Republic of the Philippines

NORTHERN ILOILO STATE UNIVERSITY

NISU – Victorino Salcedo Campus, Sara, Iloilo
Reg. No. 97Q19783

Course Code : FORENSIC 106

Descriptive Title : FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY
Term and Academic Year : 2nd Semester, AY 2023-2024
Department and Year Level : BSCRIM 3
Professor : FEA L. DE LA CRUZ & MARLON OSITA

Module 3, Lesson 2
Gunshot Residue, Explosive and Explosion
I.Introduction

Gunshot residue is one of the evidences always encountered by police investigators in conducting
investigation for shooting incidents (homicide or murder cases). Basic knowledge is necessary to determine
principles and its importance in the conduct of examination to give appropriate justice.
In this lesson you shall be able to know how gunshot residue examination is being conducted, collected,
and preserved. You will also learn factors that could affect the result of examination and whether GSR is a
supplementary evidence that can be presented in the court.
Further this lesson will give you insights on explosive and explosion, on how to conduct and secure the
allege area with explosives. And to determine different kind of explosives and to know their components.
Perform the activity and keep update via messenger the process and date of submission.

Time Frame: 6 hours Date of Submission:

II.Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson you must have:
1. discussed what is gunshot residue and its importance in investigation;
2. identified different kinds of gun powder and explosives;
3. explained the factors that can affect false positive result of GSR examination ;and
4. identified methods used in examining gunshot residue.

III.Learning Contents
Gunshot Residue

Gunshot residue examination are performed to help investigators know if the suspected person
discharged a firearm or not, or whether a suspected firearm was discharge or not, and the possible gunshot range
or the distance of the shooter to the victim. Suspect’s hands and those of the victim must be examined, same with
firearms and clothing of the victims to determine presence of gunpowder nitrates.

What compose a cartridge case, bullet and metal jacket?

1. Cartridge case : Brass ( 7:3 Copper zinc )

2. Bullet cores: lead, lead, antimony and few iron alloy
3. Bullet jacket: brass (9:1 copper- zinc), some are iron or aluminum alloy. Some contain nickel.

What are the different types of powder used in the ammunition for small firearms?

1. Black Powder – this consist of a mixture of carbon ( charcoal ), sulfur and potassium nitrate, This
mixture is used as an igniter in smokeless gun propellant. It consist of a mixture of 15 % charcoal, 10 %

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 Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN ILOILO STATE UNIVERSITY
NISU – Victorino Salcedo Campus, Sara, Iloilo
Reg. No. 97Q19783

sulfur and 75 % potassium nitrate. Aluminum is added to enhance the burning property. When this
powder is burned combustion reaction take place.

2KNO3+ 202z+ S+ C CO2 + SO2 + K2O2+ 2NO2

2. Smokeless Powder – consist of cellulose or glycerol nitrate combined with some stabilizers (
nitrobenzene or graphite nitrates, dichromate and oxalates ). When this powder explodes, the
chemical reaction take place :

Cellulose nitrate: C12H14O4(NO3)6

Glycerol nitrate : C3H5 (N03)3 + CO2+ H2O + H2O + N2 +O2

To explode a low explosive, flame is required. Like in guns the flame is applied by means of primer. Primer
produces flame on percussion. A typical primer consists of a case containing an initiating explosive such as mercury
fulminate, an oxidizing agent such as potassium chlorate or barium nitrate, and a fuel such as antimony sulfide. This
component is the basis for examination of gunshot residue particularly primer residue for distance determination.

Gunshot residue is formed when a weapon is fired and the vapors that are release from the primer solidify
into particles that become attached to people or objects either through impact or fallout.

Different factors affect the quality and quantity of gunshot residue such as the type of gun, caliber, bullet,
the burn rate, of the powder, environmental conditions, and when the residue is released in relation to when the
bullet is fired.

The following method used for detection of gunshot residue. This test determine whether a person has
discharge a gun, the Paraffin – Diphenylamine test.

Different names of this test:

1. Lunge’s test
2. Diphenylamine test
3. Dermal nitrate test
4. Gonzales test – the one who improve the test

It was introduced in United States in 1993 by Teodoro Gonzales of the criminal identification laboratory,
Mexico City police headquarters. The test used paraffin and coat

in the hands of suspect. After cooling the, the cast were removed and treated with diphenylamine (5% DPA
in 60% sulfuric).

Paraffin is said to be originate at Cuba where Dr. Gonzalo Iturrios first used paraffin for collecting
gunpowder residue from discharged firearm.

The basis of the test is the presence of nitrates in the gunpowder residue.

Method of examination

To determine whether a person has discharged a firearm, the Paraffin – Diphenylamine test is used. When
a warm melted paraffin wax is applied on the hands of the alleged shooter, it will cause the pores of the skin to

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 Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN ILOILO STATE UNIVERSITY
NISU – Victorino Salcedo Campus, Sara, Iloilo
Reg. No. 97Q19783

open and exude the particles of gunpowder residue. These particles of gunpowder residue are being extracted by
the paraffin cast (with used of melted paraffin wax) and will appear as blue specks, when diphenylamine reagent
(DPA for brevity) is added on the cast. It must be noted that the specks are generally located on the area of the
thumb and forefingers.

The blue color that appears indicates the reaction of nitrates with diphenylamine reagent. Thus, nitrate
from other sources like fertilizer will give the same reaction. Other substance similar to nitrate known as oxidizers
will also react with the reagent in the same way.

However, it must also be noted that blue specks have characteristics of “tailing”. Thus, nitrate from other
sources like fertilizers, will give the same reaction of the blue color but without the “tailing”. Other substances
similar to nitrate known as oxidizers will react with the reagent in the same way.

Substance giving false positive result:

1. Fertilizer
2. Explosives
3. Tobacco
4. Urine
5. Certain cosmetics
6. Food samples
7. Cigarettes

The allotment for performing a paraffin cast: 72 hours (3days) from the time of the alleged shooting
incidents. After the specific period, it will be impossible to extract the gunpowder nitrates. Nitrate from pores
cannot be removed by ordinary washing of the skin and stay for 72 hours. That is why it is important to conduct the
paraffin casting within the specific period. Irijani E. (2021)

Paraffin test is NOT conclusive evidence but just corroborative evidence which intends to support the
testimony of eyewitness/es. There ae instances wherein the person who actually discharge a gun still gives a
negative result because of several factors.

Factors for false negative result:

1. Type of caliber or ammunition

2. Use of gloves
3. Length of barrel
4. Age of the gun/efficiency of mechanism
5. Direction of firing
6. Wind direction and velocity
7. Humidity/percentage moisture in air
8. When 72 hours has already lapsed

Paraffin wax - is a white translucent, tasteless, odorless solid consisting of a mixture of solid hydrocarbons of high
molecular weight.

Type of caliber or ammunition

A hand discharging a revolver is more likely to give a positive result for gunpowder nitrates compared to
that of hand discharging a pistol. In an automatic pistol, the chamber is an integral part of the barrel, whereas in the

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 Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN ILOILO STATE UNIVERSITY
NISU – Victorino Salcedo Campus, Sara, Iloilo
Reg. No. 97Q19783

revolver, the chamber is located in the cylinder and separated from the barrel with airspace. Thus, leakage of
powder in a revolver is more likely to occur.

Length of the barrel

A weapon of 2 inch barrel will deposit residue over a larger area than a weapon of 5-inh barrel (even if
they are discharge from the same distance with the same type of ammunition). In a longer barrel, the hands is
farther away from the muzzle end of the gun. It takes a bullet to travel in more time, thus using up/ burning up
more, if not all, of the nitrates. In a short barrel, the bullet travels through the barrel in less time leaving behind a
greater amount of unburned particles.

Age of the gun/ efficiency of mechanism

Complete combustion or the conversion of all nitrates into its end product (CO, CO, N, O,-OH) is more likely
to occur in a new weapon compared to an old one. Besides, leakage of gunpowder is more likely to happen in the
old weapon where the breech mechanism is no longer tightly fitted.

Direction of firing

More powder residue will be obtained when the gun is discharged pointing upward than downward.
Gunpowder residue have weight and will naturally fall down because of gravity.

Wind direction and velocity

In high velocity (strong wind), the power residues will be blown in the direction of the wind. One is more
likely to be positive for gunpowder nitrates if there is no wind, or the wind direction is towards the shooter.

Humidity/ percentage moisture in air

Humidity lessens the extent of combustion yielding more gunpowder nitrates.

False Positive reaction

Smear of blue color or a conglomeration of blue specks on both dorsal and palm aspects of the hand.
Failure to find traces of nitrate on the hand of the person does not prove that he did not fired a gun. But it has
some value due to the psychological effect on those subject whose hands being submitted and where found
positive. Furthermore the findings of actual traces of gunpowder nitrates on the hand/ s of the subject does not
conclusively to say that he/ she has discharged a gun. It is possible that the GSR particle may have been blown on
the hand directly from the barrel of the gun being discharged by another person near to him.

Gunpowder residue test on firearms

To the test swabbing is one of the method used, using the cotton swab the barrel and chamber of the gun
to determine if the firearm was discharged. To consider that that test is positive or if there is a presence of
gunpowder deep blue color must be seen as it is considered as the reaction of nitrate by applying the reagent
(DPA).

Gunshot Range determination GSR Determination (also known as gunshot distance determination)

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 Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN ILOILO STATE UNIVERSITY
NISU – Victorino Salcedo Campus, Sara, Iloilo
Reg. No. 97Q19783

When firearm was discharge it can be deposited on the clothing of the suspect and of the victim. The size
and density of the pattern of gunpowder residue found on the clothing are the main factors considered in
determining the approximate distance of the shooter to the victim. As the distance of the victim from the shooter
increases the pattern expands while the density decreases and vice- versa.

Distance determination

The method of determining the distance between the firearm and the target. This is usually based on the
distance of the powder patterns or the spread of the shot pattern.

Importance of Distance Determination

1. In connection to self- defense appeals

2. For distinction between murder and suicide cases

In ascertaining gunshot rage the examiner always note and observe the following:

A. Entrance and exit holes

B. Powder residue pattern

Entrance and exit holes:

Entrance hole contains gunpowder residue (bullet wipe residue) and it’s slightly burned. The
diameter of entrance hole is smaller than the exit hole. The exit hole is frayed outward while entrance
hole in inward.

Classification of gunshot distance

-Burning (direct)
-Singeing (1 to 2 inches)
-Smudging (2 to 8 inches)
-Tattooing (8 to 18 inches)

The distance of the muzzle of gun to the target is classified into three : the direct contact, 2 inches to 36
inches away and 36 inches ways or more.

Characteristics of the gunshot wounds

a. Direct/ contact wounds

Observation may be noted:

1. Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn

2. Blackened area surrounding the bullet hole
3. The presence of partially burned powder residues around the entrance hole.

b. Wounds inflicted at a distance from 2-36 inches

Presence of smudging and powder tattooing (black coarsely peppered pattern)

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 Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN ILOILO STATE UNIVERSITY
NISU – Victorino Salcedo Campus, Sara, Iloilo
Reg. No. 97Q19783

Smudging is produced when the gun is held from about 2 inches to the maximum of 8 inches. The smoke
and soot from the burned pores are deposited around the hole of the entrance producing a dirty
appearance.
The size of the smudge depends upon the following: Length of the barrel, Age of the gun/ efficiency of
mechanism, direction of firing, wind direction and velocity, and humidity/ percentage moisture in air.

While powder tattooing produces black coarsely peppered pattern. Individual specks of tattooing around
the hole are visible by the naked eye.
c. Wounds inflicted at a distance of more than 36 inches
 Powdering is seldom present
 Nitrates found will not be sufficient for GSR
Another method used for examining whether the victim was holding a firearm, is by spraying the hands
of the victim with ferrozine spray in order to determine the presence of iron traces. Hydroxyguinoline
test with fluorescent photography can also be used.

Methods used to determine probable time the firearm has been discharged:

a. Luca test- a characteristic smell that decreases in intensity with lapse of time is present
immediately after firing but even after several weeks some slight smell remains.
b. Odor (Hydrogen Sulfide) - This is another product resulting from combustion of gunpowder
which is present in the gaseous state. This compound can be detected by means of lead acetate
paper test. If the breech of the gun is kept closed, this persist between 2-3 hours.
Sulfide- the greater part disappears in about 4-5 hours but frequently a trace remains for a
longer time, the longest period being 10 hours.
c. Odor of the Barrel (rusting) –As a rule, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of a firearm if
such firearm has been discharged, iron salts are formed and can be detected inside the barrel.
These iron salts are soon oxidized resulting in the formation of rust. The formation of rust is
affected by the humidity of the air so that in the interpretation of the result, this factor must
always be considered.
d. Presence of Nitrate (by cotton swabbing method) - nitrates diminish after a lapse of time.
Nitrates cab be detected by swabbing a portion of residue in a barrel and mixing the residue with
Diphenylamine solution (DPA).
e. Dermal Nitrate test –the test is designed to determine the presence of gunpowder nitrates on
the hands of the alleged shooter.

Scorching or Singeing - If the alleged firearm was discharge closest to the victim burns or scorches
may result. This resulting reaction. This caused by flame that emerges from the muzzle and travels only a
short distance from it. This distance will vary with the length of the barrel, the size of the powder charge
and the degree to which the bullet fill the barrel. The presence of the scorch is a proof that the firearm
was discharged a few inches away from the target. Scorching is very rare if the victim was shot 3 inches
or more away from the muzzle.

Other method used to determine the gunshot range residue (GSR)

AAS Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

NAA- Neutron Activation Analysis
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 Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN ILOILO STATE UNIVERSITY
NISU – Victorino Salcedo Campus, Sara, Iloilo
Reg. No. 97Q19783

SEM-EDX- Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive X-Ray analysis

ICP-MS- Inductively couled plasma with mass spectrophometry

Paraffin Casting

Materials and Apparatus:

Paraffin wax Absorbent cotton

Bond Paper Burner
Beaker or casserole Tongs

Procedure :

1. Heat the paraffin wax in a breaker / casserole until melts. Allow cooling for a few minutes so that it will not
burn the skin of your subject.
2. Let a subject wash hands with water without using any soap or detergent. Wipe the hands of the subject with
clean absorbent cotton.
3. Let the subject place his hands on a clean sheet of bond paper with palms facing downward and the fingers
closed together. Using a spoon or tong with cotton, pour the melted paraffin wax on the hands of the subject
from the thumb and index fingers and the dorsal portion to the little finger side of the hands.
4. Cover the hands and fingers through with paraffin wax and place a thin layer of absorbent cotton to reinforce
the wax.
5. Pour another layer of the wax until absorbent cotton has totally absorbed the wax.
6. Allow the wax to cool and solidify to form a cast before peeling them off.
7. When cooled, direct the subject to move the fingers first and slowly moving his hands out from the casts.
8. Place on the bond paper the case number, name of the subject, time and date, technician who took the cast,
witness and label the right and left hand.
9. Place another bond paper on top of the paraffin casts and staple together.
10. Place the paraffin casts inside an envelope or box for proper preservation.

Explosive and Explosion

Explosive is any substance that may cause explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion. It is a
chemical compound or mixture that under the influence of heat, pressure, friction or shock, undergoes a sudden
chemical change or decomposition.

There are three fundamental types of explosives, mechanical, nuclear, and chemical.

Mechanical explosives is one that depends on a physical reaction, such as overloading of a container with
compressed air.

Nuclear explosives is one in which a sustained nuclear reaction can be made to take place with almost
instant rapidly, releasing large amounts of energy.

Chemical explosives have two types: detonating or high explosives and deflagrating or low explosives

Detonating explosives such as TNT and dynamite are characterized by extremely rapid decomposition and
development of high pressure, while deflagrating explosives such as black and smokeless powders involve merely
fast burning and produce relatively low pressures. Under certain conditions, such as the use of large quantities and
high degree of confinement, some normally deflagrating explosives can be caused to detonate.

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 Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN ILOILO STATE UNIVERSITY
NISU – Victorino Salcedo Campus, Sara, Iloilo
Reg. No. 97Q19783

Classification of Explosives according to the velocity of reaction involved

A. Low explosive

Usually used propellants like black and smokeless powder. The rate of the decomposition is quite slow process
and the wave produced is less than the speed of sound. These are used for launching rockets, projectiles from guns
and missile systems.

Classes of Low Explosives

a. Primer
b. Igniter
c. Propellant – are used in launching projectiles from guns, rockets and missile system. A mixture of one or more
energetic materials, plasticizers to improve processing characteristics, stabilizers to increase storage life and
inorganic additives to facilitate handling, ignitability and decrease muzzle mesh.

Kinds of propellant
1. Smokeless Powder –widely used propellant, based on nitrocellulose.
2. Nitrates/ Nitrate (Found in black powder) - Salt of nitrates, such as KNO3, is used ingredient in fireworks,
gunpowder, blasting powder impregnate candlewicks. It is also used in picking meat and tobacco
treatment for evenly burning.

B. Primary and initiating explosives

This kind of explosive is extremely sensitive to detonation by heat, shock, friction and impact denotes
without burning, like lead azide and mercury fulminate. This is used primarily to start an explosive.

Primary explosives can be initiated by a mechanical shock, primary explosives are friction and heat
sensitive materials and readily ignited when comes in contact with flame or sparks.

Some common commercial explosives

1. Blasting caps- one of the most commonly found explosives used to set off main charge. These are small
thin cylinders with silver and copper color with 0.25 to 0.5 inch diameter and 2 to 6 inches in length. It
contains powerful and sensitive explosives. Even the heat of a person’s hands set off a blasting cap.
2. Safety Fuse- A time – delay devise much like firecracker fuse. It has a black powder core and waterproof
jacket of solid striped colors.
3. Detonating cord- usually this has a white exterior containing PETN. This is used to set off multiple charges
simultaneously.
4. Blasting agents- a combination of fuel and oxidants such as fuel oil and ammonium nitrate. The color
ranges from brown to bright pink due to the fuel added. This requires booster since the components are
not confined and cannot be set off by blasting cap. This kind of explosive was used in New York World
Trade Center and Oklahoma City bombings.
5. Boosters- cylinder shaped with holes in which blasting cap is inserted. This is used to increase the power of
the initiating charges.
6. Dynamites- cartridge or sticks typically 1 to 3 inches in diameter and 8 to 24 inches in length.
7. Slurries or gels- liquid and semi- liquid form of commercial explosive.
8. Black or smokeless powder- common over the counter explosive used in reloading gun ammunitions.

Explosion is a violent bursting or expansion caused by the release of mechanical, chemical or nuclear energy
from a confined area. This is a phenomenon resulting from a sudden release of energy and this happens so rapidly
that a local accumulation of energy occurs at the site of explosion moving outward in various ways.

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 Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN ILOILO STATE UNIVERSITY
NISU – Victorino Salcedo Campus, Sara, Iloilo
Reg. No. 97Q19783

Implosion is a similar phenomenon except that energy released is initially directed inward.

Types of explosion

a. Mechanical – it is a sudden breaking apart, shattering or bursting into pieces by internal pressure, such as
those caused by expansion of gas producing high pressure beyond the capacity of the container.
b. Atomic explosion- resulting from atomic transformation.
c. Chemical explosion- the source of energy comes from an explosive substance such as gunpowder
produced through the extremely rapid transformation of the unstable accompanied by the formation of
heat.

Shockwave chain reaction stable

Chain reaction causes the decomposition and rearrangement of molecules with a greater release of energy.

Explosive Strength

The magnitude of an explosion can be established based on the amount of energy that is released
The absolute measure of explosion size is determined in terms of energy released by exploding an explosive.

Damage Mechanism

a. Brisance- is the direct measure of energy transmission from explosion to the target. The most severe
because of the shattering action.
b. Sensitivity – is the effort required to initiate explosive decomposition.
c. Shock wave- the damage produce depend on the location of explosion.

Blastware- if the detonation occurs above or just below the surface of the ground, most of the damage will be given
off by the blast, splinters or fragments from the explosive case that travels as fast as the speed of sound.
d. Earth shock –wave produce when and explosive detonates underground producing earthquake.
e. Water shock- wave produced when an ordinance is detonated underwater.

Safety Procedures when responding to an explosive incident

a. Do not use two-way radios, radar, or television transmitting device within 500 feet. This includes Mobile
Data terminals and cellular phones. Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) given off by these devices can
detonate the item.
b. Notify proper authorities. (BFP, Police department, EOD, etc.)
c. Clear, and control the area. The size and type of explosive, terrain, shielding and other factors will
determine the area to be controlled.
d. Stage emergency medical service (EMS), fire and police units outside the control point.
e. Do not proceed to the suspected explosive. It may have motion sensitive or acoustic fuses that function
when disturbed or senses target. Use binocular to observe the area.
f. Reduce potential effect of the blast and flying shrapnel by opening doors and windows and by placing
emergency vehicles in the path of the blast wave to act as shield.

IV.Learning Assessment

General Instruction:

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 Republic of the Philippines
NORTHERN ILOILO STATE UNIVERSITY
NISU – Victorino Salcedo Campus, Sara, Iloilo
Reg. No. 97Q19783

Read and understand the following questions/ instruction per activity, use extra sheets of long bond paper for
your answers and prepare them for submission and compilation.

Part A. Essay: Answer the following questions:

1. What is Gunshot Residue? What its importance in police investigation? ( Minimum of 50 words)
2. Is paraffin test a conclusive evidence? Why? ( Minimum of 50 words)
3. What substances that gives a false positive result? How do they differ from the positive result?
4. Can there be an explosion without an explosive?(Minimum of 50 words)

V. Enrichment Activity/ Output

Instruction: Read and answer the activity below your answer must not bet less than 100 words. Use extra
sheet of paper.

1. Explain how to determine the distance of the shooting incident between suspect and victim or distance of the
muzzle of the gun from the victim.
2. Is there any means of removing these nitrates from the hands? How long will they stay in the pores?

V.References

Dascil .A, (2021),.Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology, Quezon, Manila, Wiseman’ Books Traidig,Inc.

Francisco M., (2018), Handbook/ Manual in Forensic Chemistry, Quezon, Manila ,Wiseman’ Books Traidig,Inc.

Yadav M., Tiwari A. (2017) Forensic toxicology and its relevance with criminal justice delivery system in India
https://medcraveonline.com/FRCIJ/forensic-toxicology-and-its-relevance-with-criminal-justice-delivery-
system-in-india.html
Toxicology History https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-
science/forensictoxicology#:~:text=Basic%20concepts%20of%20forensic%20toxicology&text=Therefore
%2C%20it%20can%20be%20defined,analytical%20chemistry%20and%20fundamental%20toxicology.

----End of Module 3, Lesson 2----

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