Teaching Material

Course No. AHT- 301

Post Harvest Management and Value Addition of Fruits and
Vegetables (1 + 1)

Part I: Postharvest management of fruits and vegetables

Compiled by: Md. Wasim Siddiqui, Md. Shamsher Ahmad, and J. P. Singh

Part II: Value addition of fruits and vegetables

Compiled by: M. A. Aftab and Prem Prakash

Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology

Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar

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 Part - I
Postharvest management of fruits and vegetables

Factors responsible for deterioration of harvested fruits and

vegetables
Fresh fruits, vegetables and flowers are living commodities even after harvest,
they respire by taking up oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide and heat (Vital heat).
They also transpire (loose water) and carryout other biochemical activities. Therefore
they are more perishable when compared to other agricultural commodities. While
attached to the plant, the losses due to respiration and transpiration are replaced from
the flow of sap which contains water, photosynthates and minerals. Respiration and
transpiration continue after harvest and since the produce is removed from the plant, it
has to depend entirely on its own food reserve and moisture content. As losses of
respirable substrate and moisture are not made up, the deterioration commenced.
The losses that occur from the time of harvesting of fresh produce till they reach the
consumer are referred as post harvest losses.
Post harvest losses occur in terms of-
 Quantitative loss– It refers to the reduction in weight due to moisture loss and
loss of dry matter by respiration.
 Qualitative loss– It refers to freshness deterioration leading to loss of consumer
appeal and nutritional loss including loss in vitamins, minerals, sugars, etc.
These losses could be minimized to a large extent by following proper pre-harvest
treatments, harvesting at right maturity stage and adopting proper harvesting,
handling, packing, transportation and storage techniques. The factors responsible for
deterioration of horticultural produce are as follows-
1. RESPIRATION:
It is the most deteriorating biological process of the harvested fruits and vegetables
which leads to oxidative breakdown of complex organic materials (carbohydrates,
proteins, fats) into simpler molecules (CO2 and H2O) with production of energy. Since
the products are still alive after harvest, their living cells respire to secure energy.
Senescence is hastened because-
 Stored food reserve which provide energy for maintaining living status of
commodity is exhausted
 Loss of food value (energy value) for the consumer
 Reduced flavour quality especially sweetness
 Loss of salable dry weight (important for commodities required for dehydration)
The rate of respiration of harvested commodities is generally proportional to the
respiration rate.

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2. TRANSPIRATION:
Transpiration is a physical process in which high amount of water is lost from the
produce. it results in not only direct quantitative losses (loss of salable weight) but also
in loss in appearance (wilting and shrivelling), textural quality loss (softening loss of
crispness) and loss in nutritional quality. When the harvested produce loses 5% or
more of its fresh weight, it begins to shrivel or wilt and soon becomes unusable.
Factors influence the transpiration rate in various commodities-
A. Internal or commodity factors:
 Morphological or anatomical factors- Presence of cuticle, stomata, lenticel,
trichomes etc.
 Skin texture - Fresh produce having thin skin with many pores lose water quickly
than those having thick skin with fewer pores.
 Surface to volume ratio- commodities having higher surface area in relation to
their volume will lose water more rapidly. It is clearly visible in leafy vegetables
where the water loss is much faster than a fruit as they have more surface area to
volume ratio.
 Maturity stage - less matured fruits lose more moisture than matured
fruits/vegetables
 Surface injuries - Mechanical damages accelerate the rate of water loss from the
harvested produce. Bruising and abrasion injuries will damage the protective
surface layer and directly expose the underlying tissues to the atmosphere
allowing greater transpiration.

B. Environmental factors:
 Temperature- High storage temperature induces a greater rate of transpiration
and greater shrinkage than comparatively low temperature.
 Relative humidity- The rate of transpiration is inversely proportional to the
relative humidity. In other words low relative humidity induces a high rate of
transpiration and high RH induces low rate of transpiration.

3. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT:

In some commodity growth and development continue even after harvest which
accelerates deterioration. For example
 Sprouting of potato, onion and garlic
 Fresh rooting of onions
 Fibre development in Asparagus

4. PHYSIOLOGICAL BREAKDOWN:
It involves plant tissue breakdown that is not directly caused either by pests, diseases or
by mechanical injury. Physiological breakdown can takes place due to exposure of
produce to an undesirable temperature or atmosphere or preharvest nutritional
imbalance.

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Following physiological breakdowns are common in various commodities:
 Freezing injury- when commodity stored at below their freezing temperature (
0°C)
 Chilling injury- when commodities mainly tropical and subtropical origin held at
temperature above their freezing point but below the critical temperature.
 Heat injury- when commodity exposed to direct sunlight or at excessively
hightemperature. It causes defects like sunburn, bleaching, scalding,
unevenripening and excessive softening.
 Very low O2 (<1%) and high CO2 (>20%) in atmosphere during storage can cause
physiological problems
 Disorders due to preharvest nutritional imbalances like bitter pit of apple,
blossom end rot of tomato due to calcium deficiency

5. PHYSICAL DAMAGE:
It causes higher loss of water, provide loci for fungal infection, stimulate respiration and
ethylene evolution by the commodity. Various types of physical damages responsible
for deterioration are-
 Mechanical injury/ cut - during harvesting, handling, storage, transportation etc.
 Bruising due to vibration (during transportation), impact (dropping) and
compression (overfilling)
 Compression bruising- It result from compression of overfilled containers,
either during lidding or after stacking. Eg. Grape, plum.
 Impact bruising- This happens when the product drops onto a hard surface
during filling of the package or from dropping of individual packages or even
pallet loads of produce. The impact bruising may not be seen at the product
surface, since the symptoms appear as internal damage. Eg. Apple.
 Vibration bruising- It occurs on the fruit surface as a result of rubbing/
vibration against another surface during handling or transportation. Eg.
Strawberry.

6. COMPOSITIONAL CHANGES:
Compositional changes during ripening of fruits are desirable, but some changes are
undesirable. These changes are:
 Loss of chlorophyll (green color) – In vegetables
 Loss of carotenoids (yellow and orange color) – In apricot, peaches, citrus fruits
and tomato
 Loss of anthocyanins (red and blue color) – In apples, cherries and strawberries
 Change in carbohydrates at low temperature
 Starch to sugar conversion – potato
 Sugar to starch conversion – peas, sweet corn
 Breakdown of pectin and other polysaccharides – causes softening of fruit
 Change in organic acids, proteins, amino acids and lipids. – can influence flavour

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  Loss in vitamins – effects nutritional quality

7. PATHOLOGICAL BREAKDOWN:
This is mainly caused by the activities of bacteria and fungi (yeast and mould).
Succulent nature of fruits and vegetables make them easily invaded by these organisms.
The common pathogens causing rots in fruits and vegetables are fungi such as
Alternaria, Botrytis, Diplodia, Phomopsis, Rhizopus, Pencillium and Fusarium and among
bacteria, Erwinia and Pseudomonas cause extensive damage.
With the onset of ripening, fruits become more susceptible to infection by pathogens.
Furthermore, stresses such as mechanical injury, chilling injury lower the resistance of
the commodity to pathogens.
In most cases, damage is visible in the field itself and such fruits and vegetables are
discarded during harvesting. However, in many cases the infestation is internal and not
visible at the time of harvesting. It is only during post harvest storage/handling that the
infestation becomes visible. Losses from post-harvest disease in fresh produce can be
both quantitative and qualitative. Loss in quantity occurs where deep penetration of
decay makes the infected produce unusable. Loss in quality occurs when the disease
affects only the surface of produce causing skin blemishes that can lower the value of a
commercial crop.
8. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
Following environmental factors are responsible for deterioration-
 Temperature
 Relative humidity
 Atmospheric gas compositions
 Ethylene
 Light
Temperature
Environmental temperature plays an important role in deterioration of produce.
 Every increase of 10°C temperature above optimum increases the deterioration
by two to three times
 Exposure to undesirable temperature results in many physiological disorders
like; freezing injury, chilling injury, heat injury etc.
 Temperature influence germination and growth rate of fungal spores and other
pathogens.
 High temperature causes increase in respiration and transpiration rate of
produce.
Relative humidity
 The rate of loss of water from fruit, vegetables and flowers depends upon the
vapour pressure deficit between the surrounding ambient air, which is
influenced by temperature and relative humidity.
 Rate of water loss from commodity depends upon RH. Higher the RH, lower will
be water loss from produce.
 Chances of microbial growth are more at higher RH.

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Atmospheric gas composition
 Reduction of O2 and elevation of CO2 can either delay or accelerate deterioration
of fresh horticultural crops.
 Build up of undesirably high carbon dioxide and very low levels of oxygen in the
storage facility can lead to many physiological disorders leading to spoilage. Eg.
Hollow heart disease in potato is due to faulty oxygen balance in storage or
during transportation.
 Exposure of fresh fruits and vegetable to O2 levels below the tolerance limits or
to CO2 levels above their tolerance limits in storage rooms may increase
anaerobic respiration and the consequent accumulation of ethanol and
acetaldehyde, causing off-flavours.
 The other bad effects of unfavourable gas composition include irregular ripening
of certain fruits, soft texture, lack of characteristic aroma, poor skin color
development, etc.
 Example: In Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage (0-1°C with 1-2% CO2 and 2-
3% O2, RH 90-95%),apples can be stored for 6-12 month.
Ethylene
Effect of ethylene on harvested horticulture commodities may be desirable or
undesirable. On one hand, ethylene can be used to promote faster and more uniform
ripening of fruits. On other hand exposure to ethylene can deteriorate the quality of
certain vegetables such as destruction of green colour in leafy and other vegetables,
early senescence of flowers, bitterness in carrots, increased toughness, accelerated
softening, discoloration etc.
Light
Exposure of potatoes to light results in greening of the tubers due to formation of
chlorophyll and solanine which is toxic to human on consumption.
9. INSECTS AND RODENTS
Fruits and vegetables are attacked by a variety of insect pests which render them unfit
for human consumption or reduce their market value.

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 Maturity of fruits and vegetables
Developmental Continuum
Initiation.................................................................................................................Death
Sprout
Growth: asparagus, cucumber, beans, sweet corn
Maturation: onion, potato, carrot
Physiological maturity: mango, banana, citrus, melon, pear, pineapple, tomato
Ripening: apple, banana, melon, pear, tomato
Senescence

Growth: Process of being larger/longer/more numerous i.e. Mostly Physical Change

Development: Process of transformation (mostly positive) into different stage
(improvement). It may be physical, social, or psychological.

Maturity: derived from Latin word Maturus means ripen

This is the stage of development, which ensures attainment of maximum edible
quality at the completion of ripening process.
Maturation: immature, mature, optimally mature, over mature
It is the stage of development leading to the attainment of physiological and
horticultural maturity (maximum edible quality)
Ripe:
It is derived from Saxon word ‘Ripi’, which means gather or reap. This is the
condition of maximum edible quality attained by the fruit following harvest. Only fruit
which becomes mature before harvest can become ripe.
Ripening:
Ripening involves a series of changes occurring during early stages of senescence
of fruits in which structure and composition of unripe fruit is so altered that it becomes
acceptable to eat. Ripening is a complex physiological process resulting in softening,
colouring, sweetening and increase in aroma compounds so that ripening fruits are
ready to eat or process. The associated physiological or biochemical changes are
increased rate of respiration and ethylene production, loss of chlorophyll and continued
expansion of cells and conversion of complex metabolities into simple molecules.
Senescence:
Senescence can be defined as the final phase in the ontogeny of the plant organ
during which a series of essentially irreversible events occur which ultimately leads to
cellular breakdown and death.
Types of Maturity
Physiological maturity: Stage of development when a plant part will continue
ontogeny even after harvest OR plant part has completed natural growth and
development in which quality has reached minimum acceptable standards. It always
followed by senescence. Related to both fruits and vegetable.

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Horticultural/commercial maturity: Stage of development when a plant posses the
quality pre-requisites for use by the consumer for a particular purpose. It is a stage of
fruit and vegetable at which consumer wants the fruit and vegetable or fruit and
vegetable require by market. The horticultural maturity of fruits and vegetables
depends upon the purpose for which it is harvested. Generally related to vegetables.
Physiological maturity- fruits- immature, mature, ripening, ripe, overripe
Horticultural maturity- vegetables- immature, mature, over mature
Maturity Indices (MI)
Maturity indices can be defined as the required set of quantifiable guidelines for
determining quality of horticultural crops.

Importance of MI
 MI= Harvest indices
 Attainment of good sensory and nutritional quality
 Use- fresh market or processed
 Helps in getting adequate shelf life/storage life
 Facilitates marketing standards
 Helps to control Diseases and disorder

Types of indices and their components

i) Visual
a) Size and shape: Maturity of fruits can be assessed by their final shape and size at the
time of harvest. Fruit shape may be used in some instances to decide maturity. For
example, the fullness of cheeks adjacent to pedicel may be used as a guide to maturity of
mango and some stone fruits (Figure 1).
Fig 1 : Judging mango harvest maturity by shape of shoulder

Immature
Immature Half Mature
Half mature Mature
Mature

Figure . Judging mango harvest maturity by shape of shoulder

Some cultivars of banana become less angular in cross section as development and
maturation progress (Figure 2). Size is generally of limited value as a maturity index in
fruit, though it is widely used for many vegetables, especially those marketed early in

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their development. With these produce, size is often specified as a quality standard,
with large size generally indicating commercial over-maturity and under-sized produce
indicating an immature state. The assumption, however, is not always a reliable guide
for all-purpose.

Three - quarters Light full three - quarters

Full three -quarters Full

Figure : Cross section of the middle banana fingers showing the chanages in angularity
as they mature on the plant

The visual appearance of fruit and vegetable is the most important quality factor, which
decides its price in the market. The consumer (wholesaler or retailer) observes the
quality of fresh fruits and vegetables with their visual or external appearance. The
produce should attain proper shape and size. Medium size produce is always preferred
by the consumers, because they tend to view large fruits as more mature. The
appearance of the product is the most critical factor in the initial purchase, while
subsequent purchase may be more related to texture and flavour.

Therefore, subjective evaluation of size and shape of the produce should be conducted
to meet the desired quality characteristics.

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b) Colour: The loss of green colour of many fruits is a valuable guide to maturity as
shown in Plate 1. There is initially a gradual loss in intensity of colour from deep green
to lighter green and with many commodities, a complete loss of green colour with the
development of yellow, red or purple pigments. Ground colour as measured by colour
charts, is useful index of maturity for apple, pear and stone fruits, but is not entirely
reliable as it is influenced by factors other than maturity. For some fruits, as they
mature on the tree, development of blush colour, that is additional colour superimposed
on the ground colour, can be a good indicator of maturity. Examples are red or red-
streaked apple cultivars and red blush on some cultivars of peach.

Objective measurement of colour is possible using a variety of reflectance or light

transmitance spectrophotometer. Colour perception depends on the type and intensity
of light, chemical and physical characteristics of the commodity, and person’s ability to
characterize colour. Although human eye is used to evaluate colour but results can vary
considerably due to human differences in colour perception. Therefore, an instrument
(objective method) is used to provide a specific colour value based on the amount of
light reflected off the commodity surface or light transmitted through the commodity.
This instrument can measure small differences in colour accurately and can be
automated in the packing line. This instrument is popularly known as Colour Difference
Meter. This instrument use colorimetric method for colour measurement.

Plate : judging maturity of mango and tomato by colours

ii) Physical indices

a) Firmness: As fruit mature and ripen they soften by dissolution of the middle lamella
of the cell walls. The degree of firmness can be estimated subjectively by finger or
thumb pressure, but more precise objective measurement is possible with pressure
tester or penetrometer. In many fruits such as apple, pear, peach, plum, guava, kinnow
etc. firmness can be used to determine harvest maturity. Penetrometer measures the
pressure necessary to force a plunger of specified size into the pulp of the fruit. Such
pressure is measured in pounds and kilograms force.

b) Specific gravity: As fruit mature, their specific gravity increases. This parameter is
rarely used in practice to determine when to harvest a crop but it could be where it is
possible to develop a suitable sampling technique. It is used, however, to grade crops

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into different maturities. To do this the fruit or vegetable is placed in a tank of water;
those that float will be less mature that those that sink. To give greater flexibility to the
test and make it more precise, a salt or sugar solution can be used in place of water. This
changes the density of the liquid, resulting in fruits or vegetables that would have sunk
in water floating in the salt or sugar solution.

iii) Chemical Measurement

Measurement of chemical characteristics of produce is an obvious approach to the
problem of maturity determination. The conversion of starch to sugars during
maturation is a simple test for the maturity of some apple cultivars. It is based on the
reaction between starch and iodine to produce a blue or purple colour. The intensity of
the colour indicates the amount of starch remaining in the fruit. The total soluble solids
of the fruit can be measured with refractometer, which indicate the harvest maturity of
fruits. Acidity is readily determined on a sample of extracted juice by titration with 0.1
N NaOH. The sugar acid or TSS acid ratio is often better related to palatability of fruit
than either sugar or acid level alone.

a) Soluble Solids Content (SSC): Soluble solid content (SSC) also called total soluble
solids (TSS), can be determined in a small sample of fruit juice using hand refractometer
(Plate). The spectrometer measures the refractive index, which indicates how much a
light beam will be slowed down when it passes through the fruit juice. The
refractometer has different scales (0-32OB), (28-62OB) and (56-92OB) which can be read
directly. For large size fruits, these should be cut from stem to blossom end and to the
centre of the fruit to account for variability in SSC from top to bottom and inside to
outside of the fruit.
b) Titratable acidity: Titratable acidity (TA) can be determined by titrating a know
volume of juice with 0.1N NaOH to end point of pink colour as indicated by
phenolphethalin indicator. The milliliters of NaOH needed are used to calculate the TA.
The TA expressed as per cent malic, citric or tartaric acid can be calculated as follows:

TA = ml NaOH x N (NaOH) x acid meq. Factor* x 100

Juice titrated
* the following acid meq. factor may be used for different fruits

Acid Acid meq. factor Commodities

Citric 0.0064 Berries, citrus fruits, pineapple
Malic 0.0067 Apple, pear, peach, tomato
Tartaric 0.0075 Grape

iv) Calculated indices:

a) Calendar Date : For perennial fruit crops grown in seasonal climate which are more
or less uniform from year to year, calendar date for harvest is a reliable guide to
commercial maturity. Time of flowering is largely dependent as temperature and the

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 variation in number of days from flowering to harvest can be calculated for some
commodities by use of degree-day concept. Such harvesting criteria can be developed
by the growers based on their experiences.

b) Heat Units An objective measure of the time required for the development of the fruit
to maturity after flowering can be made by measuring the degree days or heat units in a
particular environment. It has been found that a characteristics number of heat unit or
degree-days is required to mature a crop under usually warm conditions, maturity will
be advanced and under cooler conditions, maturity is delayed. The number of degree
days to maturity is determined over a period of several years by obtaining the algebraic
sum from the differences, plus or minus, between the daily mean temperatures and a
fixed base temperature (commonly the minimum temperature at which growth occurs).
The average or characteristic number of degree-days is then used to forecast the
probable date of maturity for the current year and as maturity approaches, it can be
checked by other means.

Maturity Indices for selected fruits and vegetables

Fruits/ Vegetables Maturity indices or characteristics

Almonds splitting of hull, separation of hull from shell, development of abscission
zone
Apple
‘Golden Delicious’ 12% SSC, 18 lb firmness
‘Red Delicious’ 11% SSC, 18 lb firmness
Asian Pears skin colour change from green to yellowish green
Pathar Nakh 145 days after fruit set
Baggugosha 135 days after fruit set
Banana disappearance of angularity in a cross section of the finger
Ber colour break stage (when light yellow colour appear)
Cherry TSS = 14-15%, light red colour
Grapes (table) minimum SSC % of 14 to 17.5, depending on cultivars, SSC/TA of 20 or
higher.
Guava colour break stage ( when skin colour changes from dark green to light
green)
Lemon 30% or more juice by volume
Lychee/litchi TSS: total acid ratio of 30-40, bright red in colour
Kinnow TSS/acid ratio 12:1 to 14:1
Kiwi fruit TSS – 6.5%, Firmness = 14 lbs
Mango changes in shape (increase fullness of cheeks or bulge of shoulder), flesh
colour yellow to yellowish-orange
Papaya skin shows yellowing
Peaches ground colour change from green to yellow (varied for different cultivars)
Plums skin colour changes

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Pomegranate minimum 1.85% TA and red juice colour
Strawberries 2/3 of berry surface showing pink or red colour
Beans Pods are filled, seeds immature.
Brinjal Immature, glossy skin, 40days from flowering.
Broccoli Adequate diameter, compact, all florets should be closed.
Cabbage Firm head
Cantaloup ¾ to full slip under slight pressure, abscission from vine.
Carrot Immature, roots reached adequate size.
Cauliflower Mature and atleast 6” in diameter, compact
Cucumber Immature and glossy skin
Garlic Well filled bulbs, tops dry down
Ginger 8-9 months after planting
Melon Ground colour change to white with greenish tint, slightly waxy peel.
Mushroom Caps well rounded, partial veil completely intact.
Okra Pod 2-4” long, not fibrous, tips of pods pliable.
Onion (dry bulbs) When 10-20% of tops fall over
Peas Pods well filled but not faded in colour.
Pepper Fruit size and colour (depends on colour and intended market)
Potatoes Harvest before vines die completely, cure to heal surface wounds.
Radish (spring) 20 to 30 days after planting.
Radish (winter) 45 to 70 days after planting.
Tomatoes Seeds fully developed, gel formation advanced in atleast one locule.
Watermelon Flesh colour 75% red, TSS = 10%

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 Harvest factors affecting postharvest quality
Maturity at harvest stage is one of the main factors determining compositional quality &
storage life of horticultural produce. All fruits, with a few exceptions reach peak eating
quality when fully ripened on the tree. However, since they cannot survive the
postharvest hurdling system, they are usually harvested mature but not ripe. The
harvest factors are as follows:
1. Stages of harvest
During harvesting, maturity stage is an important factor determining the final quality of
the produce. For instance, when fruits and vegetables are harvested too late or too early
in the season, overall taste, texture and colour may be compromised. Harvesting of
fruits & vegetables at immature stage leads to both quantitative and qualitative losses.

Immature fruits fail to ripen normally with low nutritive values and have inferior
flavour quality when ripe. On the other hand, over mature fruits are likely to become
soft and mealy with insipid flavour soon after harvest.
Many vegetables, in particular leafy vegetables and fruit vegetables (cucumber, pea,
bean, okra) attain optimum eating quality prior to reaching full maturity. So delayed
harvest of these produce lead to poor quality.
Most of the cut flowers are harvest at immature stage. For eg. Roses are harvested at
tight bud stage.
2. Time of harvest
It is advisable to harvest produce when temperature is mild, as high temperature causes
rapid respiration and excessive water loss. The recommended time for harvest of fresh
horticultural produce is early morning hours or late evening hours.
The time gap between harvesting and delivery to market also damage the quality of
fruit, vegetables and flowers. If fresh produce is not processed quickly, it may also lose
nutritional value.
3. Method of harvest
The method of harvesting can also have significant impact on the composition &
postharvest quality of fresh fruits & vegetables. Sharp tools should always be used to
detach the produce from the mother plant.
Mechanical injury (such as brushing, surface abrasions and cuts) can accelerate loss of
water & vitamin C, resulting in increased susceptibility to decay-causing pathogens.
Cut flowers with long stern have higher postharvest life than short stem because,
shorter stem have less carbohydrate reserve. While harvesting cut flowers, care should
be taken to give slant cut and not to crush. Slant cut helps in facilitating the maximum
surface area to absorb water at rapid rate during vase life.

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 Postharvest factors affecting quality
The postharvest factors affecting quality of fruits & vegetables are as follows:
1. Temperature
Optimal temperature is a major important factor in determining the postharvest life of the
produce. Harvested produce should be stored under reduced temperature to maximise the
shelf-life. Higher temperature accelerates senescence by increasing respiration and ethylene
evolution rates. The loss of moisture and incidence of diseases also increase at higher
temperature. However, the effect of reduced temperature on maintaining produce quality is not
uniform. The greatest reduction in process associated with deterioration and thus the best
quality maintenance will be obtained if produce is held just above its freezing point, or just
above its chilling threshold temperature in case of chilling-sensitive produce.

2. Humidity

Many horticultural produce should be kept at 80-95% RH for maintenance of freshness/

turgidity. Produce start showing wilting symptoms when they have lost 10-15% of their fresh
weight. The rate of transpiration from the produce is reduced with the increase in RH. However,
care should be taken not to maintain very high RH because it results in faster infection by
pathogen. Produce should not be stored in dry astrosphere because they become less turgid
through quick transpiration.

3. Storage astrosphere

The atmospheric composition of storage room also influences the postharvest quality and shelf-
life of horticultural produce. Alteration in the concentration of respiratory gases such as O2 &
CO2 extends strange life. Generally shelf-life of horticultural produce is increased at higher
concentration of CO2 & lower concentration of O2 by lowering down rate of respiration.
However, care should be taken not to maintain too high CO2 level because; it may cause injury
(eg. midrib browning of lettuce) & off-flavour development. Ethylene is another important
compound & if it accumulates above certain critical level, it redues storage life & quality of
produce.

4. Packaging

Preparation of produces for market may be done either in the field on at the packing house. This
involves cleaning, sanitizing, sorting, grading, washing & where appropriate, treatment with an
approved fungicide prior to packing into shipping containers. Packaging protects the produce
from mechanical injury and contamination during marketing. Corrugated fibre board boxes are
commonly used for the packaging of produce although; reusable plastic containers can also be
used. Packaging accessories such as trays, cups, wraps, liners & pads may be used to help
immobilize the produce within the packaging container. Packing &packaging methods can
greatly influence air flow rates around the commodity, there by affecting temperature & RH
management of produce while in storage or in transit.

5. Length of storage

One of the most significant factors that affect the quality of fresh produce is storage. Making
sure that fresh produce is stored at optimum condition, is a key to retain their quality. If it is
stored in poor storage conditions such as high temperature, it will lose its nutritional value or
spoil quickly. Storing fresh produce beyond the recommended period even at optimum
temperature can still cause loss of nutritional value.

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 Fruit Ripening
Ripening is genetically programmed phase in which several anabolic and catabolic
processes take place due to an array of several enzymatic activities thereby changing a
physiologically matured inedible plant part to edible one.
Changes occur during ripening
1. Seed maturation
2. Changes in pigmentation
a. Degradation of existing chlorophyll
b. Unmasking of existing pigments
c. Synthesis of carotenoids
d. Synthesis of anthocyanin
3. Textural changes
a. Changes in pectin composition
b. Alterations in cell wall components
c. Hydrolysis of storage materials
4. Changes in carbohydrate composition
a. Starch conversion to sugar
b. Sugar inter-conversion
5. Production of aromatic volatiles
6. Changes in organic acids
7. Fruit abscission
8. Changes in respiration rate
9. Changes in ethylene synthesis
10. Development of surface waxes

Ethylene in Postharvest Technology

In the postharvest physiology of most horticultural crops, ethylene plays an important
role, often deleterious, increasing the rate of senescence and reducing shelf-life,
sometimes beneficial, improving the quality of the product by faster andmore uniform
ripening.
A. Properties of ethylene gas:
Physical properties
Appearance:colourlesshydrocarbon gas with a faint, sweetish odour that is easily
detected in parts per million (ppm) concentrations.
Molecular weight : 28.05
Boiling point : -103.70C
Flammable limits in air: Lower limit 3.1%by volume, upper limit 32% by volume. All
composition between the upper & lower limit are flammable& can be explosive.
Toxicological properties

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Ethylene gas has a characteristic suffocating sweetish odour. It is both an anaesthetic
&asphyxiant. High vapour concentration can cause rapid loss of consciousness&perhaps
death by asphyxiation.
B. Ethylene as a fruit ripening hormone:
The effectiveness of ethylene in achieving faster & more uniform ripening depends upon
- Maturity stage
- Temperature and relative humidity of ripening room
- Ethylene concentration
- Duration of ethylene exposure
In general, the optimum ripening conditions for fruit are –
Temperature : 18 – 25°C
RH : 90 – 95%
Ethylene condition : 10 – 100 ppm
Duration of treatment : 24 – 27 hr. depending upon maturity stages
Air circulation : Sufficient to ensure distribution of ethylene within the
ripening room
Ventilation: Require adequate air exchange to preventaccumulation of CO2which reduce
the effectives of ethylene
C. Systems for ethylene treatment:
Ethylene treatment is given in a room with automatic control of temperature, RH &
ventilation. It is not essential that the room be hermetically sealed, but they should be as
tight as practicable to prevent the leakage of gas.Ethylene is introduced into the
ripening room by two methods-
Shot system- In the shot system, ethylene is introduced into the room in accurately
measured quantities at regular intervals, using a gauge which registers the discharge of
ethylene in cubic feet per minute.Thorough ventilation is essential. Because of the
inhibiting effects of CO2 produced by the respiring fruit, it is customary to treat the
fruits or fruit vegetables twice each day. The room should be well ventilated before each
application of ethylene. For this, the room should be opened for about half an hour, and
in large ripening rooms, a ventilating fan should be provided.
Trickle system– In the trickle system, the ethylene is introduced into the room
continuously rather than intermittently, as in shot system. As the flow of ethylene is
very small, it has to be regulated carefully. This is usually done by passing the gas into
the room through a metering valve& flowmeter. To prevent a build-up of either CO2 or
C2H4, fresh air is drawn into the ripening room at a sufficient rate to ensure a change of
air every six hours. The air is vented through a small exhaust point to the rear of the
room.
D. Safety precautions:
Because of the explosion hazard of ethylene mixed with air at concentration between
3.1 to 32%, it is important to strictly follow the rules listed below:-
1. Do not permit open flame, spark producing devices or smoking in or near theroom
containing ethylene gas or near the cylinder.

17
 2. Use an approved meter for accurately measuring the gas, when discharging the
ethylene from cylinder.
3. Ground all piping to eliminate the danger of electrostatic discharge.
4. Store ethylene cylinders in accordance with all instructions.
5. Instruments can be purchased that detect the concentration of ethylene in air
&these can be set to sound an alarm if the concentration approaches explosive
levels.
E. Technologies for using ethylene:
The use of ethylene gas from cylinders may not always suit so; other strategies for
ripening fruits have been developed. Which are as follows-
1. Explosion proof ethylene mixture
The danger of explosion from oversupply of ethylene to a ripening room can be
eliminated by using mixtures of ethylene & inert gases. The proportion of inert gas
should be such that, at high concentration of ethylene, there is insufficient oxygen
remaining in the ripening spaces to provide an explosion mixture.
Example: “Ripe gas” – It contain 6% ethylene in CO2 (w/w).
2. Ethylene generators
In ethylene generators, a liquid produces ethylene when it is heated in the presence of a
catalyst. The liquid (which is a proprietary product) appears to comprise ethanol&
agents that catalyse its dehydration.
C2H5OH-H2O C2H4
The generator combines a simple heating unit with a system for attaching a bottle of the
generator liquid.
3. Ethephon ( C2H6ClO3P)
Ethephon (2-chloroethyl phosphonic acid) is strongly acidic in water solution. When the
solution reaches a pH >5, ethylene is liberated. Ethephon is commercially available as
Ethrel, Cepa and is registered for preharvest use but is not approved for postharvest use
on any commodity.
4. Calcium carbide (CaC2)
Calcium carbide when hydrolysed, it produces acetylene, containing trace amounts of
ethylene, sufficient to be used in fruit ripening. Acetylene, the end product of CaC2&
water exerts the same effect as ethylene.
CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
5. Use of ripe fruits
Traditionally, ripening of fruits has often been stimulated by enclosing them with other
fruits which are already ripe. This technique forms the basis for a cheap & simple
method of fruit ripening.

F. Effects of ethylene
Beneficial effects
1. Controlled and uniform ripening of fruits
2. Degreening of citrus fruits
3. Mechanical harvesting of fruits

18
 4. Initiation of flowering in pineapple
Deleterious effects
1. Accelerated ripening of fruits during handling and storage
2. Accelerated senescence
- Loss of chlorophyll in some immature fruits e.g. cucumber, squash, leafy
vegetables
- Susceptibility to desiccation and decay
3. Russet spotting in lettuce: Browning results from collapse and death of cells and
increased synthesis of phenolic compounds
4. Formation of bitter principle (isocoumarin) in carrots.
5. Sprouting of potatoes
6. Abscission of leaves (cauliflower, cabbage, foliage ornamental), flowers
7. Toughening of asparagus: Ethylene stimulate the lignification of xylem and fibre
element in asparagus spear
8. Abbreviated storage life and reduced quality of flowers e.g. sleepiness (failure to
open) in carnation.
9. Abscission of florets from cut and potted flowers
10. Physiological disorders in flowering bulbs: Ethylene pollution during marketing of
tulip bulbs results in failure of the flowers to develop, a condition called blasting.
11. Deceased storage life or reduced quality of fruits and vegetables.
G. Sources of ethylene in the environment:
Ethylene is ubiquitous at low levels in the environment.
Ambient atmospheric level-0.001 to 0.005 ppm (<0.005 µl/L). However, urban air level
can reach 0.5 ppm
Combustion
C2H4 is a common breakdown product of virtually all aerobic combustion
process.Eg.burning agricultural waste, internal combustion engines, auto exhaust,
cigarette smoke etc.
Ripening rooms
Eg. In bananas & tomatoes for ripening 50-100 ppm ethylene is used. When these rooms
are vented, dispersal of ethylene can be significant.
Plant source
Ripening fruits: In closed areas, such as storage rooms, packing houses, shipping
containers, green house, ware house plant generated ethylene can be significant.
Fluorescent ballasts and rubber materials
Ballasts that hold fluorescent lights are sources of ethylene.
Rubber materials exposed to heat or UVlight canrelease ethylene.
Microorganisms

Postharvest plant pathogens growing on stored products in enclosed areas can be

important sources of ethylene.

H. Methods of reducing ethylene concentrations:

19
I.Ethylene exclusion and removal
1. Eliminate sources of ethylene
- Commodities sensitive to ethylene should be handled using electric forklifts.
- Internal combustion engines should be isolated from handling and storage areas.
- Store ripe and unripe produce in separate rooms
- Regular removal of overripe & rotten produce

2. Ventilation
Where air outside storage & handling areas are not polluted, ventilation of the areas
with one air change per hour by installing an intake fan and a passive exhaust is useful.
3. Chemical removal
Potassium permanganate
- Commercial material-Purafil
- KMnO4 oxidizes ethylene to CO2 and H2O
-Porous materials used to manufacture KMnO4absorbers such as vermiculite, pumice,
alumina, mica, brick etc.
-Absorber should be spread out in shallow trays or air should be drawn through
absorber system.
Ozone
- It is a potent oxidising agent that destroys ethylene.
- Air from storage room is drawn through the ultraviolet lamps producing ozone.
- Ozone is very toxic to human (< 0.1µl/L). It also corrodes metal pipes & fittings in the
refrigeration equipment, also react with paper products of packaging materials &
fruits and vegetables.
- Excess ozone is removed by reduction with steel wool.
- This technique not very effective in low O2 CA storage.
Activated or brominated charcoal
- Charcoal if brominated, absorb and oxidize ethylene.
- Problem isit generates bromine gas when it comes in contact with excess water
which causes health hazard.
Catalytic oxidizers
- If ethylene and oxygen are combined at high temperature in presence of a catalyst
(platinised asbestos) the ethylene will be oxidized.

Tetrazine
- React specifically with ethylene
- More efficient in C2H4Savaging and oxidizing than KMnO4.
- Problem is instability in presence of moisture
4. Bacterial systems
- Approx. 33,000 MT of ethylene is liberated each day into the atmosphere, but still the
concentration of ethylene in air remains very low. That means some systems operated
to remove ethylene from the atmosphere.
- Recently bacteria has been isolated from soil that utilize ethylene as substrate

20
5. Hypobaric storage
-Removal of endogenous ethylene by low pressure system of storage.
II. Inhibition of the effects of ethylene
Controlled atmospheres
-Low conc. of O2 and high conc. of CO2 in the storage atmosphere reduces the rate of
respiration, ethylene production& metabolic process.
-Higher CO2 conc. inhibits the action of C2H4 sensitive to it.
Specific antiethylenecompound
-Silver thiosulphate (STS)-used by spraying or dipping for oriental cut flowers. Silver
ions block the C2H4 binding site, thereby prevent its action.
1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP)
- Commercial name – SmartFresh
- Acts by blocking ethylene binding sites.
III. Inhibition of ethylene biosynthesis
- AOA (Aminooxyacetic acid)
- AVG (Aminoethoxyvinylglycine)
- Both used postharvest to treat ornamentalseg. Carnation
- Postharvest application of AVG in apple
- Problem is, they protect from endogenous (internally) produced ethylene but not
from exogenous (external) ethylene.
IV.Genetic engineering
Identification of genes that encode ACC synthase (key enzyme in the biosynthesis of
ethylene) and ETR-I (ethylene binding site provided biotechnologists the tool to modify
the biosynthesis of ethylene.

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 Precooling of Fruits and Vegetables
Precooling is defined as the rapid removal of field heat from freshly harvested
horticultural produce before shipment, storage or processing. The entire products must
be precooled as early as possible generally within 24hr after harvest to the
recommended storage temperature and relative humidity.
Temperature recommendations for non-chilling sensitive, moderately chilling sensitive
and highly chilling sensitive produce are 0°C, 5-7.5°C and 13-15°C, respectively.
Products that are to be cured are not generally precooled. Eg. Potato, yam, sweet potato,
onion etc.
ADVANTAGES OF PRECOOLING:
1. It reduces the rate of respiration and ripening
2. Reduces ethylene production and action
3. Reduces the loss of moisture
4. Reduces/inhibits the growth of spoilage organisms
5. Reduces enzymatic activity
6. Rapid wound healing of produce
7. Reduces the load on the cooling system (refrigeration) of transport or storage
chamber
8. Above factors help in extending the product shelf life
The cooling rate depends upon
 Rate of transfer of heat from the crop to the cooling medium.
 Difference in temperature between the crop and cooling medium
 Nature/velocity of the cooling medium
 Thermal conductivity of the produce
MECHANISM OF PRECOOLING:
Conduction and convection are the two main heat-transfer mechanisms used for cooling
of produce. With conduction, the heat is transferred within a produce to its coldest
surface. This is direct movement of heat from one object to another by direct methods
(from fresh produce to water or warmer to cooler). With convection, the heat is
transferred away from the surface of the produce via a cooling medium such as moving
water or air.
METHODS OF PRECOOLING:
1. Room cooling-
This is most common and widely used precooling technique. Here, produce in
containers or various other packages (eg. Mesh bags) are exposed to cold air in a normal
cool store. It is important to leave adequate space between stack of boxes inside the
room and also venting in the boxes to allow cold air to circulate around individual
boxes. About 1 inch (2.5 cm) is sufficient to allow cold air to circulate around individual
boxes. Air velocity around the package should be at least 60 m/min. After cooling is
complete, air flow is to be reduced 20-40% of that needed for initial cooling.

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It is best suited for less perishable commodities such as apple, citrus etc. since more
highly perishable crops will deteriorate too much before being adequately cooled.

Advantages:
 Low cost method of precooling
 Produce can be cooled and stored in the same room without the need of transfer
and hence it is economical.

Disadvantages:
 Cooling rate is very slow
 Produce require more space
 Problem of condensation of moisture on the produce

2. Forced air cooling-

In this method, cold air is passed through produce in specially vented container by
inducing pressure gradient. The pressure differential is induced by fans that circulate
cold air through the produce and packages. Pressure differential between opposite faces
of packages ranges from barely measurable to about 250 pascal and air flow rate vary
between 0.1-2.0 L/sec. In containers at least 5% exposed surface area should be there.
Maintaining high Rh during cooling is not considered critically important because the
process is relatively rapid. However, it is required for commodities having high surface
area to volume ratio. Eg. Leafy vegetables, cut flowers.
Advantages:
 Rate of cooling is high (4-10 times more rapid than room cooling)

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3. Hydro cooling-
In hydrocooling, water is the heat transfer medium. Thus, both the produce and the
container must be tolerant to wetting. Since water has a far greater heat capacity than
air, hydrocooling is comparatively rapid provided that water contacts most of the
surface of the produce and is maintained close to the prescribed temperature usually
0°C.
In hydrocooling system, produce either passes under cold showers (continuous
process) or immersed in cold water (batch process). Water is usually cooled by
mechanical refrigeration, but ice can be used if it is broken into very small pieces.
Hydrocoolers should be drained and cleaned at least daily to avoid contamination of
produce with spoilage causing microorganisms from soil or debris. Low concentration
(100-150 ppm) of chlorine is used usually to disinfect the water and minimize the
spread of decay.

Advantages-
 Very rapid method of precooling
 It avoid water loss and may even add water to slightly wilted commodity
 It helps to clean the produce
Disadvantages-
 Product and packaging material must be tolerant to wetting and chlorine

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  Chances of contamination if not cleaned regularly
 Cooled product must be moved quickly to a cold room otherwise rapid
rewarming occurs.

4. Package icing-
This is one of the oldest ways to reduce field temperature. Here the products are cooled
by filling packed containers with crushed ice or ice slurry (60% ice, 40% water, 0.1%
salt). Package ice can be used only with water tolerant, non-chilling sensitive products
and with water tolerant packages. Initially the direct contact between product and ice
causes faster cooling. However, as the ice in contact with the product melts, the cooling
rate slows considerably. The constant supply of melt water keeps a high RH around the
product.

Disadvantages-
 Produce and packaging material must be tolerant to wetting
 Not suitable for chilling sensitive products
 It also increases costs during transportation because of the heavier weight for
transportation and the need for oversized packages.
 As water melts, storage areas, containers, and shelves become wet.

5. Vacuum cooling-
Vacuum cooling takes place by evaporating water from the product at very low
atmospheric pressure. In principle, vacuum cooling is evaporative cooling. Here
produce is loaded into a sealed container and the pressure is reduced to about 5 mm Hg.
At this sub-atmospheric pressure, water boils at 1°C. In this method, for every 5°C drop
in temperature, approximately 1% of the produce weight is lost as water vapour. This
water loss is minimized by spraying the produce with water.

The products that have high surface area to volume ration and that releases water
rapidly (eg. Leafy vegetables) are best suited to this method of precooling. Fruits with
low surface area to volume ration and/or waxy cuticle loss water slowly and therefore
does not benefit from vacuum cooling.

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6. Evaporative cooling-
It is a simple process where dry air is cooled by blowing it across a wet surface. The
evaporation of water absorbs 2260 kj heat energy per kg. The technique is efficient only
under conditions of low ambient relative humidity (eg. Arid and semiarid regions) and
requires a good quality water supply. The commodity is cooled either by humidified
cool air or by misting with water and then blowing dry air over the wet commodity.

TIPS TO INCREASE PRECOOLING EFFICIENCY:

 Precooling should be done as soon as possible after harvest.
 Harvesting should be done in early morning hours to minimize field heat and the
refrigeration load on pre cooling equipment.
 Harvested produce should be protected from the sun with a covering until they
are placed in the pre cooling facility.
PRECAUTIONS:
 Since most tropical produce are sensitive to chilling injury, care must be taken
not to precool or store the produce below the recommended temperature.
 All produce are sensitive to decay. Precooling equipment and water should be
sanitized continuously with a hypochlorite solution to eliminate decay producing
organisms.
 Care also must be taken not to allow produce to warm up after precooling.
Condensation on precooled produce surfaces at higher air temperatures also
spreads decay.

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 Post-harvest treatments of fruits and vegetables
Many post harvest treatments are applied to horticultural crops, either to maintain
quality (taste, colour, flavour, texture), improve the visual appeal and to extend shelf-
life of freshly harvested horticultural produce. The various postharvest treatments
applied to fruits and vegetables are as follows:
 WASHING:

Washing of fruits and vegetables is done to remove adhering soil (eg. root and tuber
vegetables), dirt, debris (eg. banana), stains, insects, and pesticide residues. It also
reduces the microbial load of the produce. In case of mango and banana, washing also
helps in removing sap and latex, respectively. Washing not only help in cleaning and
making the vegetables/fruits fresh but also improves appearance and helps in
extending the shelf-life of the produce.

Washing is done manually under tap water or in a wash tank using soft muslin cloth; or
in a continuous automated system, fruit are passed under a spray washer on a moving
conveyor rollers. For washing, clean water is essential, otherwise fungi and bacteria
may build up. A series of two or three washes may be beneficial, with an approved
disinfectant treatment (eg. Chlorine, iodine) applied to the last wash. pH of the water
must be around 6.5 to 7.5. Soap or other chemicals such as calcium hydroxide can also
be added to washing water to facilitate the process. After washing, excess water should
be removed from the produce to avoid rotting.

 SORTING AND GRADING

Sorting is done by hand to remove the fruits and vegetables which are unsuitable to
market or storage due to damage by mechanical injuries, insects, diseases, immature,
over-mature, misshapen etc. This is usually carried out manually and done before
washing. By removing damaged produce from the healthy ones, it reduces losses by

27
preventing secondary contamination. Sorting is done either at farm level or in the pack-
houses.

Grading of fruits and vegetables is done to bring uniformity. Here, the produce is
separated into two or more grades on the basis of the surface colour, shape, size, weight,
soundness, firmness, cleanliness, maturity etc.Grading may be done manually or
mechanically.

For Eg.: Apples are graded into I. Extra Fancy; II. Fancy; III.Standard; and IV. Cull (for
processing).

 WAXING:
Commodities with a waxy skin tend to lose water slowly. This observation has
led to the application of wax to certain commodities that shrivel rapidly and lose
consumer appeal during storage and marketing. Waxing is the process of applying was
on the surface of the produce by dipping, spraying, brushing, fogging or foaming. Waxes
are esters of higher fatty acid with monohydric alcohols and hydrocarbons and some
free fatty acids.
The wax film must be thin so that gas exchange is not hindered because it can
cause anerobiosis and associatedquality loss such as off flavour development.
Waxing generally reduces the respiration and transpiration reates, but other
chemicals such as fungicides, growth regulators, preservatives can also be incorporated
specially for reducing microbial spoilage, sprout inhibition etc.
Advantages
1. Waxing enhance the appearance of produce to the consumer.
2. Reduces moisture loss(30-50%) from the produce and thus retards wilting and
shrivelling during storage of produce.
3. Provides a diffusion barrier, as a result of which it reduces the availability of
oxygen & thus reduces respiration rate.
4. It heals minor injuries.
5. Protects the produce from microbial infection.
6. It reduces chilling injury & browning, thus causes less spoilage.
7. Acts as a carrier of various chemicals (preservatives, growth regulators, sprout
suppressant, fungicides etc.
Disadvantages
1. If wax film is thick, it causes off-flower development. Because, due to inhibition
of O2 and CO2 exchange, anaerobic respiration will start which increase the level
of ethanol and acetaldehyde.

28
 Types of waxes
A. Solvent waxes
These are composed of 70-80% aliphatic hydrocarbon, upto 25% aromatic
hydrocarbon and solvents such as acetone, ethyl acetate etc. The solvent contain
synthetic resin or a natural wood resin plus one or more plasticizers.
B. Water waxes
Water waxes are of mainly two types, resin solution waxes and emulsion waxes.
Resin solution waxes are solution of one or more alkali-soluble resin on resin
like materials such as shellac, natural gums on wood resin. Emulsion waxes are
composed of natural wax such as carnauba orparaffin or synthetic wax
(polyethylene emulsion).
C. Paste or oil waxes
These are mainly composed of paraffin’s that are different in melting point and
blended to give desired viscosity. These waxes are often used on vegetables.
Categories of waxes based on utility
- Storage wax : when fruits are not to be marketed immediately.
- Pack out wax : when fruits are to be marketed immediately.
- High shine wax : for giving a very high grace or market demand.
Example of some commercial waxes
1. Paraffin wax
2. Carnauba wax
3. Bee wax
4. Shellac (a resin secreted by the female lac bug)
5. Wood resin
6. Chitosan
Trade name of some extensively used waxes
Trade name Fruits
Tal-prolong Banana, apple
Semper fresh Guava, banana
Nutri-save Apple
Brilloshine, Citrashine Citrus fruits
Vaporgard Mango
Waxol Fruit
Ban-seel Banana

Specification of a desirable wax

- The selected wax material should provide a lasting shine.
- It must be manufactured from food grade materials.
- It should not develop any off-flavour.
- It should reduce moisture loss of commodity from 30-50%
- After application, wax should dry rapidly.
- It should be easy to clean & price should be less.

29
 HOT WATER TREATMENT:
Dipping of fruits in hot water of specific temperature for a specified period for the
purpose of disease control, insect disinfestations on uniform reopening is known as hot
water treatment.
Hot water treatment is an approved quarantine treatment for export of many fruits &
vegetables against pests.
Hot water dips must be precisely administered, as the range of temperature (commonly
50-55°C) necessary for treatment may damage the produce.
Sometime, hot water treatment is given in combination with fungicides which is more
effective than hot water treatment alone.
Advantages
1. It removesthe surface infection as well as infection that have penetrated the
skin.
2. It also remove sap fallen on the fruit surface during harvesting& facilitates
washing.
3. It enhances formation of lignin& related compounds which prevent invasion
by germinating mould spores.
4. It can effectively control insect infestation.
5. It does not leave any chemical residue.
Example
Mango – 52ºC for 5 min to control anthracnose & stem-end not.
Sweet potato – 40ºC for 2 min
Blue berry – 46-55ºC for 3 min

 VAPOUR HEAT TREATMENT (VHT):

Vapour heat treatment is a method of heating fruit with air saturated with water vapour
at temperatures 40-50ºC to kill insect (Fruit fly) as a quarantine treatment before fresh
market shipment.
VHT was developed specifically to eliminate fruit fly infection. The temperature and
time of exposure may be adjusted depending upon the stage of fruit fly to be killed i.e.
egg, larvae, pupa or adult.Larval stage of the insect is most difficult stage to control, as
the insect goes further into the fruit & away from the surface, thus it requireshigher
temperature for a short time.
The treatment consists of stacking of fruits in boxes in a room which is heated &
humidified by injection of steam. The treatment consists of a period of warming
(approach time) which can be fasten or slower depending on the commodity’s
sensitivity to high temperatures. Then, these is holding period when the interior
temperature of the produce reaches the desired temperature for the length of time
required to kill insect. Finally the produce temperature is cooled down by air on hydro-
cooling.
Generally the treatment of mango, papaya, citrus, pineapple is given at 43ºC in
saturated air for 8 hrfollowed by holding at that temperature for further 6 hrs.

30
 SPROUT INHIBITORS:
In potato, onion, sprouting accelerates deterioration and reduces the postharvest
storage life. They also determine the marketability because sprouting reduces the
consumer acceptance.
At maturity, potato, onion enters into dormant state i.e. they do not sprout even when
they are placed under ideal conditions of temperature & RH. At this stage they are
harvested. During rest period sprout inhibitors like abscisic acid predominate over
promotes.
Once the rest period ends, rate of sprouting depends upon temperature. Potato rarely
sprouts below 4ºC but storage at this temperature leads to conversion of starch to
sugars, which is highly undesirable.
In case of potatoes, CIPC (3-chloro isopropyl-N-phenyl carbamate) also called
chloropropham is commercially applied prior to storage as dust, immersion, vapour or
other forms. It should not be applied before curing. Because,CIPC acts by interferingthe
spindleformation during cell division. Cell division is extremely important during
wound healing or curing process. So, if CIPC is applied before curing is complete,
excessive loss due to dehydration & disease infection occurs because of non-formation
of periderm.
In case of onion, Maleic hydrazide (MH) is used for inhibit sprouting. In bulb corps,
sprouting occurs at meristematic region, which is deep inside the bulb. So, it is difficult
to treat the chemicals during postharvest storage. Thus, MH is applied to the leaves of
the crop at least 2 weeks before harvesting, so the chemical is translocated deep into the
middle of the bulb in the meristematic tissue where sprouting is initiated.
 DEGREENING:
In citrus fruits, exposure to low temperature during maturation is necessary for the
development of orange-coloured peel. However, fruit grown in the low-altitude tropics
does not meet this temperature requirement and thus fails to de-
greencompletely.Furthermore, the Valencia orange is often stored on the tree for
several months after ripening has been completed. During this storage period, the peels
tend to re-green again. This leads to reduction in consumer acceptance of citrus fruits.
Postharvest treatment with ethylene under controlled conditions to hasten loss of
chlorophyll is known as degreening.
In batch process of degreening, a concentration of 20-200 µl ethylene/L, 25-30ºC and
90-95% RH are maintained for 2-3 days with regular ventilation of the chamber to
prevent CO2build up because citrus is injected by CO2 build up because citrus is injured
by CO2 concentrations above 1%.
In trickle system, 10 µl ethylene/L is continuously entered into the room. It is more
rapid than batch degreening.
Fruits may be ripened anddegreened equally by using ethylene releasing compound
ethephon. Ethephon is absorbed by fruit tissues & when the pH exceeds 4.6, it broken
down and release ethylene.
Artificial colouring

31
When weather is not conducive for the development of colourin orange, legally
permitted dyecan be used to colour the peel of the fruits like orange, with citrus Red No.
2.This process is called as ‘Colour Add.’
The dye is applied to citrus fruit by dip ordrenchmethod at 49ºCfor 4 min in oranges,
and at 46ºC for 4 minin temples andtangelos.
After treatment, fruits are rinsed thoroughly to prevent bleeding of the dye and to
ensure the residue tolerance of 2 mg/kg fruit.
 CURING
Underground storage organs such as potato, sweet potato tubers tend to have poorly
developed cuticles. Thus they are relatively susceptible to mechanical wounding during
harvesting, handling and to postharvest water loss and decay. These problems can be
minimised by the process of curing.
Curing is accomplished by holding the produce at high temperature and high relative
humidity for several days. During the curing period, injured on bruised surfaces heal
and a new protective layer of suberised wound periderm tissue is formed at wound
sites.
Curing when used for onions and garlic refers to the practice directly following harvests
allowed the external layers of skin and neck tissue to dry-out prior to handling and
storage.
Advantages of curing
1. Curing quickens the wound healing process.
2. Suberin is a group of fatty acid which provides protection against microbial
infection and excessive moisture loss.
Methods of curing
A. Field curing
Tube crops are cured by piling in a partially shaded area in the field. Cut grass or straw
can be used as insulating material and the pile should be covered with canvas or woven
grass mats. The covering will trap self-generated heat & moisture. Stack should be left
for about 4 days.

Onion & garlic can be cured either in wind-rows or after packaging into large fibre on
net sacks. The produce can be left in the field for 5 days until outer skin & neck tissues
are properly dried.
Curing can also be done by the use of ventilated sheds in regions where solar radiation
and/or RH is high or natural air movement is low. Produce in sacs can be staked in the

32
shade on canvas tarpaulins, or placed in an open sided shed under one or more ceiling
fans. An exhaust fan in the roof can assist with air circulation.

B. Cutting with heated air

Uniform distribution of heat is obtained when heat is introduced near the floor level of
cutting structure. Heaters can be placed near the bins of produce on the floor or heat
can be ducted in from outside the curing room. A high RH can be obtained by wetting
the floor or by using an evaporative cooler in the room without introducing outside air.

If heaters are located near the ceiling, then ceiling fans can be used to redistribute heat
down into the room. The produce should be stacked by giving a gap of 10-15 cm.

C. Bulk systems for curing onions

It requires a fan, a heating unit and a slotted floor. An exhaust near the ceiling
recirculates the heated air. When using heated air, it is easy to over-dry the bulbs,
leading to loss of external scales and exposure of the fleshy scales underneath. So, the
curing onion should be checked regularly to avoid over drying.

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Curing temperature
Potato: 15-20ºC, 90-95% RH, 10-14 days
Sweet Potato: 30-32ºC, 90-95% RH, 4-7 days
Onion & garlic: 35-45ºC, 60-75% RH, 1 day with forced air

 PULSING
Pulsing is placing freshly harvested flowers for a relatively short time from few seconds
to hours in a solution specially formulated to extend their vase life.
This process is also called as hydration and it can be facilitated by addition of wetting
agent to water.
Method
Cut flowers are pulsed with sugars, such as sucrose. It involves placing of flowers in 5-
20% w/v sucrose solution for overnight at 2ºC or at warm temperature of 21ºC for 10
min.
Cut flowers such as carnation and delphiniums are pulsed with anti-ethylene agents
such as silver thiosulphate (STS) or aminooxy acetic acid (AOA). It involves placing in 2-
4 mM silver ion (as STS Complex) for 15-45 min at ambient temperature or 0.5
mMsilver overnight at about 1ºC.
Cut flowers andfoliages reserved for desiccation/drying can be pulsed for one to few
days with humectants such as 20-30% glycerol. This process is known as uptake
preservation. It retains suppleness of flowers.
Cut flowers are also pulsed with dyes which is called tinting. Ex. Food grade blue
dyesare used on white carnation to give blue coloured petal veins and margins.

 CHEMICALS TO CONTROL/ DELAY RIPENING

Manipulation of ripening is important in extending the shelf-life and ensuring
appropriate quality of fruit to the consumer. Unpredictable ripening during storage,
transport & distribution can result in spoilage before consumption. The ripening
hormone, ethylene is known to trigger ripening in climacteric fruit and senescence in
non-climacteric fruit. The risks of accidental exposure to ethylene can be minimized by

34
reducing ethylene concentration in the storage environment with practices such as
potassium permanganate on ultraviolet light. Besides that, recent developments of new
chemicals like 1-MCP (1-methyl cyclopropene) and polyamines provide a new approach
for manipulation of ripening and senescence.

1-MCP
1-Methyleyclopropene (C4H6) is an ethylene action inhibitor. It acts by binding with
ethylene receptors & thereby blocks or prevents the ethylene dependant responses in
fruits. 1-MCP (commercial name Smart fresh) has been formulated into powder that
releases the active ingredient when mixed with water. The beneficial effects of 1-MCP in
fresh produce include inhibition of respiration & ethylene production, delayed fruit
softening, restricted skin colour changes & prolonged storage life of horticultural
produce.
Polyamines
Polyamines are low molecular weight small aliphatic amines that are ubiquitous
in living organisms. The most common polyamines are putrescine, spermidine and
spermine, found in every plant cell. Polyamines and ethylene use the common precursor
SAM for theirbiosynthesis. Thus, polyamines delay the biosynthesis of ethylene by
inhibiting ACC synthesis. It is also reported to reduce respiration rate, fruit softening,
chilling injury, colour changes andthus extends shelf-life of horticultural produce.
Ethylene oxidizing agents
These are the chemicals which oxidize ethylene (C2H4) into CO2 and H2O.
Eg. Potassium permanganate, activated or brominated charcoal, ozone.
KMnO4 is absorbed in absorbers such as vermiculite, pumice, alumina, brick etc. and
spread in shallow trays in storage room, or air should be drown through absorber
system.
In case of ozone, air from storage room is drawn through ultraviolet lamps producing
ozone.

 CHEMICAL TREATMENTS
Chemical treatments for the control of postharvest diseases of horticultural produce
havebecome an integral part of the handling & successful marketing.
The success of a chemical treatment depends on several factors:
 Initial spore load
 Depth of infection within the host tissue
 Depth to which chemical can penetrate in the host tissue
 Growth rate of infection
 Temperature and humidity
An ideal postharvest fungicide should have the following characteristics:
 Should be water soluble
 Should have broad-spectrum activity
 Not to be phytotoxic
 Should not leave toxic residues

35
  Should not affect palatability
 Remain active over a long period
 Should not leave any visual residues
 Should be cheap
Methods of chemical application
1. Dipping- For effective control of diseases, chemical may be used with hot water
at 52ºC for about 5 min. The crop is passed below shower of diluted chemicals.
This is called cascade application.
Eg.Mango, papaya, citrus.
2. Spraying– Spraying is more effective than dipping, because fungicide
effectiveness is reduced if the crop has been washed and is still wet.
Eg. Citrus, apple
3. Electrostatic sprays/thin film coating–Here, pesticide solution is broken up
into fine droplets & then electrical charge is given to obtain uniformity in
application.Principle is that the particle all have the same electrical charges
hence, they will repel each other. These charges are attracted towards crop and
form uniform coating.
Eg.Potato, banana.
4. Dusting– Dusting is done with wood ash in case of yam. Fungicide is applied
with talc on potato.
5. Fumigation– Fumigation is done to eliminate insects either adults, eggs, larval or
pupae and pathogen inoculum.
Fumigant such as sulphur dioxide is used for controlling postharvest diseasein
grapes. Besides that, methyl bromide is most widely used for fresh produce and
phosphine for dry or stored produce.
6. Absorbent paper– Here chemicals are absorbed into pads made of suitable
material like paper.For eg. Absorbent pad soaked in fungicide thiabendazole
when placed over cut surface. It prevents crown-end not of banana. It also
absorbs latex from the cut surfaces. Dichlorovosbased pest strip are included in
cartoon packed with flowers to effect ongoing disinfestations during export.

Fungicides used to control postharvest diseases of fruit crops

Fungicides Organisms Fruits

Dicloran Rhizopus rot Stone fruit
Benzimidazole Black-end, finger-stalk rot, Banana, peach
crown rot, brown rot
Benomyl&thiabendazole Stem-end rot Mango
SOPP (sodium Geotrichum
ortheophenylphenate )
Sulphur dioxide Graymold Table grapes

36
 MINERAL APPLICATION

Deficiency of certain minerals result in physiological disorders, loss of storage life or

quality of fruit. Among the minerals, calcium is the nutrient most commonly associated
with postharvest disorders. This can be overcome by external application of Ca after
harvest by spraying, dipping, vacuum infiltration or pressure infiltration.

Advantages

1. Reduce physiological disordersEg. Bitter pit of apple, bloosm-end rot of tomato

2. Increase disease resistance
3. Delay ripening eg. Tomato, mango, pear, avocado
4. Reduce chilling injury
5. Extends shelf-life

Disadvantages

1. Skin discolouration at higher concentration

2. Rotting at higher concentration

The prehrvest spray problem can be overcome by dipping apples after harvest
insolution of calcium salts. Uptake can be improved by partial pressure (reduced
pressure) or positive pressure infiltration to force Ca solution into apple fruit. The best
results are obtained with apples that have closed calyx, so that the Ca solution is forced
into the fruit through the lenticelsand thus spread around the perimeter, where the
disorder occurs. With open calyx fruit, the uptake of calcium solution is difficult to
control as it readily enters the fruits via the calyx and excess solution accumulates in the
core area, often leading to injury or rotting.

Eg. Vacuum infiltration (250 mm Hg) of CaCl2 at concentration 1-4% is beneficial in

apple.

Guvafruit dipped in 1% solution of Ca-nitrate reduces weight loss, respiration mate,

disease incidence and increases storage life for 6 days as compared to 3 days in control,
at room temperature.

Disorders due to calcium deficiency

Bitter pit, internal breakdown,water core Apple
Bloosm-end rot Tomato, pepper
Soft nose Mango
Cork spot Pear
Tip burn Lettuce
Cracking Cherry

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 GROWTH REGULATORS

The five major types of plant growth regulators are- auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin,
abscisic acid and ethylene. Postharvest information on the role of the first four types of
growth regulatorsis not as extensive as for ethylene.

Despite their potency & natural occurrence, few postharvest applications of plant
growth regulators have been implemented by industry. Examples are –

2,4-D (2,4- dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) - Retard button senescence in citrus fruit

GA3 – Prevent stem-end rot and retard senescence of citrus peel

Cytokinin – Delay loss of chlorophyll & senescence in green leafy vegetables.

Abscisicacid – Maintain water balance through induced stomatal closure of cut flowers
& pot plants.

 IRRADIATION

Irradiation can be applied to fresh fruits & vegetables by exposing the fruit & vegetables
to ionizing radiations to control micro organisms, insects, parasites and inhibit or
prevent cell reproduction and some chemical changes.

It is applied by exposing the crop to radio-isotope in the form of gamma rays, but X-rays
can also be used from the machine which produces a high energy electron beam.

Cabalt-60 and Cesium-137 are commonly used as a source of gamma rays in food
irradiation.

Units of measurement

Radiation doses are measured in Grays (Gy)

1 Gray =100 rads

OneGy dose of radiation is equal to 1 Joule of energy absorbed per kg of food material.

In radiation processing of foods, the doses are generally measured in kGy (1000 Gy)

The revised Codex AlimentariusCommissiongeneral standard for irradiated foods 2003

provides that the maximum absorbed dose delivered to a food shall not exceed 10 kGy.

38
Mode of action
The fruits and vegetables contain 80-95% water and their intercellular spaces (about
20% of total volume) contain oxygen. When irradiation is applied, the high energy
gamma rays generate copious amounts of free radicals from those of water and oxygen.
The free radical in turn brings about the breakage of the genetic material (DNA) of the
insects & spoilage organisms, thus destroying them. But, after a short period (2-3 days)
the free radicals get scavenged-off or converted into harmless molecules.

Advantages of irradiation

1. Itdelays ripening & senescence of fruits & vegetables.

2. Reduce the spoilage by killing pathogenic organisms.
3. Insect & parasite disinfestations
Eg. Irradiation is used in Australia to produce sterile male Queensland fruit flies
and in Hawaii it is used in papaya against fruit fly.
4. Slows down the rate of metabolism in produce.
5. Control sprouting in potato, onion, garlic& yams

The logo which is used in irradiated product is called Radura

Doses

0.025- 0.75 kGy Delay ripening Mango, banana, papaya, avocado

0.05- 0.03 kGy Inhibit sprouting potato, onion, yam

0.1 – 1.0 kGy Insect disinfestation

1.0 – 3.0 kGy Delay mold growth

 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS
Biological treatments involve use of biocontrol agents like fungi, yeast and bacteria for
controlling postharvest diseases of fruits & vegetables.
The use of synthetic fungicides is increasingly restricted now-a-days due to public
concerns over adverse effects of fungicide resides on human health and the
environment. Besides that, the repeated use of certain fungicides has lead to the
development of fungicide resistance to pathogens. Thereby interest in biological control
methods for postharvest diseases has been increasing in recent years.
Bio control agents suppress the pathogens by various modes of action like
 Direct attack

39
  Competition for nutrients and space
 Inducing host resistance and
 Production of antibiotics
However the mechanism of antibiotic production is not generally considered acceptable
for food crops, but could be accepted for ornamental crops.
For biological control to be effective in the postharvest environment the storage
condition must allow the biocontrol agents to remain viable and an efficient application
method is required to fully cover produce surfaces either by dipping or spraying
method.
However, the main problems are- It is a lengthy process to discover a potential
biocontrol agent against a particular disease, prove its safety and effectives on the
target crop and confirm that it will be able to survive in the new environment without
becoming a problem of having undesirable side effects.
Example of some postharvest biological control agents
Biocontrol agent Disease fruit

Bacteria
Bacillus subtilis Sour not Citrus
Brown not Stone fruits
Pseudomonas syringae Blue mold rot Apple
Pseudomonas cepacia Blue mold rot, grey mold rot Apple, pear
Pseudomonasputida Soft rot Potato

Fungi
Trichodermaharzianum Blue mold rot, green mold rot Citrus
Grey mold rot Grape

Yeast
Pichiaguilliermondi Grey mold rot Grape
Candida oleophila Green mold rot, blue mold rot Citrus

Example of commercial formulations

1. Aspire – contain Candida oleophila
2. Biosave 110 and Bio save 1000 – contain Pseudomonas syringae

 BOTANICALS / NATURAL COMPOUNDS

Pesticides have been the primary means for controlling postharvest diseases in
horticultural produce. But now-a-days, restrictions on their use have evolved owing to
their carcinogenicity, high and acute residual toxicity, long degradation period,
environmental pollution, effects on food and human, high cost and development of
resistance to commonly used chemicals. The natural compounds that are used for
controlling postharvest diseases and extending shelf-life of horticultural produce are as
follows

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Essential oils
Essential oils are aromatic oily liquids obtained from plant materials (flowers, buds,
seeds, leaves, twigs, barks, herbs, wood, fruits, and roots). They are present in very
minute quantities (normally<1%) in plants.
In nature, essential oils play an important role in the protection of the plants against
different pathogens & also against herbivores, by reducing their appetite for such
plants.
Essential oils mainly reduce postharvest disease incidence of horticultural produce due
to their antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic and insecticidal activity.
They have certain advantages over synthetic chemical like; they have bioactivity in the
vapour phase, relatively safe, no residual effect, eco-friendly, and biodegradable.
Mode of action
When essential oils come in contact with bacterial or frugal cells, it causes degradation
of cell wall. Due to hydrophobic in nature, the essential oil causes a partition in the
lipids of the bacterial cell membrane and mitochondria, disturbing the structure and
rendering them more permeable. As a result, leakage of ions & other cell contents and
damage of membrane proteins occurs. This finally led to death of microbial cells.

Example of essential oils

Major component Source Disease Fruit
of essential oil
(a.i.)

Eugenol Clove oil Penicilliumexpansum, Apple

Botrytis cinera, Grape
Moniliniafructigena
Thymol, Thyme oil B.cinerea, strawberry
Carvacrol R. Stolonifer orange,
M.fructicola Grape, cherry

Menthol Peppermint oil Penicilliumitalicum, Orange,

strawberry
B. cinerea,R. stolonifer
Cinnamaldehyde Cinnamon Natural flora kiwi fruit
oil
Citral Lemongrass C.gloeosporioides, mango,peach
oil P.expansum
B.cinerea

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 Packaging of Fruits and Vegetables

According to UK institute of packaging:

 A coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, distribution, storage,

retailing and end use.
 A means of ensuring safe delivery to the ultimate consumer in sound conditions
at minimum cost.

Objective of Packaging:

Protection of produce during Transport, Storage, and Marketing till Consumption.

Here protection means protect product from physical injuries (impact, compression,
abrasion and wounds) and adverse environmental conditions (tempe rature, relative
humidity) during transport, storage and marketing.
1. It helps in safe transportation, storages, marketing and distribution of produce.
2. It protects the produce from pilferage, microorganisms and adverse weather
condition.
3. It is also used to advertise the product.

Requirements of a Good Package:

 Should be environment friendly and biologically inactive.

 Should have sufficient strength in compression and against impact and
vibrations
 Should be stable during the entire distribution chain.
 Should be compatible with the automatic packing/filling, handling machines
(mechanical filling systems)
 Should facilitate special treatments like pre-cooling.
 Should have consumer appeal.
 Should be easily printable.
 Should be cost effective.
Materials for Packaging:

 Wood – boxes, bins, trays, barrels, pallets

 Jute/canvas – sacks
 Paper and card board – liners, boxes, trays
 Plastic – Rigid - crates, pallets, trays
Flexible – films (single & multi layered)
Polystyrene boxes / trays (Thermocol box)
 Combined materials – CFB and plastic

42
CFB has almost replaced wood and jute and is considered as most important package
material to be used in combination with other materials.
Some materials used for fresh horticultural produce include:
 Wooden box having CFB liners.
 CFB box with plastic film wraps
 CFB trays with wooden corner supports
 CFB laminated or waxed containers.
 CFB box with plastic retailer packs (strawberry boxes)
 CFB or polystyrene trays/boxes with plastic film wraps.

Packaging Type: There are many types of packing containers available for horticultural
produce, and they come in a huge range of sizes.

i) Bags and Sacks: Paper, polyethylene film, woven polypropylene. These give little
protection to the crop from handling and transport damage, potato, onion, canots
etc.
ii) Woven Baskets: These are traditional containers in which crops are placed after
harvest. The produce is damaged in these baskets when they are stacked one above
the other during transport and distribution.
iii) Wooden field box: These are made from thin pieces of wood, widely spread so they
are light in weight and cheep to make. These can be used for all types of fruits and
vegetables.
iv) Plastic field boxes: They are strong and durable. They are made from moulded
polyvinyl chloride, poly propylene or polyethylene. They have smooth surface,
which does not damage the produce. Initially, they are expensive to buy, but can be
used repeatedly.

v) Pallet boxes: They are most commonly base on the standard size for a European
pallet of 1 x 1.2 m and about 0.5 m high. These have capacity of about 500 kg. They
are usually made from wood but plastic ones are also available. They are used for
whole range of crops, which are commonly loaded into them in the field and
transported directly to the store.
vi) Fiberboard boxes: They are made from either laminated or more commonly
corrugated fiberboard. They may be used for directly field packing of produce and
transported to pack house or destination market.
vii) Polystyrene boxes : Popularly called thermocol boxes, provides enough protection
to produce, are light in weight, hygrimic and keeps the produce for longer periods at
pack temperature.

The three containers styles illustrated here are constructed from corrugated fiberboard.
The regular slotted containers is fully collapsible and the most economical. Collapsible
containers can be flattened and stacked during marketing and transport easily and less
expensive, and take much less space to store while empty in the packinghouse.

43
 Source: Fibre Box
Association
Half of full-telescopic containers have the highest stacking strength and protect
against bulging but are more costly. The choice of package style will depend on what
commodity is to be pack and how to use the container throughout the post harvest
system (during cooling, for long-term storage, as a display).
The container known as a Bliss box has very strong corners, but is not
collapsible. Bliss boxes for fresh fruits and vegetables most commonly have either flaps
that meet in the middle of the top or that form an open topped tray, which is covered
with a separate lid.

Bliss Box

A simple wooden tray with raised corners is stackable and allow plenty of ventilation
for fragile crops such as ripe tomatoes.

Stackable cartons reinforced

with wooden corners supports

Smaller consumer sized containers can be packed into

large container.

Individual Cartons designed to hold six small

consumer containers per layer

44
 Adding a fiberboard divider to a carton will increase stacking strength. Wooden
inserts, or fiberboard folded into tight triangles and placed in all four corners can be
especially useful when a carton needs strengthening.
Using a polyethylene liner in a fiberboard carton can help protect produce and
reduce water loss in commodities such as peach, plums, pears, citrus, cherries, kiwi
fruits etc. Water vapor given off by the product is contained within the liner, increasing
the RH around the product and decreasing the rate of water loss. The liner can also
reduce abrasion damage that results from fruit rubbing against the inside of the box. It
is important to keep produce cool to prevent causing damage in cartons lined with
polyethylene due to gas composition changes related to increased respiration rates.
When a locally made containers have sharp edges or rough inner surfaces, a simple,
inexpensive liner can be used to protect produce from damage during handling.

Modified Atmosphere Packaging

As fruits and vegetables are living entities even after harvest, they continue their
metabolic activities like respiration and ethylene at normal conditions. The modified
atmosphere packaging refers to the modification of the atmosphere within the package
by reducing the oxygen content while increasing the levels of carbon dioxide and/or
nitrogen has been shown to significantly extend the shelf-life of fruits and vegetables at
chill temperatures. Modification of the atmosphere hinders the normal metabolic
activities of the produce thereby allows slower use of stored food materials used during
respiration.
The Theory of MA packaging
When a given weight of produce is sealed within a plastic bag, it uses oxygen and
produces carbon dioxide. As the oxygen concentration inside the package falls, below
about 10% the rate of respiration (oxygen use) starts to decrease. At the same time,
oxygen moves into the bag through the walls of the plastic bag and carbon dioxide
moves out. Oxygen and carbon dioxide move across the film in proportion to the drop in
concentration of oxygen and rise of carbon dioxide concentration inside the plastic bag.
The modified atmosphere concept for packaged goods consists of modifying the
atmosphere surrounding a food product by vacuum, gas flushing, or controlled
permeability of the pack thus controlling the biochemical, enzymatic and microbial
actions so as to avoid or decrease the main degradations that might occur.
There are two types of MAP:
Passive MAP (Automatic Modification in hermetically sealed packs):
In this packaging, the fruits and vegetables are packed in suitable packaging materials.
Modified atmospheres can be obtained passively between plant material and sealed
package or intentionally using determined concentrations of gases. Modified
atmosphere is formed because of vegetable respiration, which consumes CO2 and
releases O2 in sealed package. In passive modification, the respiring product is placed in
a polymeric package and sealed hermetically. Only the respiration of the product and

45
the gas permeability of the film influence the change in gaseous composition of the
environment surrounding the product.
Active MAP (Artificial Modification by incorporating known gases):
In this packaging the inner composition of gases, modified using artificial means. First of
all the package is refluxed followed by filling up of known amount of gases. Generally,
CO2, O2, and N2 are used. The maximum CO2 concentration must not be beyond 1%
whereas the O2 concentration should not be less than 8%. An intentionally or actively
obtained modified atmosphere occurs when the desired gas mixture is introduced into
the container before sealing. In this way, atmospheric balance inside the package is
reached faster or almost immediately.

Advantages of MAP
1. Increased shelf-life allowing less frequent loading of retail display shelves;
2. Reduction in retail waste;
3. Improved presentation-clear view of product and all round visibility;
4. Hygienic stackable pack, sealed and free from product drip and odour;
5. Little or no need for chemical preservatives;
6. Increased distribution area and reduced transport costs due to less frequent
deliveries;
7. Centralised packaging and portion control;
8. Reduction in production and storage costs due to better utilisation of labour,
space and equipment
Disadvantages of MAP
1. Capital cost of gas packaging machinery
2. Cost of gases and packaging materials;
3. Cost of analytical equipment to ensure that correct gas mixtures are being used;
4. Cost of quality assurance systems to prevent the distribution of leakers, etc
5. Benefits of MAP are lost once the pack is opened or leaks.

Active Packaging (AP)

This is one of the most advanced packing systems of food products. Packages interact
with food and the environment and play a dynamic (active) role in food preservation
retaining microbiological or biochemical quality of food contents. Principal AP systems

46
include those that involve oxygen scavenging, moisture absorption and control, carbon
dioxide and ethanol generation, and antimicrobial (AM) migrating and nonmigrating
systems. Of these active packaging systems, the AM version is of great importance.
Different types of absorber and/or scavengers are used for O2, Moisture, CO2, Ethylene,
and antifogging treatments.
Ethylene Scavenger: KMnO4,
CO2 Scavenger: Ca(OH)2, CaO
O2 Scavenger : Iron powder, sodium chloride, activated carbon
Moisture absorber: Absorbing Materials: Silica gel, NaCl
Porous Polymeric Materials: Carboxy Methyl Cellulose, Polycrilate

Smart Packaging
Smart packaging is a type of packaging that changes the condition of packaging to
extend shelf life or improve safety or sensory properties while maintaining quality of
food. This technology is based on the concept of sense-and-response technology,
wherein some components of package would sense a signal such as an increase in
temperature and initiate a marked increase in permeability to compensate for
perceived change signal. Some tissues produce ethanol on fermentation when lower O2
limit is surpassed, a truly smart package will continuously monitor ethanol and adjust
O2 permeability. This level of control may never be applicable for small consumer
package due to economic considerations. However, smart packaging techniques may be
appropriate for longer containers used for shipments by truck, ship, or air.

47
 Storage of Fruits and Vegetables
Fruits and vegetables are living organisms. Their condition and marketable life
are affected by such things as temperature, humidity, the composition of the
atmosphere which surrounds them, the level of damage that has been inflicted on them
and the type and degree of infection with microorganisms. They deteriorate during
storage through loss of moisture, loss of stored energy, e.g. carbohydrates, loss of other
foods, e.g. vitamins, physical losses through pest and disease attack, loss in quality from
physiological disorders. All these factors should be taken into account before a crop
storage enterprise is undertaken.
Purpose of storage
1. Slow down biological activity
2. Reduce loss of moisture from the produce
3. Reduce growth of microorganisms
4. Avoid physiological disorders
5. Reduce physical damage due to insects, rodents etc.
6. To minimise postharvest loss
7. To tie over the surplus production
8. Make it available where it is not available
9. Stabilize the market
10. Make it available during off season
TRADITIONAL STORAGE
In situ
In situ storage effectively means delaying the harvest of the crop until it is required.
This can be done in certain cases with root crops, but it does mean that the land where
the crop was grown remains occupied and a new crop cannot be planted there. In colder
climates the crop may be exposed to the detrimental effects of freezing or chilling
injury.
Burying
Root crops can be packed into material such as coir dust, peat or even sawdust to
protect them and provide a humid environment to preserve the crop.
Pits
Placing the crop in a pit or trench is a traditional way of storage used in many countries.
The pit or trench is dug at the edges of the field where the crop has been grown. If the
field slopes, it is important that the pits. or trenches are placed at a high point in the
field, especially in regions of high rainfall. The pit or trench may be lined with straw or
other organic material, filled with the crop to be stored and covered by a layer of
organic material and then a layer of soil. Sometimes wooden boards are placed on the
soil surface before the soil is put on. The lack of ventilation may cause problems with
rotting and ventilation trenches may be dug down to the base of the store. In European
countries, many root crops have been traditionally stored in this way, and even apples.
In the Sudan, potatoes are stored in pits with a heavy straw covering for insulation.
Clamps

48
These have been used as a traditional method of storing potatoes. Clamps were also
developed for cassava storage in Colombia, where successful storage for over 8 weeks
was reported. The width of the clamp usually ranges from 1–2.5 m, with any suitable
length. The dimensions are marked out and the potatoes piled on the ground in an
elongated conical heap. Sometimes straw is laid on the soil before the potatoes. Potatoes
stored in clamps in hot climates should be of 1.5 m maximum width with a ventilating
duct at ground level down the centre.
Barns
Farmers build various simple structures for crop storage. In Nigeria yams are stored in
specially constructed barns. The traditional barn consists of a framework of raffia palm
poles supported by erect stems of Newbouldia laevis, with the live plants giving a canopy
to provide shade and shelter.
Cellars
These are underground or partly underground rooms, often below a house. This
location provides good insulation, which means they are cool in warm ambient
conditions and protected from excessively low temperatures in cold conditions. In
Britain they were used for storing crops such as apples, cabbages, onions and potatoes
during the winter. The crops were usually spread out thinly on shelves to ensure good
air circulation. Onions and garlic would be plaited into bunches and suspended from
hooks, a method that is commonly used throughout the world.
MODERN STORAGE
Refrigerated storage
Generally, the lower the storage temperature for fruit and vegetables down to their
freezing point, the longer is the storage life. The increase in the rate of deterioration is
related to the metabolic processes of the crop. Within the physiological temperature
range of the crop the respiration rate increases exponentially with temperature, so that
for every 10°C rise in temperature the increase in metabolism is of the order of two- to
three-fold. Many crops suffer from chilling injury at temperatures well above their
freezing point, therefore it is essential to define clearly the temperature range over
which the prediction applies. This varies not only between different crop species, but
also with different varieties of the same species.
Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage
The term implies the addition or removal of gases resulting in an atmospheric
composition different from that of normal air. Thus the levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen,
nitrogen, ethylene, and metabolic volatiles in the atmosphere may be manipulated.
Controlled atmosphere storage generally refers to keeping produce at decreased oxygen
and increased carbon dioxide concentrations and at suitable range of temperature and
RH. Systems where atmospheric control is accurately controlled are generally called CA
storage and where degree of control “less accurately” monitored are called MA
(modified atmosphere) storage.
Benefits of CA storage
- Slows down respiration and ethylene production rates, softening and retard
senescence of horticultural produce.

49
- Reduces fruit sensitivity to ethylene action
- Alleviates certain physiological disorders such as chilling injury of various
commodities, russet spotting in lettuce, and some storage disorders including, scald
of apples.
- Controls pathogen and insect infestation in fruits and vegetables
- Prolongs shelf-life of fruits and vegetables without using chemical preservatives
Harmful effects of CA storage
- Initiation or aggravation of certain physiological disorders can occur, such as
blackheart in potatoes, brown stain on lettuce, and brown heart in apples and pears.
- Irregular ripening of fruits, such as banana, mango, pear and tomato, can result from
exposure to O2 levels below 2% or CO2 levels above 5% for more than 2 to 4 weeks.
- Off- flavors and off-odours at very low O2 or very high CO2 concentration may
develop as a result of anaerobic respiration and fermentative metabolism.
Hypobaric storage or Low-pressure system
Hypobaric storage is a form of controlled atmosphere storage in which the
produce is stored in a partial vacuum. The reduction in pressure reduces the partial
pressure of oxygen and thus its availability to the crop in the store. The reduction in the
partial pressure of the oxygen is proportional to the reduction in pressure. However, in
crop stores the humidity must be kept high. Since the crop in the hypobaric store is
constantly respiring, it is essential that the store atmosphere is constantly being
changed. This is achieved by a vacuum pump evacuating the air from the store. The
store atmosphere is constantly being replenished from the outside. The air inlet and the
air evacuation from the store are balanced in such a way as to achieve the required low
pressure within the store.
There are two important considerations in developing and applying this
technology to crop storage. The first is that the store needs to be designed to withstand
low pressures without imploding. The second is that the reduced pressure inside the
store can result in rapid water loss from the crop. To overcome the first, stores have to
be strongly constructed of thick steel plate with a curved interior. For the second the air
being introduced into the store must be saturated (100% r.h.); if it is less than this,
serious dehydration of the crop can occur.
The vacuum chamber is vented continuously with water saturated air to
maintain oxygen levels and to minimize water loss. Ripening of fruit is retarded by
hypobaric storage, due to the reduction in the partial pressure of oxygen and for some
fruits to the reduction in the ethylene levels. A reduction in pressure of air to 10
kilopascals (0.1 atmosphere) is equivalent to reducing the oxygen concentration
to about 2 per cent at normal atmospheric pressure. Hypobaric stores are expensive
to construct because of the low internal pressures required, and this high cost of
application appears to limit hypobaric storage to high value produce such as cut
flowers. Secondly, control of gases during the storage cannot be manipulated.
Low cost storage
A low cost option to maintain temperature in an enclosed chamber is a matter of
prime importance. Evaporative cool storage or zero energy cool chamber (ZECC) is one

50
such alternative system that is being explored in the country. ZECC is made of cheap
quality porous bricks having double wall and the cavity is filled with riverbed sand
having 4 ducts submerged in the wet sand at bottom to drain off excess water from the
sand. Floor can be made of wooden planks with provision for entry of air. In the
evaporative cooling, a part or all of the suitable heat of moist air is converted to latent
heat, thereby producing a reduction in temperature. Generally, the fruits can be stored
up to 10-15 days under ZECC with acceptable minimum rotting and quality loss. It is an
alternative to refrigerated cold storage to meet the short term storage needs at farm
level especially during summer months when the temperature is very high and RH is
relatively low. Temperature from 10- 17 °C (less than the outside) and high RH (80-
90%) can be obtained on a sunny day.

Points to be pondered for storage of high quality horticultural produce

 Store only high quality produce, free of damage, decay and of proper maturity
(not over-ripe or under-mature).
 Know the requirements for the commodities you want to put into storage, and
follow recommendations for proper temperature, relative humidity and
ventilation.
 Avoid lower than recommended temperatures in storage, because many
commodities are susceptible to damage from freezing or chilling.
 Do not over load storage rooms or stack containers closely
 Provide adequate ventilation in the storage room.
 Keep storage rooms clean.
 Storage facilities should be protected from rodents by keeping the immediate
outdoor area clean, and free from trash and weeds.
 Containers must be well ventilated and strong enough to with stand stacking. Do
not stack containers beyond their stacking strength.
 Monitor temperature in the storage room by placing thermometers at different
locations.
 Don’t store onion or garlic in high humidity environments.
 Avoid storing ethylene sensitive commodities with those that produce ethylene.
 Avoid storing produce known for emitting strong odors (apples, garlic, onions,
turnips, cabbages, and potatoes) with odor-absorbing commodities.
 Inspect stored produce regularly for signs of injury, water loss, damage and
disease.
 Remove damaged or diseased produce to prevent the spread of problems.

51
 Recommended Temperature and RH Radish 0 90-95 1-2 months
conditions Tomato 10-13 90-95 1-3 weeks
Name of Temp RH (%) Approximat Turnip 0 90-95 4-5 months
commodity (oC) e Shelf-Life Watermelon 10-15 90-95 2-3 weeks
Apple -1-4 90-95 1-12
months
Apricot 0-1 90-95 1-3 weeks
Banana 13-15 90-95 1-4 weeks
Ber 7.5 90-95 2 weeks
Grape -0.5-0 90-95 2-8 weeks
Guava 6-8 90-95 2-3 weeks
Kiwi ; 0 90-95 3-5 months Recommended CA or MA conditions
Chinese for selected fruits and vegetables
gooseberry Commodity Temp % O2 % CO2
Lemon 10-13 85-90 1-6 months (°C)
Lychee, 1-2 90-95 3-5 weeks Apple 0-5 1-2 0-3
Litchi Banana* 12-16 2-5 2-5
Mandarin 4-5 90-95 2 months Cherry, sweet 0-5 3-10 10-15
(Kinnow) Mango* 10-15 3-7 5-8
Mango 13 85-90 2-4 weeks Peach, 0-5 1-2 3-5
Mushrooms 0 90 7-14 days clingstone
Papaya 7-13 90-95 1-3 weeks Pear, European 0-5 1-3 0-3
Pear -1.5-0.5 90-95 2-7 months Asparagus 1-5 Air 10-14
Pineapple 7-13 85-90 2-4 weeks Beans, green 5-10 2-3 4-7
Plum 0-1 90-95 2-5 weeks Broccoli 0-5 1-2 5-10
Pomegrante 5 90-95 2-3 months Brussels 0-5 1-2 5-7
Strawberry 0 90-95 7-10 weeks sprouts
Beans 4-7 90-95 7-10 days Cabbage 0-5 2-3 3-6
Bitter gourd 10-12 85-90 2-3 weeks Cantaloupes 2-7 3-5 10-20
Broccoli 0 95-100 10-14 days Cauliflower 0-5 2-3 3-4
Cabbage 0 90-95 3-6 weeks Okra 7-12 Air 4-10
Carrots 0 90-95 6-8 months Onions (bulb) 0-5 1-2 0-10
Cauliflower 0 90-95 3-4 weeks Pepper (bell) 5-12 2-5 2-5
Eggplant 10-12 90-95 1-2 weeks Radish 0-5 1-2 2-3
Garlic 0 65-70 6-7 months (topped)
Ginger 13 65-70 6 months Tomatoes 12-20 3-5 3-5
Lettuces 0 90-95 2-3 weeks (green) 10-15 3-5 3-5
Okra 7-10 90-95 7-10 days ripe
Onion 0 65-70 1-8 months * CA is especially beneficial during
Peas 0 90-95 1-2 weeks transit
Bell Pepper 7-10 90-95 2-3 weeks

52
Zero Energy Cool Chamber
Zero energy cool chamber is a low cost alternative to store horticultural produce. This is
an on-farm storage chamber, for fresh fruits, vegetables and flowers to extend their
marketability. Due to their high moisture content fruits and vegetables have very short
life and are liable to spoil. Moreover, they are living entities and carry out transpiration,
respiration and ripening even after harvest. The spoilage of fruits and vegetables can be
controlled by reducing the storage temperature. The zero energy cool chamber can be
constructed easily with materials like brick, sand, bamboo, khashkhas/straw, gunny bag
etc. The chamber can keep the temperature 10-15 °C cooler than the outside
temperature and maintain about 90% relative humidity. It is most effective during the
dry season.
Construction
1. Select an upland having a nearby source of water supply
2. Make floor with brick 165 cm x 115 cm
3. Erect the double wall to a height of 67.5 cm leaving a cavity of 7.5 cm.
4. Drench the chamber with water
5. Soak the fine river bed sand with water
6. Fill the 7.5 cm cavity between the double wall with this wet sand
7. Make a frame of top cover with bamboo (165 cm x 115 cm) frame and sirki,
straw or dry grass etc.

Operation
1. Keep the sand, bricks and top cover of the chamber wet with water.
2. Water twice daily in order to achieve desired temperature and relative humidity
or fix a drip system with plastic pipes and micro tubes connected to an overhead
water source.
3. Store the fruits and vegetables in this chamber by keeping in perforated plastic
crates
4. Cover these crates with a thin polyethylene sheet
5. The cool chamber should be reinstalled once in 3 years with new bricks utilizing
the old bricks for other purposes.

53
 Part - II
Value addition of fruits and vegetables

Importance and scope of fruits and vegetables preservation in India

Introduction -
Fruits and vegetables are important supplement to the nutritional requirements in the human
diet as they provide the essential minerals, vitamins and fiber required for maintaining health.
India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in world after China. Huge
quantity of produce is wasted due to inadequate facilities for preservation as only 1 to 2% of
the total produce is processed in the country. Fruit and vegetable preservation is thus one of
the major pillars of food industry. The food preservation and processing industry has now
become a necessity rather than being a luxury.

Food is the prime necessity of life and can be classified in different groups according to
their nutritional value and function in the body.
1. Energy giving food: Any food which provides energy is classified as energy giving
food. One gram of carbohydrate imparts 4 calorie while 1 g of fat provides 9 calorie
of energy, e.g., cereals, roots, tubers, dried fruits, sugar, fat etc.
2. Body building food: Foods which are rich in protein are body building foods, e.g.,
milk, meat, fish, egg are rich in protein of high biological value. Secondly pulses, oil,
seeds and nuts etc are rich in proteins. Though, these proteins contain many essential
amino acids for synthesis of body tissues yet may not possess all essential amino acids
required for the human body.
3. Protective food: Foods rich in protein, vitamin and minerals are called protective
foods, e.g., milk, egg, green leafy vegetables and fruits. Protective foods are of two
types.
 High biological value foods: Foods rich in protein, minerals and vitamin. (e.g., milk)
are protective foods of high biological values.
 Low biological value foods: This group includes foods rich in minerals and vitamins
but deficient in proteins (e.g., fruit and vegetables, green leafy vegetables). Thus, fruit
and vegetables are characterized as the protective foods of low biological value. They
are rich source of carbohydrates, dietary fibre, mineral, vitamins, flavonoids etc.
Status of fruits and vegetables in India
Fruits and vegetables are the important category of horticulture crops grown in our
country.
 Out of total cropped area of 184 million hectare, horticulture crops cover about 20.7
million hectares (about 11.25% of the total gross cropped area).
54
  Horticultural crops contribute about 18-20% of the gross value of India’s agricultural
output.
 India is the largest producer of mango, banana and lime.
 The country produces 41% of world mangoes, 23% banana, 24% cashew nut and
accounts for 12% of world fruit production (MOFPI, 2009).
 India is the world’s second largest fruit and vegetable producing country accounting
for 79.97 million tonnes of fruit and 129.1 million tonnes of vegetables (FAO, 2009).
 Besides, about 5.66 million tonnes of loose flowers, spices, mushroom and aromatic
plants are also produced.
 The export of fresh fruit and vegetables from India in 2006-07 was estimated at 9.84
lakh tonnes and valued at Rs 2411.70 crores.
 Mango, grapes, apple, onion, potato, green vegetables like okra, bitter gourd and
green chilies are the major items of export.
 India also exported 9.53 lakh tonnes of processed foods comprising of mango pulp,
juices, concentrates, dried and processed vegetables, pickle and chutney, alcoholic
and non-alcoholic beverages worth Rs 2,757.74 crores (APEDA, 2007) (Table-1.1).
1. Fruits: Owing to wide diversity of agro-climatic conditions, almost all types of fruits
are grown in the country.
 Temperate fruits: Apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, cherries, almond, walnut and
other nuts).
 Subtropical fruits: Mango, guava, papaya and citrus etc.
 Tropical fruits: Banana, pineapple, sapota, litchi and grapes etc.
 Arid fruits: Pomegranate, fig, phalsa, ber and aonla etc.
 Plantation crops: Coconut, cashewnut, and arecanut etc.

Table 1.1: Status of horticultural crops, post harvest management and processing in
India
Status Position in India
1
Area , m ha Fruits 9.5
Vegetables 7.9
Others 3.3
Total 20.7
1
Production , Fruits 79.97
m tones Vegetables 129.1
Flowers, Spices and Aromatic plants 5.66
Total 214.73
2
Export Fresh Fruits/vegetables 9.84 lakh tonnes
2
Value Rs. 2411.70 Crores
3
Processed Products 9.53 lakh tonnes
3
Value Rs. 2757.74 Crores
4
Infrastructure Cold Store units , number 5101
4
Storage Capacity , m tonnes 21.7

55
 Processing capacity, m tonnes 3.85
Actual Production of processed 1.33
products, m tonnes
Capacity utilization, % Less than 35
Source: 1. FAO (2009); 2. APEDA (2007); 3.MOFPI (2009); 4. DMI (2006)
2. Vegetables: More than 40 kinds of vegetables are produced in our country. India comprises
the prime position in cauliflower, second in onion and third in cabbage in the world. The
country produces 36% green peas, 30% cauliflower and 10% onion and thus, accounts for
13% of total vegetable production in the world (MOFPI, 2009).

3. Status of fruit and vegetables processing industry in India

The food processing industry in India accounts for 14% of the total industrial output with
6.3% contribution in the national GDP. The food processing industry plays an important role
in the Indian economy and is establishing as one of the largest sector in terms of production
as well as returns. The installed capacity of processing fruit and vegetable in our country
from more than 6600 FPO licensed units is about 3.85 million tonnes which is less than 2%
of total fruit and vegetable production against 60-83% in many horticultural advanced
countries like 60-70% in USA, 70% in Brazil, 78% in Philippines, 80% Saudi Arabia and
83% in Malaysia. Further, the actual production of processed products from these units stood
at only 1.33 million tonneswhich accounts for less than 35% capacity utilization of the
installed processing units.

Categorization of different processing units

The categorization of different processing units in the country indicate that 70% of the total
units comprised of home/cottage/small scale sectors having capacity to process up to 250
tonnes/annum, while 30% of the units consisted of large scale sector with a capacity to
process about 30 tonnes/hr. However, large scale sector contribute 70% of the total
production of processed products in India. Region wise distribution of units in country is
comprised of Western 41%, South 28%, North 22% and about 9% in Eastern region. With
respect to public and private sectors, about 95% of the total units fall under the private sector
and only 0f 5% in different states in India up to the year 2008 (5166 units) is given in Table
1.2. Major products which are prepared in these units includes pulps, juices, concentrates,
dried and processed vegetables, pickle, chutney, alcoholic and non-alcholic beverages. The
proportion of different products accounts for fruit juices and pulp (27%), ready to serve
(RTS) beverages (13%), pickles (12%), jams and jellies (10%), synthetic syrup (8%),
squashes (4%), tomato products (4%), canned products (4%) and other products (18%).

During 2007, India exported 9.53 lakh tonnes of processed foods (Table-1.3) comprising of
mango pulp, juices, concentrates, dried and processed vegetables, pickle and chutney,
alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages worth Rs 2,757.74 crores (APEDA 2007). As such
export value of processed products was higher then that of export value of fresh fruits and
vegetables (2411.7 crores) during the same year. Thus there is a good scope for processing of
fruit and vegetables in to different products to reduce wastage and earn foreign exchange.

56
Table 1.2 State-wise categorization of FPO licensed fruit & vegetable processing units in
India.
Sr.no State Large Small Scale Cottage Home Re- Total
Scale B A Scale Scale B labeler
1 Andhra Pradesh 117 19 18 44 54 44 296
2 Arunachal Pradesh - - - 1 1 - 2
3 Assam 7 3 2 7 26 1 46
4 Bihar 6 6 3 7 14 7 43
5 Chandigarh 1 1 3 1 3 1 10
6 Chhattisgarh 1 - 2 - 2 1 6
7 Delhi 6 10 11 36 56 90 209
8 Goa 1 2 2 11 22 4 42
9 Gujarat 77 36 27 63 51 51 305
10 Haryana 19 12 29 43 38 25 166
11 Himachal Pradesh 15 13 21 31 29 7 116
12 Jammu & Kashmir 4 6 12 27 21 7 77
13 Jharkhand 1 5 7 5 6 4 28
14 Karnataka 68 41 36 53 58 72 328
15 Kerala 21 38 42 112 174 58 445
16 Madhya Pradesh 20 13 9 34 30 7 113
17 Maharashtra 123 75 73 236 382 159 1048
18 Manipur 3 3 - 8 1 1 16
19 Meghalaya - 1 2 4 3 - 10
20 Mizoram 1 1 - - 1 - 3
21 Nagaland 2 1 1 - 2 - 6
22 Orissa 5 1 - 5 7 2 20
23 Punjab 24 18 32 65 73 18 230
24 Rajasthan 5 12 12 26 43 8 106
25 Sikkim 1 - - 1 2 - 4
26 Tamil Nadu 113 25 17 109 204 76 544
27 Tripura 3 1 - - 2 1 7
28 Uttar Pradesh 31 25 46 129 212 42 485
29 Uttaranchal 17 12 9 29 56 6 129
30 West Bengal 23 20 23 69 128 45 308
31 Andaman Nicobar - - 1 1 - - 2
Island
32 Dadar& Nagar Haweli 1 1 1 1 3 - 7
33 Pondicherry 1 - - 1 7 - 9
34 Grand Total 717 401 441 1159 1711 737 5166

57
Table 1.3: Export status of processed products in India
S.No. Item 2006-07
Quantity (,000 MT) Value (Rs. Crores)
1. Dried and preserved vegetables 125.7 429.94
2. Mango Pulp 166.8 509.69
3. Pickle & Chutney 158.5 250.62
4. Alcoholic & Non-alcoholic beverages 59.6 338.56
5. Other processed fruits & vegetables 311.8 754.46
6. Miscellaneous prepared products 130.8 474.47
Total 953.2 2757.74

Objectives of fruit and vegetable processing

1. To reduce wastage and losses: Fruit and vegetable industry is the backbone of
horticulture industry as it takes care of all possible waste that occurs in spite of
improvement in the distribution and marketing of fresh produce.
2. To handle glut: Produce during glut season utilized for making different processed
products, thus fruit processing helps in reducing wastage and handling excess produce
during glut season.
3. To stabilize farm prices and income: It stabilizes farm price by utilizing the excess
produce in value addition to provide additional income to the farmers.
4. To utilize marketable surplus: Processing utilizes marketable surplus as well as cull
and deformed produce, to ensure remunerative returns to the growers.
5. To generate employment: Processing of fruits and vegetables being a labour intensive
helps to generate both direct and indirect employment for the masses.
6. To add variety to the diet: Value addition/processing make the food more attractive
and palatable.
7. To ensure nutritional security.
8. To earn foreign exchange through export of processed fruit and vegetable products.
Major constraints in expansion of food industry
1. Variation in fresh produce quality involving frequent changes in production
schedules.
2. Low productivity and high cost of raw material: Low production percent area in our
country in comparison to horticulturally advanced countries is one of the major
factors leading to high cost of raw material (Table-1.4).
3. Lower quality of raw material (low in soluble solids) in our country leads to
requirement of comparatively more raw material for production of equivalent quantity
of finished products, thus resulting in higher cost of production (Table 1.4).
4. Non availability of cost effective technologies for processing and packaging of fresh
and processed products.
5. Lack of infrastructure for post harvest management, cool chain and cold storages.
6. Non-availability of trained man-power.

58
 7. Low domestic demand of processed fruit and vegetable products due to high cost.
8. Irregular in supply and non-uniform quality of processed products due to variation in
raw material quality and use of batch processes.
9. High cost of packaging material, higher taxes and excise duties.
10. Low capacity utilization in food industries.
11. Financial and fiscal constraints.
12. Infra-structural constraints in processing.
13. Inadequate farmer-processor linkage; leading to dependence on intermediataries.
14. Lack of strategies for market promotion.
15. Lack of strategies for utilization of processing industries waste (pomace, peel, core,
stones/seed) for value addition.
16. Lack of R&D in food processing sector and its linkage with the food industry.
Fruit/vegetable Productivity, tones/ha
India Abroad
Apple 8 30
Pine apple 10 80
Cauliflower 8 25
Onion 10 30
Potato 12 70
Tomato 15 60
Finished products
Orange juice concentrate (650B) 14 10 (Brazil)
Pineapple juice concentrate (65.140B) 16 8 (Philippines, Hawaii)
Tomato Paste (200B) 7 4 (Italy)
Table 1.4: Comparison of productivity (tonnes/ha) of import fruits and quantity of raw
material required to prepare finished processed product (tonnes/ha) India and Abroad
Prospects for growth of processing industry
In spite of large number of constraints, the prospects for growth of processing industry are
very high due to following factors:
1. Increased urbanization.
2. Changing life style and food habits.
3. Increase in purchasing power of the population.
4. Change in consumption pattern.
5. Increased awareness of population about health promoting foods.
6. Increased demand for functional foods, organic foods, convenience foods and diet
foods.
7. Expansion of organized food retail.
8. Increase in population of working women having less time for spending in the
kitchen. Thus need for processed convenience foods.
Government Initiatives
In order to reduce post harvest losses and expand the food processing industry, the Ministry
of Food Processing Industries, government of India, has taken the following initiatives to
provide a policy support for the industry.
 Formulation of the National Food Processing Policy
 Complete de-licensing, excluding for alcoholic beverages

59
  Food processing sector declared as Priority Sector for lending in 1999.
 100% FDI on automatic route
 Excise duty waived on fruits and vegetables processing from 2000–01
 Income tax holiday for fruits and vegetables processing from 2004–05
 Customs duty reduced on freezer van from 20% to 10% from 2005–06
Enactment of Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 which includes all acts and rules
pertaining to food such as Fruit Products order (FPO), Prevention of Food Adulteration
(PFA) Act, 1954.
SWOT Analysis of food–processing industries in India
I. Strengths
 Abundant availability of raw material
 Priority sector status for agro-processing given by the central Government
 Vast network of manufacturing facilities all over the country
 Vast domestic market
II. Weaknesses
 Low availability of adequate infrastructural facilities
 Lack of adequate quality control and testing methods as per international standards
 Inefficient supply chain due to a large number of intermediaries
 Higher requirement of working capital.
 Inadequately developed linkages between Research organizations and industry.
 Seasonality of raw material
III. Opportunities
 Large crop and material base offering a vast potential for agro processing activities
 Setting of Agri-export zone (AEZ) and food parks for providing added incentive to
develop green field projects
 Rising income levels and changing consumption patterns
 Favourable demographic profile and changing lifestyles
 Integration of development in contemporary technologies such as electronics, material
science, bio-technology etc. offer vast scope for rapid improvement and progress
 Opening of global markets
IV. Threats
 Affordability and cultural preferences of fresh food
 High inventory carrying cost
 High taxation
 High packaging cost
Thus, keeping in view the availability of diverse raw material (fruit and vegetable), change in
life style, rising income, increased urbanization and positive government support, their exists
a good potential for expansion of fruit and vegetable processing industry in the country.
Establishment of fruit processing units in rural sector shall help in reducing the post harvest
losses, develop wide variety of value added products, and utilize by-products of food industry
to improve the economic lot of growers, processors and nutritional status of Indian population

60
 Principles of food preservation

Keeping in view the various causes of deterioration of foods, various methods of food
preservation have been devised on the basis of following principles:-

1. Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition of food

 By keeping out micro-organisms (asepsis)
 By removal of micro-organisms (filtration)
 By hindering the growth or activity of micro-organisms (use of low temperature,
drying, creating anaerobic conditions or using chemicals).
 By killing the micro-organisms (using heat or irradiation).
2. Prevention or delay of self decomposition of food
 By destruction or inactivation of food enzymes (blanching or boiling)
 By prevention or delay of purely chemical reactions (use of antioxidants to prevent
oxidation).
3. Prevention of damage by insects, animals, mechanical causes etc (use of fumigants,
cushioning, packaging etc).

1. Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition

i) By keeping out micro-organisms (Asepsis): Asepsis refers to keeping out the micro-
organisms from the food by making use of either natural covering or providing artificial
covering around the food. Natural barrier in foods include outer shell of the nuts (almond,
walnut, pecan nut) skin/peel of fruit and vegetables (banana, mango, citrus, ash gourd etc),
shells on eggs, skin or fat in meat, husk of ear corn etc. Similarly packaging prevents entry of
micro-organisms in the food.
For example peach or mushroom sealed in tin can, clean vessels under hygienic surroundings
helps in preventing spoilage of milk during collection and processing by keeping out the
micro-organisms.

ii) By removal of micro-organisms (Filtration): Filtration of liquid foods through bacteria

proof filters is a common method for complete removal of micro-organisms from the foods.
Liquid foods are passed through the filters made of suitable material like asbestos pad,
diatomaceous earth, unglazed porcelain etc and allowed to percolate through either with or
without nano-filtration etc works on this principle. Centrifugation, sedimentation, trimming
and washing etc can also be used but are not very effective.

iii) By hindering the growth and activity of micro-organisms

a. By using low temperature: Microbial growth and enzyme activity is retarded in foods by
storing them at low temperatures. The food commodities can be stored under cellar storage
(15oC) like root crops, potato, onion refrigerator or chilling temperatures (0-50oC) like most
fruits and vegetables, meat, poultry, fresh milk and milk products and under freezing
temperature (-18oC to -40oC) like frozen peas, mushrooms etc.

61
i. Freezing
Freezing may preserve foods for long periods of time provided the quality of food is good to
begin with and the temperature is maintained in freezers. In slow freezing process or sharp
freezing the foods are placed in refrigerated rooms at temperatures ranging from - 4°C to
29°C. In quick freezing process the lower temperatures used - 32° C to -40° C freeze
foods so rapidly that fine crystals are formed and the time of freezing is greatly reduced over
that required in sharp freezing.
ii. De hydrofreezing
Of fruits and vegetables consists of drying the food to about 50 percent of its original weight
and volume and then freezing the food to preserve it

iv) Preservation by high Temperature

i. Pasteurisation
Pasteurisation is a heat treatment that kills part but not all the microorganisms present and
usually involves the application of temperatures below 100° C. The heating may be by
means of steam, hot water or dry heat and the products are cooled promptly after the heat
treatment. Usually milk is pasteurized. Three general methods are used now-a-days.
a. Holding or Batch system (Holder method)
This consists in bringing the milk or cream to a temperature usually 65° C and holding at
that point for at least 30 minutes followed by rapid cooling.
b. High Temperature Short Time Method (HTST) (Flash method)
This consists of raising the temperature of the milk to at least 72° C for 15 seconds
followed by quick cooling.
By killing the micro-organisms
a) Use of heat: Coagulation of proteins and inactivation of their metabolic enzymes by
application of heat leads to destruction of micro-organisms present in foods. Exposure of food
to high temperature also inactivates the enzymes present in the food. Foods can be heated
either at temperature below 100oC (pasteurization) at 100oC (boiling) or at temperature above
1000C (sterilization).
i) Pasteurization (heating below 100oC): It is a mild heat treatment given to the food to kill
most pathogenic micro-organisms and is used in the food where drastic heat treatment cause
undesirable changes in the food. It is usually supplemented by other methods to prolong shelf
life. Pasteurization is most commonly used in treatment of milk and other dairy products
either as low temperature long time (LTLT) or high temperature short time (HTST) process.
o
 Heat treatment of milk at 62.2 C for 30 minutes refers to LTLT process.
o
 Heating at 72 C for 15 seconds is termed as HTST process.
o
 Grape wine is pasteurized at 82-85 C for 1 minute and beer is pasteurized at 600C.
 Pasteurization of juices depends upon their acidity and method of packing whether in
bulk or in bottle or can.
0
 Bottled grape juice is pasteurized at 76.70 C for 30 minutes while in bulk the juice is
heated to 80-85oC for few seconds by flash treatment.
o
 Carbonated juice is heated at 65.6 C for 30 minutes in bottles and vinegar in bulk is
o
held at 60-65 C for 30 minutes.

62
 ii) Boiling (heating at 100oC): Cooking of food including vegetables, meat etc by boiling
with water involves a temperature around 1000C. Boiling of food at 100oC kills all the
vegetative cells and spores of yeast and moulds and vegetative cells of bacteria.
 Many foods can be preserved by boiling (e.g. milk).
 Canning of acid fruit and vegetables (tomatoes, pineapple, peaches cherries etc) is
carried by boiling at about 100oC.
 Various terms used for heating of food are baking (in bread), simmering (incipient or
gentle boiling), roasting (in meat) frying (shallow or deep fat frying) and warming up
(small increase in temperature up to 100oC).
iii) Heating above 1000C: Heating by steam under pressure is used to obtain temperature
above 1000C by using steam sterilizer or retort. The temperature in the retort increases with
increase in steam pressure. The temperature in retort at mean sea level is 100oC; with 5psi
pressure at 1090C; with 10psi pressure at 115.5oC and with 1 kg/cm2 (100 Pa) pressure at
121.5oC.
Canning
Canning involves the application of temperatures to food that are high enough to destroy
essentially all microorganisms present plus air tight sealing in sterilised containers to prevent
to contamination. Fruits, vegetables and flesh foods are preserved by this method.

 For canning of mushrooms and other non-acid vegetables the processing temperature
of 121.10C at 15 psi pressure are used.
 For sterilization of milk and other liquid foods like juices, ultra high temperature
(UHT) process is used.
0
 In UHT process, the food is heated to very high temperature (150 C) for only few
seconds by use of steam injection or steam infusion followed by flash evaporation of
the condensed steam and rapid cooling. The process is also used for bulk processing
of many foods.
b. By drying of food commodity: Removal of water from the food to a level at which micro-
organisms fails to grow is an important method of preservation. Moisture can be removed by
the application of heat as in sun drying and in mechanical drying or by binding the moisture
with addition of sugar (as in jams, jellies) or salt (high salt in raw mangoes) and making it
unavailable to the micro-organisms. Examples include osmotic dehydration, dried grapes
(raisins), apricots, onion, cauliflower etc.
c. By creating anaerobic conditions: Anaerobic condition can be created by removal or
evacuation of air/oxygen from the package, replacement of air by carbon dioxide or inert gas
like nitrogen.
 Lack of oxygen prevents growth of any surviving bacteria and their spores under such
conditions.
 Production of carbon dioxide during fermentation and its accumulation at the surface
makes the conditions anaerobic to prevent the growth of aerobes.
 Carbonation of drinks and storing fresh food under controlled atmospheres serves the
same purpose.
 Canned food in which the food is sealed after removal of air (exhausting) illustrates
this principle.

63
  Anaerobic bacteria and their spores present however, need to be killed to prevent the
food from being spoiled.
 A layer of oil on top of any food prevents growth of microbes like moulds and yeasts
by preventing exposure to air.
d. Use of radiation: Irradiation consists of exposing the food to either electromagnetic or
ionizing radiations to destroy the micro-organisms present in the food. Examples of
irradiation include use of ultraviolet lamps in sterilizing slicing knives in bakeries. Gamma
(?) radiation from cobalt -60 or cesium 137 source have been used for irradiation of many
fruits like papaya, mango and onion, spices, fish etc. They are also used for inhibition of
sprouting in onion and potatoes.
Food irradiation is a process of food preservation in which food is exposed to ionizing energy
- radio isotope cobalt - 60. The potential uses of food irradiation are
To avoid the use of harmful chemical compounds like methyl bromide and ethylene oxide for
insect disinfestation in stored products and microbial decontamination of spices.
1. To extend shelf life of meat, poultry and sea foods by killing microorganisms causing
their spoilage.
2. To enhance safety of food by killing food borne pathogenic microorganism and
parasites.
Food irradiation reduces post harvest storage losses. Irradiation at the appropriate level does
not change the flavour, taste, smell, texture and mineral contents of foods. Irradiated foods
are safe and wholesome for human consumption.
2. Prevention or delay of self decomposition of food
i) By destruction or inactivation of food enzymes (blanching or boiling): Blanching is a mild
heat treatment given to vegetables before canning, freezing or drying to prevent self
decomposition of food by destroying enzymes. Blanching is carried out by dipping the food
commodity either in boiling water or by exposing than to steam for few minutes followed by
immediate cooling.

ii) By prevention or delay of purely chemical reactions (use of antioxidants to prevent

oxidation): Foods containing oils and fat turn rancid and become unfit for consumption due to
oxidation. Addition of appropriate quantity of antioxidants like butyl hydroxy anisole (BHA),
butyl hydroxyl toluene (BHT), tertiary butyl hydroxyquinone (TBHQ), lecithin etc prevents
oxidation and preserves the food.

iii) Prevention of damage by insects, animals, rodents and mechanical causes: Use of
fumigants in dried fruits, cereals etc checks the damage caused by insects and rodents.
Wrapping of fruits, providing cushioning trays, using light pack and good packaging material
checks the damage to fresh food commodities during handling and transportation.
Preservation by high Osmotic Pressure
By the principle of osmosis, jams, jellies and pickles are preserved.
i. High Concentration of Sugar
Apples, guavas, grapes and pineapples are suitable for making jams and jellies. For making
jams and jellies, the fruit should be just ripe because the pectin content is high in such fruits.
ii. High Concentration of Salt

64
Salt is used to control microbial population in foods such as butter, cheese, vegetables, meats,
fish and bread. Spices and other condiments have bacteriostatic effect. In addition to salt and
several spices, oils are used in making pickles. Aerobic bacteria and mould growth are
prevented by covering the top with oil. Properly prepared and stored pickles can last upto a
year or more without spoilage. The important preservative agents in pickles are salt, vinegar,
sugar, oil, spices and condiments.
Preservation by Dehydration
Dried foods are preserved because the available moisture level is so low that microorganisms
cannot grow and enzyme activity is controlled. Dehydration processes are used
commercially for many foods including dried milks, eggs, coffee, tea, fruit drinks, dessert
mixes and traditional dried fruits, vegetables, meat and fish. As a result of heat applied
during the drying process many of the organisms present in the food are destroyed. Bacteria
require 18% available moisture for their growth, yeast 20% or more and moulds 13-16 %. It
is therefore essential in the preservation of food by drying to reduce moisture as much as
possible without damaging the essential quality of the food.
e. By use of chemicals: Appropriate quantity of certain chemicals added to the food can
hinder the undesirable spoilage in the food by
 Interfering with the cell membrane of the micro-organisms, their enzyme activity or
their genetic mechanism
 By acting as an anti-oxidant.
 The optimum quantity of preservative as per approved regulation need to be
used as higher concentrations can be a health hazard.
 Chemical preservatives are benzoic acid and its sodium salt, sorbic acid, potassium
meta-bi-sulphite, calcium propionates etc.
 Common antioxidants to check off flavour (rancidity) in edible oils include butyl
hydroxy anisole (BHA), butyl hydroxy toluene (BHT), tertiary butyl hydroxyquinone
(TBHQ), lecithin etc.
 Addition of organic acids like citric, acetic and lactic acid in the food inhibits the
growth of many organisms.
Methods of food preservation on the basis of food preservation principles.
Broadly there are two methods of preservation of fruits and vegetables:
1) Temporary Preservation
2) Permanent Preservation
All methods used for preserving foods are based upon the general principle of preventing or
retarding the causes of spoilage. - microbial decomposition, enzymatic reactions and damage
from mechanical causes insects and rodents.
Physical method Method
a)By removal of heat Refrigeration, Freezing preservation, dehydro-freezing,
(Preservation by low temperature) carbonation
b. By addition of heat Pasteurization (LTLT, HTST), sterilization, UHT
(preservation by high temperature Processing, microwave.
c. By removal of water Drying (open sun, solar/poly tunnel solar), Dehydration
(mechanical drying), Evaporation/concentration, Freeze

65

d. By Irradiation
e. By non-thermal methods
Chemical methods
a. By addition of acid (acetic or
lactic)
b. By addition of salt/brine
c. By addition of sugar along with
heating
d. By addition of chemical
preservatives.
iii. By fermentation
iv. By combination method
concentration, reverse osmosis, freeze drying, foam mat
drying and puff drying
UV rays and gamma radiations
High pressure processing, pulsed electric fields
Pickling (vegetable, olive, cucumber, fish, meat)
Salted mango/vegetable slices, salted and cured fish and
meat
i. Dry salting
ii. Brining
Confectionary products like jams, jellies, preserves,
candies, marmalades etc.
i) Use of class II preservatives like Potassium meta-bi-
sulphite, sodium benzoate, sorbic acid in food products.
ii) Use of permitted and harmless substances of
microbial origin like tyrosine, resin, niacin as in dairy
products.
i. Alcoholic fermentation (wine, beer)
ii. Acetic acid fermentation (vinegar)
iii. Lactic acid fermentation (curd, cheese, pickling of
vegetables).
i. Combination of one or more methods for synergistic
preservation.
ii. Pasteurization combined with low temperature
preservation.
iii. Canning: heating combined with packing in sealed
container.
iv. Hurdle technology like low pH, salting, addition of
acid, use of sugar, humectant and heating.
66
 Important points and Lay-out plan for setting -up of Fruit Processing Industry

Introduction
For setting up fruit processing plant following cost and non cost factors affecting location of
the plant are taken into consideration.
 Cost factors include raw material cost, transportations cost, cost of land, building and
machinery, utilities cost, taxes and insurance costs.
 Non-cost factors consists of wages, salaries and incentives, market potential,
community attitude, cost regulation, quality of life (school, living, recreation for
workers etc) and environmental impact.
The main objective for selection of site for processing unit is to minimize the sum of all costs.
To minimize the cost, one should think not only the today’s costs, but of long term costs as
well.
Plant layout
The advantages of good plant layout are:
 Saving in floor space
 Increased output
 Fewer production delays
 Reduced material handling
 Greater utilization of machine and man power
 Easier and better supervision
 Less congestion and confusion
 Better appearance and more sanitary condition of work areas
 Reduced risk to health and safety of employees

1. Selection of Site for fruit processing unit

The location of unit is a dominant factor in viability (success or failure) of any processing
industry. The following factors are considered in the selection of site for processing unit.
 Easy availability of raw material: Fruit and vegetables should be available in adequate
quantity in the locality as they are highly perishable and deteriorate in long distance
transportation. Other raw material like fuel, sugar, salt, chemicals etc and
miscellaneous hand tools such as nuts, bolts, minor machinery parts etc should also be
easily available in the locality.
 The site should be well connected with road.
 Proper transport facilities for movement of raw material and finished products.
 Area should have adequate supply of potable water and electricity (preferably three
phase connection).
 Environment should be clean and free from debris, dirt, dust etc.
 The processing industry should preferably be well away from other industries to avoid
soot, smoke and disagreeable odour.
 Provision for disposal of processing waste.
 Adequate availability of labour.
 The selected site should have scope for future expansion.

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2. Building for processing plant: Following points should be kept in mind for establishment
of building for the processing plant.
 It may be single storied or multi storied building. Single storeyed building is sufficient
for small unit working for short periods during the year. However, for larger
processing plants running throughout the year, multistoried construction is desired. It
facilities the movement of raw material and finished products.
 Firm flooring to withstand constant use of water and movement of heavy machinery.
 Slope in flooring (2cm per meter) for proper drainage.
 All doors, windows and ventilators should be provided with fine wire gauge to
prevent entry of flies, wasps and other insects.
 The roof of the building should be high and well ventilated to provide outlet for
vapours and steam.
 The windows should have large glass panels for sky light and artificial lighting.
 Provision for dressing and toilet rooms separately for male and female workers.

3. Types of plant layout

The layout of a processing plant can be selected on the basis of either product layout or
process layout. Product layout deals with either single fruit or single product such as apple
processing in to juice or jam processing line in which only apple product can be handled.
 In product layout, all types of jam, pickle, juice or ketchup can be handled
irrespective of fruit.
 In process layout, the machinery dealing with different unit operation is placed
separately. For example for extraction of juice, the fruit is washed in washing line,
grate in grating machine, pressed in hydraulic press and then juice is filled in filling
line and processed in processing line.
 Depending upon the size of the unit, the layout can be selected.

4. Water supply and drainage

Water of potable nature should be abundant in supply. If water is not of desired
quality there is a need for installing water softening plant.
 A large quantity of water is needed for cleaning of fruits and vegetables, making
syrup and brine, washing floors and machinery etc.
 Water system should work at sufficiently high pressure so that supplies can be made
to different places without any break.
 The water should not be alkaline or very hard, should be free of organic matter.
 Presence of iron and sulphur make the water unsuitable for making syrups and brines.
 Saline water affects the taste of the products and should be avoided.

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 Canning of Fruits and Vegetables

 Definition: Canning is the process of sealing foodstuffs hermetically in containers

and sterilizing then by heat for long storage.
 Principle: Destruction of spoilage organism within the sealed container by means of
heat.
 Comparatively a modern technique

History of canning
 Developed under the stress of war conditions towards the close of the 18th century
 During Napoleonic wars, the French Govt. announced a prize of 12,000 Frances for
discovery of a satisfactory method of preservation – for fighting forces over long
distance without spoilage
 Nicholas Appert (1810) – A Paris confectioner and distiller invented a process for
processing of foods in Glass Container – won the prize
 He also published a book “The art of preserving Animal and Vegetables substances
for many years.
 Canning also known as Appetizing
 Gay-Lussac - Spoilage in foods was essentially a process of oxidation – prevented by
exclusion of air from the container.
 Peter Durand (Englishman) (1810) – first British patent on canning of foods in tin
containers.
 William underwood (1817) – Canning of fruits on a commercial scale in USA also
founder of the Present William Underwood Company of Boston, Mass.

Points to be consider at commercial stage of canning: -

 Capital investment:
Fixed investment: - Land, Building, Machinery
Operational investment: - Raw material, Labour, processing,
storage, transportation & distribution
 Factory Site:
1. Adequate quantity of fruits and vegetables
2. Proper transportation facilities for the movement of raw and finished goods
3. Environment should be clean and free from debris, dust, etc.
4. Scope of future expansion.
 Factory Building
 Water Supply and Drainage
 Manpower

Process of canning
 For ideal canning – Absolutely fresh fruit or vegetable (An hour from the field to the
can)
 Fruit Condition: Ripe, but firm, and evenly matured
Free from all unsightly blemishes, Insect damage and malformation

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 Over ripe fruit is generally infected with M.Os – the product pack of poor quality
 Under ripe fruit are generally shrivel and toughen on canning
 Vegetable condition: Tender and free from soil, dirt, etc. (Tomato – Firm, fully ripe
and of deep red colour)
 Free from blemishes, insect damage or mechanical damage.

Stage-wise Process description:

1. Sorting and grading
2. Washing
3. Peeling, Coring and Pitting
4. Blanching
5. Can filling
6. Syruping or brining
7. Lidding or clinching
8. Exhausting
9. Sealing
10. Processing/retorting
11. Cooling and labelling

Point wise Process description: -

1. Sorting and grading:
Purpose: To get uniform quality product (Size, Shape, Colour, etc.) for helps in
subsequent processing
- Done by manual or machines
- Fruits like berries, plums, cherries are graded whole, where as peaches, apricots,
pears, mangoes , etc. are generally graded after cutting them into halves or slices
Sorting: Separation of food into categories on the basis of measurable physical
property.
Method of sorting:
 Shape sorting : Belt and roller sorter or manually
 Size sorting: Fixed aperture screens – single or multilayer (flat bed screen & drum
screen/rotatory screen), Variable-aperture screens- Parallel drum screens, Image
processing/sorters
• Weight sorting
• Colour sorting
Grading: This is interchangeable with sorting, but strictly means the assessment of a
number of attributes to obtain an indication of overall quality of a food.
More expensive – due to work done by trained persons
2. Washing:
- Wash with hot or cold water in different way like soaking, agitation, spraying, if need
then scrubbed it to remove adhering dust and other extraneous matter.
- Vegetables may wash with dil. Solution of potassium permanganate – for
disinfectionSometime may applied dil. HCl solution – for removal of pesticides

70
 residue, Heavy metal like Arsenic and lead residues – removed by application of
diluted HCl (generally use 23 lit HCl in 455 lit of water)
- Remove all the mouldy and decayed parts.
- Washing equipment: spray washers, brush washer, drum or rod washer, flotation tanks
3. Peeling, Coring and Pitting:
Fruits or vegetables are peed by various of way like :
A. By hand or knife,
B. By machine e.g. pears, apples, peaches, cherries, carrots turnip, potatoes, etc.,
C. By heat treatment e.g. certain varieties of peaches, potatoes. In this case the Fruits or
Vegetables are exposed to a high temp. i.e. 40°C for 10 to 60 Sec.,
D. By lye Peeling: e.g. Peaches, apricots, quinces, sweet orange, carrots, sweet potatoes
 Peeled by dipping them in boiling caustic soda or lye solution (Approx. temp. 93°C)
of 1 to 2% strength for short periods ranging from 30 Sec to 2 minutes.
 Any trace of alkali is removed by washing the fruit or vegetable thoroughly in
running cold water or sometimes dipped it for few sec. in a very weak solution of
HCl or Citric Acid.
4. Blanching:
Def. “ Treatment of fruits and vegetables with water or steam for short periods followed
by cooling prior to further processing”.
Purpose: -
 Inactivates the enzymes (Peroxidase, Catalase, Polyphenol oxidase, Lipoxygenase,
Ploygalacturonase, Chllorphyllase) - To prevent enzymatic browning discolouration
 To facilitates close filling in the can by driven out the air from the tissues.
 Loosen out the skin in case of tomato and beetroot which is importance for further
processing.
 Reduce the Micro-organisms
 Reduce the astringent taste (due to peel) by removing undesirable acid and hence
improves the flavour
Process of blanching: -
 Deep in hot water for short period (2 to 5 mints) and then dipped in cold water.
 Hard water should not use for the blanching process – toughens the tissues and
destroys the texture

5. Can Filling
 Selection of can:
On the basis of nature of fruit or vegetable:
1. Acid-resistant lacquer/R-enamel cans (Gold coloured enamel)
Application: Fruit containing colouring material which are soluble in water e.g.
Raspberry, strawberry, coloured grape, red plum
2. Plain cans:
Application: Fruit containing colouring material which are insoluble in water e.g.
peach, pineapple, apricot, grape fruit, etc.
3. Sulphur-resistant lacquer / C-enamel cans (Gold coloured enamel): Non-Acid products
e.g. peas, corn, lima beans, red kidney beans, etc.

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On the basis of size of the can:
Smallest Can: A1 (Size in inches – 2.11/16x4, Trade Size: 211x400, Capacity: 316 cm3)
Largest Can: A10 (Size in inches – 6.3/16x7, Trade Size: 603x700, Capacity: 3069 cm3)
Most commercially use can: A21/2(Size in inches – 4.1/16x4, Trade Size: 103x119,
Capacity: 848 cm3)
 Can washing: By manual or automatic machines - by application of water or steam
jet
 Filled by automatic can filling machines or manual (Hand gloves)
 Fill the Fruit or Vegetables with proper amount and their nature basis – corn and peas
expand where as strawberries – shrivel
 For Fruits filling: Not less than 50%
 For vegetable filling: Not less tan 55%
6. Syruping or bringing
 Fruit – Hot Sugar Syrup (Temp.: 79-82°C)
 Vegetables – Hot Brine (Temp.: 79-82°C)
- Range of Head space left inside the can: 0.32 cm to 0.47 cm
 Syruping or Brining is done by: Automatic Machine or manual
Objective:
- To improve the taste of the canned product
- To fill up the interspace between the fruits or vegetables in the can
- To facilitate further processing
7. Lidding or clinching
- Formally, the cans after filling were covered loosely with the lid – passed through the
exhaust box
Disadvantages: Spillage of the contents, topping of the lids, etc.
- Presently lidding modernised with clinching process
Def. - Clinching: “The lid is partially seamed to the can by a single first roller action of a
double seamer”.
Purpose:
- Lid remains sufficiently loose to permit the escape of dissolved as well as free air
from the contents
- Vapour formed during the exhaust process
8. Exhausting:
Def.: “The process by which, before sealing the cans finally, it is necessary to remove
practically all air from the contents”
Advantages:
- Prevent the risks of corrosion of the tin plate and pinhole during the storage
- Prevent the discolouration of the product – due to risk of oxidation process
- Helps in better retention of vitamins especially Vitamin C
- Prevent the bulging of can when stored at high altitudes or in hot climates.
- Reduction of chemical reaction between the container and the contents
- Prevent the excessive pressure development and strain during sterilization
Main factors affecting the vacuum in the can:
- Time and temperature of process

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 For proper exhausting of the cans – it is better to prefer lower temperature and for
longer time – to secure uniform heating of the contents without softening them into
pulp.
- Headspace in the can
 The smaller the headspace the greater the vacuum
- Altitude
 Can sealed at a lower altitude will show a lower vacuum inside at a higher altitude
and vice versa,
- etc.
Process:
- Filled can pass through hot water (82-87°C) tank or covered steam box through
moving belt for 5 to 25 mints period (Depend on nature of product)
- In case of hot water level – Level of hot water is 1.3 cm to 2.5 cm below their tops.
- End point of the exhaust can – centre point of the can – should be about 79°C
9. Sealing
- After exhausting the cans are again sealed with double seamers
- Machines are hand operated as well as semi- automatic and fully automatic are
available.
10. Processing:
- The term processing is used in canning technology, means heating or cooling of
canned foods to inactivate bacteria
- Absolute sterilization is difficult to attain - many bacteria can form very minute and
highly heat resist bodies called spores – killed only by very high or very low
temperature treatment or prolonged cooking
- Commercial sterilization term is used
- Over-cooking should be avoided as it spoils the flavour as well as the appearance of
the products – since fruits and vegetables vary in their composition and texture – very
much difficult to lay down the temperature and time relationship for processing
 Fruits: Processed satisfactory at a temperature of 100°C i.e. boiling water – since
present of acid retards the growth of bacteria and their spores same time in presence
of high sugar concentration it is not thrive
 Vegetables (except more acidic Veg. i.e. tomatoes and rhubarb) : Processes at
about 115°C to 121°C
 For Proper Sterilisation - temperature of the centre point of the can should be
maintained for a sufficiently longer periods
 Time and Temperature of processing also varies with size of the can – Larger the can,
greater the processing time
 Fruits and Acid Vegetables – Processed in open type cookers, continuous non-
agitating cookers and continuous agitating cookers
 Vegetables (Non-acid) – Closed retorts i.e. under steam pressure coookers
11. Cooling:
- Rapidly cooled to about 39°C – to stop the cooking process and to prevent stack
burning

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 Methods of Cooking
1. Dipping or immersing the hot cans in tanks containing cold water.
2. Letting cold water into the retorts specially in case of vegetables.
3. Spraying cold water on the cans with the help of jet
4. Exposing the cans in the air
12. Labelling and storage:
- Store the cans in cool and dry place
- Storage at high temperature – Avoided - shortens the shelf life of cans and also leads
to formation of hydrogen swell
- Canned peach, grapefruit , pineapple, beans, spinach, pea, etc. – stored for about two
years
- Pear, Apricot, carrot, beetroot, tomato, etc. – comparatively shorter period.
Requirement for canning of fruit and vegetables
Sr. No. Fruit Preparation Syrup Exhausting Processing time Type of
strength (min.) in boiling can
(°Brix) water for various
sizes of can

A2 A2 1/2
1 Banana Peel, Halve 30 Temp: 82- 40 40 Plain
length wise or 100°C or upto
12 mm thick centre point
slices temp. 79°C
2 Grapes Remove stems 40 do 10 12 Plain,
colour-
AR Lacq.
3 Guava Peel, cut into 40 do 20 20 Plain
pieces, remove
seed treat with
2% brine and
wash
4 Litchi Peel and 40 do 25 30 Plain
remove pits
5 Mango Peel, slices cut 40 do 25 30 plain
6 Papaya Peel, cut into 55 Temp: 82- 25 30 Plain
slices, discard 100°C or upto
seed centre point
temp. 79°C
7 Pineapple Peel, 1cm 40 do 20 30 Plain
slices cut,
remove core
and eyes
8 Tomato Blanching Tomato do 25 30 Plain
using muslin juice is
cloth, remove used
green and stem instead of
syrup
9 Plum Prick 40 do 15 20 AR

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 Sr. Vegetable Preparation Brine Exhausting Processing time Type of
No. strength (min.) in boiling can
(%) water for various
sizes of can

A2
A2
1/2
1 Peas Shell, grade, 2+2.5% Temp: 90- 40 45 SR
boil – 3 to 5 sugar 100°C (6-
min solution 10min) or
upto centre
point temp.
79°C
2 Mushroom Bleach with 2 do 25 25 plain
sod. Sulphite
and citric acid
sol. For 4-5
min, then dip
in cold water
3 Carrot Wash, Scrape, 2 do 20 25 Plain
boil for 5min
4 Cauliflower Soak in cold 2 do 20 20 Plain
brine, boil for
3 min, add salt

Spoilage
Causes of Spoilage of canned foods
A. Physical and chemical changes
B. Microorganisms
A. Spoilage due to physical and chemical changes:
1) Swell : When the ends of an apparently normal and perfect can with good vacuum
become bulged it is termed as swell. The bulge is due to the positive internal pressure
of gases formed by microbial or chemical action.
i. Hydrogen Swell: Formation of Hydrogen gas produced by the action of food acids on
the metal of the can. This type of foods generally remains free of harmful M.Os. and
is fit for consumption
ii. Flipper: The can appears normal, but when struck against a table-top one or both
ends become convex and springs or flips out, but can be pushed back to normal
condition by a little pressure. It may be an initial stage of swell or hydrogen swell. It
may be caused by overfilling, under-exhausting or gas pressure due to spoilage.
Springer: A mild swell at one or both end of a can is called springer. It may initial stage
of hydrogen swell or due to insufficient exhausting or overfilling of the can. The bulged
end can be pressed back to the original position, but will again become convex after some
time.
iv. Soft swell: More advanced stage & swell develops at both ends of the can which can
be pressed and returned to normal position. It is more or less similar to flipper.

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v. Hard swell: Final stage of swell and in this case bulged ends cannot be pressed back
to normal position and cans ultimately burst.

Precautions for prevention of hydrogen swell:

1. Use good quality tin plate for can making. The quality is related to the porosity of the
tin coating
2. Add about 0.5% citric acid in sugar syrup, when canning low acid fruit i.e. Cherry,
Mango, Papaya, etc.
3. Left proper headspace (0.6 to 0.9cm) before clinching
4. Proper clinching before exhausting to ensure a high vacuum in the can
5. Exhausting for a fairly long time without affecting the quality of the product
6. Final sealing temperature should not less than 74°C
7. Store low temperature for prevention of hydrogen gas formation.
8. Overfilling: Very common & due to expansion of contents and absence of vacuum
9. Leakage: This may be due to defective seaming/clinching, nail holes caused by faulty
nailing, excessive internal pressure due to microbial spoilage, internal or external
corrosion, mechanical damage during handling
10. Breathing: may be due to a very tiny leak in the can through which air can pass in
and destroy the vacuum. Fit for consumption.
11. Faulty Retort operation: when the steam pressure is reduced rapidly at the end of
processing results swell or destruction of can due to high pressure develops inside the
can
12. Under-exhausting: Cans are exhausted to remove most of air. This helps in the
proper filling of fruits and vegetables and also creates a good vacuum, which is
necessary to accommodate any pressure that might develop inside the can as a result
of production of hydrogen due to corrosion.
13. Rust: cans having external rust must be thoroughly examined after removing the rust
and, if the walls show a pitting appearance, should be rejected as spoiled.
14. Foreign flavours: This is due unhygienic practice, unsuitable metallic containers.
15. Undesirable texture: Calcium salts present in the water used for canning a
“toughening effect” on peas and beans, but such hardening is considered desirable for
potatoes and tomatoes.
16. Stack burning: If processed cans are not allowed to cool down sufficiently before
storing, the contents remain hot for a long time. This is known as ‘stack burning’
which results in discolouration, cooked flavour and very soft or pulpy product.
Therefore, it is necessary to cool the cans quickly to about 39ºC before storage.
B. Microbial spoilage
Pre-processing spoilage: Because of the time gap between filling and heat processing of
the containers. Avoid the gap between filling and processing and also all stages in the
preparation of raw materials for canning.
2. Under-processing spoilage: May be due to spoilage by thermophilic bacteria and
mesophilic organisms

76
 a. Thermophilic bacteria: There bacteria can increase population at higher
temperature, if cans are stored without adequate cooling (below 39°). Some Species,
called facultative grow at 43°C while some others, called obligative, grow at 43-77°C.
Some thermophiles produce hydrogen and some other hydrogen sulphide gas which
blackens the contents.
Prevention: Avoid bacterial contamination (Plant, equipment, soil, and other
ingredients)
Major spoilage caused by thermophiles:
i. Flat Sour: Mostly occurs in non-acid foods (Vegetables) – caused by thermophilic
species of Bacillus (B. Coagulans and B. Sterothermophilus) and produce acid
without formation of gas.
- Difficult to identified from the external appearance of the can
- May be due to under-processing
- Acidity much higher than normal
- Not fit for consumption
Major spoilage caused by thermophiles:
ii. Thermophilic Acid (T.A.) Spoilage: Cans swell due to formation of CO2 and H2 by
Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum.
- Mostly occurs in low or medium acid foods
- Develop when cans stored in hot condition
iii. Sulphide Spoilage/Sulphur stinker:
- Caused by Clostridum nigrificans in low acid foods.
- Spores of this bacteria are not very heat-resistant and their
presence is an indication of under-processing
b. Mesophilic organisms:
- Species of Clostridium, Bacillus, Yeast and Fungi
- Indication of under-processing.

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 Drying and dehydration
(Definition, Importance, Principles, Methods, Storage of dried Products)
Introduction:
Drying / dehydration are a most widely used method of preservation. It is usually
accomplished by the removal of water from the fruits and vegetables containing 70-95% of
water which provides enough moisture to permit action by their own enzymes and those of
microorganisms. Hence, by removing water content below a certain level at which enzyme
activity and growth of microorganisms is affected adversely, the fruits and vegetables can be
preserved fairly long period.
The dried or concentrated fruits and vegetables products are called as high sugar high
acid foods or high value low volume foods. These dried or concentrated products save
energy, money and space in shipping, packaging, storing and transportation.
Definition of drying:
It is the process by which the food products are dry under the influence of non-conventional
energy sources like sun & wind.
Sun drying of fruit crops is generally practised in certain fruit like prunes, figs,
apricots, grapes, dates, etc.
In this case fruit or vegetables are to be evenly spread in single layer on trays or
boards and exposed to the sun. Under this process there is not possibility of temperature and
humidity control. The hottest days in the summer are therefore chosen, so that the goods dry
very fast. In other season the fruits or vegetables take time in drying and due to that it get
spoiled and develop sour taste. Souring is usually due to the growth of microorganism, which
converts the carbohydrate present in food to acid.
Definition of dehydration:
Dehydration is the process of removal of moisture present in food by the application of
artificial heat under controlled condition of temperature, humidity and air flow.
Dehydration processes are used for apples, prunes and several vegetables by
application of different types of dehydrator like Cabinet/Tray drier, Fluidised bed drier, foam-
mat drier.
In this process a single layer of fruits or vegetables are spread on trays, which are
placed inside the dehydrator. The initial temperature of the dehydrator is usually set at 43°C,
which is gradually increased to 60-66°C in case of vegetables and 66-71°C for fruit.
Factors affecting the rate of drying of fruits and vegetables depend on: -
1. Composition of raw material
2. Size, Shape, and arrangement of stacking of produce
3. Temperature as well as humidity and velocity of air
4. Pressure (Under Vaccum)
5. Heat transfer to the surface (Conduction, Convection or Radiation)
Advantage of dehydration over sun drying:
 The process of dehydration is much more rapid than sun drying
 Dehydration requires much less space area and few trays.
 Dehydration is done under very hygienic conditions

78
  Sun-drying is not possible in cloudy weather but dehydration is not dependent on the
weather.
 The colour is dehydrated dried fruits and vegetables remains uniform due to uniform
drying temperature.
Advantage of drying/dehydration over other methods of preservation:
 The weight of a product is reduced to 1/4th to 1/9th its original or fresh weight and thus
the cost of its transport is reduced
 Required less storage space, due to reduction in bulk of the product
 Cost of processing is very low, as labour and no sugar is required.
 Per unit weight of fruit or vegetable nutrients concentration is very high
 It retains the size and shape after rehydration process.
Drier Types and their application
Drier Type Used food type
Kiln drier Pieces (Fruit or Vegetable)
Cabinet, tray drier Pieces (fruit or vegetable), Juice Concentration (purees, liquids)
Tunnel drier Pieces (Fruit or Vegetable)
Continuous conveyer belt Juice Concentration (purees, liquids)
Belt trough Pieces (Fruit or Vegetable)
Air lift Small pieces (Fruit or Vegetable), granules
Fluidized bed Small pieces (Fruit or Vegetable), granules
Spray Juice Concentration (purees, liquids)
Drum or roller drier Juice Concentration (purees, liquids)
Vaccum drier whole or Pieces (fruit or vegetable),
Juice Concentration (purees, liquids)
Process flow-sheet for drying/dehydration of fruit or vegetable
1. Selection of fruit or vegetables (Mature and free from insects and diseases)
2. Washing – Manual or automatic washer
3. Peeling – Manual or automatic peeler
4. Preparation as per the nature of fruit or vegetable
5. Blanching
6. Spread on the flat trays
7. Sulphuring – use @ 1.8 to 3.6 kg/tonne of fruit
8. Drying or dehydration – As per the nature of fruit or vegetable, environment condition
9. Sweating
10. Packaging
11. Storage
Differences between freeze and conventional drying
Sr. No. Freeze Drying Convectional Drying
1 Successful for most of the Fruit or Successful for easily dried foods such as
vegetable, nut usually limited to those seeds, fruits and vegetables
not successful by other methods
2 Batch process Continuous process
3 Sufficiently low temperature is used to Temperature between 37-93°C

79
 prevent thawing
4 At generally below 4mm Hg pressure
5 Drying time generally between 12 to 24
hrs
6 Moisture loss by sublimation process
7 Porous dried, highly hygroscopic
particles, reconstitute rapidly
8 Lower density than original food
9 Rapid, complete rehydration possible
10 Natural odour generally
11 Natural colour generally
12 Natural flavour generally
13 Storage stability excellent
14 High cost
generally used
At atmospheric pressure
Drying time short, usually less than 12
hrs
Evaporation of water from food surface
Solid dried particle
Higher density than original food
Slow rehydration, usually incomplete
Abnormal odour frequently
Darker colour usually
Flavour may be abnormal
Storage stability good, tendency to
darken
Low cost
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Preparation of Fruit Beverages
Introduction
Fruit juice and beverages generally comprise of naturally extracted juices, drinks, ready to
serve (RTS) beverages, nectars, squashes, cordials and appetizers etc. These products are
highly refreshing, thirst quenching, appetizing and nutritionally superior to many synthetic
and aerated drinks. Fruit juice is the natural liquid expressed by pressure or other mechanical
means from the edible portion of the fruit. Fruit juices are generally extracted from fruits in a
number of ways, depending on their structure and composition.

The composition of juice is unaltered during preparation and preservation while for fruit
beverages like drinks, squashes, cordial etc the fruit juice or pulp, sugar, acid, colour,
flavouretc are mixed in appropriate proportions to a desirable taste. Apple juice, orange juice,
mango squash, guava drink, pineapple juice and squash, mixed fruit drink, mango nectar etc
are the commercial products available in the market.

Types of fruit juice and beverages

a) Unfermented beverages
Fruit juices which do not undergo alcoholic fermentation are termed as unfermented
beverages. They include natural fruit juices, sweetened, ready to serve drinks, nectar, cordial,
squash, crush, syrup, fruit juice concentrate and fruit juice powder. They are prepared by
following minimum standards as prescribed under Food Safety and Standards Regulation,
2011 and Fruit Products order and discussed as under:

Fruit Products Order (FPO) specifications for fruit beverages

Product Minimum % of total Minimum % of Maximum
soluble solids in final fruit juice in final acidity
product (w/w) product (w/w) expressed as
citric acid (%)
Unsweetened juice Natural 100 3.5
Fruit syrup 65 25 3.5
Crush 55 25 3.5
Squash 40 25 1.5
Fruit nectar 15 20 1.5
(excluding orange
and pineapple)
Orange and 15 40 1.5
pineapple nectars
Cordial 30 25 3.5
Sweetened juice 10 85 -
Lime/lemon Ready 10 5 -
to serve beverage
Ready-to-serve 10 10 -

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 beverage/drink
Fruit juice 32 100 -
concentrate
Synthetic 65 - -
syrup/sherbet

Preservative SO2/BA ppm specified by Food Safety and Standards Regulation, 2011. SO2-
sulphur dioxide; BA- benzoic acid
 Fruit juice: It is a natural juice pressed out of the fruit and remains practically
unaltered in its composition during processing and preservation. It is also called as
unfermented fruit juice or pure fruit juice, for example apple juice.
 Fruit juice beverage: It is fruit juice which is considerably altered in composition
during preparation. It may or may not be diluted before consumption. Ready to serve
(RTS) drinks, nectar, squash, cordial, appetizer are all fruit juice beverages.
 Synthetic drinks: Synthetic drinks are prepared by using sugar, water, flavourants,
acidulents, colour etc. These drinks do not contain any fruit juice or pulp.
 Ready to serve (RTS) drink: This is a type of fruit beverage which contains atleast
10% fruit juice (for lime drink 5% juice) and not less than 10% total soluble solids.
The acidity in these drinks shall not exceed 3.5% as citric acid. RTS beverages are
preserved by using class II preservatives not exceeding 70 ppm SO2 or 120 ppm
benzoic acid. It is not diluted before serving hence it is known as ready to serve drink
for example mango drink, guava drink, pineapple drink etc.
 Fruit nectar: This type of fruit beverage contains atleast 20% fruit juice or pulp and
15% total soluble solids and is preserved by heat processing. The acidity in fruit
nectars shall not exceed 1.5% as citric acid. No class II preservative like SO2 or
benzoic acid is permitted in fruit nectar as per Indian Food Laws. It is not diluted
before serving.
 Squash: Fruit squash consists of fruit juice or pulp to which cane sugar is added for
sweetening. According to Indian Food Laws, the fruit squash shall contain atleast
25% fruit juice or pulp and not less than 40% TSS. It shall not contain class II
preservative in excess of 350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic acid. Acid content in
squashes generally remain between 1-1.5% but shall not exceed 3.5% as citric acid.
Squash is generally diluted with water in 1:3 ratio before serving. Lime, lemon,
mango, orange, guava and pineapple squashes are commercially manufactured.
 Fruit juice cordial: It is a sparkling, clear, sweetened fruit juice from which pulp and
other suspended substances have been completely removed. It contains atleast 25%
juice, 30% total soluble solids and not exceeding 350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic
acid as preservative. It is also used for mixing with alcoholic drinks for example lime
juice cordial.
 Fruit Appetizer: Fruit appetizer is similar to fruit squash but also contains spices,
condiments and herb extract. Spices like black pepper, cumin, large cardamom, ginger
along with mentha extract and salt are used for manufacture of appetizer. They are
also called as spiced fruit squash. Plum and apricot appetizers are quite common.

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  Fruit crush: Fruit crush contains minimum of 25% fruit juice or pulp, 55% total
soluble solids (TSS) and not exceeding 350 ppm of SO2 or 600 ppm of benzoic acid.
It is diluted before serving.
 Fruit syrup: It is prepared by using minimum of 25% fruit juice or pulp and
sweetened by using cane sugar. It shall contain not less than 65% total soluble solids
and not exceeding 350 ppm SO2 or 600 ppm benzoic acid as class II preservative.
 Synthetic syrup: Heavy sugar syrup of 70-75 percent strength is used as the base of
all synthetic syrups, which are flavoured and coloured with artificial flavour and
colours. They may or may not contain fruit pulp or juice. Rose, sandal, almond,
khuskhus, kewra sherbets/syrups are quite common.
 Carbonated fruit beverages: It is a ready to serve fruit juice beverage which
contains variable amount of fruit juice, sugar, acid etc and impregnated with carbon
dioxide gas. Apple juice, lime, lemon and grape juice can be used for the preparation
of carbonated fruit juice beverages. They are prepared either by pre mix or post mix
method.
 Fruit juice concentrate: It is a fruit juice, which has been concentrated by removal
of water either by evaporation, freezing or reverse osmosis. Several products can be
made from fruit juice concentrate. Apple juice concentrate, orange juice concentrate
etc are commercially prepared in the industry.
 Fruit juice powder: This is a fruit juice which has been converted into a free flowing
powder. They can be prepared either by freeze drying, foam mat drying or spray
drying processes. They are readily reconstituted to yield full strength fruit juice
drinks.
b) Fermented beverages

Fermented fruit beverage is a fruit juice which has undergone alcoholic fermentation by yeast
like Saccharomyces cerevisae. The product contains varying amount of ethyl alcohol. Apple
cider, plum wine, grape wine, vermouth etc are common fermented beverages.

A). Method for preparation of fruit juice beverages

SELECTION OF FRUITS: All fruits are not suitable because of difficulties in extracting
the juices or due to poor quality juice. The variety and maturity of the fruit and locality of
cultivation influence the flavour and keeping quality of its juice. Only fully ripe fruits are
selected. Over ripe and unripe fruits adversely affects the quality of the juice.

SORTING AND WASHING: Diseased, damaged or decayed fruits are rejected or trimmed
off. Dirt and spray residues of arsenic, lead etc are removed by washing with water or by
using dilute hydrochloric (HCl) acid solution (0.5%) followed by washing in water.

JUICE EXTRACTION:Generally juice is extracted by crushing or grating the fruit and

pressing the crushed mass in a basket or hydraulic press. Juice can also be extracted by using
a screw type juice extractor. Common equipment used for juice extraction are fruit grater or
mill, basket or hydraulic press, screw type juice extractor, rosing or burring machine, fruit

83
pulper etc. There are two types of extraction methods i.e., single and double operation
system.
 Single operation: In single operation, screw type, plunger type or roller type press is
generally used to crush and press the prepared fruit to extract the juice. Citrus fruit
segments are fed through a hopper, passed through conical screws and the juice flows
out through the perforations while the pomace comes out at the end of the conical
jacket. The screw type extractor is operated either manually or by using electricity
depending upon the requirement. The juice extracted is generally thick and cloudy
and contains a considerable amount of macerated pulp. Care should be taken to
remove the rind of citrus fruits completely otherwise it makes the juice bitter. Citrus
fruits like lemon, kinnowetc can also be extracted by using a rosing or burring
machine. Finally, the juice is strained through a thick cloth or a sieve to remove seeds.
 Double operation: In this system, the fruits are crushed and then pressed separately.
Fruit like apple, aonla, berries, grapes, jamun, phalsa etc are crushed in fruit grater or
crusher and the crushed mass is pressed by means of basket press and hydraulic press.
Process variables for juice extraction for some fruits are:
 Soft fruits such as berries or tomatoes can be pressed through a fruit press or pulped
by using a juicer attachment to a food processor.
 Citrus fruits are usually reamed to extract the clear juice.
 Harder fruits like pineapple are peeled, pulped and pressed to extract the juice.
 Apple and pear fruits are crushed in a fruit grater and pressed in a hydraulic/basket
press to extract a clear juice.
 Passion fruit juice is prepared by using a pulper-finisher that separates skin and seeds
from the pulp.
The fruits like mango, guava, apricot, peach etc from which the clear juice extraction is
difficult are passed through the pulper to make pulp and then the pulp is utilized for
preparation of juice, fruit drinks and ready to serve beverages.

DEAERATION: Freshly extracted juice contains appreciable quantity of oxygen which may
affect the quality of juice if not removed before packing. Air in juice is due to the presence of
intra-cellular spaces present in the fruits. Most of the air as well as other gases are removed
by subjecting the fresh juice to a high vacuum. This process is called as deaeration and the
equipment used for the purpose is known as the deaerator. Heating of juice during heat
processing also helps in removal of the air.
Preservation of Juices
Preservation of Juices: Fruit juices, RTS and nectars are preserved by pasteurization or by
using chemical preservatives. Squashes, crushes, syrups and cordials are preserved by adding
chemical preservative like potassium metabisulphite or sodium benzoate.

1. Pasteurization: Preservation of fruit juices by application of heat is the most common

method. Pasteurization is a process in which juice is heated to 1000C or slightly below for a
sufficient time to inactivate/kill the micro-organisms, which cause spoilage. Usually the fruit
juices are pasteurized between 75 and 880C with times ranging from 30 sec to 30 min
depending on the type of heating system, the nature of the juice and the size of the container.

84
Pasteurization can be performed either by heating at low temperature for a long time (LTLT)
or heating at high temperature for short time (HTST). Commonly followed methods are:

a. Holding pasteurization: In this method, the prepared juice is filled into glass bottles with
a proper head space and the bottles are sealed airtight. After sealing the bottles are
pasteurized. However, this method is not followed for commercial scale products.

b. Pasteurization by overflow method: In this method, the juice is heated to a temperature

about 2.5oC higher than the pasteurization temperature and filled into the hot sterilized bottles
up to the brim. Care should be taken to maintain the temperature during filling and sealing
operation. The sealed bottles are processed in boiling water for specified period. After
processing the bottles are cooled. On cooling, the juice contracts to leave a small headspace
in the bottle which does not contain any air. The method is commercially followed in
preservation of all types of juices in the food industry.

c. Flash Pasteurization: In this process, the juice is heated only for short time at a
temperature about -5.5oC than the pasteurization temperature, filled into the containers and
sealed air tight under cover of a steam to sterilize the seal and then cooled. This process is
also known as HTST (High temperature and short time) method and the juice is heated vary
rapidly. Flash pasteurization helps to minimize the loss of flavour, better retention of
vitamins, keep juice uniformly cloudy and minimize the cooked taste of the juice.

2. Aseptic processing and packaging of fruit juices: Aseptic processing and packaging is
defined as the process in which a commercially sterile product is packed into pre-sterilized
container in a sterile environment. The system make use of high temperature short time
(HTST) sterilization in the temperature range of 90-110oC for acid products (pH<4.6) and
ultra high temperature (UHT) sterilization 121oC and above for low acid foods (pH>4.6). The
commercial aseptic sterilization process takes place in a continuous, closed system. Aseptic
processing may produce products with better retention of nutrients and excellent sensory
quality. Apple, mango, litchi, pineapple drinks etc. in tetra pack are processed commercially
using aseptic processing and packaging system.

3. Preservation with chemical: Fruit juices, pulps, squash, cordial, syrup, RTS drinks etc,
are preserved with chemical preservatives. Fruit juice and pulps in bulk are preserved with
chemical preservatives. Two chemical preservatives most commonly used in preservation of
fruit and vegetable products are
(i) Benzoic acid (benzoates)
(ii) Sulphur dioxide (Sulphites).

i) Benzoic acid: Benzoic acid is the effective agent but sparingly soluble in water, thus its
sodium salt, which is water soluble, is generally used. Benzoic acid is more effective against
yeast as compared to moulds. However, it does not stop lactic acid and acetic acid
fermentation. The quantity of sodium benzoate required depends on the nature of the juice, its
acidity and type of microbial infection. The limit of benzoic acid to be added in various

85
products as per FPO (Fruit Products Order) is given in Table 8.2.

ii) Sulphur dioxide: Potassium meta-bi-sulphite (K2O2SO2 or K2S2O2) is commonly used as

a source of sulphur dioxide. On addition to fruit juice or beverage it reacts with acid of the
juice and form potassium salt and sulphur dioxide, which is liberated and form sulphurous
acid with the water of the juice. Sulphur dioxide is more effective against mould spores and
bacteria than yeast and also inhibits enzymes etc. It acts as antioxidant and bleaching agent
thus help in the retention of ascorbic acid, carotene and other oxidisable compounds. It also
retards non-enzymatic browning or discoloration of the product. Its effectiveness depends on
the acidity, pH, temperature and other substances present in the fruit juice.
 The SO2 should not be used in naturally colored juices like phalsa, Jamun,
pomegranate and strawberry juices, on account of its bleaching action.
 It should also not be used in those juices, which are to be packed into tin containers,
because it may act on the tin of the containers causing pinholes, forms hydrogen
sulphide and black compounds.
 The potassium meta-bi-sulphite should be first dissolved in a small quantity of water
and then added to the juice to be preserved. The limit of SO2 to be added in different
processed products according to Food Safety and Standards Regulation 2011 and FPO
specification is given in Table. 8.2

Limits for permitted preservatives in fruit juice and beverages as per Fruit Products
Order.
Fruit juice/beverages Preservative Part per million
(ppm)
1.Fruit pulp or juice for conversions into jams and SO2 3,000
other products SO2 2,000
a. Cherries SO2 1,000
b. Strawberries & Raspberries SO2 1,500
c. Other fruits SO2 350
2. Fruit juice concentrate Or 600
3. Squashes, crushes, fruit syrup, sharbats, Benzoic acid 70
cordials, SO2 120
fruit juice and barley water. or
4. Sweetened ready to serve Beverages Benzoic acid

. Preservation by sugar: Fruit juice containing 66% sugar generally does not ferment. Fruit
syrup or sharbats with high total solids (65% and above) have a very low water activity hence
micro-organism do not grow. The sugar acts as a preservative by osmosis and does not
support the growth of micro-organism. However, the growth of mould and yeast can occur on
the surface of jams or jellies which need to be protected by using airtight packing or covering
the product with molten paraffin wax.

5. Preservation by freezing: The properly frozen juice retains its freshness, colour, taste and

86
aroma for a long time. De-aerated juice is transferred into containers, which are hermetically
sealed and frozen. Freezing does not sterilize fruit juices, it merely reduces the temperature to
the point where micro-organisms do not multiply and chemical changes take place very
slowly. The more rapidly a juice is frozen, the smaller the ice crystal formed and the less the
amount of colloidal matter coagulates. When the juice is frozen to -18oC, practically all of
the juice will be solid except for a little thick syrup in the centre of the containers. This
method is particularly useful in the case of juices whose flavour is adversely affected by
heating.

6. Preservation by drying: Micro-organisms need water for their growth and multiplication
and as the water is removed, they are unable to grow. Fruit juices can be preserved in the
form of powder by different methods viz., spray drying, drum drying, freeze-drying, foam-
mat drying etc. Fruit juice powders are highly hygroscopic and require special care in
packing. It should be packed in free flowing powder form in hermetically sealed containers
with in package desiccant to prolong the shelf-life of the product. Lemon juice powder can
also be prepared by using foam mat drying process.

7. Preservation by carbonation: Carbonation is a process of mixing carbon dioxide under

pressure with water, juice or beverages so that the product when served; gives off gas in fine
bubbles and has the characteristics taste. Carbonated beverages are generally bottled with
carbon dioxide content ranging from 1 to 8 g/litre. Though this concentration is much lower
than that required (14.6 g/litre) for complete inhibition of microbial growth, yet it is
significant in supplementing the lethal effect of acidity on pathogenic bacteria. Carbonation
also helps in removal of air which creates anaerobic condition and reduces the oxidation of
ascorbic acid. Since moulds and yeasts require oxygen for their growth and as such become
inactive in the presence of carbon dioxide. Thus the absence of air and presence of carbon
dioxide in fruit beverages help to prevent the growth of moulds and yeast. The keeping
quality of carbonated beverages is enhanced by adding about 50ppm sodium benzoate.
Carbon dioxide in beverages is measured in terms of gas volume. The gas volume is defined
as the amount of gas in millilitres that a given volume of water will absorb at atmospheric
pressure i.e. 760 mm of Hg at 15.50C temperature. Generally, 1.3-4.0 gas volume CO2 is used
for carbonation of fruit juice. Lime, lemon, grape, apple juice can be carbonated by using
carbonation process.

8. Preservation by filtration: In this method, the clarified fruit juices (particularly apple and
grapes) are passed through special filters, which are capable of retaining yeasts and bacteria.
Various types of germ proof filters are used for this purpose and the method is used for soft
drinks, fruit juices and wines.
FILLING and PROCESSING: Bottles are thoroughly washed with hot water and filled
leaving 1.5-2.5 cm headspace. The bottles meant for heat processing are sealed by using
crown corks whole those preserved by using chemical preservative can be sealed by using PP
(pilfer proof) caps.

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 Jams, jellies and marmalades
Introduction
Jams, jellies and marmalades constitute an important class of preserved fruit products. Apple
jam, pineapple jam, strawberry jam and mixed fruit jam prepared by using pulp of two or
more fruits are quite common. Similarly, guava jelly and orange marmalade are also
examples of such products.

A fruit preserve is made from properly matured fruit by cooking it whole or in the form of
large pieces in heavy sugar syrup, till it becomes tender and transparent. A fruit impregnated
with cane sugar and glucose, followed by subsequent draining and drying is called a candied
fruit e.g. petha candy, ginger candy. Further, candied fruit covered or coated with a thin
transparent coating of sugar, which imparts a glossy appearance is referred to as a glaced
fruit. When candied fruit is coated with sugar crystals either by rolling it in powdered sugar
or by allowing the sugar crystals from glucose syrup to deposit on it, it becomes a crystallized
fruit. The use of high concentration of sugar in these products acts as the preservative. The
products like Petha candy, aonla preserve, apple rings; candied citrus peels, ginger candy,
ginger in syrup; bael, pineapple and carrot preserve are the commercial products in this
category.

1. JAM:
Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with a sufficient quantity of sugar to a thick
consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position. The method for preparation of jam
and jelly is the same except that pulp and pieces of fruit are used in jam while, for jelly
making clear fruit extract is used. According to FPO specifications, minimum soluble solids
in the final product shall not be less than 68 percent (w/w).

Procedure for jam preparation

Fruit preparation: The fruit is washed thoroughly to remove any adhering dust and dirt. The
fruit is then subjected to preliminary treatment which varies with the type of fruit.
 Strawberries are crushed between rollers; raspberries are steamed, crushed and passed
through sieves to remove the hard cores.
 Plums, peach and apricots are heated with a small quantity of water until they become
soft and are then passed through a wide mesh sieve to separate the stones.
 Fruit after softening by boiling with small quantity of water can be passed through the
pulper to extract the pulp.
 Pears are peeled, cored and cut into small pieces.
 Mangoes are peeled, stones separated and then the slices are passed through a pulper.
 Pineapples are peeled, sliced and the cores punched. The slices are then cut into
smaller pieces and passed through a screw type crusher to get a fairly coarse pulp
suitable for making the jam.
 When two or more fruits or fruit pulps are mixed in appropriate proportion for
preparation of jam, the jam is called as mixed fruit jam.

88
Addition of sugar: Generally 55 parts of cane sugar (sucrose) is used for every 45 parts of
fruit for preparation of jam. The prepared jam should contain 30 to 50 percent invert sugar to
avoid crystallization of sugar in the jam during storage. If the percentage of invert sugar
(reducing sugar) is less than 30, then jam develops crystallization and if it is more than 50%,
the jam will develop into a honey like mass due to the formation of small crystals of glucose.
Sugar should not be added in excess as jam with higher total soluble solids becomes gummy
and sticky.

Addition of acid, colour and flavour: Citric, tartaric or malic acid are used to supplement the
acidity of the fruit for jam making. Addition of acids to fruits which are deficient in acid is
required to get appropriate combination of pectin, sugar and acid for proper setting of jam.
The pH of the mixture of fruit juice and pectin should be 3.1 before sugar is added. Only
permitted edible food colours should be used and these should be added towards the end of
the boiling process. Flavours are added at the end of cooking process and just before packing.

Boiling: The fruit is placed in the boiling pan along with a small quantity of water to facilitate
pulping. It is then cooked sufficiently to liberate the pectin. After addition of sugar, the
mixture is boiled to concentrate the soluble solids to about 68.5 percent and also to allow the
necessary degree of inversion of the sugar. Boiling can be performed in steam jacketed kettle
or stainless steel or aluminium boiling pan. Boiling in a vacuum pan using reduced pressure
is used to prepare jam at lower temperature (65-750C) to minimize undesirable changes and
for retention of vitamin.

End Point: The end point can be determined by carrying out a jelmeter test. Generally, fruits
which are fairly rich in pectin, the weight of the finished jam is one and a half times (11/2
times) the weight of sugar used. Jam containing 68.5 percent of soluble solids boils at 1050C
at sea level. It should yield a definite quantity of the finished jam.

Storage: The jam is packed in sterilized glass jars. It should be noticed that unless the jars are
stored in a fairly cool place, moisture will evaporate from the jam resulting in shrinkage of
the jam. If jam is prepared from fresh, unsulphited fruit pulp then it is advisable to add about
40ppm of sulphur dioxide in the form of potassium meta-bi-sulphite to the jam, which is
permitted by law. A layer of molten paraffin wax can be put on the top surface of the cooled
jam in the glass jar, which on cooling sets. This acts as a safeguard against any possible
moulding on the surface of the jam.

2. JELLY:
Jelly is prepared by boiling the fruit with or without addition of water, straining the extract
and mixing the clear extract with sugar and boiling the mixture to a stage at which it will set
to a clear gel. The jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too stiff and having original
flavour of the fruit. It should be of attractive colour and should keep its shape with a clean cut
surface. In the preparation of jellies, pectin is the most essential constituent. Pectin is present

89
in the cell wall of fruits. In order to get a good quality jelly fruits rich in pectin, but deficient
in acid should be preferred.
Procedure for jelly preparation

Selection of fruits: The fruits should be sufficiently ripe, but not over ripe and they should
have good flavour. Slightly under-ripe fruit yields more pectin than over-ripe fruit; as during
ripening the pectin present is decomposed into pectic acid, which does not form a jelly with
acid and sugar. The amount of pectin extracted from a fruit depends on the degree of
disintegration of protection during the heating process.

Pectin requirement: Usually 0.5 to 1 percent of pectin in the extract is sufficient to produce a
good jelly. If the pectin content is in excess, a firm and tough jelly is formed and if it is less,
the jelly may fail to set. Pectin, sugar, acid and water are the four essential constituents of a
jelly and must be present approximately in the following proportions:
Pectin 1 percent
Sugar 60 to 65 percent
Fruit acid 1 percent
Water 33 to 38 percent
However, the exact proportion of the sugar depends on the pectin grade.

Pectin grades: Grades of pectin means the weight of sugar required to set one gram of pectin
under suitable conditions to form a satisfactory jelly. e.g. 100 grade pectin means 100g of
sugar is required for setting of 1 g pectin.
Problems in Jellies

A). Failure of jellies to set: Sometimes the jellies do not set due to the following reasons:
i) Lack of acid or pectin: A jelly may fail to set due to lack of acid or pectin in the fruit from
which it is made. It may also fail to set due to insufficient cooking of the fruit resulting in
inadequate extraction of pectin and acid.

ii) Addition of too much sugar: If sugar is added in excess of the required quantity, a syrupy
or highly soft jelly results. It can be corrected by adding fresh clarified juice rich in pectin.

iii) Cooking below the end point: If the cooking is stopped before the concentration of sugar
reaches 65 percent, the jelly may fail to set and may remain syrupy and highly soft.

iv) Cooking beyond the end point: If heating is continued beyond the end point, the jelly
becomes tough due to over-concentration. This occurs when the juice is rich in both acid and
pectin and enough sugar has not been added. If the acid is in excess, the pectin breaks down
and forms syrup like jelly.

B). Synersis or weeping of jelly: The phenomenon of spontaneous exudation of fluid from a
gel is called synersis or weeping of jelly. It is caused by following factors:

90
i) Excess of acid: Addition of excess of acid results in the breakdown of jelly structure due to
the hydrolysis or decomposition of pectin.

ii) Too low concentration of sugar or soluble solids: This causes the network of pectin to hold
more liquid than it possibly can do under normal conditions.

iii) Insufficient pectin: This results in the formation of a pectin network which is not
sufficiently dense and rigid enough to hold the sugar syrup.

iv) Premature gelation: Gelation is caused due to breakdown of pectin during pouring of jelly
into the containers. The jelly becomes weak and remains broken.

v) Fermented jellies: Fermentation usually takes place in those jellies in which synersis has
taken place.

C). Cloudy or foggy jelly: It might be due to use of non-clarified extract, use of immature
fruits (immature fruits contain starch which is insoluble in juice), Over cooking and cooling,
non-removal of skum, faulty pouring (when jelly poured from a great height, air get trapped
in bubbles form and jelly become opaque) and premature gelation is also a reason for cloudy
or foggy jelly.

D). Formation of crystals: Crystals in the jelly may be formed due to addition of excess sugar.

3. MARMALADE:
It is similar to fruit jelly but the slices of the fruit or of the peel are suspended. Marmalades
are generally made from citrus fruits like oranges and lemons in which peel shreds are added
as a suspended material. As per FPO specifications, the quantity of fruit and soluble solids in
the final product shall not be less than 45 and 65 per cent (w/w) respectively for jelly and
marmalade.

Procedure for marmalade preparation

Preparation of fruits: The outer yellow flavedo portion of the peel of citrus fruits contains
colouring matter and volatile oils, whereas the inner white albedo portion contains pectin.
The yellow portion of the peel is peeled off thinly from the fruit with a stainless steel knife.
The thin yellow peel is cut into fine shreds with a knife or by using a shredding machine. The
shreds are boiled and drained to remove the bitterness. The sliced or crushed fruit is boiled
gently by simmering with 2 or 3 times water to extract the pectin. While it is being boiled, a
teaspoonful of the clear extract is taken from the pan and tested with alcohol for its pectin
content. The boiling process usually takes 45 to 60 minutes. After boiling the extract is
filtered through a muslin cloth. The pectin extract can be clarified by using a filter aid by
passing through a filter press.

91
Preparation of peel shreds: The peel is cut into shreds (1.9-2.5 cm long and 0.8-0.12 cm
thick). The shreds are softened by boiling before they are added to the marmalade. If they are
added directly without preliminary softening to the sugar solution and boiled, they become
tough. Generally, three methods are employed for softening the shreds.

i) The shredded peel is boiled for 10-15 minutes in several changes of water. The bitter
principles present in the peel are also removed in this process.

ii) The shreds are boiled in 0.25 percent solution of sodium carbonate or 0.1 percent ammonia
solution.

iii) The shreds are then autoclaved at 1160C to 1210C (70-105 k Pa). The time required to
soften shreds depends upon their size and shape.

Cooking: The extract is boiled along with required quantity of sugar in a steam-jacketed
kettle or stainless steel vessel. Boiling is continued and the impurities rising to the surface are
removed. When the temperature of the boiling mixture reaches 1030C at sea level, the
prepared shreds are added to it at the rate of 62 g for each kg of the original extract. Boiling is
continued till the jellying point is reached which is determined by using either sheet test, drop
test or weight test.

Cooling: The marmalade is cooled in a shallow pan or in a water-cooled pan by slow stirring
to allow the uniform distribution of shreds in the marmalade. During cooling, when the
temperature reaches 82 to 880C, a thin film begins to form on the surface of the marmalade
which becomes sufficiently thick to prevent floating of the shreds onto the surface.

Addition of flavour: Due to volatilization of natural flavour during cooking process,

addition of artificial flavour is desirable to compensate the loss. It is desirable to add a small
amount of flavour to the product, because most of the natural flavour volatilizes during the
boiling and cooking processes. Generally, a small quantity of orange oil is added to the
marmalade at the time of filling into jars or cans as a flavourant.

Packing: After cooling the marmalade is filled into jelly glasses or glass jars, which can be
closed air-tight or is packed in cans which are hermetically sealed. In jelly glasses, the
marmalade is allowed to set overnight and on cooling a thin layer of molten paraffin wax is
poured on the top. When packed in A21/2 size cans, the cans are inverted upside down to
sterilize the lids and stored in a cool dry place.

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 Preparation of glazed fruit, candied fruit and fruit preserve

Preserve: A mature fruit/vegetable or its pieces impregnated with heavy sugar syrup till it
becomes tender and transparent is known as preserve. Preserves generally prepared from
Aonla, Bael, Apple, Pear, Mango, Cherry, Karonda, Strawberry, Pineapple, Papaya, etc.
Specification as per Govt. norms:
Minimum % of TSS in final product (W/W) – 68%
Minimum % of fruit in final product (W/W) – 55%
Preparationprocess:
1. Take mature fruits
2. Wash the fruits
3. Preparatory process of fruit for sugar treatment as fruit nature
4. Keep fruit and sugar in alternate layers (1kg fruit : 1kg sugar) or steeping fruit in
syrup of 40% TSS for a day
5. Remove the fruit from sugar syrup
6. Increase consistency of syrup to 60% TSS by boiling
7. Steeping of fruit for 24 Hrs.
8. Repeating the process and raising strength of syrup upto 70%
9. Steeping in 70% TSS for a week
10. Preserve
11. Draining
12. Filling in jar or container
13. Covering fruit with freshly prepared sugar syrup of 68% TSS
14. Airtight sealing
15. Storage at ambient temperature
Points taken in consideration during preparation:
- Cooking of fruit in syrup is difficult because the syrup has to be maintained at a
proper consistency so that it can permeate the whole fruit without causing it to shrink
or tough.
- Cooking directly in syrup causes shrinking of fruit and reduces absorption of sugar
- Fruit should be blanched first to make it soft enough to absorb water, before steeping
in syrup
- In case of juicy fruits cooked directly
Fruit may be cooked in syrup by three different processes which are mention below:
1. Rapid process:
Fruits are cooked in low-sugar syrup. Boiling is continued with gentle heating
until the syrup becomes sufficiently thick. Soft fruits i.e. Strawberries and raspberries
require very little boiling for softening but in case of hard fruits i.e. apples, pears and
peaches require prolong heating for safe cooking in heavy syrup. Rapid boiling should
be avoided as it makes the fruit tough, especially when heating is done in a large
shallow pan with only a small quantity of syrup. The final concentration of sugar
should be not less than 68% or reach the temperature of syrup is 106°C. This is simple

93
 and cheap process but the flavour and colour of the product are lost considerably
during process.
2. Slow process
The fruit is blanched until it becomes tender. In this case the sugar, equal to the
weight of fruit, is added to the fruit in alternative layer and mixture is allowed to stand for
24 hours. During this period, the fruits remove water to inside and sugar goes inside,
resulting in syrup concentration contain 37-38% TSS. Next day the syrup is boiled after
removal of fruits to raise its strength to about 60% TSS. A small quantity of citric acid or
tartaric acid (1-1.5/kg sugar) is added to invert a portion of cane sugar for prevention of
crystallization. The whole mass is then boiled for 4-5 mints and kept for 24 hrs. Next day,
the syrup strength is raised to about 65% TSS by boiling. The fruit is then left in the syrup
for a day. Finally, the strength of syrup is raised to 70% TSS and the fruits are left in it for
a week. After that the prepared preserve is packed in the containers with addition of
freshly prepared boiling syrup containing 68% TSS.
3. Vacuum process
The fruit is first softened by boiling and then placed in the syrup which should
have 30-35% TSS. The fruit syrup blend is then transferred to a vaccum pan and
concentrated under reduced pressure to 70% TSS. Preserves made by this method retain
the flavour and colour of the fruit better than by the others method.
In all the processes, the fruit is kept covered with syrup during cooking as well as
afterwards otherwise it will dry up and the quality of the product would be affected. The
product should be cooled quickly after the final boiling to prevent discolouration during
storage.
Candied fruits/Vegetables: A fruit/vegetable impregnated with cane sugar or
glucose syrup and subsequently drained free of syrup and dried, is known as candied
fruit/vegetable
The most suitable fruit for preparation of candy are aonla, karonda, pineapple, cherry,
papaya, apple, peach, and peels of orange, lemon, grapefruit and citron, ginger, etc.
Specification as per Govt. norms:
Minimum total sugar in final product – 70%
Minimum reducing sugar as % of total sugar – 25%
The process for making candy is practically similar to that of preserves. The only
difference is that the fruit is impregnated with syrup having a higher percentage of sugar or
glucose. A certain amount (25-30%) of invert sugar or glucose syrup or corn syrup, etc. is
substituted with cane sugar. The total sugar content is kept about 75% to prevent
fermentation.
Preparationprocess:
1. Take mature fruits
2. Wash the fruits
3. Preparatory process of fruit for sugar treatment as fruit nature
4. Keep fruit and sugar in alternate layers (1kg fruit : 1kg sugar) or steeping fruit in
syrup of 40% TSS for a day
5. Remove the fruit from sugar syrup

94
 6. Increase consistency of syrup to 60% TSS by boiling
7. Steeping of fruit for 24 Hrs.
8. Repeating the process and raising strength of syrup upto 75%
9. Steeping in 75% TSS for a week
10. Draining of sugar syrup
11. Shade drying (Prior to drying, fruits dipped in boiling water to remove adhering
syrup)
12. Packing
13. Airtight sealing
14. Storage at ambient temperature
Glazed Fruit/Vegetables: Covering of candied fruits/vegetables with a thin
transparent coating of sugar, which imparts them a glossy appearance, is known as glaze.
Specification as per Govt. norms:
Minimum total sugar in final product – 70%
Procedure: Minimum reducing sugar as % of total sugar – 25%
Cane sugar and water (2:1 by weight) are boiled in a steam pan at 113-114°C and the
prepared scum is removed time to time. Afterward sugar is cooled to 93°C and rubbed with a
wooden ladle on the side of the pan when granulated sugar is obtained then dried candied
fruits are passed through this granulated portion of the sugar solution and then dried in warm
dried room or in a drier at 49°C for 2-3hrs. When the product becomes crisp, they are packed
in airtight containers for storage.
Problems in preparation of preserves and candied fruit
1. Fermentation: Application of low concentration of sugar, insufficient cooking
2. Floating of fruit skin or peel : Filling the preserve without cooling
3. Toughening of fruit skin or peel : Inadequate blanching or cooking of fruit, cooking is
done in a large shallow pan with only a small quantity of syrup
4. Fruit shrinkage: Cooking of fruits in heavy syrup
5. Stickiness: Insufficient consistency of the syrup, poor quality packaging, damp
storage conditions

Preparatory process for preparation of fruits/vegetables preserve or candy

Fruit/ Steps of process

vegetable I II III IV
Aonla Prick with fork, Steep in 2% Wash and dip Blanch until
needle (Avoid Iron Salt solution in 2% alum soft, but not
needle it causes for 24 hrs to solution for 24 break or soft
browning due to remove hrs then wash
tannin) astringency thoroughly
Bael Remove shell, slice Steep in cold - Blanch in
peeled fruit water for 24 water
crosswise into hrs containing red
2.5cm thick pieces colour (Food

95
 and wash with Grade)
water, prick on
both sides
Papaya Peel, cut into Steep in 2% Wash Blanch until
rectangular pieces salt solution throughly soft
4cm long and 0.5- for 24 hours
1.0cm thick,
Removes seed and
then prick
Ginger Remove skin from - - Boil for an
tender, fibreless, hour with
large sized ginger 0.5% citric
and cut into pieces acid solution
then cook,
prick and wash
stepwise
Carrot Select tender carrot - - Blanch until
and then scape off soft
thin peel and green
leafy portion, then
prick and cut into
suitable sized
pieces
Mango Peel and remove - - Blanch until
green portion then soft then prick
cut lengthwise into cut pieces
large pieces

96
 Tomato products
Why preserved?
- Highly refreshing and appetizer
- Good source of vitamins, particularly vitamin C
 Tomatoes are grown both in summer and winter, but winter tomatoes are superior,
because it contain more solid
 Tomatoes changes in colour during different stages of its maturity and ripening stage
i.e. from green to pale white, yellow and finally red.
 Yellow colour is due to presence of carotene pigments
 Red colour is due to formation oflycopene pigments formed in the fibres.
Points to be considered when prepare high quality of tomato products
1. Use only plant ripened red tomatoes as far as possible. The yellow and greenish
portions not only mask the red colour of the products but also product make brown
owing to oxidation sometime.
2. Never use iron equipment at any stage of processing. Lycopene which is a self-
oxidising isomer of carotene turns brown when it comes into contact with iron. Iron
also forms black compounds with tannin of the tomatoes or of the spices used. Copper
equipment also adversely affects the colour of tomato products. Further there is legal
limitation on the amount of copper in tomato products. Equipment’s should be glass-
lined or made monel metal or preferably stainless steel.
3. Avoid prolong heating and cool product quickly after preparation.

Different types of tomatoes products:

A. Tomato Juice:It is liquid product derived from sound, fresh and fully ripe tomatoes
practically free from insect and fungal attach or any other blemish affecting the
quality of the product and may contain finely divided insoluble solids from the flesh
of tomatoes. It is free from pieces of skin, seeds, bits of coarse tissue and any
extraneous matter. The only substances that may be added are salt (not in excess of
1.5% by weight), sugar, dextrose, malic acid, ascorbic acid, citric acid and permitted
colour.
Points consider for ensuringgood quality of juice: -
 Juice should be of deep red colour. As the red colour present in the fibres and
not in the serum of the juice, so fibrous portion should be incorporated in the
juice in finely divided condition.
 Juice having characteristic taste and flavour of tomato.
 Acidity of the juice as citric acid, should be about o.4%
 The vitamins present in fresh tomatoes should go into the juice during the
process.
Procedure for extraction of juice:
1. Washing and trimming:
Wash the tomatoes in plenty of running water, so that mould filaments and other
microorganisms found in the cracks, wrinkles, folds and stem cavities are easily

97
 dislodged. For commercial production rotary washers or trough washers fitted with
moving conveyer belt and soft brushes are generally used.
Great care should be taken in trimming the washed tomatoes. The loss on
account of trimming green and yellow portions stalkend and cracked portions etc.
varies from 4.0 to 17.0%
2. Crushing:
After trimming, tomatoes are cut into 4 to 6 pieces for boiling to soften the tissues.
Alternatively tomatoes may be crushed by means of fluted wooden roller crushers.
3. Pulping:
Tomatoes can be pulped by hot process or by cold process. The flavour and
consistency are different in both the pulping process; hence extraction is decided on
the satisfaction of market demand.
 Hot Process:The crushed tomatoes are boiled in their own juice in steam jacked
stainless steel kettle or Aluminium kettle for 3 to 5 mints to facilitate pulping.
Advantage:
i. The yield of juice is higher than cold puling of tomatoes.
ii. A light heat releases the red colour present in the skin.
iii. Boiling sterilizes the juice partly thereby some extent destroy the growth of
microorganisms which cause fermentation. It also inactivates the oxidative
enzymes which are responsible for destruction of vitamin C in the juice.
iv. It releases the pectin and pulp makes thicken. The Pectase enzymes which
hydrolyse the neutral pectin present in tomatoes and thereby make the juice thin
are also destroyed during boiling.
 Cold Process: The tomatoes are crushed in cold and as such passes through a pulper.
Defects of this method:
i. As compared to hot process the extraction of juice is somewhat difficult and the
yield is less.
ii. Air gets incorporated into the juice and hence oxidises Vitamin C which are
present in the juice.
iii. The extracted juice by this method is somewhat lighter in colour; since it is
necessary to heat the skin to release the colour from the fibrous tissues.
iv. The whole process of crushing, pressing, etc. has to be completed quickly to avoid
microbial spoilage, especially during the initial stages of preparation.
Advantage:
i. Theflavour of the cold break juice is much sharper and more acidic, this is due to the
juice surrounding the seeds, which is richer in acid and poorer in sugars than other
portions of the tomato is extracted by applying the extra pressure.
ii. Better fresh flavour

4. Extraction of Juice:For extraction of juice two types of juice extractors are uses.
i. Continuous spiral press:
In this case crushed tomatoes are fed to screw from a hopper at upper end and
screw speed maintained generally 250ppm. The juice passes through screen

98
 and skin and seeds are expelled at the lower end of the sieve. The jet of steam
is to prevent oxidation and destruction of vitamins in the juice.
ii. Cyclone:
The main defect in this type of machine is that a considerable amount of air is
incorporated into the juice. Now a day through special attachments of cyclone,
this air incorporation can be minimised. In these machines, the insoluble solids
in the juice are very finely divided and stay in suspension in juice for longer
periods.
Total solids: -
On an average, juices should content total solids of 5.66% (Sp. Gravity- 1.0240) at 20°C
As per govt. norms:
T.S.S. of tomato juice: Minimum 5.0% (w/w free from any added salt)
Common salt and sugar:
Common salt and sugar may be added in extracted juice. On an average 4 to 6kg of salt is
added to every 100kg of juice for counteract the astringent taste of the juice. Sometime 1%
cane sugar added to the juice for improvement of flavour.
5. Packaging:The extracted juice is packed in glass bottles or cans

B. Tomato puree: A concentrated tomato juice or pulp without skin and seeds and
containing not less than 9% of T.S.S. w/w free form from any added salt.
- Medium Tomato puree - contain not less than 8.37% of Tomato Solid w/w free form
from any added salt.
- Heavy Tomato puree: Further concentrated & contain not less than 12% of Tomato
Solid w/w free form from any added salt.
- Concentration of pulp is carried out by two ways: 1. Open kettle & 2. Vaccum Pan
- The only substances that may be added are common salt, citric acid, ascorbic acid,
spices, permitted colours and preservatives.

C. Tomato paste:A concentrated tomato juice or pulp without skin and seeds and
containing not less than 25% of T.S.S. w/w free form from any added salt.
- Concentrated Tomato paste - contain not less than 33% of Tomato Solid w/w free
form from any added salt.
- The only substances that may be added are common salt, citric acid, ascorbic acid,
spices, permitted colours and preservatives. Part of its acidity may be neutralised with
sod. Carbonate or bicarbonate.
D. Sauce:
The product is prepared from wholesome fruits and vegetables which shall be
practically free from insect or fungal attack or blemishes affecting the quality of fruit.
The only substances that may be added are fruit, vegetable pulp, juice, dried fruits,
sugar, spices, salt, vinegar, citric acid, acetic acid, malic acid, onion, garlic, flavouring
materials, permitted colour and preservatives.
T.S.S. - not less than 15% w/w.
Acidity – 1.2% as acetic acid

99
E. Tomato Ketchup:
The product is made from strained tomato juice or pulp and spices, salt, sugar and
vinegar/acetic acid, with or without onion and garlic, and contains not less than 12 %
tomato solids, 25% total solids and 1.0% acidity (acetic acid).

Process chart of Ketchup:

Ingredients:
1. Tomato pulp – 1 Kg, 2. Sugar-75 gm, salt-10gm, onion (chopped)-50gm,
ginger(chopped) – 10gm, garlic (chopped) – 5gm, red chilli powder- 5gm, cinnamon,
cardamom (large), aniseed, cumin, black papper (powdered) – 10gm each, clove
(headless)-5numbers, vinegar – 15ml 0r glacial acetic acid-5ml and sodium benzoate
– 0.25 gm per kg of final product.
Flow-sheet for tomato ketchup:
 Select fully ripe, red colour tomato
 Wash with manually or mechanical equipment
 Sorting and trimming of tomatoes
 Cutting and chopping
 Heat the cut tomato at 70-90ºC for 3-5 minutes upto the softening stage of
tomato
 Extraction of pulp/juice by mechanically or by sieving
 Strain the tomato pulp or juice
 Heat the pulp or juice with one-third quantity of sugar addition
 Keep the spice bag in pulp and pressing the spice bag occasionally
 Heat to one-third of original volume of pulp/juice
 Remove the spice bag after the squeezing the spice bag in the pulp
 Add remaining sugar and salt
 Cooking
 Judging of the end point by tomato solids by hand refractometer/ volume by
measuring stick i.e. one-third of its original volume
 Add the vinegar or acetic acid and preservative
 Fill hot into clean glass bottles at about 88ºC
 Put the crown cork into the bottle
 Pasteurization of glass bottle at 85-90ºC for 30 minutes
 Cool upto the room temperature
 Store at ambient temperature in cool and dry place

100
 Fermented products
Development of biochemical principles of fermentation was originated by Lavoisier
in France in 1789 by way of analysing the chemical composition of sugar and its
fermentation products like ethanol, carbondioxide and trace of acetic acid. In year 1860, the
Louis Pasteur carefully analysed the fermentation products and found that in addition to
ethanol and carbon dioxide, other comp0unds such glycerol and succinic acids are also
produced.
Fermentation process in beverage preparation is mediated through yeast and in the
process it produces a range of products i.e. organic acids, alcohols, esters and sulphurous
compound.
There are so many fermented products which are mentioned below:
1. Wine
Definition:Wine is a beverage resulting from the fermentation by yeasts of grape juice with
proper processing and addition.
In other words, wine is a fermented alcoholic beverage produced from grape juice
without distillation.
Grape is used for making wine due to following advantages:
i. Juice is extremely rich in natural sugar
ii. Natural association of fermentative yeasts with berries
iii. High content of nitrogenous matters in promoting growth of yeast for
fermentation
iv. High acidity of juice favouring yeasts and protecting against other bacterial
fermentation.
v. High alcohol and acid content in the fermented wine and hence keep it stable and
safe for prolonged storage.
According to colour, wine is two types:
1. Red wine: Red grapes are crushed and stemmed but the skin and seeds are left in the
must
2. White wine: It is made from white or greenish grapes or from juice of grapes from
which the skin has removed
According to Sugar content, wine is two types:
1. Dry wine: Dry wine are those which contain very little or no sugar content
2. Sweet wine: Sweet wine are those which contain little amount of sugar
Alcohol Content range in the wine: 7 to 20 %
On the basis of alcohol content wine classification:
 Light wine: 7 to 9%
 Medium wine: 9 to 16%
 Strong wine: 16 to 20%
Alcohol content expressed as: Volume percent i.e. c.c. of alcohol per 100 c.c. of wine
Process of wine (Grape) making
1. Selection of Grape – Ripe and fresh grapes and juice recovery (generally 60-70%)
2. Removal of stems
3. Crushing – in basket press or roller crusher

101
4. Filling jar up to three-fourths
5. Addition of sugar – maintain 20-24% TSS
6. Adjustment of PH– maintain 0.6 to 0.8% acid with the help of tartaric acid
7. Addition of preservative – KMS 1.5g/10kg grape juice – to inhibit the growth of wild
yeasts and spoilage organisms
8. Keep for an hour
9. Addition of wine yeast – Saccharomyces ellipsoideus; 20ml/5kg grape juice after on
hours of preservative application
10. Fermentation – for 2 days (22-28°C)– open ended cylindrical vessels of suitable size
made of plastic or wood
11. Filtration
12. Fermentation – for 20 days – narrow mouthed containers of wood, plastic or glass
13. Racking – syphoning off clear juice
14. Finning and filtration (Filtering Aids- bentonite)
15. Aging or maturation – 6 to 8 months
16. Pasteurisation at 85°C for 2 mints
17. Bottling
18. Crown corking
19. Pasteurization at 82°C for 20 mints
20. Cooling
21. Storage

2. Champaigne: Sparkling wine, made chiefly in France, from certain varieties of

grapes (Chardonnay and Pinot Noir)
3. Port: Fortified, sweet red wine made originally in Portugal.
4. Sherry: Spanish wine, matured by placing the barrels for 3 to 4 months in
sunlight, wher the temperature is as high as 54-60°C
5. Cider: Prepare from apple
6. Perry: Prepare from pears
7. Feni: Made from cashew apple juice

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 Food safety standards and regulations

Statutory necessities for Quality control in India

Reasons:
1.To maintain the quality of food produced in the country
2. To prevent exploitation of the consumer by the sellers
3. To safeguard the health of the consumers
4. To establish criteria for quality of food products, since more and more foods were eaten in
processed, rather than in natural forms.

1. Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954 and Rules 1955 (PFA Act)
PFA act was promulgated in 1954 and is primarily intended to check adulteration of
foodstuffs available in the country. The rules and regulations that are formulated for
operation of this act are directed to make available pure food materials devoid of adulterants
and contaminants to the Indian population at large. Any food not conforming to these
standards is said to be adulterated. The standard specification is made for a large number of
raw and processed foods and under various provisions of PFA Act should be implemented at
states and local bodies levels.

2. Fruit Product Order 1955 (FPO)

FPO regulates the manufacture, storage and sale of fruit and vegetable products. The FPO,
1955 was issued by the Department of Food, Ministry of Food processing industries under
the powers vested in the Government under the essential commodities Act to ensure the
quality of fruit and vegetable products. This order controls production, distribution and
quality of the fruit & vegetable products manufactured in the country as well as registration,
Licensing and operation of manufacturing units. "FPO" Mark is given to each processor, after
the grant of licence for manufacturing fruits and vegetables products, after the inspection of
factory for hygiene and sanitation.
The FPO specification cover methods of preservation, permissible colours in the
preparation and also the minimum quality required of the final products. Fruit and vegetable
products which do not confirm to the FPO specifications are considered adulterated.

3. Agricultural produce (Grading and Marketing) Act 1937 (AGMARK)

This law provide the quality control of agricultural produce through grading and marketing.
This act provides compulsory standards for export and voluntary standards for vegetable oils,
ghee, butter, cream, essential oils, gur, egg, groundnuts, potatoes, fruits, pulses, rice, spices,
etc. These standards are formulated on the physical and chemical characteristics of food, both
natural as well as those acquired during processing. This act is administrated by Directorate
of Marketing & Inspection with Agricultural Marketing Advisor to the Govt. of India.
The Agmark certification is employed through fully state-owned Agmark laboratories
located across the nation which act as testing and certifying centres. In addition to the Central
AGMARK Laboratory (CAL) in Nagpur, there are Regional AGMARK Laboratories
(RALs) in 11 nodal cities i.e. Mumbai, NewDelhi, Chennai, Kolkata, Kanpur, Kochi, Guntur,

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Amritsar, Jaipur, Rajkot, Bhopal). Each of the regional laboratories is equipped with and
specializes in the testing of products of regional significance.

4. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)

BIS is the national Standards Body of India working under the guidance of Ministry
of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution, Government of India. It is established by
the Bureau of Indian Standards Act, 1986 which came into effect on 23 December 1986.

As a corporate body, it has 25 members drawn from Central or State Governments,

industry, scientific and research institutions, and consumer organizations. Its headquarters are
in New Delhi, with regional offices in Kolkata, Chennai, Mumbai, Chandigarh and Delhi and
20 branch offices. It also works as WTO-TBT enquiry point for India. Present time agency
executive is Alka Panda (IAS), Director General

Association with international standards bodies

BIS is a founder member of International Organisation for Standardization (ISO)

It represents India in the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and the World Standards Service Network
(WSSN).

Standard formulation and promotion

One of the major functions of the Bureau is the formulation, recognition and promotion of the
Indian Standards. As on 31 August 2013, 19067 Standards formulated by BIS, are in force.
These cover important segments of economy, which help the industry in upgrading the
quality of their products and services.

BIS has identified 14 sectors which are important to Indian Industry. For formulation
ofIndian Standard, it has separate Division Council to oversee and supervise the work. The
Standards are regularly reviewed and formulated in line with the technological development
to maintain harmony with the International Standards.

Laboratories

To support the activities of product certification, BIS has a chain of 8 laboratories. These
laboratories have established testing facilities for products of chemical, food, electrical and
mechanical disciplines. Approximately, 25000 samples are being tested in the BIS
laboratories every year. In certain cases where it is economically not feasible to develop test
facilities in BIS laboratories and also for other reasons like overloading of samples,
equipment being out of order, the services of outside approved laboratories are also being
availed. All the other labs which are NABL (National Accreditation Board for Testing and
Calibration Laboratiories) accredited.

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Product Certification Scheme

Product Certifications are to be obtained voluntarily. For, some of the products like Milk
powder, Drinking Water, LPG Cylinders, Thermometers etc., certification is mandatory,
because these products are concerned with health and safety.

Management System Certification

 Management System Certification Scheme IS/ISO 9001

 Environmental Management System Certification Scheme IS/ISO 14001
 Occupational Health and Safety Management System Certification Scheme IS 18001
 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Scheme IS/ISO 22000
 Service Quality Management System Certification Scheme IS 15700

National Institute of Training for Standardization (NITS)

It is a training institute of BIS which is set up in 1995. It is functioning from Noida, Uttar
Pradesh, India.

The primary activities of NITS are:-

 In-House and Open Training Programme for Industry

 International Training Programme for Developing Countries (commonwealth
countries)
 Training Programme to its employees.

Small Scale Industry Facilitation Cell

SSI Facilitation Cell became operational since 26 May 1997. The aim of the Cell is to assist
the small scale entrepreneurs who are backbone of the Indian industry. It has an incentive
scheme to promote such units to get certified with ISI Mark.

Indian Standards Bill,2015

On June 17,2015 the Union Cabinet chaired by Prime Minister Narendra Modi,gave its
approval to introduce a new Bureau of Indian Standards Bill,2015.The new Bill will provide
legislative framework for new provisions in the existing Bureau of Indian Standards Act,1986
which is proposed to be repealed. The main objectives of the proposed legislation are:-

 To establish the Bureau of Indian standards(BIS) as the National Standards Body of

India.
 The Bureau to perform its functions through a governing council,which will consists
its President and other members.
 To include goods,services and systems,besides articles and processes under the
standardization regime.

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  To enable the government to bring under the mandatory certification regime for such
articles,processes or service which it considers necessary from the point of view of
health,safety,environment,prevention of deceptive practices,security etc.This will help
consumers receive ISI certified products and will also help in prevention of import of
sub-standard products.
 To allow multiple types of simplified conformity assessment schemes including Self
Declaration of Conformity(SDOC) against any standard which will give multiple
simplified options to manufacturers to adhere to standards and get a certificate of
conformity,thus improving the 'ease of doing business'.
 To enable the Central Government to appoint any authority in addition to the Bureau
of Indian Standards, to verify the conformity of products and services to a standard
and issue certificate of conformity.
 To enable the Government to implement mandatory hallmarking of precious metals
articles.
 To strengthen penal provisions for better effective compliance and enable
compounding of offences for violations.
 To provide recall, including product liability of products bearing Standard Mark,but
not conforming to relevant Indian Standards.
 Repeal of BIS Act,1986.
5. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)
FSSAI is an agency of Ministry Health and Family Welfare, Government of
India. The FSSAI is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the
regulation and supervision of food safety. The FSSAI has been established under the Food
Safety and Standards Act, 2006 which is a consolidating statute related to food safety and
regulation of India.

FSSAI has been established under Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 which
consolidates various acts & orders that have hitherto handled food related issues in various
Ministries and Departments. FSSAI has been created for laying down science based
standards for articles of food and to regulate their manufacture, storage, distribution,
sale and import to ensure availability of safe and wholesome food for human
consumption.

Highlights of the Food Safety and Standard Act, 2006

The food Safety and Standards Act, 20006 (34 of 2006) will come into force effect from 5th
August, 2011. After that the various existing Acts, Orders, Rules, Regulations, as under will
get repealed. Some of Acts, orders, Rules, regulations which are repealed are given below:
Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954,
Fruit Products Order, 1955,
Solvent Extracted Oil, De- Oiled Meal and Edible Flour (Control) Order, 1967,
Meat Food Products Order, 1973,
Edible Oils Packaging (Regulation) Order 1988,
Vegetable Oil Products (Control) Order, 1947,

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Milk and Milk Product Amendment regulations – 2009 (MMPR-09) Division(MMPO, 1992
has been renamed as MMPR-09), etc.

The Act also aims to establish a single reference point for all matters relating to food
safety and standards, by moving from multi- level, multi- departmental control to a single line
of command. To this effect, the Act establishes an independent statutory Authority – the Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India with head office at New Delhi. The agency also has
8 regional offices located in Delhi, Chandigarh, Lucknow, Guwahati, Mumbai, Kolkata,
Cochin and Chennai, 4 referral laboratories and 72 local laboratories located throughout
India. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) and the State Food Safety
Authorities shall enforce various provisions of the Act.

Establishment of the Authority

Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India is the Administrative
Ministry for the implementation of FSSAI. The FSSAI is led by a non-executive Chairperson,
appointed by the Central Government from amongst the persons of eminence in the field of
food science or from amongst the persons from the administration who have been associated
with the subject and is either holding or has held the position of not below the rank of
Secretary to the Government of India. Mr. Ashish Bahuguna is the current chairperson. The
executive head of FSSAI is the Chief Executive Officer.

FSSAI has been mandated by the FSS Act, 2006 for performing the following functions:

 Framing of Regulations to lay down the Standards and guidelines in relation to

articles of food and specifying appropriate system of enforcing various standards
thus notified.
 Laying down mechanisms and guidelines for accreditation of certification bodies
engaged in certification of food safety management system for food businesses.
 Laying down procedure and guidelines for accreditation of laboratories and
notification of the accredited laboratories.
 To provide scientific advice and technical support to Central Government and
State Governments in the matters of framing the policy and rules in areas which
have a direct or indirect bearing of food safety and nutrition.
 Collect and collate data regarding food consumption, incidence and prevalence of
biological risk, contaminants in food, residues of various contaminants in foods
products, identification of emerging risks and introduction of rapid alert system.
 Creating an information network across the country so that the public, consumers,
Panchayats etc. receive rapid, reliable and objective information about food safety
and issues of concern.
 Provide training programmes for persons who are involved or intend to get
involved in food businesses.
 Contribute to the development of international technical standards for food,
sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards.

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  Promote general awareness about food safety and food standards.
6. Standards of Weights and Measures Act, 1976
This Act is regulated by Department of consumer affairs, Ministry of consumers, Food
& public distribution, Government of India.
Headquarter: New Delhi
This act is enacted the Parliament (No. 60 of 1976) to established standards of Weights and
Measures.
The standard of weights and measures Act, 1976, aims at introducing standard in relation to
weights and measures used in trade and commerce. The ultimate objective is to sub-serve the
interests of the consumers. The purpose of this act is to: -
a. Replace the bewildering varieties of weights and measures in use in the country by
standards based on the metric system.
b. Provide better protection to consumers by ensuring accuracy in weights and measures.
Objectives: The acts enlists the following objective: -
a. Establish standards of weights and measures
b. Regulate inter-state trade or commerce in weights & measures and other goods, which
are sold or distributed by weights, measures and number
Manufacture/Sale/Distribution:
Only licence holder can manufacture weights and measures and shall be recorded in a
register and produce to the director.
Penalty Provision:
a. A fine of Rs. 500 to 1000 and imprisonment upto 7 years, if violation of any provision
of the act is found.
b. Authorities also have the power to inspect, search, seize and forfeit the goods
involved in the offence
c. Non-registration
d. Not maintaining prescribed registers/records

7. The consumer Protection Act, 1986

This act is enacted the Parliament (No. 68 of 1986) to established The Consumer
Protection Act and comes in commencement on 24 December, 1986. This act operated by the
Ministry of Food and Civil suppliers through recognised consumer organizations can play the
role of Food Inspector under PFA Act in the case of adulterated food samples. It also makes
provision for the establishment of consumer councils and other authorities for the settlement
of consumers disputes connected therewith.
The consumer protection councils are established at national, state and district level to
increase consumer awareness.
The Central Consumer Protection Council
It is established by the central Government which consists of the following members:
- Minister of consumer Affairs – Chairman
- Such number of other official or non-official members representing such interests as
may prescribed by the state government.

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State consumer protection council
It is established by the State Government which consists of the following members:
- Minister incharge of consumer Affairs in the state government – Chairman
- Such number of other official or non-official members representing such interests as
may prescribed by the state government.
- Such number of other official or non-official members, not exceeding ten, as may be
nominated by the central government.

The state council is required to meet as and when necessary but not less than two meeting
every year.

8. Hazard analysis and critical control points

HACCP is a systematic preventive approach to food safety from biological, chemical, and
physical hazards in production processes that can cause the finished product to be unsafe, and
designs measurements to reduce these risks to a safe level. In this manner, HACCP is referred
as the prevention of hazards rather than finished product inspection. The HACCP system can
be used at all stages of a food chain, from food production and preparation processes
including packaging, distribution, etc. According to Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) HACCP is mandatory programs for
juice and meat for effective approach to food safety and protecting public health. Meat
HACCP systems are regulated by the USDA, while seafood and juice are regulated by the
FDA. The use of HACCP is currently voluntary in other food industries.
HACCP Principle
1. To Conduct a hazard analysis
2. Identify critical control points
3. Establish critical limits for each identified critical control point
4. Establish critical control point monitoring requirements
5. Establish corrective actions
6. Establish the verification procedures for ensuring the HACCP system is working as
intended
7. Establish record keeping procedures
Apart from that HACCP has previously 5 other point i.e.
1. Assemble HACCP team
2. Describe product
3. Identity intended use
4. Construct process flow and plant schematic
5. On site verification of flow and schematic

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ISO 22000:2005 - FSMS (Food Safety Management System)
ISO is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies (ISO member bodies). The
work of preparing International standards is normally carried out through ISO technical
committees. Each member body interested in a subject for, which a technical committee has
been established has the right to be represented on the committee.
FSMS is related food safety& by implementation of FSMS the food borne hazards
risk is reduced.
FSMS has eight steps by which it is implemented:
1. Scope
2. Normative references
3. Terms and definitions
4. Food Management system
5. Management responsibility
6. Resource management
7. Planning and realization of safe products
8. Validation, Verification and improvement of the FSMS

ISO 9001:2008 - QMS (Quality Management System)

QMS has eight steps by which it is implemented:
1. Scope
2. Normative references
3. Terms and definitions
4. Quality Management system
5. Management responsibility
6. Resource management
7. Planning realization
8. Measurement, analysis and improvement

ISO 14001:2004 - EMS (Environment Management System): Which is currently being

revised - the new version is expected in mid 2015.
ISO 19001:2007 - OHSAS (Occupational Health and Safety Management
Systems)

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