GU N P O W D E R

CHAPTER VII
I. DEFINITION

The gunpowder or powder charge in a cartridge is the propellant which, when ignited by the
primer flash, is converted to gas under high pressure and this propels the bullet or shot charge
through the barrel and on to the target.

In more recent times the general term “ gunpowder” has been replaced by the term “propellant”.
“Another term that is being used for it is “powder charge“ All these terms can be used
interchangeably because they refer to the same thing. The weight of the powder charge or
propellant in a cartridge is expressed in grains in English speaking countries and in grams in the
countries using metric system.

An understanding of powders, their burning characteristics and the ways in which their burning
rates may be changed are of primary interest to experts or firearms examiners as well as the police
investigators. Sometimes the investigators may be guided accordingly in their investigation by
knowing their answer to some problems pertaining to gunpowder. For example, the police may want
to know whether or not a “crime gun” was recently fired, and this through the help of the chemists
or by chemical analysis of the by-products of combustion can be ascertained to a certain degree.
II. CLASSIFICATION and COMPOSITION

Generally there are two types of powder used in small arms. There are the (1) black powder (2) smokeless
powder.

1. Black Powder- although black powder features less importantly, it is still utilized by some manufacturers especially
Europeans. In recent times black powder has been almost completely superseded by smokeless powder, and it is
seldom used as a propellant in modern cartridges. The standard ingredients of “black powder” are potassium nitrate,
sulphur and charcoal, although their proportions may vary somewhat as follows:

Potassium nitrate ……………………………………………….75%

Sulphur ……………………………………………..……………10%
Charcoal ………………………………………...……………….15%

Black powder relies for its explosive properties on “three qualities” which are typical of all explosives:
 Black powder relies for its explosive properties on “three qualities” which are typical of all
explosives:

First, when ignited it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air and this burning is rapid.

Second, in burning, it gives off a large amount of gas.

Third, a considerable amount of heat is also evolved.

Black powder is one of the most dangerous explosives to handle and store, because of the ease
with which it can be ignited. It is very easily ignited by heat, friction, flame or spark. It is subject to rapid
deterioration on absorption of moisture, but if kept dry it retains its explosive properties indefinitely.
2. Smokeless Powder-

The term “smokeless powder” is a misnomer for they are neither powder nor are they smokeless,
the later term being applied to them only because they do not give off huge cloud of white smoke like
the black powder. This is the type of powder commonly used now in modern small arms ammunition. It
is the most powerful of the propellants. All propellant in current use have a nitro- cellulose base and are
commonly known as smokeless powder. Various organic or inorganic substances are added to the
nitrocellulose base during manufacture to give improved qualities for special purposes.

The two main classes of smokeless powder are the (1) Single base Propellant or nitrocellulose and
(2) Double-base propellant. The single0 base powder contains only pure nitro glycerine gelatinized with
nitrocellulose. Almost all smokeless powder grains have a perfectly definite shape, such as small
squares, discs, flakes, strips, pellets or perforated cylindrical grains. Double base propellants are those
having nitrocellulose and nitro glycerine as their major ingredients, accompanied by one or more minor
ingredients as an centralite, vaseline phthalate esters, inorganic salts, etc. The minor ingredients are
used for various purposes, such as to insure stability, reduce flash, or flame temperature, (or both) and
improve ignitability. Double-base propellants are gray green to black in color, and the grains are similar
in size and shape to the single base propellants.
 Almost all smokeless powder grains have a perfectly definite shape, such
as small squares, discs, flakes, strips, pellets, or perforated cylinders.
The powder is made in different shapes to obtain certain types of burning.
The cylindrical grains are made in various diameter and lengths. Since the
powder grains are small, they ignite more readily and burn more freely than
cannon powder. When moisture is present or abnormal temperatures prevail
they are subject to more rapid deterioration than the larger grains.
CHAPTER VIII

ARMS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

RELATED TO
FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
 It is very important that a ballistics technician or firearms
examiner be sufficiently familiar with the various steps in the
manufacture of a firearm in order that he will be able to explain the
source or cause of the different markings which may be found on a
firearm evidence which shall be the basis of his identification. There
should always be a sound reason for all markings, scratches, or
dents visible on firearms evidence and it is the function of the firearms
examiner to determine how and why they were made, and also to
interpret their significance both to himself and to the court. Most of
these markings are transferred on the firearm evidences by deliberate
or accidental operations of the tools during the process of
manufacture.
 HOW THE BARREL IS MADE
All barrels, regardless of the type of weapon for which they are
being made, are manufactured from a solid piece of metal. The metal
may be cylindrical in form or it may have an irregular shape with
projecting portions which are later machined into sights, fastenings, or
other parts. The metal from which the barrel is made is carefully
selected for its chemical and metallurgical structure , thus assuring a
high quality product after the various machine operations and heat
treatmentare completed.
 The first step on the process is the drilling. A special deep-hole drill is used, through the
center of which lubricating oil is forced under pressure. This operation results in a
comparatively rough hole of uniform diameter which extends longitudinally from one end of
the barrel to the other. The interior surface at this stage bears numerous scars and
scratches resulting from the irregular cutting of the drill and the metal chips which mark the
finish.

In barrels intended for rifles the next step consists of reaming the drilled hole for its entire
length. This removes some of the scars and scratches left by the drilling operation. The
reamer removes metal from the entire surface because it is slightly larger in diameter than
the drill. In shotgun barrels which are to have some degree of choke , cutter or reamer is
used to finish the muzzle end. This completes the bore operations on a shotgun.
If the barrel is to be rifled, it is done by means of several rifling methods.
Some of the rifling methods used to make the riflings inside a gun barrel are the following:
(1) Hook-Cutter System
(2) Scrape –Cutter System
(3) Broaching-System
(4) Button-System
 The tools used in these methods are called the cutter , scraper, broach, and
button. After the rifling operation is completed, the barrel is lapped. This is the
polishing operation In which a lead plug closely fitting the inside of the barrel is
drawn back and forth on a rod carrying wit h it a polishing compound. This
operation polishes both the land and groove areas of the barrel and removes many
of the larger imperfections resulting from the running from one end to the other. If it
is a rifled barrel, the inside has spiral grooves on the inner surface extending for its
complete length.

The important fact for the firearms technician or examiner to remember is that no
matter how many polishing and finishing operations are used by a gun-maker, all of
the scars and imperfections on the inside of a barrel are not removed. As the
rifling cutter wears, small imperfections on its surface are transmitted to the surface
of the barrel. And in similar manner the accumulation of metal chips removed by the
cutter will scratch the barrel as it passes along.
Even the button-system imperfections will remain after the lapping
and finishing operations are completed.
 These microscopic scars remaining in the
lands and the grooves will make a series of striations
on every bullet which passes through the barrel. It is
the comparison of these striations on fired bullets
which is the basis of bullet identification.
 BREECH-FACE MANUFACTURE
Another face of firearms manufacture which is of great importance to the
firearms identification field is the finishing operations on the breechface of
the weapon. This is that portion of the firearm against which the cartridge
case and the primer are forced backwards when a cartridge is fired in the
chamber. As this occurs, the primer and the base of the cartridge case or
shell, will be imprinted with the tool markings on the breech face of the gun.
This happens because the base of the cartridge case is softer than the
breech face of the firearm, and it naturally follows that when a soft surface
comes in contact with a harder surface under tremendous pressure, it is the
softer surface that is engraved or imprinted with the tool marks from the
harder surface.
 FORENSIC FIREARMS
IDENTIFICATION
In our present era, we are so materialistic minded that we must have a concrete basis for an
opinion or a fact before we will accept it. What then is the basis for firearms identification? I believe in
answer to this question we have this to say:

1. Firearms identification is actually a refined toolmarks identification.

2. Then natural wear and tear of the tools involved.
3. When a softer surface comes in contact with a harder surface, it is the softer surface that will acquire
or be engraved or marked with impressions scratches from any irregularities on the harder surface.
4. The fact that no two things are absolutely identical or alike.

Taking each separately and beginning with the barrel, we start with barrel blank. A hole,
later called the bore, is first drilled through the blank. The diameter of this hole is near the size of the
desired caliber of the gun. The drilling is done by what is referred to as a barrel drill or deep-hole drill.
It has only one cutting edge. This drill is made of the best and hardest tool steel. The barrel steel, on
the other hand, is of the best and hardest steel. This drilling process is a very terrific operation, and
when completed leaves a rough undersize hole.
 To complete the enlarging process, the barrel is then reamed out to a larger diameter . This is
done by several types of reamers --- the roughing , finishing and burnishing reamer. We now have
a smooth bore barrel. The cutting edges of the drill and the reamers are irregular since they
themselves had to be manufactured and sharpened and it is humanly impossible to sharpen these
tools and not leave a few irregular or nicks on their cutting edge. To give a bullet the desired
spin, the spiral grooves are cut Lengthwise of the barrel. This is done by one of several methods
now available.
When these grooves have been cut to the desired depth, a process known as lapping is done.
This is a process consisting of a mixture of oil and abrasive; the purpose of which is to
eliminate the roughness of the interior of the barrel of the gun; however, it is not possible to
completely rid the interior of the barrel of all of the tool markings. As a result, the interior of the
barrel is filled with microscopic tool marking or irregularities.

Comparison of these marking (breech face markings) is the means of identifying whether
or not a particular cartridge case or shell was fired from a particular gun. The final operation in
the finishing of a breech face of the gun. THESE SCRATCHES OR STRIATIONS VARY FROM
GUN. AND IT CAN BE SAID THAT NO TWO GUNS WILL LEAVE THE AME SCRATCHES OR
IMPRESSIONS ON A FIRED CASE OR PRIMER. Similarly to breech face markings, extractors,
ejectors and firing pins often bear characteristic scar or marks resulting from the manufacturing
process. These will also frequently leave their marks or impression on a fired case primer.
1.
When a cartridge is fired in a firearm, the expansive force of the powder charge create a
tremendous pressure within the chamber of the firearm . The impulsive action of this rapid expansion
drives the cartridge case violently against the breech face of the weapon , irregularities present in this
surface leave identifying impressions upon the receptively-malleable metallic case, and especially upon the
primer. These breech face markings exhibit characteristic indicative not only of class with respect to resolver
types, but also of the productsof specific manufacturers.

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS

Generally , the marks found on “fired bullets” are:

Land marks- caused by the lands

2. Groove marks- caused by the grooves
3. Skid marks- due to worn out barrel
4. Shaving marks- found in fired bullet in revolvers
5. Slippage marks- due to worn out barrel
6. Trailing edge marks- bullets goes away from the axis
7. Accidental marks- produced by foreign substance
 Land marks and groove marks together are called “rifling marks”.
These are found on cylindrical or peripheral surface of the fired bullets and these
are caused by the riflings inside the gun barrel. These land marks and groove
marks are distinct and clear on the cylindrical surface of the fired bullets that
had passed through a new gun barrel. Skid marks are generally found on bullets
fired from revolver s. These marks are found more or less on the anterior portions
of the fired bullets and caused by the forward movement first of the bullet form
the chamber before it initially rotates as required by the riflings inside the gun
barrel.
 Trailing edge marks is found on the periphery of the bullet which goes away the axis when viewed from its base.
Accidental marks are produced by foreign object/s are embedded inside the barrel and maybe present in one shot only.
Occasionally, the bullet may be badly scratched by rough surface when handling with forceps of the post mortem physician.

II. MARKS FOUND ON “FIRED SHELLS”

Generally the marks found on “fired shells” are the following:

1. Firing pin mark

2. Breech face marks
3. Extractor marks
4. Ejector marks
5. Shearing marks
6. Chamber marks
7. Pivotal marks
8. Magazine lips markings
 Most of these marks are found on the base of the fired shells or cartridge cases, especially
for those fired from automatic weapons such as the Caliber .45 Automatic pistol, Caliber .45
Thompson Submachine Gun and the Caliber .45 Grease Gun. Not all these marks are
registered in every firing of the weapon, but a combination of some of these markings can be
utilized by the firearms examiner to arrive at a definite determination. These markings are
transferred to the base of the cartridge case or shell whenever an explosion takes place in the
chamber of the firearm. Since the base of the shell is made of softer metal than the hard
tempered steel of which the breech face of the gun is made, naturally the transfer of tool marks
takes place from firearm to cartridge case. This is true most especially center-fire cartridges,
wherein the priming mixture is contained. The breech face markings are found mostly on the
base of the cartridge case.

Extractor marks are mostly on shells fired from pistols, rifles, shotguns and machine guns.
These are found in extracting grooves. The ejector marks are generally found in cartridges fired
from “automatic weapons”. Both marks are located near the ream. “shearing marks”, which are
sometimes called “secondary firing pin mark” are found in the primer near the firing pin mark.
“magazine lips” markings are found at two points of the rim of the base of the shell and these
are caused by the magazine lips during the loading of the cartridges into the magazine for firing.
 These marks serves as a good guide for the firearm examiner in determining the
relative position of the cartridge in the actual explosion in the chamber of the suspected
firearm submitted for examination. “Chamber marks” are mostly found around the body of
the fired cartridge case and they are caused by the “irregularities” in inside walls of the
chamber.

The identification of firearms evidence is predicated on the principle that softer metals
are used in the manufacture of bullets and cartridge case or shells are indelibly imprinted
with the metal patterns of the hard steel surface of the firearms with which they come in
contact with. In the manufacture of a rifled arm, lands and grooves are cut into the interior
surface of the barrel for the purpose of twisting the bullet into a spin as it progresses
through the gun barrel. The ballistics significance of this twist on the bullet is to cause is to
hold straight through in its course after it leaves the muzzle of the weapon. In cutting these
lands and grooves, which are called “rifling”, the hard steel surface of the barrel is left,
even after final polishing, with microscopic imperfections or irregularities caused by the
cutting tools. Subsequent use and wear also contributes to this pattern of imperfections.
 The fired bullet is generally cut by the land as it passes through the bar in such a manner
that an examination of this bullet surface will readily indicate the width of the lands and
grooves and the direction of and degree of pitch of the twist. This information in itself
frequently permits firearm identification experts to determine the model or make of the gun
from which the bullet was fired for the reason that manufactures in different models utilized
varying number of lands and grooves of different width, twisting either to right with varying
degree. But even more important is the fact that this fired bullet bear microscopic scratches
and striations within the land and groove markings resulting from imperfections on the surface
of the interior of the barrel. These imperfections, of course are accidental and the pattern
formed is unique in any particular gun. It is easy to realize that the soft metal bullet forced
through the tight fitting barrel by the tremendous pressure of thousands of pounds per square
inch resulting from the explosion will be permanently engraved with the irregular surface of
the hard steel of the barrel. In actual practice, the firearms identification experts a number of
test shots through the barrel of the suspected weapon and compares them with the
questioned missile or bullet for the purpose of determining whether or not a similar
microscopic markings are found on both. Normally a “questioned” bullet is compared with two
or more “test” or “standard” bullets under the bullet comparison microscope. The evidence
bullet and the test bullets are compared in several portions.
 The breech face of the firearm when finished must have some filing done to completely finish it
and remove the burns. This filing leaves file marks on the breech face. With the naked eye, it is
difficult to see this file marks. The breech face may appear smooth, but actually when seen and
examined under the microscope it will appear to contain microscopic or minute irregularities or
striations on its surface. This part of the gun is also made of fine hard steel and after cutting and filing
the same no effort is made on the part of the manufacturer to reduce this surface to mirror-like finish
for the reason that such is not necessary for proper functioning of the weapon.

This microscopic irregularity serves as a die to permanently stamp the soft metal surface of the
primer or the cartridge case as it forced hard against the breech block by the tremendous power of the
explosion. This irregular pattern design of the tool markings on the hard steel breech face is
transferred to the softer brass of the cartridge. Likewise, the machine or tool marking left during the
process of manufacture of the extractor, the ejector, and the firing pin are imprinted on a cartridge
when fired. N examining bullets, the firearms examiner or identification expert fires or discharges a
number in these shots in suspected gun and then compare the microscopic imprints on the base of
the test shells with the evidence shell in question.
 During the manufacture, regardless of the hardness of the hard tool steel material,
the tools become worn during the passage through the bore and will leave different
markings at one end of the barrel tan from the initial cut made to begin the drilling of
the barrel. These tools must be either re-sharpened to provide a different set of
markings on the cutting edge or replaced entirely. Also, no one can file a case of work
exactly alike twice. For each of these reasons the markings of breech faces of different
weapons will not be identical as to the wear and tool markings vary from one firearm to
another. A bullet is either made almost completely of lead or a lead core with a copper-
nickel envelope casing (the so- called metal case of jacket bullet). A primer is made of
a crushable material, and the cartridge case of brass. Each of these material is much
softer than steel.
Experience has shown through that when we desire to make an impression we
select a mould harder than the moulding material, or at least we alter the moulding
material from its original state to a pliable one before moulding. The bullet, case and
the primer of a cartridge are of softer metal than the steel of the gun to begin with the
moment of firing producers much heat and pressure, softening the bullet and case a
bit. The bullet case in this state is mark by the prominent by microscopic individual tool
markings on the inside of the gun.
 The final identification of a fatal gun is based not on few markings, but on a
pattern of markings are a combination of these markings. We make hundreds of
identification in a week of daily activities as we meet our friend. We meet as an
associate and identify him as JUAN; not by one or two personal characteristics.
Some of these personal characteristics he received at birth and some developed
through the years. This totality of his personal characteristics identifies him as
separates him from any other persons in the world, because no one else will have
these God-given characteristics but him. Same with firearms.

Some of their characteristics are given at “birth” (the tool markings) and others
developed during its lifetime. However, the combination of this two will be
evidenced in the markings it will imprint on bullets and cartridge cases when fired.
These markings are the “signature” of this particular gun and no other. Of God in all
his infinite Greatness did not see fit to make any two things absolutely identical,
how can we then as ordinary people hope to attempt to do so?
 It is very obvious that anything remotely pertaining to a firearms evidence found at the scene of
a crime is of some value to the firearm examiner. Some evidences may be more helpful than the
others. However, some type of examination may be possible for any type of evidence. Of course
the most important piece of evidence needed by the examiner is one or more fired bullets. Other
pieces of evidence include fired cartridge gases, firearms cartridges, shot pellets, shot wads and
anything which might short the distance, such as clothing or a photograph or a description of a
flash wound. We need all of the bullets found at the scene of a crime as no one can tell which of
the bullets may be identified with a particular firearm. It is generally incorrect to assume that once
a bullet is removed from the body there is no necessity anymore for recovery of any other bullets
at the scene of the crime.

The truth of the matter is that an identification of any other bullets from a crime scene will
suffice to place the evidence gun at the scene. Care should be exercised in the recovery of these
bullets. It is important to know where each bullet was found. The order of recovery should be
noted by the investigator. Many times in court testimony, the firearms examiner is prohibited from
testifying by a missing link in the chain of possession of evidence. The weak link here is improper
recovery and identification of a bullet. It should be marked for ready identification in the future
either on the nose (the ogive ) or on the base.
III. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS

Class characteristics are those characteristics that are determinable even prior to the manufacture of the
firearms. These characteristics are factory specifications and within the control of man. These serve as basis for
identifying a certain group or class of firearms. Examples of “class characteristics” are:

1. Bore diameter (caliber)

2. Number of lands and grooves
3. Width of lands
4. Width of grooves
5. Direction of twist
6. Pitch of riflings
7. Depth of grooves
1. BORE DIAMETER- (caliber) the diameter in which the bore was reamed. It is the distance measured
between two opposite lands inside the bore.

2. NUMBER OF LANDS AND GROOVES- the number of lands and grooves inside the fired firearm are
always the same. If a bore has six lands it will also have six grooves. It is impossible for a bore to have
a six lands and five groove. The number of lands and grooves is valuable class characteristics. The
grooves number may run from three to eight or more, but most modern firearms have five or six.

Lands- the elevated portions

Grooves- the depressed portion

3. WIDTH OF LANDS- land width is the dependent on the bore diameter, groove, width and number. The
lands are a “reminder” of the circumference after subtracting all the groove widths.

4. WIDTH OF THE GROOVES- groove width is measured as the “shortest” distance between the two
sides or edges of a groove.
5.DIRECTION TWIST- the rifling inside the gun barrel may twist either to the
right or left. The twist of the rifling cause the bullet to “rotate” as it passes
through the bore, for the bullet to have “gyroscopic stability” during its flight
from muzzle to target.

6.PITCH OF RIFLINGS- it is a measure of twisting of the lands and grooves. It

refers to the “distance” advanced by the riflings in one complete run. (360°)

7.DEPTH OF GROOVES- groove depth in the bore is measured in a radius of

the bore as seen in cross section. Grooves are usually a few thousands of
an inch deep. It is equal to “height “ of the side of the “land”