UNIT 2

Week 4-6: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to:

a. Ascertain the techniques of identifying nitrates from gunpowder and

explosives;
b. Distinguish human hairs from that of an animal or plant fibers; and
c. Identify methods of paper and ink examination as well as casting
techniques used in criminal investigation.
Big Picture A

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Ascertain the techniques of identifying nitrates

from gunpowder and explosives

Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential terms in connection to the techniques of
identifying nitrates from gunpowder and explosives will be defined:

• Gunpowder – Also known as the retronym black powder to distinguish it from

modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of
a mixture of sulfur (S), charcoal (C), and potassium nitrate (saltpeter, KNO3).
• Explosives – Is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential
energy that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied
by the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure

Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcome) for the three (3)
weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge
that will be laid down in the succeeding pages of discussion.

INTRODUCTION

In the investigation of crimes involving the use of firearms, law enforcement

officers need to know whether a suspect has fired a gun or not and the gunshot
range or the approximate distance of the shooter to victim.
When a firearm is discharged unburned particles of the gunpowder may
escape thru the breech of the gun and deposit on the hands of the shooter, on the
clothing of the victim and some may remain in the barrel. These gunpowder residues
can be detected by chemical examination.
In connection with suspected bombings the lab is requested to detect pieces
of explosives that may be found in remains of parts of a bomb. Explosives like
improvised and manufactured dynamites used in illegal fishing, are also examined.
DESCRIPTION OF GUNPOWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES

A. Gunpowder
1. Black powder – first invented; consist of a mixture of carbon (charcoal) 15%,
sulfur 10%, & potassium or sodium nitrate 75%.
2. Smokeless powder – which can be either single based; consisting of
nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. Certain inorganic and organic compounds are
added as stabilizers.

B. Types of Explosives
1. Mechanical – such as those caused by expansion of gas produced high
pressure beyond capacity of the container.
2. Atomic – resulting from atomic transformations.
3. Chemical – produced thru the extremely rapid transformations of the unstable
substances accompanied by the formation of heat.

C. Classification of Explosives
The speed of the chemical reaction or detonation of the explosives
determines the classification of explosives as low, initiating or high explosives
• LOW – explosives are low burning and are used mainly as propellants, like
black and smokeless powder.
• ATOMIC – resulting from atomic transformations
• PRIMARY or INITIATING explosives are extremely sensitive to detonation
by heat, shock friction and impact. They detonate without burning, like lead
oxide and mercury fulminate.
• HIGH explosives detonate under the influence of shock of the Explosion of a
primary explosive.
o Nitroglycerine – most widely used commercial explosive.
o RDX – considered as one of the most important explosive used today.
o C4 – considered as one of the most important military explosive used
today.
o CN (Chloroacetophenone) – is the principal component in the filter
used in tear gas solutions.
o Fire Bombs – Nolotov cocktail which is an incendiary device, acids
mixed with gasoline, alcohol and gasoline, etc.
• AMMONIUM NITRATE – the cheapest and most readily available salt of
nitric acid.
• TNT (trinitrotoluene) – the most widely used explosive.

D. Distance Determination
The process of determining the distance between the firearms and a target,
usually based on the distribution of powder patterns or the spread of a shot pattern.

Three Zones of Distance:

a. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held directly in contact with the body or
practically so.
Contact Wounds - damage is due to the muzzle blast than to the penetration of the
bullet:
a. Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn
 b. blackened area surrounding the bullet hole
c. Singeing of the fibers at the entrance and
d. Presence of partially burned powder residues around the entrance hole

b. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held from about 2 inches to 36 inches
away. Smudging and powder tattooing – when the gun is held from about to 2 inches
to a maximum of 8 inches. Smoke and soot is deposited around the hole of entrance
producing a dirty, grimy appearance. Individual specks of tattooing's around the hole
are visible with the naked eye

c. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held from 36 inches or more.
Partially burned and unburned powder particles are driven into the surface around
the gunshot hole producing a black coarsely peppered pattern called tattooing.

PARAFFIN-DIPHENYLAMINE TEST

To determine whether a person has fired a gun, the paraffin-diphenylamine

test is used. The basis of this test is the presence of nitrates in the gunpowder
residue. Warm melted-paraffin wax applied on the hands of the shooter will cause
the pores of the skin to open and exude the particles of the gunpowder residue.
These particles are collected by the paraffin cast and will appear as BLUE
SPECKS, when the diphenylamine reagent is added on the cast. The specks are
generally located on the area of the thumb and forefingers.
The blue colors that appear indicate the reaction of the nitrates with
diphenylamine reagent. Thus nitrate from other sources like fertilizers, will give the
same reactions.
Other substances similar to nitrates known as oxidizers will also react with
the reagent in the same way. This, the location, distribution and character of the
specks are considered to eliminate the other possible sources of oxidixers.
The result of this test is not conclusive because it does not always show that
nitrates or nitrites were necessarily results of discharge of firearms. Other
substances yield the same positive reaction to nitrates or nitrites, such as explosives,
 fireworks, pharmaceuticals and leguminous plants such as peas, beans and alfalfa.
(People vs Bacungurs, 417 SCRA 66, December 2, 2003)

NEUTRON –ACTIVATION ANALYSIS

Employed by the FBI which is a more specific test that requires access to a
nuclear reactor and facilities for detecting the radiation

Please note that you are not limited to exclusively refer to this module. Thus,
you are expected to utilize other books, research articles and other resources that
are available in the university’s library e.g. ebrary, search.proquest.com etc. and
other credible internet sources.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand
the lesson:
• [UniversityofCebu]. (2009, March 16). How to Perform Paraffin Test. [Video File]. Retrieved
from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MWU3xFx3PIo&t=637s