`ZPZ;HISLPSS\Z[YH[LZ[OLZ\TTHYPaLK
HZZLZZTLU[VM[OL]HYPV\ZZV\YJLZVMWYLZZ\YL[OH[[YPNNLYÄYLHYTZWYVSPMLYH[PVU
PU[OL7OPSPWWPULZ;OLMYHTL^VYRSVJH[LZZLWHYH[LZHUKHUHS`aLZ[OL]HYPV\Z
reasons and factors that cause community members to arm themselves.
>OP[LOLHKPUHUHY[PJSLVU:(3>WYVSPMLYH[PVUWYLZZ\YLZPU[OL/VYUVM(MYPJH20
described the different levels of pressure that trigger SALW proliferation. He
JSHZZPÄLZ[OLTHZ9LNPVUHS3L]LS7YLZZ\YLZ:[H[L3L]LS7YLZZ\YLZHUK3VJHS
Level Pressures.
Regional Level Pressure. SALW proliferation pressure deals with a larger sphere
of mainly political and economic stability that directly affect the security and
[OLKL]LSVWTLU[VMH[[OL]LY`SLHZ[LU[PYLYLNPVUZHUKH[[OLTVZ[[OLLU[PYL
world.
;OPZSL]LSOHZ[YHUZUH[PVUHSJYPTLHUKPU[LYUH[PVUHSJVUÅPJ[ZHZTHPUZV\YJLZ
VMWYLZZ\YLMVYJVTT\UP[PLZ[VHYT[OLTZLS]LZ4H[[LYZVMZLJ\YP[`L]LU[OVZL
traditionally labeled as domestic concerns have direct and indirect effects on
V[OLYZ[H[LZWHY[PJ\SHYS`[OLPTTLKPH[LULPNOIVYZVMH[YV\ISLKZ[H[L/V^L]LY
[OLJVUJLYUILJVTLZT\JONYLH[LY^OLU[OLJVUÅPJ[PU]VS]LZTVYL[OHUQ\Z[
one state because it has a wider scope of impact.
+VTLZ[PJHYTLKJVUÅPJ[HUKVYNHUPaLKJYPTLHMMLJ[YLNPVUHSZLJ\YP[`PUKPYLJ[S`
by creating insecurity within the state and its neighbors that the disorder may
magnify and eventually spill over to other states. It also presents deterrents for
economic investment and thus impedes development.
20
Countries included in the
HORN are Djibouti, Eritrea,
Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia,
Sudan, and Uganda.
86 Gun Proliferation & Violence
0U[LYZ[H[LJVUÅPJ[PZHT\JOTVYLWV[LU[[OYLH[VU[OLYLNPVUHSSL]LSHZP[KPYLJ[S`
PU]VS]LZHUKHMMLJ[ZTVYL[OHUVULZ[H[LPUHYLNPVU;OLJVUÅPJ[JHULZJHSH[L
into full-scale wars and the existence of alliances may involve countries even
V\[ZPKL[OLYLNPVU;OLYLZV\YJLZVM[OLNV]LYUTLU[IV[OLJVUVTPJHUK
WVSP[PJHS^PSSILJOHUULSLK[V[OL^HYPUZ[LHKVMKL]LSVWTLU[0[^PSSKPZWSHJL
JP[PaLUZJSHPTSP]LZHUKJH\ZLOH]VJ[OH[TH`L]LUJVTWSL[LS`MYLLaL[YHKLPU
[OLYLNPVU4VYLV]LYJVZ[VM^HYL_[LUKZIL`VUK[OLHJ[\HSÄNO[PUN(WHY[MYVT
YLOHIPSP[H[PVUHUKYLWHYH[PVUMVYWO`ZPJHSKHTHNL[OLYLPZHZ^LSSHKHTHNLK
WVSP[PJHSYLW\[H[PVU[OH[OHZ[VILYLJVUZ[Y\J[LKHUKTH`[HRLZL]LYHSKLJHKLZ
to repair.
;OLZHTLJHUHSZVILZHPKVM[YHUZUH[PVUHSJYPTL[OH[PZOPNOS`VYNHUPaLK^LSS
funded and often highly supported by some very powerful people. Transnational
JYPTLZZ\JOHZHYTZZT\NNSPUNHUK[OLKY\N[YHKLHYLOHYK[V[YHJRHUKZVS]L
due to the complexity of their organization and operations. Even if a state has
[OLJHWHJP[`[VJ\YI[OL[OYLH[PUP[ZV^UQ\YPZKPJ[PVULMMVY[Z[VJVTIH[ILJVTL
KPMÄJ\S[ZPUJL[OL[OYLH[HSZVL_PZ[ZPUULPNOIVYPUNZ[H[LZ
State Level Pressure. State level pressure comes from actors within the state as
well as non-state actors (NSA.)
This level mainly focuses on the national arms cache and storage systems and
OV^[OLZLJV\SKILH[[PTLZIL[OLZV\YJLVM^LHWVUZMVY\UVMÄJPHSZLJ\YP[`
forces such as vigilantes and rebel groups.
;OLSHJRVMNLU\PULJVTTP[TLU[[VHYTZJVU[YVSHUKTHUHNLTLU[WYVNYHTZ
and efforts add to the pressure that comes from the level of the State.
State level pressure points also include the practices of the state than can be
KLLTLKYLWYLZZP]LVWWYLZZP]LHUKTHYNPUHSPaPUN[OH[TV[P]H[LPUKP]PK\HSZHUK
groups to arm themselves.
Local Level Pressure. Local level pressures come from clashes within and
HTVUNNYV\WZJSHUZHUK[YPILZPUJVTT\UP[PLZ[OH[HYLVM[LU^HYYPUN
over scarce resources as a result of underdevelopment and economic
THYNPUHSPaH[PVUHZ^LSSHZV]LYWVSP[PJHSWV^LY;OLHYTLKIH[[SLMVYZ\Y]P]HS
NSVYPÄLZ[OL\ZLVMN\UZMVYºZLSMKLMLUZL».\UV^ULYZOPWPZHSZVLX\H[LK
with bravery and power since it endows the owners with the ability to defend
[OLTZLS]LZHUKÄNO[MVYHSHYNLYZOHYLVMLJVUVTPJYLZV\YJLZ
CHAPTER 7 | The Peace Process & The Need for Arms 87
Control & Management
 KPZLUMYHUJOPZLTLU[WV]LY[`HUKKPZZH[PZMHJ[PVU^P[O[OLNV]LYUTLU[HUKPU[OL
TVZ[L_[YLTLJHZLZHYTLKYLILSSPVU
Table 7.1. Pressure Points where Firearms Proliferate
/V^L]LY[OLYLZLHYJO^V\SKSPRL[VTVYLZWLJPÄJHSS`JSHZZPM`[OLHYTLK
Regional Level
State Level Pressures Local Level Pressures rebellion and insurgencies as local level SALW proliferation pressure because
Pressures
Transnational organized Transfer of SALW from state Mistrust between groups, the armed insurgencies as a result of political and economic marginalization
crime and terrorist to Non-state Actors (NSA) clans, tribes OH]LWYVK\JLKUVSHYNLZJHSLUH[PVUHSTV]LTLU[;OLYLILSNYV\WZIV[OVM
activities, International and poor security of the ZLWHYH[PZ[HUKPKLVSVNPJHSUH[\YLHYLSPTP[LK[VJLY[HPUYLNPVUZVUS`Z\JOHZ
Arms Trade, the Black national SALW stockpiles Competition for scarce
ZVTLWHY[ZVM4PUKHUHVPU[OLJHZLVM[OL403-HUKZVTLWHY[ZVM3\aVU
Market and the porous resources: e.g. cattle
borders (ex. JI and the Abu Inconsistent and lukewarm rustling, crime as a result of =PZH`HZHUKLHZ[LYU4PUKHUHVPU[OLJHZLVM[OL*VTT\UPZ[PUZ\YNLUJ`
Sayaff) commitment to DDR efforts economic marginalization
(poverty) .P]LU[OLUH[\YLVM[OLJ\S[\YHSHUKL[OUPJKP]LYZP[`VM[OL7OPSPWWPULZJVUÅPJ[
Regional political instability Inequity between classes
IL[^LLUJSHUZ[YPILZHUKNYV\WZOH]LILJVTLPUJYLHZPUNS`]PVSLU[HUK
(ex. Corruption in the and marginalizing practices Ideological clashes between
state and in neighboring by the government – Semi- government and insurgents dangerous with the advent of modern weaponry. In Mindanao there is a practice
states, Burmese Military feudal, semi-capitalist called Rido or clan wars. Clan feuds also occur in Northern Philippines such as
Junta, Thailand’s military structure of society, patron Guns as a tool to ensure PUJLY[HPUHYLHZVM(IYH2HSPUNHHUK0SVJVZ
dictatorships) client system the protection of the self,
the family and one’s
Domestic manufacturing livelihood. 7V]LY[`HUKPUZLJ\YP[`HYLHSZV[^VSLHKPUNJH\ZLZVMÄYLHYTZWYVSPMLYH[PVUPU
capabilities [OL7OPSPWWPULZ-VYPUZ[HUJLJH[[SLHUKJHYHIHVV^ULYZHYT[OLTZLS]LZHZ
JH[[SLY\Z[SPUNHUKJHYHIHVYHPKPUNHYLUV[\UJVTTVUPUZVTLWHY[ZVM=PZH`HZ
HUK4PUKHUHV<UMVY[\UH[LS`[OLWYLZLUJLVM[VVTHU`N\UZHSZVMHJPSP[H[LZ
JYPTLZZ\JOHZOVSK\WHYTLKYVIILY`YHWLHUKL]LUT\YKLY>P[ON\U
The interconnectedness of the pressure points. 6U[OLYLNPVUHSHUKZ[H[LSL]LS WYVSPMLYH[PVUWV]LY[`HUKJYPTLYH[LZJVU[PU\HSS`YPZLLHJO`LHYZVKVLZ[OL
WYLZZ\YLZHYLSVJH[LKPUWVSP[PJHSPUZ[HIPSP[`PSSPJP[HYTZ[YHKPUN[OYV\NO[OLISHJR perceived need to arm oneself for defense and to protect one’s properties. It’s
THYRL[KY\N[YHMÄJRPUNYLWYLZZPVUPUZVTLSVJHSSL]LSJHZLZWYLKH[VY`Z[H[L another cycle that just goes on.
WYHJ[PJLZSHJRVMNLU\PULJVTTP[TLU[[VHYTZJVU[YVSHUKTHUHNLTLU[
WYVNYHTZHUKLMMVY[ZHUK[OLL_PZ[LUJLVMHYTLKUVUZ[H[LHJ[VYZ5:(Z^OV Final words
ZVTL[PTLZZV\YJL[OLPY^LHWVUZMYVT[OLUH[PVUHSHYTZJHJOLP[ZLSMHUK[OL (YTZYLK\J[PVUKLTVIPSPaH[PVUHUKYLPU[LNYH[PVU[VJVTT\UP[PLZVMYLILS
HIPSP[`VMTHU\MHJ[\YLYZIV[OSPJLUZLKHUK\USPJLUZLK[VWYVK\JLJOLHWHUK NYV\WZHUKHYTZJVU[YVSHYLPTWVY[HU[PU[OLTHUHNLTLU[VM:(3>HUKPU
local weapons. Threat groups such as the Abu Sayaff (closely related with the JVUÅPJ[WYL]LU[PVUILJH\ZL[OL`^PSSOLSWPUJYLHZL[OLZ[HIPSP[`VM[OLZ[H[LHUK
1LTPHO0ZSHTP`HOHZWYV]PKLKKPZPUJLU[P]LZMVYLJVUVTPJPU]LZ[TLU[WLHJL [OLSLNP[PTHJ`VM[OLNV]LYUTLU[HZ^LSSHZWYVTV[L[OLV]LYHSSZLJ\YP[`VM
HUKVYKLYHUKKL]LSVWTLU[ HJ[VYZ^P[OPU[OLZ[H[L;OPZT\Z[ILKVULOV^L]LY^P[OPUHJVTWYLOLUZP]L
MYHTL^VYR[OH[HSZVJYLH[LZHSHYNLYHYLUHMVYWVSP[PJHSWHY[PJPWH[PVUHUKMVY
On the state level there are also many NSAs/ private governments that have ZVJPVLJVUVTPJYLMVYTZ[V^HYKZHTVYLLNHSP[HYPHUZVJPL[`;HRPUNHSSVM[OLZL
Z\JJLZZM\SS`NHPULKHJJLZZ[VHYTZUV[HIS`THUPMLZ[LKPU[OLL_PZ[LUJL together the need for armed insurgency will dissipate and the civilians within
of private armies and civilian security forces in the various regions of the HMMLJ[LKHYLHZ^PSSHSZVÄUKUVYLHZVU[VHYT[OLTZLS]LZ^OL[OLYPSSLNHSS`
Philippines. VYSLNHSS`K\L[V[OLPYYLJVNUP[PVUVM[OLZ[H[L»ZTVUVWVS`VMMVYJLHIPSP[`[V
provide security and capacity to protect human rights.
;OLYLPZHSZVJVUJLYUHIV\[WVSP[PJHSLJVUVTPJZ[Y\J[\YLZPU[OLJV\U[Y`
WLYJLP]LK[VZLY]L[OLPU[LYLZ[ZVM[OLLSP[L;OPZZ[Y\J[\YHSWYVISLTKH[LZIHJR ,MMVY[ZULLK[VILTVYLPU[LNYH[LKHUKJVVYKPUH[LKHTVUNSVJHSYLNPVUHS
to Spanish colonization carried through the succeeding periods of colonization. national and international organizations that want to end the problem of SALW
The Americans failed to genuinely reform structures in a bid to pacify the elites proliferation. Regulation and storage of SALW need to be improved through
to which power was ultimately handed over and where it has remained ever [OLYLWLHSVMSH^Z[OH[HSSV^WYVSPMLYH[PVU[OLPTWSLTLU[H[PVUVML_PZ[PUNSH^Z
since. This monopoly of economic and political power in the hands of the few and the creation of new policies and orders that will ensure better controls.
OHTWLYZPUP[PH[P]LZMVYNLU\PULJOHUNLPUJS\KPUNPUP[PH[P]LZVUHYTZJVU[YVSHUK >VYRPUN^P[O5.6Z[OH[RUV^[OLSVJHSSHUKZJHWL]LY`^LSSTH`HSZVHPKPU[OL
management. regulation of SALW. Partnering with local groups can clearly aid in the crafting
of more suitable and more sensitive policies. These groups can also lend
;OPZÅH^LKZ[Y\J[\YLOHZHSZVZLY]LK[VHSPLUH[LPUKP]PK\HSZHUKNYV\WZ their credibility and familiarity with the community to get them to open up and
marginalizing them and preventing them from truly and completely cooperate with efforts to create genuine reform.
participating in the affairs of the state. This marginalization leads to political

88 Gun Proliferation & Violence CHAPTER 7 | The Peace Process & The Need for Arms 89
Control & Management
0UÅ\LU[PHSSLHKLYZMYVTJP]PSZVJPL[`SPRLYLSPNPV\ZNYV\WZ^OVJHULMMLJ[P]LS`TVIPSPaL
[OLSVJHSWVW\SHJL)PZOVWZMVY*H[OVSPJZ<SHTHZMVY4\ZSPTZ[YPILSLHKLYZLSKLYZ
for Indigenous Peoples- may also be tapped. Engaging these groups can facilitate the
\ZLVMUVU]PVSLU[TLJOHUPZTZ[VYLZVS]LJVUÅPJ[Z;OLBodong in the Cordillera and the
Sungusungu in Kenya are good examples of such mechanisms.
VM[LUHSZVVM[OLJP]PSPHUWVW\SH[PVU
Aeta children of
Sapang Uwak, Porac
Pampanga. Children
are always the
unwitting victims of
gun violence
:[HISLSP]LSPOVVKZV\YJLZSVUN[LYTLTWSV`TLU[HUKKL]LSVWTLU[T\Z[ILIYV\NO[[V
problem areas and communities. Quality education must be accessible and standards of
living must be improved. There have been various efforts and investments in Mindanao
JVZ[PUNIPSSPVUZVMWLZVZPUKL]LSVWTLU[WYVQLJ[ZHUKWYVNYHTZ@L[[OLZLPU[LY]LU[PVUZ
have yet to create meaningful and visible changes that impact on the lives of the people
HUKZVJPL[`¶HUK[OPZZLLTPUNKYH^IHJRPZSHYNLS`K\L[V[OLSL[OHYNPJWHJLH[^OPJO[OL
NV]LYUTLU[»ZTHTTV[OI\YLH\JYHJ`VWLYH[LZHUKK\L[V[OLPULW[P[\KLVMYLU[ZLLRPUN
and self- interested politicians.
4LHZ\YLZ[VJ\YITVUP[VYHUKJVU[YVS:(3>WYVSPMLYH[PVUT\Z[ILPUJVYWVYH[LKPU[V
SVJHSUH[PVUHSHUKPU[LYUH[PVUHSSH^Z[VILTVYLLMMLJ[P]L;OPZTLHUZ[OH[JVTTP[TLU[
is needed from our national level legislators and leaders.
6]LYHSSHYTZJVU[YVSHUKTHUHNLTLU[HUKJVUZLX\LU[S`NLU\PULYLMVYTHUKWLHJL
TH`VUS`ILHJOPL]LK[OYV\NOHUPU[LNYH[LKJVTWYLOLUZP]LHUKWHY[PJPWH[P]LWYVNYHT
[OH[PU]VS]LZHSSHJ[VYZPU[OLUH[PVUHSSVJHSHUKNSVIHSSL]LSZPUJS\KPUNUVUZ[H[LHJ[VYZ
and insurgents.
90 Gun Proliferation & Violence
Appendix 7.1 Comparative Analysis of DDR: Select Countries
What is DDR?
Disarmament: :\Y]L`*VSSLJ[PVU:[VYHNL+PZWVZHSHUK9L\[PSPaH[PVUVM
^LHWVUZVMJVTIH[HU[Z
Demobilization: Downsizing or complete disbandment of armed forces
(government and/or opposition or factional forces) as part of broader
transformation from war to peace
Reintegration: Assistance measures for former combatants and dependants
[VYLZL[[SLPUWVZ[^HYJVTT\UP[PLZZVJPHSILJVTLWHY[VMKLTVJYH[PJ
KLJPZPVUTHRPUNWYVJLZZWVSP[PJHSLUNHNLPUZ\Z[HPUHISLJP]PSPHUSP]LSPOVVKZ
LJVUVTPJHUKHKQ\Z[H[[P[\KLZL_WLJ[H[PVUZHUKKLHS^P[O^HYYLSH[LKTLU[HS
trauma (psychological)
The problem of international arms trade has been a global problem since the
1800s wherein the colonial west produced SALW and sold them off to their
JVSVUPLZ-HZ[MVY^HYK[^VJLU[\YPLZUV[T\JOOHZJOHUNLK,\YVWLHUK
[OL<:(HYLZ[PSS[OLTHPUZV\YJLZVMPU[LYUH[PVUHSHYTZ[YHKPUNL]LU^OLU
[OL`JVU[PU\HSS`WYLHJOHUKH[[LTW[[VKPZHYTKLTVIPSPaLHUKYLPU[LNYH[L
combatants and entire communities in developing nations. This seeming farce
PZHSSV^LK[VJVU[PU\LK\L[V[OLSHJRVMHZPUNSLJVOLZP]LJVVYKPUH[LKHUK
binding treaty that will be the singular tool for enforcement of SALW control and
YLN\SH[PVUHJYVZZHSSIVYKLYZ/V^L]LY[OPZPZUV[[VZH`[OH[[OLYLHYLUVLMMVY[Z
to create such a treaty or program. Examples of such are the Arms Trade Treaty
and the UN Firearms protocol.
;OLPU[LYUH[PVUHSHYTZ[YHKLPZZVTHZZP]L[OH[P[NLULYH[LZH[SLHZ[)<:+
SLNHSS`HUKHUHKKP[PVUHS)[V)<:+PSSLNHSS`0[PU]VS]LZ JVTWHUPLZ
and over 90 states dealing with mostly second hand weaponry some of which
HYLL]LUYLWVY[LKS`ZV\YJLKMYVTVSK*VSK>HYJHJOLZ;OLZPaLVM[OLTHYRL[
ULJLZZHYPS`WYLZLU[ZKPMÄJ\S[PLZPUTVUP[VYPUNHUKJVU[YVSSPUN[OLTV]LTLU[VM
arms across borders and it cannot be done by states acting alone. Successful
monitoring and regulation can only be done through international or at the very
least regional efforts because matters of security permeate through all borders
and interests of states. (Small Arms Survey 2004)
The International Arms Trade
and SALW Proliferation in the African context
Why Africa?
The problem of SALW proliferation is very much present in the various
(MYPJHUYLNPVUZHUKZ[H[LZ0UMHJ[P[PZZHPK[OH[ILJH\ZL(MYPJHUZ[H[LHUK
society is so saturated with SALW that one can purchase an AK 47 for less
[OHU<:+VYYV\NOS`7OW;OPZHSHYTPUNSL]LSVMZH[\YH[PVUPZ
indicative of the depth and gravity of the problem of SALW proliferation and
the poverty that it perpetuates in Africa. This daunting condition is precisely
what has attracted the international attention of organizations and intellectuals
RLLUVUHUHS`aPUNHUKJ\YIPUN[OLWYVISLTVMHYTZPU[OL(MYPJHUJVU[L_[
The massive efforts directed to Africa means that there is much literature and
CHAPTER 7 | The Peace Process & The Need for Arms 91
Control & Management
 L_WLYPLUJL[OH[^LJHUKYH^VUI\[UV[TPTPJ[VILHISL[VIL[[LY\UKLYZ[HUK
SALW proliferation and how to address it in the Philippine context.
The Three Levels of SALW pressure in the Horn of Africa (HoA)
3HYNLWHY[ZVM(MYPJHHYL^HY[VYUJVUÅPJ[YPKKLUTPZLYHIS`WVVYHUKZH[\YH[LK
^P[O:(3>PU[OLOHUKZVMJP]PSPHUZNV]LYUTLU[ZZLJ\YP[`MVYJLZIV[OZ[H[L
HUKUVUZ[H[LYLILSNYV\WZHUKJYPTPUHSZ/V^L]LYMVY[OLW\YWVZLZVM[OPZ
analysis we will only use the three levels of SALW proliferation pressure on the
/VYUVM(MYPJHZLL>OP[LOLHK»ZMYHTL^VYRPU*OHW[LY[VILHISL[VNL[H
more manageable and concrete application of the indicators.
6U[OLYLNPVUHSSL]LS[OL/V(PZHKLUMVYPSSPJP[HYTZ[YHMÄJRPUN0[ZV\YJLZ
most of its internationally bought weapons from Europe with yearly purchases
amounting in the tens of millions. The highest yearly export volume recorded
^HZH[4<:+PU HUK^LHWVUZMYVT[OPZW\YJOHZLV]LY[^VKLJHKLZ
ago are still in circulation today on top of the million dollars worth new annual
acquisitions and also the locally manufacture SALW. This is said to assert a
considerable pressure on SALW proliferation in the region because the guns
HYLOPNOS`WYVÄ[HISLH]HPSHISLHUKºOLSWM\S»MVY[OLWV]LY[`Z[YPJRLUYLNPVU>L
also recall that we cited in the earlier parts of this essay that many scholars
believe that increase in SALW possession necessarily increases the lethality
VMJVUÅPJ[ZHUK[OLPUJPKLUJLVM]PVSLUJL>LHSZVOH]LHMVYLTLU[PVULK[OL
MHJ[[OH[ILJH\ZLVM[OL[YHUZUH[PVUHSUH[\YLHUK[OLZPaLVM[OPZTHYRL[P[
WYLZLU[ZKPMÄJ\S[PLZPU[YHJRPUNHUKJVU[YVSSPUN:(3>ÅV^;OPZPZWHY[PJ\SHYS`
troublesome in HoA because the regions are porous due to the high levels of
TPNYH[PVU[VHUKMYV[OL]HYPV\ZZ[H[LZJH\ZLKI`^HYMHTPULYLM\NLLZWV]LY[`
and pastoralist communities.
Another regional problem in the HoA is the armed political strife that has
plagued its member states. Prime examples of this disarray are the collapse
of Somalia in 1991 and the more recent clash between Ethiopia and Eritrea
[OH[IYVRLV\[PU ^OPJOOHZVUS`ZPNULKHJLHZLÄYLHUKUVSHZ[PUNWLHJL
agreement. The Somali collapse created massive political anarchy as its state
HJ[VYZÄNO[V]LYWV^LY[VYLZ[Y\J[\YLHUKYLJVUÄN\YL[OLZ[H[L0U[OLX\LZ[
[VI\PSKHIPNNLYIL[[LY:VTHSPHZVSKPLYHUKJP]PSPHUZHYTLK[OLTZLS]LZHUK
H[[HJRLK[OLIVYKLYPUNZ[H[LZ^P[OHUHNNYLZZP]LL_WHUZPVUPUTPUK5VZPUNSL
JLU[YHSNV]LYUTLU[OHZL]LYILLULZ[HISPZOLKZPUJL[OLUTHRPUNWLHJLHUK
order very hard to institute. Lawlessness and illicit trading have reached their
pinnacle to the point wherein Somalis view it as ‘the way of life.’ What’s more is
that all major SALW trade routes pass through Somalia.
;OLZLJVUKL_HTWSLVMYLNPVUHSWYLZZ\YLPZ[OL,[OPVWPHHUK,YP[YLHJVUÅPJ[
,]LU[OV\NO[OL`OH]LYLHJOLKHJLHZLÄYLPU[OLSHJRVMHSHZ[PUNNLU\PUL
peace agreement puts these states and this region constantly tethering over
the edge of war. This creates more pressure because it enables a culture of
insecurity and paranoia within the region.
6U[OLZ[H[LSL]LS^LJHUHNHPU\ZL[OLJHZLVM:VTHSPH[VPSS\Z[YH[LV\YÄYZ[
MHJ[VY^OPJOPZ[OL[YHUZMLYVM:(3>MYVT:[H[LHJ[VYZ[V5:(0U:VTHSPHZPUJL
[OLYLPZHSHJRVMHJLU[YHSPaLKH\[OVYP[`[VWYV]PKLZLJ\YP[`HUKWYV[LJ[PVUMVY
92 Gun Proliferation & Violence
its citizens the community must constantly arm itself to survive. In the 1991
JVSSHWZL[OL:VTHSP^LHWVUZ[VJRWPSL^HZKPZWLYZLKPU[V[OLYLNPVUUV[VUS`[V
leaderless soldiers but also to armed militia. These arms were used to invade
WHY[ZVM2LU`H+QPIV\[PHUK,[OPVWPH
The second state level SALW proliferation pressure for the HoA is the poorly
JVVYKPUH[LKHUKPUZLUZP[P]LH[[LTW[ZH[+LTPSP[HYPaH[PVU+LTVIPSPaH[PVUHUK
Reintegration (DDR) of combatants and communities that have often practiced
oppressive and repressive programs that have tried to force the communities to
give up their arms instead of involving them and giving them proper incentives
to willingly participate in the DDR. The use of force only served to further
alienate the local communities such as the pastoralists of Uganda and caused
YLUL^LKJVUÅPJ[[VHYPZL
The last state level proliferation pressure is the ability of some states within
[OLYLNPVUUHTLS`2LU`HHUK<NHUKH[VTHU\MHJ[\YL:(3>SVJHSS`;OLZL
^LHWVUZHYLJY\KLS`THKLHUKVMSV^X\HSP[`OV^L]LY[OL`HYLM\UJ[PVUHSHUK
cheap which enable the production and distribution at a more massive scale
and at a faster rate.
Lastly we go to the local level SALW proliferation pressure variables. In the HoA
HUKPU(MYPJHPUNLULYHS[OLL_PZ[LUJLVM]HYPV\Z[YPILZJSHUZHUKZ[YVUNHYTLK
NYV\WZ[OH[VM[LU[YH]LYZL[OLSLNHSIVYKLYZVM[OLZ[H[LZ^OPJO^LYLHYIP[YHYPS`
ZL[I`[OL,\YVWLHUZHZ[OL`SLM[[OLPYJVSVUPLZILOPUKJYLH[LHKP]LYZL
J\S[\YHSZVJPHSHUKWVSP[PJHSH[TVZWOLYL[OH[SLUKZP[ZLSM[VJVUÅPJ[ILJH\ZLVM
[OLKLNYLLVMH]HPSHIPSP[`VMHYTZPU[OLYLNPVU;OLYLMVYLHSTVZ[HSSJVUÅPJ[Z
[\YUSL[OHSK\L[V[OL\ZLVM:(3>;OLZLJVUÅPJ[ZTVZ[S`IYLHRV\[K\L[OL
competition for scarce resources and power because of the extreme poverty
and insecurity of the communities.
:VTLMVYTZVMJVUÅPJ[V]LYZJHYJLYLZV\YJLZPU]VS]LJH[[SLY\Z[SPUNHUKJYPTL
HZHSHZ[YLZVY[MVYSP]LSPOVVK;OLZLJVUÅPJ[ZHYLM\Y[OLYM\LSLKI`[OLJVUZ[HU[
threat of famine in Africa due to the drought ravaged arid landscape. A last
THUPMLZ[H[PVUVMJVUÅPJ[V]LYZJHYJLYLZV\YJLZPZ[OL)YPKL7YPJLWOLUVTLUVU
[OH[HJJVYKPUN[V>OP[LOLHKPZZWLJPÄJ[V[OL/V(YLNPVU^OLYLPUIYPKLZ
LUJV\YHNL[OLPYÄHUJtZHUKZ\P[VYZ[VNVV\[PUHYTLKYHPKZ[VNH[OLYLUV\NO
resources to pay off the exorbitant bride prices required to be able to acquire
the right to marry.
Due to the ability of guns to provide a means for defense from criminals or
JH[[SLY\Z[SLYZVYMVYHTLHUZMVYLUKV^PUNVUL[OLJHWHJP[`[V\UKLY[HRL
Z\JOZOHK`HJ[P]P[PLZPUVYKLY[VTHRLLUKZTLL[[OLWVZZLZZPVUVMN\UZPZ
[OLYLMVYLNSVYPÄLK;OL¸Z[YVUNTHU¹ZVJPL[`VM[OL/V(OHZYLZ\S[LKPU[OLreal
WVSP[PJRTLU[HSP[`HZHYLZ\S[VMKPYLWV]LY[`HUKSHJRVMZPUJLYLJOHUNLHUK[OL
manifestation of the long promised development.
CHAPTER 7 | The Peace Process & The Need for Arms 93
Control & Management
 TABLE 7.2 SALW Pressures Points in the Horn of Africa
Regional Level
Pressures
• Transnational
organized crime and
(TVYVZV+State and Society in the Philippines. Pasig
terrorist activities,
International Arms
Trade, the Black Market
and the porous borders
• Regional political
instability (Ex. Collapse
of Somalia and the
conflict between
Ethiopia and Eritrea)
State Level Pressures
• Transfer of SALW from
state to Non-state Actors
(NSA) and poor security
of the national SALW
stockpiles
• Poorly coordinated DDR
efforts and repressive
and oppressive state
practices
• Domestic manufacturing
capabilities
Local Level Pressures
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102 Gun Proliferation & Violence

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