PATTERN OF USAGE OF SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES AND ITS

INFLUENCE ON SELF-ESTEEM AND SOCIAL CAPITAL

FORMATION AMONG EMERGING ADULTS:
A CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY IN IDUKKI DISTRICT, KERALA.

ATHULYA THOMAS

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirement for the award of the degree of
Master of Public Health

ACHUTHA MENON CENTRE FOR HEALTH SCIENCE STUDIES

SREE CHITRA TIRUNAL INSTITUTE FOR MEDICAL SCIENCES
AND TECHNOLOGY
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM, Kerala
October 2015

i
CERTIFICATE

I hereby certify that the work embodied in this dissertation entitled “Pattern of usage of

social networking sites and its influence on self-esteem and social capital formation

among emerging adults:A cross sectional study in Idukki district, Kerala” is a

bonafide record of original research undertaken by Ms. Athulya Thomas, in partial

fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the “Master of Public Health” degree from

Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram

under my guidance and supervision.

Dr. Srinivasan.K

Additional Professor

Achutha Menon Centre for Health Science Studies

Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology

Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala

October 2013

ii
DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation titled “Pattern of usage of social networking site

and its influence on self-esteem and social capital formation among emerging adults:

a cross sectional study in Idukki district, Kerala” is the bonafide record of my original

field research. It has not been submitted to any other university or institution for the

award of any degree or diploma. Information derived from the published or unpublished

work of others has been duly acknowledged in the text.

ATHULYA THOMAS

Achutha Menon Centre for Health Science Studies

Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology

Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala

October 2015

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, praises and thanks to the God, the Almighty, for His showers of blessings
throughout my research work to complete the research successfully.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to my guide, Dr. Srinivasan.K for
his invaluable suggestions, patience, sincere guidance and supervision throughout my dissertation
work. He inspired me deeply through out this study. He took me an another world of computer
mediated communication. It was a great privilege and honour to work and study under his
guidance.

I would also like to express my deepest appreciation to all the other faculty members who guided
me during the two years of study in AMCHSS. I express my heartfelt thanks to Dr.P.Sankara
Sarma and Dr.V.Ramankutty for their expert review of research tools. I am greatly thankful to
K.L Sangeetha and Dr. D Mavoothu for suggestions in measuring social capital and providing
me validated Internet Social Capital Scale for my study.

I would like to offer my special thanks to Rev. Fr. John Thekekkara and Sr. Elizabeth
(F.D.S.H.J) for inspiring me to choose this course, for invaluable blessings and prayers. I am
extremely greatful to Sr. Jeslin Mary S.H and Sr. Litty S.M.C for the spiritual support from the
beginning of the dissertation.

I would also like to thank my seniors Mrs.Priyanka, Mrs. Joana Sara Wilson, Ms. Sunu Thomas
for the guidance and support. I extent my thanks to my colleagues Dr. Sambith Kumar Behra, Ms.
Pritty Titus, Ms. Nayana EP, Dr. Tijo George and Dr. Aakshi Kalra who supportrd and cheered
me during my tough times in the course of study.

A special word of thanks to my Pappa, Mamma and Chithu whose inspiring attitude and ceaseless
encouragement helped me throughout my life.

I would like to present my heartiest gratitude to all the college authorities and students who
supported and agreed to participate in the study. Lastly, I would like to thank all those who have
helped me directly and indirectly in completeing this study.

Athulya Thomas
October 2015

iv
 Dedicated to my beloved
grandparents
Late. Mr. K.A Mathew

&

Late. Mrs. Mariyakkutty Mathew

v
 Table of Contents

Content Page no.

Acknowledgement………………………………………………………… iv

List of tables ………………………………………………………………. x

List of figures………………………………………………………………. xi

Glossary of abbreviation………………………………………………….. xii

Glossary of concepts used………………………………………………… xiii

Abstract…………………………………………………………………… xiv

CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Social networks 1-4

1.2 Background 4-6

1.2.1 SNS-world scenario 4

1.2.2 SNS- developed countries 4

1.2.3 SNS- Indian scenario 6

1.3 Literature review 7-20

1.3.1 Social networking sites (SNS) 7

1.3.1.1 Concepts related to social capital 7

1.3.1.2 SNS: history and development 8

1.3.2 Emerging adulthood 9

1.3.2.1 Media usage in emerging adulthood 10

1.3.2.2 Effect of media on emerging adulthood 11

1.3.2.2.1 Aggression 11

1.3.2.2.2 Risk taking behaviour 11

1.3.2.2.3 Other effect of media on emerging adults 11

vi
 1.3.2.3 Effect of SNS on emerging adults 12

1.3.2.4 Pattern of usage of SNS by emerging adults 13

1.3.2.4.1 Time spend and frequency of usage of SNS 13

1.3.2.4.2 Communication activities on SNS 14

1.3.2.4.3 Network size 14

1.3.3 Self-esteem 15

1.3.3.1 SNS and self-esteem 16

1.3.3.2 Effect of self-esteem among emerging adults 16

1.3.3.3 Measurement of self-esteem 17

1.3.4 Social capital 17

1.3.4.1 Different type of social capital 18

1.3.4.2 SNS and social capital 18

1.3.4.3 Effect of social capital on emerging adults 19

1.3.4.4 Measurement of social capital 19

1.3.5 Self-esteem and social capital 20

1.4 Rationale 20

1.5 Objectives of the study 21

CHAPTER 2- METHODOLOGY 22-30

2.1 Study design 22

2.2 Study setting 22

2.3 Study population 23

2.4 Selection of respondents 23

2.5 Sample size 23

2.6 Sample selection procedure 23

2.7 Data collection techniques 24

vii
2.8 Variables under study 25

2.8.1 Operational definitions 25

2.8.2 Dependent variable 25

2.8.3 Independent variable 26-29

2.9 Data collection 29

2.10 Data storage, cleaning and analysis 29

2.11 Ethical considerations 30

CHAPTER 3- RESULTS 31-49

3.1 Results of univariate analysis 31-40

3.1.1 Basic sample characteristics 31

3.1.2 Socio-economic background of the respondents 32

3.1.3 SNS usage pattern 34

3.1.3.1 Extent of usage of SNS 37

3.1.4 Extent of interaction in the real world 38

3 .1.5 Knowledge regarding the credibility of information on SNS 39

3.1.6 Reasons for not using SNS 39

3.1.7 self-esteem and social capital 40

3.2 Results of bivariate analysis 40-48

3.2.1. Association of independent variables with self-esteem 41-44

3.2.2. Association of independent variables with social capital 44-48

3.3 Results of the multiple logistic regression analysis 48-49

CHAPTER 4- DISCUSSION 50-57

4.1 SNS usage pattern 50

4.1.1 extent of usage of SNS 51

4.1.2 communication activities on SNS 52

viii
 41.3 Network size 52

4.2 SNS’s influence on self-esteem 53

4.3 SNS’s influence on social capital 54-56

4.4 Self-esteem and social capital 56

4.5 Strengths of the study 57

4.6 Limitations of the study 57

CHAPTER 5- CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 58-59

REFERENCES 60-68

ANNEXURES

Annexure I: Summary of final sample recruitment process

Annexure II: Consent form in English

Annexure III: Consent form in local language

Annexure IV: Questionnaire in English

Annexure V: Questionnaire in local language

Annexure VI: IEC clearance form

Annexure VII: Permission letter obtained for conducting data collection

ix
 List of tables
Table Heading Page no:
no:
3.1 Basic sample characteristics of the respondents 32

3.2 Socio-economic background of the respondents 33

3.3 SNS usage pattern of the respondents 35

3.4 Extent of usage of SNS 38

3.5 Extent of interaction in the real world 38

3.6 Knowledge regarding the credibility of the information on SNS 39

3.7 Reason for not using SNS 40

3.8 Self-esteem and social capital 40

3.9 Association of socio-demographic characteristics with self- 41-42

esteem

3.10 Association of SNS usage status with self-esteem 43

3.11 Association socio-demographic background with social capital 45

3.12 Association of various communication activities on SNS with 46

social capital

3.13 Association of pattern of usage of SNS with social capital 47

3.14 Association of extent of interaction in real world with social 48

capital

3.15 Logistic regression of associated variables with bridging social 49

capital

I Summary of sample selection procedure Annexure I

x
 List of figures

Figure no: Heading Page no:

2.1 The Gantt chart 29

2.2 Framework for analysis 30

3.1 Commonly using SNS by emerging adults 35

3.2 Maximum using time in a day on SNS by 36

emerging adults

3.3 Communication activities on SNS 36

xi
 Glossary of abbreviations

SNS Social Networking Sites

WHO World Health Organization

AOL American Online

IT Information Technology

CMC Computer Mediated Communication

WWW World Wide Web

AISHE All India Survey on Higher Education

MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Dvelopment

ISCS Internet Social Capital Scale

IAMAI Internet and Mobile Association of India

NCRB National Crime Records Bureau

xii
 Glossary

Concepts used in the study

Social networking sites Any online platforms that enables users to create public profiles
(SNS) and form relationships with other users who access their profile
such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and so on.

Emerging adulthood The period between 18 to 25 years of age. It is the transitional

period between adolescence and adulthood.

Self-esteem Attitude towards self. It depends on how a person values self

based on skills, abilities, social relationships and future
outcome.

Social capital Any form of benefits a person getting from relationships with
others (financial support, variety of information, emotional
support and so on).

Bonding social capital A form of social capital generating from emotionally bounded
or homogenous relationships (strong relationships such as
family, very close friends and so on).

Bridging social capital A form of social capital generating from heterogeneous

relationships (weak relationships such as relationship with
people from different ages, cultures, countries, friends and so
on).

Social networks An interaction with others to exchange information and

maintain relationship.

Virtual world Social networks formed in computer-mediated communication

Real world Social networks formed in face-to-face interactions.

Communication Different modes of communication patterns permitted on SNS

activities on SNS for interacting with others such as commenting, liking,
messaging, status updates and so on.

xiii
 Abstract

Background: Social networking sites (SNS) enhance human relationships and decreases

space in relationships by promoting computer mediated communication. Emerging

adulthood (18-25 years) is the transitional period between adolescence and adulthood.

Among them interactions in virtual world have definite roles in the physical, emotional,

social and cognitive development. We studied usage of SNS and its influence on self-

esteem and social capital formation among emerging adults.

Method: Cross-sectional study was conducted among 455 emerging adults (43% male) in

colleges of Idukki district. Cluster sampling was used and sample size was proportionate

to strength. Study was done using self-reported questionnaire, had sections on assessing

pattern of SNS usage, self-esteem (Rosenberg scale) and social capital (ISCC). Analysis

was done in SPSS 21. Linear regression was done

Results: Students were from different disciplines -Arts and Science (56%), Medicine

(14%) and Engineering (30%). About 92% were dependent on their parents. Only 76%

accessed SNS. Among them 57% accessed through smart phones. On an average they

spend 60 minutes in SNS/day. Male students spent more time on SNS compared to

female. Pattern of usage of SNS not associated with self-esteem. Communication

activities, location and device used for access, age of respondents, friends in SNS and

friends in real world are associated with social capital.

Conclusion: About three-fourth of emerging adults access SNS. Among them half

accessed through their smart phones. SNS is not associated with self- esteem among

emerging adults, but it contributed positively on the formation of social capital among

them.

xiv
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

1. Introduction

1.1 Social networks

Truly, the basic foundation of human life is interpersonal relationship. Nonetheless,

relationship with others varies at different stages of life (Ackerson and Viswanath, 2009).

The kind of interpersonal relationship with others underlays the human behaviour and

development. It is a fact that day to day interaction in the physical world influences a

person‘s physical, social and psychological wellbeing (Reis et al., 2000). The most

amazing feature of the 21st century is the worldwide accessibility to the internet facilities

(DiMaggio et al., 2001). Nowadays, social softwares or social applications have become

one of the most acceptable media for relationship formation and recent years‘ concepts

such as social media are emerged out (Lai and Turban, 2008). Social media serves as an

indispensable platform for people to raise their voice as well as for relationship formation

and maintenance (Lazer et al., 2009). As such, social media, which are developed with an

intention to enhance communication and strengthen human connection, carry undoubtedly

a great value in terms of enhancing human relationships by decreasing the space in the

relationships (Fox et al., 2007; Wellman, 2001). As found in relationships in real world,

social media help in creating a virtual world in spite of people live physically apart from

each other (Mislove et al., 2007). Apparently, interpersonal interactions taking place

through social media have definite roles in the emotional, social, and cognitive

development among youth. The time spent on social media has been increasing; trends in

the media usage are also changing (Rideout et al., 2010; Roberts et al., 2011). These tools

have changed the way people get to interact with each other. In addition, there is growing

evidence that social media do have significant influence on psychological wellbeing

1
(Ellison et al., 2007; Kontos et al., 2010). The implications of virtual world on a person‘s

physical, mental and social well-being have been the interest of researchers in many

countries (Amichai-Hamburger et al., 2002; Barker, 2009; Correa et al., 2010; Ellison et

al., 2007; Pempek et al., 2009; Sponcil and Gitimu, 2012; Steinfield et al., 2008; Zywica

and Danowski, 2008).

The most attractive feature of social media is Social Networking Sites (SNS) (Kietzmann

et al., 2011; Murugesan, 2007; O‘reilly, 2009). These networks permit the users to create

their own public profile and thereby letting them interact with others via different modes

of communication techniques (Boyd and Ellison, 2007). These social tools have become

more accessible to young adults with the highest rate of smart phone penetration (Davey

and Davey, 2014). Young adults are accessing social networking sites for various reasons;

mainly for communication and seek information (Subrahmanyam et al., 2008).

As per World Bank, even though India has been classified under lower middle income

country based on income (Mental Health Atlas, 2014), India is showing an exponential

growth in the usage of internet facilities including social media (Internet and Mobile

Association of India (IAMAI), 2014) . It is revealed that people are more digitally active

compared to previous years. People aged between 18 to 25 years are the utmost users of

social media and the period between those years could be called as ―emerging

adulthood‖(Arnett, 2000; Kontos et al., 2010). Studies outline that cybercrimes are

increasing with spending longer time on social media (Lindsay and Krysik, 2012).

Interestingly, highest suicide rates are reported among young adults in the age group of

18 to 25 years (Patel et al., 2007). It is also identified that cybercrimes and cyber bullying

increase the suicide rates among youth. Cyberbullicide is a term coined recently to refer

the suicides related to cybercrimes (Chadwick, 2014; Luxton et al., 2012). In addition,

cybercrimes are rapidly increasing in our country and this has been reported under a

2
different chapter in ‗crime in India 2013 compendium‘ (Crimes in India compendium,

2013). Cybercrime proceedings in our country have been dealing under IT act 2000. Total

4356 cases were registered under IT act 2000 during the year of 2013. When comparing

with 2012, there was a 51.5 percent rise in the reported cybercrimes in 2013. Kerala was

the fifth state in India which had highest cybercrimes reported in the year 2013 (Crimes in

India compendium, 2013).

Self-esteem is an attitude towards self. Self-esteem affects our trust in others, our

relationships, and our work - nearly every part of our lives. In this regard, positive self-

esteem gives us the strength and flexibility to take charge of our lives and learn from our

mistakes without the fear of rejection (Rosenberg et al., 1995). Social capital implies the

resources a person gains through the relationship with other people (Valenzuela et al.,

2009). Both self-esteem and social capital are the determinants of the mental well-being

which is one of the determinants of quality of life (Myer et al., 2008; Nieminen et al.,

2013; Riumallo-Herl et al., 2014). It is also a component in the World Health

Organization‘s (WHO) definition of health that ―mental health enables people to realize

their potential, cope with the normal stresses of life, work productively, and contribute to

their communities‖ (Mental health action plan, 2013). Mental well-being of a person is

influenced by social, cultural, economic and environmental factors. Besides this, one‘s

own thoughts, emotions, behaviours and interactions with others are the other elements

which ultimately lead to mental wellbeing. Three factors which influence the mental

health of the young adults are social support and internal resources like mastery of skills

and self-esteem and perceived stress (Mental health action plan, 2013-2020). Making

friends is the key role of social networking sites (Boyd and Ellison, 2013). Some

researchers claim that emerging adults are using SNS for maintaining close relationships

(Coyne et al., 2013). Furthermore, recent researches suggest that there is an overlapping

3
between the online and real world relationships of the emerging adults (Chadwick, 2014;

Subrahmanyam et al., 2008). So it‘s clear that some forms of social networks happen in

the virtual world too (Barnes, 2009). What the virtual world does to the real life

relationships? Whether spending on SNS helps one expand the relationships socially and

geographically? Individual‘s perceived benefits of spending on SNS and the influence of

social networks on a person‘s wellbeing are important aspects to study (Duggan et al.,

2014).

1.2 Background

1.2.1 SNS-World scenario

As of August 2015, the most popular social networking platform was Facebook followed

by WhatsApp, Twitter, Google+ and LinkedIn. It is also proved that an average a global

internet user spends 120 minutes per day on social networking sites. The number of social

network users in the world was 1.79 billion during 2014 and it is expected to reach 2.44

billion by 2018. An estimated global social network penetration is 29 percent. Needless to

say that the emergence of smart phones has eased the social networking sites‘

accessibility. As per the reports of Smart phone Users around the World (2012), world‘s

smart phone penetration among emerging adults was 54 percent.

1.2.2 SNS -Developed countries

According to a report, about 71 percent of the online adults were using Facebook among

internet users in America (Duggan et al., 2014). It could be concluded that Facebook was

the most common SNS platform in developed countries such as America followed by

Twitter, Instagram, Pinterest and LinkedIn. As per the reports from the Pew internet

research institute (2014), the individuals aged between 18 to 25 years were found to be

the core users of the SNS. Approximately, 45 percent of them were engaged in online

platform several times a day with an average 180 minutes per day on SNS. In the

4
meantime, 52 percent was accessing two or more social networking sites.

A study conducted by the Gothenburg research institute Sweden found that on an average

a Facebook user spends 75.2 minutes per day with an average log on 6 times per day. The

survey also found out that young people in the age group of emerging adulthood category

spent more on Facebook with 82.5 minutes per day (Denti et al., 2012).

Table1.1 The following table compares the time spent on social networking by internet
users@ in developing and developed countries with a global average of 120 minutes per
day*.
Developing Time spent on social Developed Time spent on social
countries media countries media
(minutes (hours)/day) (minutes (hours)/day)
Argentina 258 (4.3) US 156 (2.6)
Philippians 258 (4.3) Russia 162 (2.7)
Mexico 234 (3.9) Italy 150 (2.5)
Brazil 228 (3.8) Singapore 150 (2.5)
Thailand 228 (3.8) UK 132 (2.2)
UAE 216 (3.6) Canada 126 (2.1)
Malaysia 210 (3.5) Australia 126 (2.1)
South Africa 192 (3.2) Germany 126 (2.1)
Vietnam 186 (3.1) France 120 (2)
Saudi Arabia 180 (3) Spain 114 (1.9)
Turkey 174 (2.9) Netherlands 114 (1.9)
Indonesia 174 (2.9) Hong Kong 108 (1.8)
India 150 (2.5) South Korea 78 (1.3)
Poland 126 (2.1) Japan 42 (0.7)
China 102 (1.7)
*Global web index Q3, 2015; @- base users 16-64 years ** 16-24 were found to be the
heaviest of SNS with an average 160 minutes per day in all countries.

5
1.2.3 SNS -Indian scenario

Latest statistics explicates that there are 243 Million internet users in India. It covers 19

percent of the total population (India digital marketing statistics, 2015). By the end of

2018, 500 million people might use internet facilities. The most browsed SNS in India is

Facebook with 100 million active users; among them around 80 percent are accessing it

through mobile devices. It is also estimated that India‘s internet users may increase

fivefold by the end of 2015 and more than three quarters of them will choose mobile

access for engaging with SNS (Digital, Social & Mobile Worldwide, 2015). Recent

statistics showed an exponential growth in the social networking sites‘ access from

developing countries. Notifiably, in 2014, India‘s one year growth rate in internet usage

was 14 percent. It contributed 8.33 percent to world‘s internet usage. India‘s internet

population penetration was 19 percent and ranked third in internet usages among the

world (Internet and Mobile Association of India, 2014). It is also reported that 70 percent

of youth in the age group of 18 to 25 years of India spends more than 300 minutes (5

hours) on internet in a normal week. Apart from that, Internet and Social Media Usage

among youth in India (2014) report depicts that 66 percent of youth in the age group of 18

to 25 years feels more accepted on social media than any other interactions. Besides this,

72 percent of Indian students are using more than one SNS. As per the Youth survey in

India (2014) conducted among 18 to 25 year old people in 15 cities of India found that

Facebook is the most preferred site among emerging adults. They are spending 30 to 60

minutes in a day on SNS. Smart phone is reported to be the preferred option for accessing

SNS. Mobile penetration eases the accessibility to internet and thereby popularizing SNS

(Watkins et al., 2012).

6
1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW

1.3.1 Social Networking Sites (SNS)

The internet has provided us the opportunity to connect with people around the globe with

a few clicks of a button, making it easier than ever before keeping in touch with our near

and dear ones. Owing to this fact, internet based social media have been the biggest

industry of this era.

1.3.1.1 Concepts related Social Networking Sites (SNS)

Some authors defined Social Networking Sites as an online platform that allows users to

create a public profile and get to interact with other users on the website worldwide

(Boyd and Ellison, 2007) . From the time of inception, the features of SNS have been

changing and considering this dynamic nature, the definition for SNS updated recently by

the same authors in 2013. In the light of these odd features such as unique identifying

profiles, publically articulated connections and scope for a wide range of user generated

contents, the researchers called SNS as ‗networked communication platform‘ (Ellison and

Boyd, 2013:156).

Generally, the availability of individual profiles is the attractive feature of the social

networking sites (Boyd and Ellison, 2007). Therefore, users can create and maintain

social contacts and can frequently interact with people anywhere in the world. It is also

observed that the interactions on SNS generate a sense of trust among the users even

though they are not physical proximate with each other. Likewise, the surfing on SNS

leads to the formation of social networks among users, providing a robust way of sharing,

organizing, and finding contents and contacts (Mislove et al., 2007). The resulting social

network provides a basis for nurturing social relationships, finding users with similar

interests, and sharing contents and knowledge with other users (Kaplan and Haenlein,

2010). The subsequent session deals with the history and development of SNS.

7
1.3.1.2 SNS: History and development

Internet- an interconnection of computers- was first introduced in the 1960‘s in America.

The earliest form of internet was termed as the ARPANET. It had undergone many

technological changes till today. In 1991, an internet based facility, being called as the

World Wide Web (WWW), was commenced. This WWW differs from internet in such a

way that it is a large connection of interconnected documents or the contents. The earlier

version -Web 1.0- allowed the users only to access and read the contents with the help of

a hypertext. The users‘ interaction was very limited in web 1.0 features since there was no

room for user generated content. Some examples of web 1.0 features were ‗geocities‘,

‗Hotmail and so on. But, advanced features were incorporated and in 1999, the new

version of web -web 2.0- came into light. Web 2.0 or social software refers to second-

generation internet based features that were recognized to be highly interactive and

communicative (O‘Reilly, 2009). Paradoxically, the current version of web 2.0 feature

helps to capture, store and present messages or contents which are either in written or

audio- visual form. Moreover, these interactive features help mediate interactions

between a pair or a group of users. Now that they focus on establishing and maintaining a

connection among users through different forms of communication like messaging,

chatting, gaming and so on. Web 2.0 could ensure more participation from users than web

1.0 (O‘Reilly, 2007). The new version allows consuming as well as contributing

information through blogs or SNS such as Facebook, Twitter and so on. Social

Networking Sites are one of the attributes among the web 2.0 coupled with a wide range

of interactive features (O‘Reilly, 2007). Newer versions of web are also emerging as web

3.0, web 4.0 and so on. This study focuses on one of the attributes of web 2.0 version-

SNS, which is the most attractive and widely used feature of web 2.0. ‗Social Web‘ is one

of the concepts related to web 2.0 versions and it describes how a person socializes or

8
interacts with each other through the web.

Precisely, SNS with the availability of user profiles came into popularity by 1990‘s with

the introduction of the Social Networking Site ‗Geocities‘ in 1994. In 1995,

‗Theglobe.com‘ was launched with a plenty of features enabling users to interact with

others by sharing interested contents. Two years later, in 1997, AOL instant messaging

and ‗Six degree‘ had launched, providing with facilities for creating user profiles and

interacting with friends (Kuss and Griffiths, 2011). Later on, booming of friend

networking sites occurred in 2000‘s with the launching of the most widely using

networking site ‗Facebook‘ in 2004 as a closed virtual community for Hardward students.

Thereafter, its access was thrown open for the public in the following year (Boyd and

Ellison, 2007). As reported, the users of SNS belong to different age groups, socio-

economic status, cultural backgrounds and so on. However, the key users of SNS are

young people who fall in the age group of 18-25 years (Ellison et al., 2009; Lenhart et al.,

2010). The upcoming session revolves around emerging adults, their characteristics and

developmental roles.

1.3.2 Emerging adulthood

Arnett (1998) claimed that the period between 18-25 years is very distinct from

adolescence and adulthood. Some scholars defined this period as ―late adolescence‖,

―young adulthood‖, ―youth‖, ―and transition to adulthood‖. At the same time, Jeffrey

Arnett called this distinct period as emerging adulthood in his theory of development of

late teens through early twenties (Arnett, 2000). The period between 18-25 years is said to

be quite critical in life because during this period a person builds long term social skills,

including critical thinking for self-dependence, career orientation and relationship

maintenance (Arnett, 2000). As seen, ‗emerging adulthood‘ is a recently emerged term in

developmental psychology in order to denote the period between adolescence and

9
adulthood (Arnett, 2000). This term, therefore, depends on the cultural and social

contexts. Initially, the term was believed to be applicable to highly industrialized nations

such as USA where there is a time period between the adolescence period and entry to

adulthood responsibilities like family and parenthood. It was not applicable to the nations

where early marriage is practised as the length of emerging adulthood period gets

shortened (Arnett, 2007). Later on, researchers found the aspects of emerging adulthood

in variety of cultures including India, China, Romania and so on (Coyne et al., 2013;

Nelson, 2009; Nelson et al., 2004) for the reason that many young people are remaining

in colleges in their early and mid-twenties (Arnett ,2007). So that, it can be said that

emerging adulthood is a period of transition to adulthood (Arnett, 2014).

Similarly, the emerging adulthood is pointed out as a time of identity exploration,

especially in the areas of work, love and world views. Period of uncertainty (residence

changes, career), feeling in-between (not yet feeling like an adult, but no longer

considering oneself as a child), being self-focused, and feeling very positive and

optimistic about future possibilities (Arnett, 2006; Nelson and Barry, 2005)- these are the

five developmental changes seen in emerging adults (Coyne et al., 2013). Perceivably,

psychological well-being is revamping during the phase of emerging adulthood

(Galambos et al., 2006).

1.3.2.1 Media usage in emerging adulthood

As has been discussed already in section 1.2, young adults in the age group of 18 to 25

years are the utmost users of social media especially SNS. One of the reasons why this is

the case is that they are living in a media saturated world where they are called as

‗Generation M‘ (Rideout et al., 2010). Therefore, emerging adults are the most

beneficiaries of the media and they spend considerable part of the time on social media

rather than any other activity (Coyne et al., 2013). In past years, emerging adults were

10
more fond of traditional forms of media such as television, video games and books which

are replaced by newer media such as internet, SNS and so on. These suggest that recent

era witnessed dynamic changes in the media usage among emerging adults, who are

spending much of the time in exploring newer media such as internet (Coyne et al., 2013).

1.3.2.2 Effects of media on emerging adults

Studies found out that media usage could affect one‘s behaviour or attitudes either in a

positive or negative way (Kuss and Griffiths, 2011). As discussed earlier, emerging

adulthood is a distinct period where parental restrictions are comparatively less than that

of childhood and adolescence. Despite this fact, the media have been a part of

socialization among emerging adults (Coyne et al., 2013; Youth survey in India, 2014).

1.3.2.2.1 Aggression: greater hours spent on television ,watching violent movies is likely

to be associated with the formation of favourable attitude towards violence among men

and the formation of favourable attitude towards interpersonal violence among women

(Brady, 2007).

1.3.2.2.2 Risk taking behaviours: it is found out that media usage has a tangible

influence on substance abuse behaviours, risky sexual attitudes and behaviours among

emerging adults (Carroll et al., 2008). Pro-social and anti-social contents through media

can mould the behavioural pattern of emerging adults either in a benign or tendentious

way (Padilla-Walker et al., 2009).

1.3.2.2.3 Other effects of media on emerging adults

In general, media usage in emerging adults is reported to be influencing academic

performances , social interaction and perceptions about self (Anand, 2007; Jacobsen and

Forste, 2010; Kirschner and Karpinski, 2010; Lanthier and Windham, 2004). Most studies

11
reported the effects of media on academic achievement for emerging adult college

students as generally negative, but it can also be made positive if utilized to foster

learning in the classrooms (Coyne et al., 2013). Over all, more social use of media is

likely to be associated with good college adjustments among emerging adults (Lanthier

and Windham, 2004).

1.3.2.3 Effects of SNS on emerging adults

Review discussed above shows how media affect the lives of emerging adults and we

need to be concerned about it. Social media are very dynamic in nature and emerging

adults in these years are spending more time on SNS than any other media (Correa et al.,

2010; Gemmill and Peterson, 2006) need to be studied. The following session depicts

how SNS influence emerging adults.

Studies reported positive as well as negative impacts of SNS on users. Evidently, the SNS

contribute to social, emotional and psychological development of the adolescents and

emerging adults. It is also reported that negative impacts of SNS on emerging adults are

mainly in three domains such as physical life, psychological well-being and social life

(Das and Sahoo, 2011). Decreased involvement in physical activity- one of the most

raised reasons for chronic diseases(physical wellbeing), decreased social interactions, less

participation of social events, criminal tendencies (social life), SNS addiction, social

depression, and cybersullicide (psychological wellbeing) are some of the downsides

discussed in research studies related to SNS (Dunlop et al., 2011; Kim et al., 2009; O‘Dea

and Campbell, 2012; O‘Keeffe et al., 2011; Orth et al., 2008; Ryan et al., 2014). On the

other hand, recent studies identified the favourable influence of SNS on the

developmental phase of emerging adults as enhanced self-esteem and perceived social

support, increased social capital, role in safe identity experimentation, increased

12
opportunity to self-disclosure (Apaolaza et al., 2013; Best et al., 2014; Ellison et al.,

2007; Manago et al., 2012; O‘Dea and Campbell, 2012; Pempek et al., 2009; Shaw and

Gant, 2002; Sponcil and Gitimu, 2012; Valenzuela et al., 2009; Valkenburg et al., 2006).

Furthermore, identity formation is the main developmental task of emerging adulthood

and SNS provide a scope for identity formation, self-disclosure and for establishing

intimate relations with peers and romantic partners. Eventually, active engagement with

SNS helps users in meeting the developmental tasks of the emerging adults as discussed

in the psychosocial development theory of Erik Erikson (Arnett, 2000). Although, in a

study by Subhramanyam et al. (2008) emerging adults reported that the use of these sites

didn‘t cause any effects on their relationships. Some researchers claimed that emerging

adults who are not socially active are more likely to use SNS for social compensation

(Amichai-Hamburger et al., 2002; Pempek et al., 2009; Zywica and Danowski, 2008;

Valkenburg et al.,2005).

1.3.2.4 Pattern of usage of SNS by emerging adults

Many studies were conducted across the world to assess the pattern of usage of SNS,

which SNS are being used, how emerging adults access SNS, the time and frequency

spent on SNS, activities or communication patterns and the average number of friends on

SNS for an emerging adult (Bicen and Cavus, 2011; Eke Miss et al., 2014; Jagero and

Muriithi, 2013; Sponcil and Gitimu, 2012).

The following section throws light into the pattern of usage of SNS among emerging

adults.

1.3.2.4.1 Time spent and frequency of usage on social networking sites by emerging

adults

Indeed, the amount of time spent on social networking sites varies greatly with age, sex,

13
weekdays and weekend days, educational status, and so on. As discussed earlier, SNS are

intensively used by college students and almost all studies done were assessing usage

patterns among college students (Kontos et al., 2010; Sponcil and Gitimu, 2012). Studies

conducted in USA reported that an average time spent on SNS by emerging adult‘s ranges

between 30 minutes to 120 minutes per day (Pempek et al., 2009). It is also found that

emerging adults catch up with SNS several times a day (Jagero and Muriithi, 2013). As

identified, longer the time spent on SNS stronger the relationship. Studies also show that

the maximum time consumption on SNS during from 9 PM to 12 AM (Sponcil and

Gitimu, 2012). Youth survey in India (2014) found that emerging adults in India spent an

average 30 to 60 minutes in a day on SNS.

1.3.2.4.2 Communication activities on SNS

The activities of emerging adults on social networking sites, also discussed as

communication patterns, such as commenting, liking, lurking and so on vary greatly. To

be precise, measuring activities on SNS, especially Facebook, have attracted many

practitioner and researcher attentions (Barker, 2009; Ellison et al., 2011). Many have been

using it to communicate with family and friends (Sponcil and Gitimu, 2012; Youth survey

in India, 2014). Entry to college is a different life situation where close relationships with

school friends and parents are being faded out and emerging adults are getting exposed to

a new environment (Arnett, 2000). In this context, maintaining relationships, through

various communication patterns, is one of the most attractive features of SNS (Valenzuela

et al., 2009). Either as a medium for entertainment or to escape from boredom and

loneliness, young adults tend to use SNS (Wilson et al., 2012).

1.3.2.4.3 Network size

Quite understandably, many studies provided evidence on the extent of usage of SNS and

the number of friends on SNS. The number of friends on SNS was termed as the ‗network

14
size‘ in a study done by Manago in 2012 (Manago et al., 2012). Many studies found out

that the emerging adults use SNS to maintain their relationships in real life. As a result,

there will be an overlap between online and real life relationships (Subrahmanyam et al.,

2008; Valkenburg and Peter, 2007; Wiese et al., 2014). However, a cross national

comparative study between America and India found out that American college students

had roughly equal number of online and offline friends when compared with the Indian

students who reported more number of online friends than offline friends (Marshall et al.,

2008). When the number of friends increases the SNS users expect that they might get

more responses for their activities such as updates, posting contents and so on in their

user pages (Manago et al., 2012). In addition to that, more number of friends results in an

emotional attachment of emerging adults with SNS, resulting in using SNS several times

a day (Mahajan, 2009). The average number of friends on SNS ranges from 150 to 400

(Jagero and Muriithi, 2013; Sponcil and Gitimu, 2012). Youth survey in India (2014)

reported an average Indian emerging adult have around 120 friends in Facebook.

1.3.3 Self esteem

Admittedly, self-esteem is an attitude towards self. It depends on how a person values

self-based on skills, abilities, social relationships and future outcomes (Robins et al.,

2002; Rosenberg et al., 1995). It is also one of the pillars for psychological well-being

and healthy personality development. It is often true that a person‘s experiences in life are

the major contributor of self-esteem. Successful peer acceptance and identity explorations

predict high self-esteem among adolescents and emerging adults. The studies to describe

the trajectories of self-esteem found that normally there has been an increase in self-

esteem through adolescence, adulthood and middle age (Orth et al., 2010; Robins and

Trzesniewski, 2005).

15
1.3.3.1 SNS and self-esteem

Ellison et al found in their study that emerging adults with lower self-esteem may benefit

more from SNS than others with high self-esteem (Ellison et al., 2007). For emerging

adults, networking sites act as a bridge for the development of peer acceptance and

interpersonal feedback on self and these are the main predictors for enhancing self-esteem

(Arnett, 2000). As seen, SNS permit different methods for interpersonal communication.

A study reported that the positive feedback on the profile enhances the self- esteem and

the negative feedback, on the other hand, decreases the self-esteem (Valkenburg et al.,

2006). Obviously, SNS provide a sense of reduced isolation and increased belongings that

have positive impact on self-esteem (Apaoloza et al., 2013; Shaw and Gant, 2002). As

discussed earlier, when the intensity of usage increases, network size also increases and

this hikes the perceived number of viewers for the users‘ activity (audience size). Studies

reported a positive relationship between estimated audience size and self-esteem (Manago

et al., 2013). On the contrary, addictive behaviours on SNS decrease self–esteem. From

time to time, very low self- esteem and high self-esteem are constantly reported as a

reason for compulsive internet usage (Shaw and Gant, 2002). Another factor that

influences the self-esteem of emerging adults is the effect of cyber bullying. Studies

reported that the victims of cyber bullying have low self-esteem (Chadwick, 2014;

Hinduja and Patchin, 2013).

1.3.3.2 Effects of self-esteem on emerging adults

In fact, developing positive peer relationships and friendships is crucial in helping young

people deal with developmental tasks such as forming identity, inculcating social skills

and self-esteem apart from establishing autonomy (Arnett, 2000). Peer influences and

feedback from peers have an impact on emerging adults‘ self–esteem. Meanwhile, social

support and peer acceptance in the phases of emerging adulthood also have a positive

16
effect on psychological wellbeing and self-esteem (Arnett, 2007). Good self-esteem serve

as a protective factor from psychological disorders like maladaptive personality traits that

are more common in young people (Patel et al., 2007). Persistent low self- esteem and

high self- esteem are associated with behavioural disorders (Kramer and Winter, 2008). A

longitudinal study concluded that low self- esteem is a predictive factor for depression in

young adults (Orth et al., 2008).

1.3.3.3 Measurement of self-esteem

Commonly, self-esteem is assessed with self-reported inventories. Rosenberg‘s self-

esteem scale is the widely used one to measure the self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1960). It is a

10 item likert scale with a series of statements about self. Yet another tool for measuring

self-esteem is the Coopersmith Inventory measures different aspects of self-esteem

(Coopersmith, 1981).

1.3.4 Social capital

The term ‗social capital‘ has widely been using since 1990‘s. Bourdieu and Wacquant

(1992) defined social capital as ―the sum of resources; - actual or virtual, that accrue to an

individual or a group by virtue of possessing a durable network of more or less

institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition‖ (Bourdieu and

Wacquant, 1992). A simple and clear definition of Social capital was given by Coleman

in 1998 as the resources a person gets from the relationship with other people (values

from social networks) (Coleman, 1988). As defined, relationships with peers, family and

friends help generate social capital. Increased social disorder, reduced participation in

civic activities and distrust among people are the evidences of decreasing social capital.

On the other hand, high social capital allows individuals to capitalize their connection

with others and to get benefits such as information and support (Helliwell et al., 2004).

17
1.3.4.1 Different types of social capital

The resources accumulated through a relationship may vary according to the nature and

function of that relationship (Ellison et al., 2007). Putnam defined two types of individual

level social capital - bridging and bonding social capitals (Norris, 2004; Putnam, 2001:

22-23). Based on later research in the field of SNS, one more type of social capital,

namely maintained social capital, was added to the context of SNS (Ellison et al., 2007).

It had come from the concept that college students are commonly accessing SNS for

maintaining their relationships with school friends and home town after having moved

away from their home town for studies. Strong relationships such as family and close

friends contribute to the generation of bonding social capital, whereas weak relationships

(friends or people from diverse background) contribute to the generation of bridging

social capital. As identified, emotional support and financial support are the examples of

social capital from strong ties while, exposure to a large amount of information is an

example of a social capital from weak ties.

1.3.4.2 SNS and social capital

Over all, the virtual social capital, that is the generation of social capital through internet

based social networking sites, is a new area of research. Thus, spending time on SNS

helps one to generate and maintain social capital (Ellison et al., 2007). Types of

relationships on the networks can predict the types of social capital (Williams, 2006). It‘s

also empirical that the intensity of usage of SNS influences the development of these

three varieties of social capital (Valenzuela et al., 2009; Ellison et al., 2007). Most

researches supported that internet mediated communication is important in the formation

of bridging social capital (Williams, 2006). Increased social networking site usage is

associated with increased social capital and reduced loneliness (Burke et al., 2010). A

study has encapsulated that the social capital is directly proportionate to the perceived

18
social support (Valenzuela et al., 2009). In such a way, bonding social capital is generated

out of strong ties such as family members, siblings, close friends and so on. So its

generation demanded multiple communication channels such as face-to-face interaction,

interaction through more than one social medium and so on. However, in case of

bridging social capital, any one form of communication channel (such as only Facebook)

is necessary because it is generated from weak ties (Rui et al., 2014) such as

acquaintances and heterogeneous relationships (interaction of people from different race,

cultural background, educational background, occupation and so on). Seemingly, SNS

help maintain a large number of diverse relationships and hence, it supports the

generation of bridging social capital rather than bonding capital.

1.3.4.3 Effects of social capital on emerging adults

Social capital is linked to the physical and psychological well-being of emerging adults. It

influences the positive social outcomes such as better public health and lower crime rates

(Adler and Kwon, 2002). Social support, trust, information and emotional support are

some benefits of social capital. Thus, higher social capital is associated with the better

academic and career achievement, better health, emotional stability, organizational

success and the like (Adler and Kwon, 2002).

1.3.4.4 Measuring social capital

Like self-esteem, it is quite hard to measure social capital. Williams (2006) developed a

scale for measuring Internet social capital and this yardstick is widely used for measuring

generation of social capital on SNS. It has two subscales for measuring bonding and

bridging social capital (Williams, 2006).

19
1.3.5 Self-esteem and social capital

The study done by Steinfield et al. (2008) claimed that there is relationship between self-

esteem and social capital formation. Accordingly, self-esteem and satisfaction in life play

a cardinal role in generating social capital. It is claimed that emerging adults with high

self-esteem are free to maintain relationship with weak ties and therefore their bridging

capital may also be high (Steinfield et al., 2008).

1.4 RATIONALE

Based on the meticulous literature review, it is obvious that the usage of SNS and the

networks formed by the interactions do have an impact on a person‘s social as well as

psychological well-being. The majority of studies were profoundly referring to SNS‘

influences in the western world context. Convincingly, both positive and negative effects

of accessing SNS and their importance in social and psychological well-being had been

analysed. Since young adults are the serious users of SNS, most of the studies addressed

the issue of SNS usage among college students. In India, there are only a few studies

published on assessing the SNS usage pattern. From the literature itself, it is evident that

the usage of SNS is a growing trend among emerging adults. It is also substantiated that

self–esteem and social capital are the irreplaceable aspects of social and psychological

well-being. Indubitably, self-esteem and social capital stand as the protective factors from

maladaptive personality traits. Among emerging adults very low self-esteem is one of the

factors leading to depression, which is the leading cause of suicides, currently, among

emerging adults. It is interesting to notice that self–esteem in relation to many other

aspects was analysed in India as well as in Kerala. In olden days, it was believed that

social capital is formed through direct social interactions. In this technological era, SNS

have changed the way of social interactions. So there exists a gap between the studies

related to the usage of SNS and their effects on mental and social well-being among the

20
users. Idukki district is selected as a study setting as this region is privileged with a

complete coverage of uninterrupted, regular, internet services, which altogether have

made the study more conducive. It is also commendable that Idukki was declared as the

first district in India to have complete Hi-speed broadband connectivity (Digital India,

2015). Therefore, the present study is an attempt to assess the self-worth perceived

resources gained through social interactions by SNS among emerging adults. To my

knowledge, there was no study published in India related with the usage of SNS, self-

esteem and social capital. Hence, it is exigent to scrutinize the effects of SNS in this novel

and dynamic era of technology.

1.5 OBJECTIVES:

o To study the pattern of usage of social networking sites among emerging

adults in the age group of 18-25 years.

o To study the effects of the pattern of usage of SNS and self-esteem among

emerging adults.

o To study the effects of the pattern of usage of social networking sites and

formation of social capital among emerging adults.

21
 CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGY

This chapter evinces the methodology followed in the present study.

2.1 Study design

The study design used for the present study is cross-sectional on the ground that majority

of other studies undertaken to examine the patterns of usage of SNS globally also have

used the same study design (Ellison et al., 2007; Pempek et al., 2009; Steinfield et al.,

2008; Valenzuela et al., 2009).

2.2 Study setting

The study was carried out in the undergraduate colleges in Idukki district. The district

came into existence on 26 January 1972. There are 36 colleges, among which five are run

by the government and others are private management colleges. According to All India

Survey on Higher Education, the Gross Enrolment Ratio on higher education of 18-23

years age group in India was 20.8% and in Kerala it was 21.8% in 2012. At the same

time, the total number of colleges in Kerala was 1033 and the total number of colleges per

lakh population was 33. The average enrolment in Kerala per college per year had been

538 in 2011-2012. As per reports of the higher education survey in India, the enrolment in

all colleges in Idukki district was around 17905 per year in 2012 (MHRD, 2013). It is also

prominent to note that Idukki was declared as the first district in India with complete Hi-

speed broadband connectivity (Digital India, 2014). Well above all, its complete coverage

of uninterrupted, regular, internet services had made the study more appropriate.

22
2.3 Study population

The study was conducted among the students who are pursuing bachelor degree courses

in Idukki district. Samples of these streams were selected because majority of adults

among emerging adulthood are likely to pursue bachelor degree courses.

2.4 Selection of respondents

Inclusion criteria

1. All the second year students of the selected colleges who consent to participate in

the study.

2. The students who had completed 18 years of age at the time of data collection and

not older than 25 years were included in the study.

Exclusion criteria

1. Those students who are married at the mentioned age group (18-25 years).

2.5 Sample size

The sample size was calculated using Open Epi version 3.03, based on the assumption

that 80 percent of college students access any one form of social networking site,

according to a study conducted among college students in 2013 (Manjunatha, 2013). The

estimated sample size was multiplied by two to adjust for the design effect as cluster

sampling was used. With an assumed precision of 5%, the sample was estimated at 95%,

CI was 492. The estimated sample size was rounded up to 500.

2.6 Sample selection procedures:

Multistage cluster sampling was used for sample selection. For which, 10 colleges were

selected randomly (including professional and non-professional) from 36 colleges of

Idukki district. Since then, from each college, all students studying second year

constituted the sampling frame. Thereafter, the lists of students were collected from

college authorities to create the sampling frame. Soon after, from the lists of all second

23
year students, the principal investigator selected the samples as per the probability

proportionate to size. This was done as the total strength of students from individual

colleges varied greatly. Next, the total strength of second year students in the colleges had

been calculated. Then the percentage of students from individual colleges contributed to

the total strength, the same proportion of students was selected from corresponding

colleges to satisfy the sample size. (Please refer Annexure I for the summary of the final

sample selection procedure)

2.7 Data collection techniques:

A pre-tested questionnaire, having three sections, was used to collect the data. Section A

was used to collect information on socio-demographic details, general information about

SNS membership and usage, SNS usage pattern- including duration, frequency and

activities, network characteristics including size of the network and the nature of

relationships. The study also had two outcome variables; self-esteem and social capital.

Section B and C collected information for outcome variables. Section B assessed the

outcome variable self-esteem. Self–esteem was assessed using globally accepted and

commonly used Rosenberg self-esteem scale (Ellison et al., 2007; Steinfield et al., 2008),

which was a 10-item scale measures self-worth by measuring both positive and negative

feelings about the self. All items were answered using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from

strongly agrees to strongly disagree (Rosenberg et al., 1965). The scale was comprised of

both positively and negatively worded statements about self. In India the Hindi version of

the scale was validated among two hundred college students in 2005. The reliability score

Cronbach‘s alpha of Rosenberg scale validated in India was 0.80 (Schmitt, 2005).

Section-C assessed the social capital with an adapted and modified version of the Internet

Social Capital Scale (ISCS) that was developed by Dimitri Williams in 2006 (Ellison et

al., 2007; Steinfeild et al., 2008; Williams, 2006). The original scale had 20 items with

24
two subscales to assess the two types of social capital bridging and bonding respectively.

But the modified version had 16 components (Williams, 2006). The English version of

the modified social capital scale was validated in Kerala among college students in 2014.

After the validation two components were removed from the scale since they were found

to be inappropriate to the Indian context. The bonding and bridging subscale had a

reliability score of 0.76 and 0.75 accordingly (Sangeetha and Mavoothu, 2013). In this

study, these scales were used after acquiring permission from the corresponding authors.

Then questionnaire was translated into Malayalam and for the purpose of validation it

was back translated into English. Data was collected using the Malayalam version of the

questionnaire.

2.8 Variables under study

2.8.1 Operational definition

Emerging adults:

As specified earlier, emerging adults are the people in the age group between 18 to 25

years. To include respondents in these age group students from second year were included

from selected colleges.

2.8.2 Dependent variable

2.8.2.1 Self-esteem:

Self-esteem is an attitude towards self. It depends on how a person values oneself based

on his or her skills, abilities, social relationships and future outcomes (Rosenberg et al.,

1995, Robins et al., 2002).

Self-esteem is measured as an ordinal variable based on the score obtained in Rosenberg

self-esteem scale.

2.8.2.2 Social capital

Social capital is an advantage of the interactions in a social network (Helliwell and

25
Putnam, 2004). This term generally refers to the resources gained through the relationship

with other people (Coleman, 1998). Social capital was measured as an ordinal variable

based on the score obtained on 5-point likert scale in the Internet Social Capital Scale

(ISCS).

2.8.3 Independent variable

2.8.3.1 Socio-economic background of the parents

2.8.3.1.1 Age: Age of the respondents was collected as continuous variable in completed

years at the time of data collection.

2.8.3.1.2 Sex: Sex was as reported by the respondents. This was later verified with the list

provided by the college.

2.8.3.1.3 Course of studying: As reported by the respondents. Responses were later

classified in to three categories such as modern medicine, engineering and arts and

science.

2.8.3.1.4 Present residence: Data were collected as categorical variable such as day

scholars and resident in hostel.

2.8.3.1.5 Education of the parents: Responses were collected as a categorical variable

on the highest level of education attained by the parents. The responses were later

classified in to three categories such as 10 years of schooling, 12 years of schooling and

graduation or above.

2.8.3.1.6 Occupation of the parents: Data were captured as categorical variable.

Categories provided were government employee, no job, working abroad and other type

of employment. Other type of employment included manual labour, business, farming,

and coolie.

2.8.3.1.7 Family structure: Data were collected as a categorical variable. If the subjects

were living with his/her parents and siblings, he/she was included in the category of

26
nuclear family. If the subjects were living with parents, siblings and grandparents, then it

was considered as extended family.

2.8.3.1.8 Family Income: The monthly household family income was collected as

categorical variable with five categories such as Rupees- below 5000, 5001 to 10,000,

10,001 to 25,000, 25,001 to 50,000 and above 50,00 1.

2.8.3.2 SNS usage pattern:

2.8.3.2.1 SNS users: Data were collected as categorical variable. If the respondents used

any form of online platform which allowed them to create a public profile of their own

and thereby interacting with others who using the same platform (SNS). This is for the

period of one month or above prior to the data collection. Those who are using as per the

criteria were considered as ‗SNS users‘ and those who are not were categorized as ‗non-

users‘.

2.8.3.2.2 Currently using SNS: Information on the names of SNS students were using

regularly for one month prior to the data collection was captured as categorical variable.

2.8.3.2.3 Devices used for accessing SNS: Responses were collected in to four categories

such as smartphone, laptops, tablets and desk tops. Responses were later classified in to

mobile devices (smartphone and tablets) and computer devices (laptops and desk tops).

2.8.3.2.4 Locations choosing for accessing SNS: Data were collected as categorical

variable. Four categories were provided such as from college premises, hostel premises,

at home and internet café.

2.8.3.2.5 Age at initiation: Data on age at initiation of using SNS were captured as

continuous variable as reported by the respondents.

2.8.3.2.6 Monthly spending for SNS: Average monthly spending for SNS were collected

in a continuous variable as reported by the respondents in Rupees.

2.8.3.2.7 Extent of usage of social networking sites: Information on the time spend on

27
SNS on usual holidays and usual working days, last working day prior to the data

collection and last holiday prior to the data collection were collected as continuous

variable. All responses were converted in to minutes. Average time spent on SNS per day

was calculated from the total time spent on a week divided by 7.

2.8.3.2.8 Frequency of usage of SNS: Responses on the number of times they used SNS

on last holiday and last working day prior to the data collection were collected. Frequency

of usage on SNS per day was calculated from the total times they logged in during a week

divided by 7.

2.8.3.2.9 Communication pattern on SNS: Information was collected as categorical

variable. Categories provided were chatting, messaging, lurking, profile updates, status

updates, liking and commenting, others. Communication pattern were recorded in to

students engaging with more number of activities (>=4 communication activities) and less

number of activities (<4 communication activities).

2.8.3.2.10 Network size: Information about the total number of friends in the SNS was

captured as a continuous variable. The total numbers of friends in the SNS were

calculated by adding number of friends in the various SNS. Respondents were again

informed to classify the friends in to three categories such as close friends (family

members, very close friends, cousins and so on), acquaintances (school friends, friends of

friends, familiar ones but not close friends) and online only friends (not known in real

life).

2.8.3.3 Bad experiences on SNS: The data were collected as a binary variable. The

responses were coded as ‗yes‘ if the respondents reported that they felt any behaviour of

others on their profile was not good at any time three months prior to the data collection.

28
2.8.3.4 Extent of interaction in the real world: Data were collected as binary variable in

response to the question ‗do you spending too much time on SNS?‘ and ‗did anybody

remained you about the over usage of SNS?.‘

The total number of close friends in college and neighbourhood were considered as the

friends in the real world. The information were captured as continuous variable as

reported by the respondents.

2.9 Data collection

Principal investigator herself had collected data from the respondents. The data collection

commenced from June 15th to August 31st, 2015.

Figure 2.1 The Gantt chart

2.10 Data storage, cleaning and analysis

The data were coded, entered and cleaned in Microsoft Excel 2010 and statistical analysis

was done using IBM SPSS version 21. The hard copies of the questionnaire were stored

in a locked chamber under my round the clock vigilance. Also, the privacy and

confidentiality of subjects were strictly maintained by analysing the data and reporting the

results without the identifiers of the students.

The analysis had done for 455 respondents achieved a response rate of 92.5 percent.

29
Figure 2.2 frameworks for analysis

Univariate analysis Bivariate analysis Multivariate analysis

 To identify the pattern ‗Mann-Whitney U‘ test Logistic regression

of usage of SNS. and ‗kruskal-Wallis‘ was done to find out
 Descriptive were test to find out the the factors
given in frequencies association of significantly
with percentages- dependent variables associated with self-
categorical variables
with predictor variables esteem and social
 Median with range-
capital adjusted for
continuous variables
other variables

P value of less than 0.05 was considered to be significant.

2.11 Ethical considerations:

The study did not pose any risk to the respondents in the survey or the informants in the

interviews. The privacy and confidentiality of the information given to the investigator

were upheld during the study and will be upheld even in the future. Written informed

consent was taken from all participants and details about the investigator were given to

each student to facilitate clarification of any doubts regarding the study that arose among

the participants. Ethical clearance was obtained from the Institutional Ethics Committee

(IEC) of Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology,

Thiruvananthapuram (Ref No: SCT/IEC/760/JUNE-2015).

30
 CHAPTER 3

RESULTS

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the results of the cross-sectional study are described. As discussed earlier,

this study had two outcome variables namely self-esteem and social capital. The analysis

was done for 455 respondents.

Organization of results in the chapter

 Description of sample characteristics was represented with median (range) for a

continuous data and the frequency with percent for categorical data.

 Bivariate analysis to find out the association between independent and dependent

variables.

 Binary logistic regression to find out the statistically significant factors while

adjusting with other factors.

3.1 Results of Univariate analysis

3.1.1 Basic sample characteristics

The median age of the respondents was 19 years ranging from 18 to 22 years.

More than half of the respondents were female students (57.4 %). The sex ratio of

the respondents was 1:1.3 in favour of female students. The sample included

students from different disciplines. Out of the total, more than half of the

respondents were from arts and science courses (55.8%) and rest of them were

from engineering and modern medicine courses. Besides, most of the students

hailed from rural areas (77%) and 54.1 percent of the students were day scholars.

Table 3.1: describes the basic sample characteristics.

31
Table 3.1: Sample characteristics of the respondents
Variables Categories N=455 (100%)
Age 19 (18-22)#
Sex Male 194 (42.6)
Female 261 (57.4)

Course undergoing Arts & science 254 (55.8)

Engineering 138 (30.3)
Nursing 30 (6.6)
BDS 18 (4.0)
MBBS 15 (3.3)

Current residence Day Scholar 246 (54.1)

Resident in
209 (45.9)
hostel

Permanent residence Rural 342 (77)

Urban 102 (23)
# Median (range)

3.1.2 Socio-economic background of the respondents

Table 3.2 depicts the socio-economic background of the respondents. More than one

fourth of the parents were graduates or qualified above. More than two third of fathers

were working in unorganized sectors and some were government employees. It was also

noticed that father had been the main earning member of the family. Out of the total, a

small proportion (6%) had reported that their fathers were not working. Likewise, more

than half of the mothers were also found to be not working. The majority of (94.5%)

emerging adults belonged to nuclear family. About 33 percent had reported that their

monthly family income was between rupees 10,001-25,000/-. It was interesting that most

of the emerging adults‘ educational expenses were borne by parents. Significantly, less

than 10 percent were scholarship holders. As surveyed, a few were finding their own

means to meet the educational expenditure.

32
Table 3.2: socio-economic background of the respondents

Variables Categories N=455

(100%)
Education of father (N=454) 10 years of schooling 173 (38.1)
12 years of schooling 169 (37.2)
Graduation or above 112 (24.7)

Education of mother (N=453) 10 years of schooling 126 (27.8)

12 years of schooling 191 (42.2)
Graduation or above 136 (30.0)

Occupation of father Govt.employee 68 (14.9)

Other type of employment@ 325 (71.4)
Abroad 34 (7.5)
No job 28 (6.2)

Occupation of mother Govt.employee 42 (9.2)

Other type of employment@ 99 (21.8)
Abroad 12 (2.6)
No job 302 (66.4)

Family structure Nuclear 430 (94.5)

Extended 25 (5.5)

Monthly household income (INR) <5000 101 (22.2)

5001-10,000 89 (19.6)
10,001-25,000 149 (32.7)
25,001-50,000 73 (16.0)
>50,001 43 (9.5)

Sponsor (N=454) * Father 417 (91.9)

Mother 83 (18.3)
Scholarship/Stipend 31 (6.8)
Self-Supported 28 (6.2)
Others 2 (.4)
*multiple responses provided
@ Other employment includes farming, business, non-governmental jobs, manual labour,
and coolie

33
3.1.3 SNS pattern of usage among emerging adults

Table 3.3 shows the SNS usage pattern of the respondents. Of the 455 respondents, a total

of 385 respondents were found to be using any form of social networking sites during the

past one year. Out of 455 students, only 345 (75.8%) used at least one form of SNS

regularly during one month prior to data collection. Among the SNS users, about 38

percent was found to be using only one form of SNS. Facebook was found to be the most

popular form of SNS among emerging adults followed by WhatsApp (Figure 3.1). The

emerging adults were reported to be engaged with the SNS from a median age of sixteen

years ranging from 9 to 20 years.

Similarly, the smart phone was the most common device used for accessing the SNS. The

further analysis showed that more than half of the emerging adults (56%) would be

accessing SNS only through smart phones. It could also be comprehended that about 93

percent was engaged with SNS from home, whereas only a small proportion was

accessing SNS from internet café. Moreover, majority of them (82.3%) were accessing

sites between 7pm to 12 pm (Figure 3.3).

The most commonly used SNS and communication activities on the SNS by emerging

adults are enumerated in the bar diagrams below (Figure 3.1, Figure 3.2).

34
Table 3.3: SNS usage pattern of the respondents

Variable Category N=345 (%)

Registration in SNS (N=455) Usage status for last year 385 (84.6)
Usage status for last month 345 (75.8)

Devices used for accessing SNS* Smart phone 304 (88.1)

Laptop 100 (29)
Desktop 64 (18.6)
Tablet 30 (8.7)
Locations for accessing SNS* Home 319 (92.5)
Hostel 146 (42.3)
College 104 (30.1)
Internet café 41 (11.9)

Age at initiation (N=343) <16 126 (36.7)

>=16 217 (63.3)

*multiple options recoded

Figure 3.1: commonly using SNS by emerging adults*

350 Facebook
89.3 %
WhatsApp
300
Google plus
67.8% Twitter
250
LinkedIn
200 Hike
VChat
150
Others
N 100
14.8%
50 8.1% 2.0% 2.0% 1.4% 1.7%
0
Facebook WhatsApp Google Twitter LinkedIn Hike VChat Others
N=345 plus
‗Others‘ includes v-chat, instagram, telegram IMO, viber, hike; * N= number of
respondents

35
Figure 3.2 Maximum using times on SNS by emerging adults

250
12am-6 am

200 6am-12pm

12pm-4pm
150
4pm-7pm
N*
100 7pm-9pm

9pm-12pm
50

0
12am-6 am 6am-12pm 12pm-4pm 4pm-7pm 7pm-9pm 9pm-12pm
N=345

N=number of respondents (345)

Figure 3.3 communication activities on SNS

350 reading posts

86.4% chatting
300 83.2% 81.2% liking
messaging
250 67.5%
commenting
sharing videos,photos
200
46.7% status updates

150 profile updates

33.9% 32.8%
29.3%
100

50
N*
0
reading posts chatting liking messaging commenting sharing status profile
videos,photos updates updates

*N= number of respondents (345)

36
3.1.3.1 Extent of usage of SNS by emerging adults

Table 3.4 explains the extent of usage of SNS. The extent of usage includes the time spent

on SNS, the frequency of using SNS, the total number of friends in the virtual world and

the monthly spending for SNS in rupees.

As per the analysis, a considerable proportion of emerging adults spent an average of 120

minutes (0-600 minutes) in a usual holiday and 30 minutes (0-540 minutes) in a usual

working day on SNS. However, the frequency of usage of SNS ranged from 0- 15 times

with median of 2 times for both during a usual holiday and a usual working day. On an

average, an emerging adult spent 60 minutes on SNS per day with an average frequency

of 2 times a day.

It was identified that about 46 percent of female students were using SNS while, 54

percent of their male counterparts were found to be using the same. Besides, males were

spending longer on SNS with an average of 69 minutes per day (4-531minutes) while

compared with female students had an average of 43 minutes per day (2-326minutes).

Also, the total number of friends for emerging adults in the virtual world ranged from 25

to 6098 with a median of 437. Male students had more number of friends in virtual world

with median 662 (40-6098) when compared with female students with median 200 (25-

1500).

Among the 76 percent students who were using SNS, 61 percent had been using multiple

forms of SNS and rest had been using only one form of SNS. Among those who were

using multiple sites for social networking, 51.4 percent were male students and rest were

females.

Emerging adults had been spending an average amount of 100 (0-1100) rupees per month

for accessing social networking sites.

37
Table 3.4: extent of usage of SNS by emerging adults

Variable Categories Median(N=345) Range

Time spending on SNS(minutes) usual holidays 120 (minutes) 0-600
usual working day 30 (minutes) 0-540
last sunday 60 (minutes) 0-720
last working day 30 (minutes) 0-480

Frequency of usage last working day 2 0-15

last sunday 2 0-13

Friends in virtual world Total friends 437 25-6098

Close friends 50 0-3224
Acquaintances 200 0-3000
Online only friends 10 0-3800

3.1.4 Extent of interaction in the real world

Table 3.5 describes the extent of interaction of emerging adults in the real world.

Generally, in response to the question whether they spent ―too much time‖ on SNS, about

37 percent were in accord with spending ―too much time‖ on SNS. Around half of the

students were reminded by others that they were spending ―too much time‖ on SNS.

Table 3.5 Extent of interaction in the real world

Variables Categories N=345 (100%)

Self-realization of spending too much 129 (37.4)
time on SNS

Anyone else reminded about over Parents 136 (83.95)

usage*(N=162) Teachers 8 (4.9)
Close friends 64 (39.5)
Siblings 35 (21.6)

Friends in real world(N=455) 20 (0-350)*

Interaction with friends in real world Always 115 (25.7)

Frequently 230 (51.5)
Seldom 88 (19.7)
Rarely 14 (3.1)
* median (range)

38
3.1.5: Knowledge regarding the credibility of information on SNS, prevalence of bad
experiences through SNS

More than three fourth of the respondents felt that the information available on the SNS

was not found to be credible. A small proportion mentioned that they experienced

something bad on SNS during the three months prior to data collection. Table 3.6

describes the emerging adults‘ responses about the credibility of information on SNS.

Table 3.6: knowledge regarding the credibility of information on SNS, prevalence of

bad experiences through SNS
Variable Category N=345 (%)
Credibility of information (N=344) Credible 17 (4.9)
Non- credible 271 (78.8)
Don‘t know 56 (16.2)

Bad experiences through SNS Experienced 17 (4.9)

How to react to inappropriate

behaviours through SNS Remove from list 275 (79.7)
Report to parents 124 (35.9)
Legal management 121 (35.1)
Ignore 88 (25.5)
Report to near ones 83 (24.1)
Report to service providers 57 (16.5)
Remove from list 275 (79.7)

3.1.6: Reasons for not using SNS

As reported earlier, about one fourth of the emerging adults were found to be reluctant in

using any form of social networking sites. When enquired about the reasons for not using

the SNS, more than half of the college students reported lack of interest on the SNS and

one third felt lack of time for accessing SNS. Table 3.7 explains the reasons for not using

SNS by emerging adults.

Of the total 455 respondents, around 84.3 percent used internet facilities for other

purposes like academic use, information gathering, e- commerce, downloading, browsing

and so on.

39
Table 3.7 Reasons for not using SNS

Reasons for not using SNS* N=110 (100%)

1. Not interested on SNS 62 (56.4)
2. No time to spend on SNS 38 (34.5)
3. Spending time on SNS is useless 20 (18.2)
4. Parents did not allow to spend time on SNS 19 (17.3)
5. Not interested to disclose personal information 9 (8.2)
6. Scared about the misuse of information 5 (4.5)
7. Others@ 11 (10)
* multiple responses recorded; @not allowed in the college

3.1.7 Self-esteem and social capital

Table 3.8 describing the outcome variables self-esteem and social capital.

Outcome variables N Mean (SD) Median (range)

Self-esteem 455 29.52±3.8 30(16-40)

Social capital* 344
Bonding social capital 18.38±5.4 18(7-35)
Bridging social capital 24.83±5.4 25(7-35)
*social capital- analysis done for those who were using SNS.

3.2 Results of bivariate analysis

Self-esteem and social capital were considered as outcome variables. Bivariate analysis

was performed to find out the association between independent variables and outcome

variables. Self-esteem and social capital were measured using ordinal scale and this lead

to a positively skewed distribution. Hence, the non-parametric ―Mann Whitney-U‖ test

and ―Kruskal Wallis‖ test were performed as bivariate analysis. P value less than 0.05

was considered to be significant.

40
3.2.1 Self-esteem with predictor variables

3.2.1.1 Association of socio-demographic characteristics of respondents with self-

esteem

Bivariate analysis of basic sample characteristics and self-esteem found that there was no

significant difference in self-esteem with age, sex, course undergoing and place of

residence. When self-esteem was analysed with socio-economic background of the

respondents, results showed that self-esteem was more or less similar among emerging

adults irrespective of the education and the occupation of parents, family structure and

family income. But, there was a higher self-esteem among those who were self-supported

(finding their own means to meet educational expenses) (p=0.022).

Table 3.9: Association of socio-demographic characteristics of respondents with self-

esteem
Variables N Median Range p value
Age
<19 119 29 17-19 0.746
>=19 226 30 16-40

Sex
Male 194 29 17-40 0.954
Female 261 30 16-40

Course undergoing
Arts & Science 254 30 16-40 0.570
Engineering 138 29 20-39
Modern Medicine 63 29 20-40

Current residence
Day scholar 246 30 16-38 0.622
Resident in hostel 209 29 20-40

Permanent residence
Rural 342 29 16-40 0.542
Urban 012 30 21-38

Education of father
10 years of schooling 173 29 20-39
12 years of schooling 169 30 20-40 0.611
Graduation or above 112 29 16-38

41
Variables N Median Range p value
Education of mother
10 years of schooling 126 29 20-38
12 years of schooling 191 30 20-40 0.311
Graduation or above 136 30 16-40

Occupation of father
Govt.employee 68 29 16-37
Other type of employment 325 30 20-40 0.273
Abroad 34 28 17-40
No job 28 30 21-37

Occupation of mother
Govt.employee 42 29 24-35 0.941
Other type of employment 99 29 21-39
Abroad 12 30 17-34
No job 302 30 16-40

Family structure
Nuclear 430 30 16-40 0.637
Extended 25 29 24-35

Monthly household income (INR)

<5000 101 29 20-40
5001-10,000 88 30 20-37
10,001-25,000 149 29 17-38 0.901
25,001-50,000 73 30 16-38
>50,001 43 30 22-40

Students self-supported 28 31.50 17-38 0.022*

others 426 29 16-40
*p value significant at the level of 0.05

3.2.1.2 Association of pattern of usage of SNS with self esteem

In the respective study, it was found out that there was no statistically significant

difference in self-esteem among the users and non-users of social networking sites.

Therefore, further analysis had been done to find out the association of difference in the

pattern of usage with self-esteem. Pattern of usage includes which SNS are being used,

how emerging adults access SNS, the time and frequency spent on SNS, activities or

communication patterns and the average number of friends on SNS for an emerging adult.

42
The analysis depicted the fact that even though most of the students were using SNS

during evening and night time, self-esteem was more or less similar inspite of the

maximum used time in a day.

Apart from the above mentioned results, it was found that college students had been using

different gadgets and locations for accessing SNS. Among them, those who were using

laptops for accessing SNS showed statistically significant high self-esteem with p value

of 0.017. Besides that, the emerging adults with high self-esteem were reported to be

accessing SNS from home (p=0.004). The usage of various SNS and the different modes

of communication through SNS were found not to be associated with self-esteem in the

study.

Table 3.10: Association of SNS usage status with self-esteem

Variable N Median Range p value
Registration on SNS
SNS users 345 29 16-40 0.649
SNS non users 110 30 22-37

Devices used for accessing@

Handheld devices 311 29 16-40 0.564
Not using handheld devices 34 30 23-38
Using computers 141 30 20-40 0.066
Not using computers 203 29 16-40

Commonly SNS accessing location

Home 319 30 16-40 0.004**
Not from home 26 27 21-38
*p < 0.05, **p<0.01, @ handheld devices include smartphones and tablets; computers
include laptops and desktops.

In this study results showed that there is no statistical association between self-esteem and

the time spent on the SNS. Although self-esteem was more or less similar with number of

friends in the virtual world, those who were reported to have acquaintances of less than

200 showed high self-esteem (p=0.04).

43
3.2.1.4 Association of self-esteem with extent of interaction in the real world

According to the study, the number of friends in the real world and interaction with

friends in the real world were not statistically associated with the self-esteem of the

emerging adults.

3.2.1.5 Awareness about the credibility of information and bad experiences on SNS
with self-esteem of the emerging adults

The results of the analysis portrayed that self-esteem of the emerging adults was

statistically not associated with bad experiences on SNS. Those who had high self-esteem

harmonized with the statement that all the information on SNS was credible. The

emerging adults with high self-esteem claimed that inappropriate behaviours on SNS

should be handled legally (p=0.016) or reported to near ones (p = 0.033).

3.2.2 Association of predictor variables with social capital

3.2.2.1 Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents with social capital

Bivariate analysis described a statistically significant difference in the generation of

bonding social capital with age. As per the analysis, bonding social capital was higher

among those who were less than 19 years of age (p= 0.029). The education and the

occupation of father were found to be significantly associated with generation of bonding

social capital (p=0.037 and p=0.026 respectively). Similarly, there was a significant

difference in the monthly house hold income and bonding social capital (p=0.028)

Accordingly, there was a significant difference noted in bridging social capital between

male and female emerging adults. Bridging social capital was found to be more among

males (p= 0.010). The occupation of the father and monthly household income were also

found to be associated with bridging social capital (p =0.041, p= 0.028). Table 3.11

explains the association of socio-demographic characteristics with social capital.

44
Table 3.11: Association of socio-demographic characteristics with social capital

Bonding social capital Bridging social capital

Variables N Median P value Median (range) P value
(range)
Age
<19 119 19(7-29) 0.029* 26(10-35) 0.389
>=19 225 18(7-35) 25(7-35)

Sex
Male 188 19(7-35) 0.499 26(7-35) 0.010*
Female 156 18(7-31) 25(7-35)

Course undergoing
Arts & Science 177 18(7-35) 0.085 25(7-35) 0.361
Engineering 134 19(9-33) 26(10-35)
Modern Medicine 33 19(8-27) 25(11-35)

Current residence
Day scholar 180 18(7-35) 0.386 25(7-35) 0.115
Hostel 164 18(8-33) 26(10-36)

Permanent residence
Rural 250 18(7-35) 0.527 25(7-35) 0.592
Urban 86 18.50(7-31) 26(7-35)
* p <0.05

3.2.2.3 SNS usage pattern with social capital

Although the generation of bonding social capital was not linked with engaging in a

unique kind of SNS, different modes of communication activities on the SNS were

observed to be significantly associated with bonding and bridging social capital. The

activities on SNS were made in two categories as emerging adults who were using more

number of communication activities and less number of communication activities. Table

3.12: describes the association of modes of communication on SNS with social capital.

In addition to communication activities, bridging social capital was found to be connected

with the manipulation of various types of SNS. The difference in the generation of

bridging social capital was statistically significant with the usage of Twitter (p =0.001),

45
WhatsApp (p=0.029) and Google plus (p=0.004). Bridging social capital was reported to

be high among the emerging adults who had started using SNS at younger ages (<16

years, p=0.003).

Table3.12: Association of various communication activities on SNS with bonding

social capital.

Bonding social capital Bridging social capital

Variables N Median(range) P value Median(range) P value
Communication activities#
Less activities 117 17(7-27) 0.002** 24.50(7-34) 0.004**
More activities 228 19(7-35) 26(3-35)
Age of initiation
<16 126 19(7-35) 0.116 27(7-35) 0.003**
>=16 216 18(7-35) 25(7-35)
*p<0.05, **p<0.01; Activities-commenting, liking, messaging, status updates, profile
updates, reading posts, posting videos, photos: less activities (<4), more activities (>=4)

3.2.2.4 Extent of usage of SNS with social capital

Table 3.13: describes the association of social capital with the extent of usage of SNS.

Although the total number of friends on the SNS was not related with the bonding social

capital, the time spending on SNS and close friends on SNS had an association with the

bonding social capital. It was noticed that those who were spending more minutes during

holidays were likely to have more bonding social capital (p=0.019).

Similar to bonding social capital, bridging social capital was also statistically associated

with the time spent on the SNS. Furthermore, Bridging social capital was reported to be

higher among students who were spending 120 minutes or more on SNS during usual

holidays (p=0.008). It was also found that those emerging adults who were spending more

than 60 minutes in a day on SNS have more bridging as well as bonding capital. But this

relation was not statistically significant. Together with that, bridging social capital was

found to be more among emerging adults who had more friends on the SNS (p=0.001)

46
Table 3.13: Association SNS pattern of usage with social capital.

Bonding social capital Bridging social capital

Variable N Median P value Median P value
(range) (range)
Time spending on SNS (minutes)
Usual holidays
<120 124 18(7-30) 0.019* 25(7-34) 0.008**
>=120 220 19(7-35) 26(7-35)
Usual working day
<30 98 18(7-28) 0.240 25(7-34) 0.132
>=30 246 18(7-35) 26(7-35)
Time spends per day
<60 18(7-35) 0.253 25(7-35) 0.110
>=60 19(7-33) 26(7-35)

Frequency of usage (times)

Last working day
<2 193 18(7-33) 0.035* 25(7-35) 0.010*
>=2 140 19(7-35) 26(10-35)
Last Sunday
<2 168 18(7-35) 0.035* 25(7-35) 0.004**
>=2 164 19(7-31) 26(10-35)

Number of friends in virtual world

Total number of friends
<437 172 18(7-29) 0.105 25(7-35) 0.001**
>=437 172 19(7-35) 26(10-35)
Close friends
<50 129 18(8-28) 0.036* 25(11-35) 0.007**
>=50 215 19(7-35) 26(7-35)
Acquaintances
<200 173 18(7-35) 0.807 25(7-35) 0.012*
>=200 171 18(7-33) 26(7-35)
Online only friends
<10 146 18(7-29) 0.537 25(7-35) 0.002*
>=10 198 18.50(7-35) 26(7-35)
*p<0.05, **p<0.01

3.2.2.5 Association of extent of interaction in the real world with social capital

As per the bivariate analysis, bonding capital is higher for those who have more friends in

the real world but it is not statistically significant. However, the interaction with real life

friends showed significant association with bonding social capital (p =0.034).

47
In case of bridging social capital, those who were claimed to be spending too much time

on SNS possessed statistically significant higher bridging social capital (p = 0.007). In

contrary to bonding social capital it was also revealed that those who had less number of

friends in real world have more bridging social capital than others. But the association

was not statistically significant.

Table 3.14: Association of extent of interaction in the real world with social capital

Bonding social capital Bridging social capital

Variable N Median P value Median P value
(range) (range)
Spending too much time on SNS
Yes 129 19(10-33) 0.067 26(10-35) 0.007**
No 215 18(7-35) 25(7-35)

Friends in real world

<20 124 18(7-30) 0.500 26(11-35) 0.136
>=20 220 19(7-35) 25(7-35)

Interaction with friends

in real world (N=340)
Always 99 18(7-35) 0.034* 26(11-35) 0.626
Frequently 177 19(7-31) 26(7-35)
Seldom 64 16(7-29) 25(7-34)
*p<0.05, **p<0.01

3.3 Results of multivariate analysis

Binary logistic regression was done to find out the significant association of predictor

variables with self-esteem and social capital when adjusting for other variables. The

outcome variables were converted in to two categories above and below median in order

to execute a binary logistic regression. Bridging social capital was found to be

significantly associated with predictor variables when adjusted for other factors.

Table3.14 depicts the results of multivariate analysis.

48
Table 3.15: Relation between bridging social capital and pattern of usage of SNS-
results of binary logistic regression analysis@

variables OR CI p value
Friends in SNS
<437 1
>=437 1.811 1.137-2.885 0.012*

Activities in
SNS#
Less 1
more 1.684 1.043-2.720 0.033*

Friends in real
world
<20 1
>=20 .498 0.307-0.810 0.005**
@Variables included in the model were number of friends in SNS, number of friends in
real-world, number of online only friends and activities in SNS, time spend on SNS; *
p<0.05; ** p< 0.01

The results were showing that bridging social capital is 1.8 times likely to be higher for

those who have more friends in SNS. Those who were engaging in SNS with more than

four types of communication activities were 1.7 times likely to have higher bridging

social capital than others. In case of friends in real world, those who reported less number

of friends likely to have more bridging capital.

49
 CHAPTER 4

DISCUSSION

This chapter depicts, in detail, the study findings and their implications comparing those

with that of the previous studies. The significant associations are discussed in detail.

Towards the end of this section, the strengths and limitations of the study are also

discussed.

The first objective of this study was to assess the pattern of usage of SNS among the

emerging adults. The analysis of this study shed visions into many interesting facts about

the usage of SNS.

Although three fourth of the respondents were reported to be using SNS (75.8%), the

percentage was slightly less that of the other studies. Evidently, the studies done in India

reported that more than 80 percent of the emerging adults were spending time on SNS

(Manjunatha, 2013). The studies from the Western countries reported that between 85-95

percent of emerging adults were fond of using SNS (Steinfeild et al., 2008). The possible

reason might be the age, socio demographic characteristics and cultural differences. The

majority of the related studies were carried out in big cities and urban areas. This study

was done in a small district in Kerala, where 95 percent of the areas were under the rural

jurisdiction (Census, 2011). It might be the reason for having less SNS users than that of

the other studies. Moreover, In order to compare the findings there were no published

studies available describing the pattern of usage of SNS among emerging adults in the

context of Kerala.

4.1 SNS usage pattern

From the study, it was found out that male students were accessing SNS more than that of

the female students. As a whole, more than half of the emerging adults were accessing

50
SNS via smart phones. These results suggesting the penetration of smart phones into the

emerging adulthood population and how these devices helped overcome the hurdles in

accessing SNS. These findings were in consistent with other studies reporting the smart

phone penetration eases the SNS accessibility (Wu et al., 2013;Watkins et.al.,2012; Youth

survey in India, 2014).

The present study found that Facebook was the most browsed SNS among the emerging

adults. The findings were in confirmation with the studies done in India (Manjunatha,

2013; Youth survey in India, 2014).

4.1.1. Extent of usage of SNS

The time spent on Social Networking Sites varied with sex, weekdays and weekends. On

an average, an emerging adult spent 60 minutes on SNS per day (120 minutes in a usual

weekend day and 30 minutes in usual week days). These findings were in accord with the

report published by The Internet and mobile association of India 2014. Being reported,

young adults spent more than 300 minutes on SNS on an average week (Internet and

mobile association of India, 2014). Youth survey in India (2014) recorded emerging

adults in India spent an average 30 to 60 minutes on SNS per day. On the flip side, as per

the study done in China, the SNS usage among the emerging adults was ranging from 30

minutes to 120 minutes per day (Chang et.al., 2014). At the same time, in our study the

emerging adults were found to be accessing SNS several times a day with an average of 2

times per day.

The results of our study brought the fact that males were spending more time on SNS.

Over and above, the motivational factors and concern about privacy matters might cause

the difference in the usage of SNS between male and female students (Shin, 2010).

51
Paradoxically, the Youth survey in India (2014) reported that 72 percent of Indian

students were accessing more than one form of SNS. It could also be elucidated that about

61 percent of emerging adults were accessing more than one form of SNS. Among the 61

percent, around 74 percent of male students had accounts on more than one SNS. Even

though in total it was 61 percent less as per youth survey, in case of male students it was

almost similar to the findings of the present study.

From our study it is also noted that the maximum time consumption on the SNS in a day

was concentrated after 4PM to 12 AM with a peak noted at the 7PM to 9 PM. But,

Sponcil and Gitimu (2012) concluded in their study which was conducted in USA that the

maximum consumption time varied between 9 PM to 12 AM (Sponcil and Gitimu, 2012).

4.1.2 Communication activities on SNS

While taking an account on the communication pattern of the samples, reading posts and

liking posts of others were the most reported activities among the emerging adults. Less

than half of the respondents said they were using SNS for status and profile updates,

commenting and posting videos or photos. Majority affirmed that they had doubts about

the credibility of information on SNS. This implied that they were conscious about the

information on SNS. It could be assumed that the emerging adults might be using these

social tools as a medium to get rid of their boredom and loneliness (Wilson et al., 2012).

4.1.3 Network size

The size of the network varied greatly among male and female students. The present

study found out that on an average, an SNS user had 437 friends. Contrastingly, the

studies from other countries reported around an average of 150 to 400 friends (Jagero and

Muriithi, 2013; Sponcil and Gitimu, 2012). In addition, Youth survey in India (2014)

52
described an average number of friends in SNS was 120. The reason for this difference

might be the fact that the present study counted the emerging adults‘ total number of

friends in all SNS they reported to be using while, majority of other studies focused only

on one form of SNS, especially Face book or MySpace.

The total number of friends on SNS was categorized in to three as discussed in

methodology such as close friends, acquaintances and online only friends. Even then, the

average number of friends in all these categories had been found to be more among

males. Male students reported more number of ‗online only friends‘ than their female

counter parts. This result implied the fact that male students were using these networks

not only for maintaining relationships but also for establishing new relationships

(Valkenberg and Peter, 2007). The average number of social friends for an SNS user was

reported to be 35 in our study. From the analysis it was found that the number of friends

and contacts for an emerging adult was more on SNS than the same in real life. These

findings were also supported by a cross-national comparison study done in India and

USA. The aforesaid study concluded that Indian students had more online friends than

American students (Marshall et al., 2008).

4.2 SNS’ Influence on Self-esteem

Ellison et al. found in their study conducted in Michigan state university that emerging

adults with lower self-esteem may benefit more from SNS than others with high self-

esteem (Ellison et al., 2007). In our study we found that the usage and non-usage of SNS

were not related with the self-esteem of the emerging adults. In the further analysis, it was

evident that the self-esteem of the emerging adults was not influenced by the difference in

the pattern of usage of SNS. Yet, it was in contrast with the studies which reviewed that

SNS enhanced the self-esteem (Ellison et al., 2007).

53
A study done in Netherland uncovered the fact that the frequency of feedback of others

on one‘s profile had an influence on the increasing or decreasing self-esteem (Valkenburg

et al., 2006). Manago et al. (2013) concluded that the number of friends in SNS is

positively associated with self-esteem. Likewise, a study conducted in New York found

that the self-presentation on SNS enhanced the self-esteem (Mehdizadeh, 2010). But the

present study was not in accord with these results. As per this study, the number of

friends on SNS as well as the number of friends in real life was not associated with self-

esteem. These results were also in contrast with the studies which reported that more

number of face to face friends were associated with high self-esteem (Ryan et al., 1994;

Zywica and Danowski, 2008).

Even though the present study couldn‘t trace the Pattern of usage of SNS and the

difference in self-esteem among the users, those who had high self-esteem claimed that

all the information on SNS was credible. This is in agreement with a qualitative study

conducted in USA found that the people with high self-esteem were likely to report

positive aspects of the SNS (Denti et al., 2012; Krämer and Winter, 2008).

Our findings supported the findings from Sweden and Germany that SNS usage were not

related with self-esteem among the emerging adults (Krämer and Winter, 2008). A major

problem inherent in the measure of self-esteem was found to be the extent at which self-

reports were influenced by self-presentational concerns (Buhrmester et al., 2011). This

might be one of reasons why the present study results seldom supported that SNS usage

were influencing self-esteem.

4.3 SNS’ influence on generation of social capital

It could be agreed that social relationship played a beneficial role in the maintenance of

psychological well-being (Kawachi and Berkman, 2001). In the light of the present study,

the pattern of usage of SNS seemed to be influencing the generation of bonding as well as

54
bridging capital. The thorough observations, at the same time, convinced that the SNS

usage was closely related to the generation of bridging social capital (Steinfield et al.,

2008). The present study supported the fact that SNS help in the generation of bridging

social capital apart from assisting the emerging adults to maintain relationship with large

heterogeneous type network and explained why bridging capital was more in them. It was

also evidenced that those emerging adults with large network were likely to have more

bridging capital. Our findings were in agreement with Ellison et al. (2007) that SNS usage

was strongly associated with bridging social capital (Steinfield et al., 2008). Yet another

interesting aspect of the present study was that in case of real world, the bridging capital

was noticed to be more for those who had less number of friends that was in contrast with

the number of friends in the virtual world. In fact, no studies reported such findings

anywhere in the world. Form the analysis it is evident that those who reported less

number of friends in real life had more friends in SNS. This might be the reason for this

finding. In short, these results were substantiating the significance of SNS in social

capital formation.

To our knowledge, there were no published studies in India about SNS and social capital.

The findings of the study were similar to the studies conducted in the developed nations.

Unlike the other studies, the present study established the fact that the time spent in an

average day on SNS was not related with the generation of any kind of social capital

(Ellison et al., 2007; Phua and Jin, 2011). Despite that, when compared with the amount

of time spent on usual holidays and weekdays, it was quite observable that those who

were spending more than 120 minutes on holidays had more bridging capital. Also, the

study found that male students had more bridging social capital than the female ones. The

outcome of the study brought about the trend that males were spending longer on SNS

and their total number of friends on SNS was also higher. The number of friends and the

55
time spent on SNS were directly related to the generation of social capital (Ellison et al.,

2007, Williams 2006). Moreover, the emerging adults who were immersed with SNS with

more number of activities were found to have more social capital than others. Similarly,

bridging capital was also found to be more for those who were using SNS from younger

ages. There were also evidences that those who initiated SNS in the younger years had

more friends than others. Furthermore, a longitudinal study done in USA concluded that

SNS help one widen the relationships (Steinfield et al., 2008). Perhaps, it might be the

obvious reason for high bridging capital.

It was further identified that the number of friends on SNS and the time spent on SNS

were not related with the bonding social capital. But, on the other hand, those who were

dealing SNS with more number of activities and those who were reported more close

friends in SNS had more bonding social capital. This was suggesting that emerging adults

were using SNS for maintaining and interacting with close relationships and in touch with

family (Youth survey in India, 2014).

4.4 Self-esteem and social capital

The study done by Steinfield et al. (2008) claimed that there exists a relationship between

self-esteem and social capital formation. The study further mentioned that emerging

adults with high self-esteem are free to maintain relationship with weak ties and therefore

their bridging capital may also be high (Steinfield et al., 2008). We couldn‘t find any

correlation between self-esteem and social capital in our study. So our findings are in

contrast with the above mentioned study results. The median score for self-esteem is

relatively higher for Steinfield et al. (2008) and they had used only seven components

from Rosenberg self-esteem scale when compared with the present study. These might

have contributed to the difference in correlations.

56
4.5 Limitations of the study

Genuinely, the present study had some limitations. First of all, the data were collected

through self-reported questionnaire. Therefore, the participants‘ responses might be

subjected to biased responses and incorrect estimates. The second one was that the study

captured the pattern of usage of SNS in the areas of time spent on usual holidays and

working days, the number of friends and the frequency of accessing SNS. This would

have been better if we have done a validation on a subsample. Since it was a cross-

sectional study, a causal relationship could not been established.

4.6 Strengths of the study

The data were collected from the students of various streams with an aim to represent the

emerging adulthood population in the Idukki district. Another major strength of the

present study was the self-esteem and social capital, the outcome variables, which were

assessed with validated scales. Well above all, the data collection and analysis were done

entirely by a single investigator to lessen bias and errors. High response rate was another

notable strength of the present study.

57
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Ultimately, among the study respondents, about three-fourth of emerging adults accessed

SNS. Among them, half accessed them via their smart phones. There was also a

difference in access among men and women. Along with that, the study could

differentiate a high usage of the social networking sites- the future media for

communication. Surely, the Social Network platforms were emerging as an important

place for the youth to share their thoughts, through which they could gain some benefits.

The same had been discussed as social capital in the study. As a net result, the hike in the

number of online friends suggested an emergence of virtual society. Interestingly, this

trend was not much different from other countries. Also, the social network interactions

were not contributing to the self-esteem among the study participants. This suggested that

the importance of social networking site usage was not directly contributing to self-

esteem. However, the association with social capital was very interesting. The utilization

of social networking sites contributed to social capital formation among the emerging

adults. This was very much true for bridging capital rather than the bonding.

In addition to what had been identified, the prolong usage of social networks suggested

that the emerging adults were more influenced by the modern media, which ultimately

affect their interactions and socialization process, enabling them in their social capital

formation.

In reality, the study was conducted timely as the new media were slowly taking over the

interactions among the emerging adults. The study would be an initial one, conducted

among the emerging adults in the state of Kerala. Hopefully, this necessitated the policy

makers to shift their attention to the new merging media for letting them reach the youth.

58
As such, the common problems found in Kerala such as drug addiction, life style

diseases, mental disorders and other problems among the youth might be approached

through these media. Future studies might focus on general population and other

dimensions of social networking sites.

In an ultimate analysis, there were a number of studies published in the area of usage of

TV in 1980s. Similar studies were not being conducted on the social network usage in the

recent past. Hence, this needs to be given paramount importance in the near future.

59
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 ANNEXURE I

Table I. Summary of final sample selection procedure

Sl no College Total number of students Number of respondents

code from each college

Male Female Total Male Female Total

1 A* 12 38 50 4 11 15

2 B* 2 48 50 1 14 15

3 C* - 50 50 - 15 15

4 D* 157 99 256 45 28 73

5 E# 133 146 279 38 42 80

6 F# 17 51 68 5 15 20

7 G# 79 67 146 22 18 40

8 H@ 64 124 188 17 33 50

9 I@ 50 39 89 14 11 25

10 J@ 187 404 591 53 114 167

TOTAL 701 1066 1767 199 301 500

* Modern medicine (includes students from medical college, nursing college and dental
college), # students from arts and science stream, @ students from engineering stream.
 ANNEXURE II

Achutha Menon Centre for Health Science Studies,

Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology,
Thiruvananthapuram- 695011, Kerala

Sl. NO:

ID NO:

PATTERN OF USAGE OF SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES AND ITS

INFLUENCE ON SELF-ESTEEM AND SOCIAL CAPITAL FORMATION
AMONG EMERGING ADULTS: A STUDY IN IDUKKI DISTRICT, KERALA

INFORMATION SHEET

Hello, I am Athulya Thomas, Master of Public Health (MPH) scholar at Achutha Menon
Centre for Health Science Studies, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and
Technology, Thiruvananthapuram. As a part of my curriculum, I am conducting a study
to find out the influence of social networking sites usage on the development of self -
esteem and social capital formation among emerging adults. I request you to spend some
time & participate in the study, which will take 20-30 minutes time. For the study, I have
designed a questionnaire asking your responses on the pattern of usage of social
networking sites, self-esteem and social capital.

There might not be any direct benefit for you individually by participating in this study, it
is possible that the findings of the study will enhance scientific knowledge and may
enable to develop policies related to young adults. I therefore, request you to participate
in this study. Your participation in the study is purely voluntary and you can withdraw
from the study at any point of time, and refusal to participate will not involve any form of
penalty.

I would like to assure you that all the information shared with me will be kept
confidential and will only be used for research purpose. Your personal identity will not
reveal to anyone. If you have any questions about this study, you may contact me through
the following details. For additional queries, you may contact the Member Secretary,
Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC) of SCTIMST.

Researcher Member Secretary (IEC)

Athulya Thomas, Dr. Mala Ramanathan,
MPH Scholar, Institutional Ethical
Committe
AMCHSS, SCTIMST secretary, SCTIMST.
Mobile: 9447589596 Phone: 0471- 2524234
Email: thomasathulya@gmail.com mala@sctimst.ac.in

Thanking you.

Athulya Thomas
 SL NO:

ID NO:

CONSENT FORM

I have read the details in the information sheet. The purpose of the study and my
involvement in the study has been explained to me. I understood that the participation in
this study is purely voluntary. In addition, I understand that my identity and personal
information will be kept confidential. I knew that I can withdraw my participation at any
time during the interview without any explanation. I have also been informed who should
be contacted for further clarifications.

I, …………………………… agree to participate in the study.

Place: ...........................

Date: ........................... Signature: .................

Name of the researcher: ……………………

Signature of researcher: ..............................

ANNEXURE III
 ANNEXURE IV

Achutha Menon Centre for Health Science Studies,

Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology,
Thiruvananthapuram- 695011, Kerala.
PATTERN OF USAGE OF SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES AND ITS INFLUENCE
ON SELF-ESTEEM AND SOCIAL CAPITAL FORMATION AMONG EMERGING
ADULTS

QUESTIONNAIRE

SERIAL NUMBER :

PARTICIPANT IDENTIFICATION NUMBER:

NAME OF THE COLLEGE: ……………………………………………………………..

PLACE: …………………………………………

DATE OF COMPLETING THE QUESTIONNAIRE (dd/mm/yy): _ _/_ _/_ _ _ _

*( to be filled by the principal investigator)

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO FILL THE QUESTIONNAIRE:

1. Please read all the questions and answer each question by a tick mark () as your response
in the most appropriate box
2. Write your answers in words in the blank spaces provided if needed.
3. Do not need to write your name on the questionnaire.
4. Please see the instruction column provided for specific instructions to particular questions.
3. After filling the questionnaire, please check and ensure that you have answered all the
questions.

Page 1 of 9
 SECTION A
SL QUESTIONS RESPONSES INSTRUCTIONS
NO:
I SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
1 What is your age (in completed
years) Years

2 Sex 1. Male
2. Female

3 Present course of study Select one from the

Course of study Course of study: options provided
[1] MBBS and fill the space in
[2] BA Current course year the response
[3] BSc Column.
[4] BDS
[5] B.Tech
[6]Others
(specify)

4 Present residence 1.Home 2.Hostel

5 Residence (native place)
[1]Village
[2]Town Residence(native place) :
[3]Municipality
[4]Corporation
[5]Don’t know

6 Information related to parents

Education Occupation Father’s education: Select one from the

[1]-no formal [1]- options provided
education government Father’s occupation: and fill the space
[2]-primary employee provided in the
level [2]-non- response Column.
[3]-higher government Mother’s education:
secondary employee
[4]- [3]-working Mother’s occupation:
graduation abroad
[5]-post [4]-not
graduation engaged in
and above any job

Page 2 of 9
7 Family structure: 1. Nuclear family
Nuclear: parents and siblings only 2. Extended family
Extended: parents, siblings,
grandparents or any others.
8 Family income 1.<5000/month

2 .5001-10000/month

3.10001-25000/month

4. 25001-50000/month

5. >50001/month
9 On whom are you depend for daily 1. Income by self
expenses?
2. Father’s income

3. Mother’s income

4. Scholorships

5.Others
(specify)…………..
…………………………….
II GENERAL INFORMATION –SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES (SNS) MEMBERSHIP
Social networking sites (SNS): Social networking sites are web-based services that allow
individuals to create a public profile, to create a list of users with whom to share connections, and
interact with other users with different forms of communication methods like chatting,
messaging, sharing photos and videos.

…………………
Are you registered with any of the
10 SNS?
(such as face book, twitter, 1. Yes 2. No
LinkedIn, Google +, whats-app,
others)
11 Have you ever used any of the 1. Yes 2. No
SNS?
12 Have you used any of the SNS in 1. Yes 2. No
the past 12 months?
13 Have you used any of the SNS in If yes, please go
the last 30 days? to14.
1. Yes 2. No If no, please go to
38.

Page 3 of 9
14 Please select the SNS which you Multiple options
have been using for 1 month or 1. Face book ( yes / no) can select.
more 2. Twitter ( yes / no)
1. Face book 3. Whats-app ( yes / no)
2. Twitter 4. Google + ( yes / no)
3. Whats-app 5. LinkedIn ( yes / no)
4. Google + 6. Others (specify)
5. LinkedIn ……………….
6. Others (specify ……………………………….
……………………………..
15 How old were you when first used
SNS (age in years)? years
III GENERAL INFORMATION –SNS USAGE
1. Smart phones Multiple options
16 Please specify the devices you are ( yes / no) can select.
using for accessing SNS 2. Tablets ( yes / no)
3. Lap tops ( yes / no)
4. Desktops ( yes / no)
5. Others
1 ………………………
2 ………………………
3 ………………………
17 From where do you get access to 1. College ( yes / no) Multiple options
SNS? 2. Home ( yes / no) can select.
3. Hostel ( yes / no)
4. Internet café ( yes / no)
5. Others
1 ………………………….
2 ………………………….
18 Who is your internet service Multiple options
provider? (BSNL/Airtel/Vodafone ……………………………. can select.
etc )
19 In a month, how much do you
approximately spend on SNS usage …………………Rs./month
charges?
IV SNS USAGE PATTERN
20 How many hours did you usually
spend on SNS on holidays? ……hours……………minutes
21 How many hours did you spend on
SNS last Sunday? ……hours……………minutes
22 How many hours did you usually
spend in SNS on working days? ……hours……………minutes
23 How many hours did you spend in
SNS on last working day? ……hours……………minutes

Page 4 of 9
24 How many times did you use SNS
last working day? ………………………………
……
25 How many times did you use SNS
last Sunday? ………………………………
……

26 During last three days, What were 1. Chatting More than one
the activities you did on SNS? 2. Messaging answer you can
3. reading timeline posts select
4. Sharing photos, videos
5. Profile updates
6. Status updates
7. Liking wall posts
8. Commenting
9. group messaging
10.Others(specify)
1 ……………………………
2 ……………………………
3 …………………………
27 When is your maximum SNS usage 1. Early Morning
hours concentrated on weekdays? 2. Morning
Early morning(12.00am-6.00am) 3. Afternoon
Morning (6.00am- 12.00pm) 4. Evening
Afternoon(12.00pm-4.00pm) 5. Night
Evening (4.00pm-7.00pm) 6. Late night
Night (7.00pm-9.00am)
Late night (9.00pm-12.00am)
28 If you are using
How many friends do you have in multiple sites, add
SNS? number of friends
in each sites and
(please confirm with SNS profile if then report.
possible)
29 Categorize the number of friends (please confirm
you have in SNS according to the 1.Close friends with SNS profile if
following categories possible)
2.Acquaintances
 Close friends: best friends,
very good friends, good 3.Online only friends
friends, family, relatives.
 Acquaintances:
schoolmates, college mates,
met only once friends.
 Online only friends: Do not
know in real life.

Page 5 of 9
30 Do you think the information 1. Yes 2. No If yes, go to 32
provided in the SNS are always If no, go to 31
true? 3. Don’t know

31 What all are the commonly seen 1. Profiles

fake information in SNS that are 2. Status updates
uploaded by the users? 3. Personal information
4. Don’t know
32 During the past three months, did If yes, go to 33
you experience any form of 1. Yes 2. No If no, go to 34
inappropriate behaviors through
SNS? 3. Don’t know

33 How did you react to that 1. Removed the person

situation? from friend list
2. Reported to near ones
3. Reported to service
provider
4. Legally complained
5. Ignored
34 During past three months, did you
feel that you are spending too 1. Yes 2. No
much time in SNS?
35 During past three months, did If yes, go to 36
anybody told you that you are 1. Yes 2. No If no, go to 38
using too much time in SNS?
36 Who told you that? 1.Father
2.Mother
3.Teachers
4.Friends
5.Others (specify)
……………………….
……………………….

37 What was your reaction? 1.Stopped SNS usage

2.Reduced SNS usage
3.Increased SNS usage
5.Ignored
38 During last three months, did you If coded 2 or 3, go
use internet facilities for any other 1. Yes 2. No to 40
purposes?
3.Don’t know

Page 6 of 9
39 If yes, what was the purpose?
1. Study purposes
2. Browsing
3. Mailing
4.Others (specify)
1 ……………………….
2 ……………………….
3 ……………………….

40 How many intimate friends do you

have in real world?

41 How often do you interact with 1. Always

your intimate friends? 2. Frequently
3. Seldom
4. Rarely

42 Why you are not using SNS? 1. 1.I am not interested in If 2 coded in
having an account in SNS. Question numbers
2. I think it is useless 10, 11 12, or 13.
3. I am afraid about misuse
of information in SNS
4. My parents not allowed
using SNS.
5. I have no time to spend
on SNS
6. I do not like to disclose
my personal information.
7. others (specify)
………………………………
………………………………
………………………………

Page 7 of 9
 SECTION B

General Instructions:

1. Please read the questions and put a tick mark ( ) on the appropriate response column as
your response.

SECTION B.1

SL QUESTIONS RESPONSES
NO
strongly Agree Disagree Strongly
agree disagree
1 On the whole, I am satisfied with myself

2 At times, I think I am no good at all.

3 I feel that I have a number of good

qualities.
4 I am able to do things as well as most
other people.
5 I feel I do not have much to be proud of.

6 At times, I think I am no good at all.

7 I feel that I have a number of good

qualities.
8 I wish I could have more respect for
myself.
9 All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am
a failure.
10 I take a positive attitude toward myself.

Page 8 of 9
 SECTION C

SL QUESTIONS RESPONSES
NO
1 2 3 4 5.
strongly disagree Neutral agree Strongly
disagree agree
1 Interacting with people online makes me
interested in things that happen outside of
my town.
2 Interacting with people online/offline makes
me want to try new things.

3 Interacting with people online/offline makes

me interested in what people unlike me are
thinking.
4 Talking with people online/offline makes me
curious about other places in the world.
5 Interacting with people online/offline makes
me feel like part of a larger community.
6 Interacting with people online/offline makes
me feel connected to the bigger picture.
7 Interacting with people online/offline gives
me new people to talk to.
8 There are several people online/offline I
trust to help solve my problems.
9 There is someone online/offline I can turn to
for advice about making very important
decisions.
10 When I feel lonely, there are several people
online/offline I can talk to.
11 If I needed an emergency loan, I know
someone online/offline I can turn to.
12 The people I interact with online/offline
would put their reputation on the line for me.

13 The people I interact with online/offline

would be good job references for me.
14 People I interact with online/offline would
help me fight an injustice.

Page 9 of 9
ANNEXURE V
ANNEXURE VI
ANNEXURE VII