106
1, MARCH 2005
A Review of Stator Fault Monitoring
Techniques of Induction Motors
Arfat Siddique, Member, IEEE, G. S. Yadava, and Bhim Singh, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract—Condition monitoring of induction motors is a fast
emerging technology for online detection of incipient faults. It
avoids unexpected failure of a critical system. Approximately
30–40% of faults of induction motors are stator faults. This paper
presents a comprehensive review of various stator faults, their
causes, detection parameters/ techniques, and latest trends in
the condition monitoring technology. It is aimed at providing
a broad perspective on the status of stator fault monitoring to
researchers and application engineers using induction motors. A
list of 183 research publications on the subject is appended for
quick reference.
Index Terms—Fault monitoring, induction motors, mainte-
nance, stator monitoring.
I. INTRODUCTION
B ECAUSE of their wider applications in electromechanical
energy conversion, mainly due to their low cost, reason-
ably small size, ruggedness, low maintenance, and operation
with an easily available power supply, induction motors are the
main workhorse of industrial prime movers.
Although induction machines are reliable, they are subjected
to some undesirable stresses, causing them some faults resulting
in failures [1], [11], [12], [21]. Researchers have studied a va-
riety of machine- faults as winding faults, unbalanced stator
and rotor, broken rotor bars, eccentricity, and bearing faults [7],
[11], [21]. The need for condition monitoring has increased re-
cently because of the widespread use of automation and conse-
quent reduction in direct man-machine interface to supervise the
system operation. Condition monitoring is the graphical trend
of the machine parameters for the purpose of detection, anal-
ysis, and correction of the machine problems before the failure
takes place. It is used for increasing machine availability and
performance, reducing consequential damage, increasing ma-
chine life, reducing spare parts inventories, and reducing break-
down maintenance [2]–[6], [8].
Several studies have shown that 30%–40% of induction motor
failures are due to stator winding breakdown [1], [116]. The
IEEE and the Electric Power Research Institute sponsored a
most authoritative study [1]. Some 7500 motors were exten-
sively surveyed and the results showed stator faults to be respon-
Manuscript received May 20, 2003; revised October 28, 2003. Paper no. TEC-
00126-2003.
A. Siddique and G. S. Yadava are with the Industrial Tribology, Machine
Dynamics and Maintenance Engineering Centre, Indian Institute of Tech-
nology, New Delhi 110016, India (e-mail: arfatsiddique@ieee.org; gsyadava@
itmmec.iitd.ernet.in).
B. Singh is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology, New Delhi 110016, India (e-mail: bsingh@ee.iitd.ernet.in).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TEC.2004.837304
0885-8969/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 20, NO.
sible for 37% of the failures. Therefore, implementing predic-
tive maintenance on motors for stator faults requires diagnostic
tests sensitive to the stator winding condition.
This paper aims at presenting a comprehensive survey on
the subject of condition monitoring of stator faults of induc-
tion motors. A number of publications [1]–[183] have been
reviewed and classified in six categories. The first category
of Publications [1]–[60] is on general texts, review papers,
technical reports, standards, and patents, while the second
category [61]–[63] is on classification/types of stator faults
and causes/stresses leading to such faults. The third category
[64]–[119] includes the publications on various parameters
relevant for monitoring of stator faults. These give information
about traditional approaches. The next category [120]–[153] is
on new condition monitoring techniques/approaches involving
latest artificial intelligence (AI) and digital-signal-processing
(DSP) concepts. The fifth category [154]–[178] includes the
modeling and simulation of healthy/balanced and faulty/un-
balanced motors. The last and sixth category [179]–[183] of
reviewed publications is on futuristic trends of stator fault
monitoring techniques. Some publications belonging to more
than one category have been classified based on their dominant
contribution.
II. CLASSIFICATION OF STATOR FAULTS AND CAUSES/STRESSES
LEADING TO THESE FAULTS
The stator is subjected to various stresses such as thermal,
electrical, mechanical, and environmental [61]–[63], which se-
verely affects the stator condition leading to faults [21].
A. Classification of Stator Faults
The stator defects/faults can be broadly classified into the fol-
lowing two categories.
1) Laminations (core hot spot, core slackening), frame (vi-
bration, circulating currents, loss of coolants, earth faults).
2) Stator Windings Defects/Faults: The most common de-
fects/faults of stator windings are related to either the “end
winding portion” or the “slot portion” as given below:
• End-winding portion (local damage to insulation,
fretting of insulation, contamination of insulation by
moisture, oil or dirt, damage to connectors, cracking
of insulation, discharge erosion of insulation, dis-
placement of conductors, turn-to-turn faults).
• Slot portion (fretting of insulation, displacement of
conductors).
SIDDIQUE et al.: A REVIEW OF STATOR FAULT MONITORING TECHNIQUES OF INDUCTION MOTORS
B. Causes/Stresses Leading to Stator Faults
The various causes of stator failures have been identified [21],
[61]–[63].
The majority of these faults are caused because of a combina-
tion of various stresses acting on the stator, which can be clas-
sified into thermal, electrical, mechanical, and environmental.
1) Thermal Stresses: These stresses might be due to thermal
aging and thermal overloading. As a thumb rule, for every 10 C
increase in temperature, the insulation life gets halved due to
thermal aging. Unless the operating temperature is extremely
high, the normal effect of thermal aging is to render the insu-
lation system vulnerable to other influencing factors or stresses
that actually cause the failure [61]. If the insulation system loses
its physical integrity, it fails to resist the other dielectric, me-
chanical, and environmental stresses. The winding failure will
occur irrespective of the degree of thermal aging, if any of the
above mentioned stresses becomes severe. The effect of temper-
ature on thermal aging can be minimized by using any of two
approaches to ensure longer thermal life: either by reducing the
operating temperature or by increasing the class of insulation
materials used.
Thermal overloading can occur due to the applied voltage
variations, unbalanced phase voltage, cycling overloading,
obstructed ventilation, higher ambient temperature, etc. As a
thumb rule, for every 3.5% voltage unbalance per phase, the
winding temperature increases by 25% in the phase with the
highest current [61]. The physical specifications of the load
(inertia, weight, starting load speed, torque curve, starting
cycle, etc.) are to be taken into consideration while selecting
a motor for a specific purpose because the motor draws five
to eight times the normal current during startup. If the motor
is subjected to repeated starts within a small span of time, the
winding temperature will rapidly increase. Cycling also gives
rise to another weakening effect of expansion and contraction
of the insulation system. It is estimated that the winding tem-
perature increases linearly with the load so the motors should
be designed to operate below the normal limits for a specific
insulation system or using an insulation system with a rating
that is well above the operating temperature. The motor should
be kept clean inside and outside to ensure that the flow of air
is not restricted; otherwise, winding temperature will increase
due to heat generated in the stator and the rotor. If keeping the
motor clean is impracticable, then this factor has to be taken
into consideration during design stage, which can be accom-
plished by restricting the winding temperature and upgrading
the insulation system.
2) Electrical Stresses: The electrical stresses leading to
winding failures can be classified into dielectric, tracking,
corona, and transient voltage conditions.
The definite relationship between insulation life and the
voltage stresses applied to the insulating materials has to be
taken into consideration while selecting the materials and
establishing the coil designs for adequate design life. These
stresses can be classified into phase-to-phase, turn-to-turn, and
turn-to-ground.
If the insulation system is not completely protected from the
environment, then in the motors with operating voltages over
600 V, a phenomenon known as tracking occurs in the windings
leading to ground failures.
107
Corona, a localized discharge resulting from transient
gaseous ionization in insulation system where the voltage
stress exceeds a critical value, is a severe phenomenon on the
winding operating above the 5-kV range. Its failure mechanism
is due to heating, eroding, or a chemical reaction, resulting in a
deterioration of winding insulation.
Transient voltage conditions result in reduced winding life
or premature failure (either turn-to-turn or turn-to-ground).
These conditions can be caused by line-to-line, line-to-ground,
multiphase line-to-ground, and three-phase faults, repetitive
restriking, current-limiting fuses, rapid bus transfers, opening
and closing of circuit breakers, capacitor switching, insulation
failure, lightning, and variable frequency drives.
3) Mechanical Stresses: These stresses might be due to coil
movement and rotor striking the stator.
The force on the coils due to the stator winding current (
) is maximum during the starting cycle, causing the coils to
vibrate at twice the line frequency with movement both in the
radial and tangential directions. This coil movement can cause
damage to the coil insulation, loosen the top sticks, and cause
damage to the copper conductors.
The rotor can strike the stator due to a number of reasons like
bearing failures, shaft deflection, rotor-to-stator misalignment,
etc. If the strike happens only during startup, then the force of
the rotor can cause the stator laminations to puncture the coil
insulation, resulting in grounding the coil. If the rotor strikes the
stator when the motor is running at full speed, then the result is
very premature grounding of the coil in the stator slot caused by
excessive heat generated at the point of contact.
There might be many other causes for winding failures like
rotor balancing weights coming loose and striking the stator,
rotor fan blades coming loose and striking the stator, loose nuts
and bolts striking the stator, foreign particles/bodies entering the
motor through the ventilation system and striking the stator, a
defective rotor (e.g., open rotor bars) causing the stator to over-
heat and fail, poor lead lugging of connections from the motor
leads to the incoming line leads causing overheating and failure,
and broken lamination teeth striking the stator due to fatigue. A
part of broken bars may work itself into the air gap, causing im-
mediate failure to copper-iron.
4) Environmental Stresses/Contamination: The presence of
foreign material could cause various ill effects on the func-
tioning of the motor-like reduction in heat dissipation (which
will increase operating temperature thereby reducing insulation
life), premature bearing failure due to high-localized stresses,
and breakdown of the insulation system (causing shorts and
grounds). Every step should be taken to restrict/ minimize the
moisture, chemicals, and foreign particles from interacting with
the motor surface.
The other problematic phenomenon is condensation devel-
oping on the stator winding which leads to the stator winding
to ground out in the slot. This phenomenon can be prevented by
drying the winding out by use of space heaters or trickle heating
during the off cycle.
III. MONITORING TECHNIQUES
Different researchers have used various monitoring tech-
niques for induction motors using different machine variables
[11], [12], [17], [28], [64]–[119]. These monitoring techniques
108
have been classified into the following 13 categories using
different parameters.
A. Magnetic Flux
Any distortion in the air-gap flux density due to stator defects
will set up an axial homopolar flux in the shaft, which can be
sensed by a search coil fitted around the shaft [64]–[68]. The
air-gap flux can also be sensed by sensing the voltage across
two properly located motor coils. One can get a signal by sub-
tracting these two voltages, which is independent of stator ir
drop and approximately independent of motor leakage reactance
drop [66], [94]. By using a minimum of four search coils located
axisymmetrically to the drive shaft, the location of shorted turn
can be found out [84].
B. Vibration
The stator frame vibration is a function of interturn winding
faults, single phasing, and supply-voltage unbalance [65]. The
resonance between the exciting electromagnetic (EM) force and
the stator is one of the main causes of noise production in elec-
trical machines [65], [69], [70], [93].
C. Noise/Acoustic Noise
The noise spectrum of induction machines is dominated
by EM, ventilation, and acoustic noise. Ventilation noise is
associated with air turbulence, which is produced by periodic
disturbances in the air pressure due to rotating parts. The EM
noise is due to the action of Maxwell’s stresses that act on
the iron surfaces in the presence of a magnetic field. These
forces induce vibrations in the stator structure, which cause
radiated noise. The sound power level due to aerodynamic and
mechanical noise increases at a rate of 12 dB per doubling of
the motor speed. Increased motor speed gives rise to EM noise
[70]. The ground wall insulation interrogation can be done by
optimally launching an ultrasonic wave into a stator bar and
using the conductor as a waveguide [85].
D. Instantaneous Angular Speed
Various asymmetry faults in induction motors can be detected
by monitoring the stator core vibration using instantaneous an-
gular speed (IAS) techniques. In case of stator winding fault or
unbalanced supply, the vibration signal will contain a significant
component with twice the supply frequency. For phase imbal-
ance, the fault symptom is a significant increase in the 100-Hz
component (if the supply frequency is 50 Hz) [114].
E. Temperature
A rugged temperature, the sensor can be mounted on the
winding or embedded in the insulation, which is electrically iso-
lated from its instrumentation [65]. The temperature estimation
can be based on the thermal model and stator resistance model if
unobstructed ventilation is ensured, and ambient temperature is
accounted for plus the effect of elevation on the motor temper-
ature and cooling [44], [68], [112]. The phenomenon of setting
up of the space charge as a consequence of the aging of the stator
insulation has been utilized for the thermal step method (TSM).
The measurement of thermally stimulated discharge currents
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 20, NO. 1, MARCH 2005
(TSDC) is also made which gives the energy levels of the traps.
By associating TSM and TSDC, a complete study of the appari-
tion and of the development of the space charges can be made
and the stator insulation lifetime can be predicted [97]. A nonde-
structive diagnostic apparatus using plastic-optical-fiber (POF)
sensor has been developed for evaluating the aging of insulating
resins for low-voltage induction motors. This apparatus mea-
sures the change of reflective absorbance ratio at two different
near-IR wavelengths [99].
F. Air-Gap Torque
The air-gap torque is produced by the flux linkage and the
currents of a rotating machine. It is sensitive to any unbalance
created due to defects as well as by the unbalanced voltages.
The zero frequency of the air-gap harmonics shows that the
motor is normal. In case of an induction motor with single-phase
stator winding, the angular speed (as observed from the rotor)
of forward and backward stator rotating fields, the rotor and
rotor rotating magnetic fields are , ( ), and , re-
spectively. The forward stator rotating field produces a constant
torque while the backward stator field interacting with the rotor
field produces a harmonic torque whose
frequency Stator field angular speed Rotor angular speed
Rotor field angular speed observed from rotor
This means the double fundamental frequency torque indicates
the gap in the stator winding and/or voltage [89].
G. Current
The current drawn by an ideal motor will have a single
component at the supply. The motor current signature analysis
(MCSA) utilizes the results of the spectral analysis of the
stator current of an induction motor to pinpoint an existing
or incipient failure of the motor or the driven system. The
diagnostic analysis has been reported by various researchers
using the sequence components of current, radio-frequency
(RF) component of neutral current, and shaft currents [4], [17],
[21], [22], [91], [95], [102], [104].
H. Induced Voltage
The voltage induced along the shaft of a machine (generator)
is an indication of the stator core or winding degradation. Shaft
voltage has not yet proved to be a useful parameter for contin-
uous monitoring because it is difficult to measure in a reliable
way. Moreover, it has also been shown that any damage to the
core or the winding would need to be substantial before a signif-
icant variation in shaft voltage occurred [65]. The changes in the
root mean square (rms) magnitude of ( ) can
reveal the presence and severity of turn-fault diagnostics where
is the sum of instantaneous phase voltages. The max-
imum turn-fault sensitivity is obtained after bandpass filtering
around the fundamental frequency [103].
I. Power
The instantaneous electric power has definite advantages in
comparison to current as a detection parameter. The character-
SIDDIQUE et al.: A REVIEW OF STATOR FAULT MONITORING TECHNIQUES OF INDUCTION MOTORS
istic spectral component of the power appears directly at the
frequency of the disturbance, independent of the synchronous
speed of the motor. The utilization of the instantaneous power
enhances the reliability of the diagnostics of the induction mo-
tors [92].
J. Partial Discharge
This is a small electrical discharge, which occurs due to in-
sulation imperfection. For example, delaminations within the
ground wall insulation, resulting from poor manufacturing or
overheating, gives rise to voids or air pockets, which get dis-
charged [71]–[76], [86]. The partial discharge analyzer (PDA)
test, developed in 1976, is one of the first techniques to be used
during normal machine operation of hydro generators. Other
techniques have been developed using specialized sensors. A
deteriorated winding has a PD activity approximately 30 times
or even higher than a winding in good condition. The effective-
ness of stator winding maintenance can be easily monitored with
an online PD test [87], [88], [91], [107].
K. Gas Analysis
The degradation of the electrical insulation within a motor
produces carbon monoxide gas which passes into the cooling
air circuit and can be detected by an infrared (IR) absorption
technique [65].
The high-frequency pulsewidth-modulation (PWM) pulses
generate excessive voltage peaks leading to the start of motor
insulation breakdown. It occurs as a result of electrostatic fields
surrounding oppositely polarized conductors that begin to strip
electrons from the surrounding air gap, leaving molecules with
positive electrical charge (ionization) producing ozone which
get combined with nitrogen from the air to produce forms of
nitrous oxides. It corrosively attacks the insulation causing
embitterment and eventual fracture. Ozone sniffing techniques
are used for the detection of ozone [117]–[119].
L. Surge Testing
The surge testing is an established method for diagnosing
winding faults. In the surge comparison test, two identical high
voltages, high-frequency pulses are simultaneously imposed on
two phases of the motor winding with third phase grounded. An
oscilloscope is used to compare the reflected pulses indicating
the insulation faults between windings, coils, and group of coils
[98]. The pulse-pulse surge testing is a predictive field method
to show the turn-turn insulation weakness before the turn-turn
short occurs. An electronic and portable device “Surge Tester”
is used to locate insulation faults and winding dissymmetry [28],
[77], [79], [83].
M. Motor Circuit Analysis
By measuring the EM properties of the electric motor as an
electric circuit, the motor circuit analysis (MCA) determines the
variations within the motor and identifies the defects. In MCA, a
low amount of energy with amplified responses is applied. The
responses help in evaluating the condition of both the windings
and rotor through the comparative readings [108], [109], [115].
109
IV. AI-BASED FAULT MONITORING APPROACHES
Despite the various techniques mentioned in Section III,
the monitoring and fault detection of electrical machines
have moved from the traditional techniques to AI techniques
in recent years. The main steps of an AI-based diagnostic
mechanism are signature extraction, fault identification, and
fault severity evaluation. The various AI techniques, expert
systems, artificial neural networks (ANNs), fuzzy logic, fuzzy
neural networks (NNs), genetic algorithms, etc. for the fault
diagnostics of stator faults have been reported in the literature
[120]–[153].
V. MODELING/SIMULATION FOR FAULTY MOTORS
The development of “smart” condition monitoring systems is
in full swing. Their success depends on their accuracy as well
as on their ability to discriminate between normal/balanced and
abnormal/unbalanced conditions. Hence, the possibility of sim-
ulating fault conditions becomes more attractive and important.
Researchers have put in a lot of effort to predict the performance
of induction machines using various modeling/simulation tech-
niques and tools for stator faults. The steady-state and transient
state of healthy and faulty machines under different operating
conditions like steady-state (no load and onload) and transient
state (startup, loading, unloading, and shutting down) have been
thoroughly considered in the literature [154]–[178].
VI. FUTURISTIC TRENDS
Condition monitoring technology of induction motors is quite
mature now for detecting online incipient faults especially stator
faults. The following ten trends and recommendations are iden-
tified for future improvements in stator fault monitoring.
• Research trends show that AI techniques will have a
greater role in electrical motor diagnostic system with
advanced practicability, sensitivity, reliability, and au-
tomation. Diagnostic system based upon fuzzy neural will
be very extensively used. Self-repairing electrical drives
based upon genetic-algorithm-assisted neural and fuzzy
neural systems will also be widely used in the near future
[121]–[129], [131], [137], [140]–[143], [147]–[151].
• The explored opportunities are to add intelligence to mo-
tors, providing a level of communication and diagnostic
capability [182], [183].
• The theoretical analysis and modeling are necessary to dis-
tinguish relevant frequency components from others that
may be present due to time harmonics, motor saturation,
etc. [11]. Nonlinearity and saturation effects are being
considered by the researchers for more accurate modeling
and simulation of faulty motors [156], [159], [165], [174].
• New condition monitoring techniques of stator inter-turn
faults are being based on the frequency content of the tran-
sient line-to-line voltage after the motor is switched off
and the transient voltage and currents during loading and
unloading [181].
• Condition monitoring aspects must be fully considered at
design, development, and installation stages.
110
• The various key areas like failure mode, failure pattern,
appearance, application, and maintenance history should
be considered in order to accurately diagnose the cause of
a winding failure [61].
• Stator faults due to two or more mechanical faults (e.g.,
bearing defects, eccentricity-related defects, bent shaft,
etc.) occurring at the same time should be considered si-
multaneously. These different mechanical faults will dete-
riorate the stator insulation system.
• The possibility of more than one cause responsible for
the same fault (e.g., insulation system deterioration due to
moisture as well as mechanical rubbing) should be consid-
ered [65], [66]. In this situation, more than one detection
parameter may be observed simultaneously.
• Due emphasis on failure mechanism must be laid for pri-
mary causes to be removed [61]. Can one get a feel that
turns are about to get shorted/opened well in advance in
order to prevent that primary failure?
• Opportunities should be explored for using noise as a pa-
rameter extensively [81].
VII. CONCLUSION
A brief review of the most prominent electrical faults in case
of induction motors, especially stator faults, has been presented
here giving the state-of-art trends in the detection and diag-
nosis of these faults. More accurate and efficient modeling and
simulation techniques of stator faults, taking into consideration
nonlinear ties, saturation effects, etc. of magnetic substances
and supply anomalies, are urgently neededto keep pace with
the latest developments to clearly distinguish the relevant fre-
quency components from other components due to time har-
monics, machine saturation, etc. Separate sections have been de-
voted to modeling/simulation techniques for faulty motors and
stator fault monitoring using the latest AI techniques. Futuristic
trends in the stator fault diagnosis have also been discussed.
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Arfat Siddique (M’98) received the B.Sc.Engg. degree in electrical engineering
from the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India, and the M.Tech. degree
from Regional Engineering College, Kurukshetra, India, in 1996 and 1998, re-
spectively.
In May 1998, he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at Regional
Engineering College as Guest Lecturer. In September 1998, he was a Lecturer
in the Department of Electrical Engineering at Seth Jai Parkash Mukand Lal
(S.J.P.M.L.) Institute of Engineering and Technology, Radaur, India. In 2001,
he joined the Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India as Ph.D. candi-
date. His research interests include condition monitoring, and reliability/safety
aspects of engineering systems.
Mr. Siddique is a Member of the IEEE Power Engineering Society and IEEE
Computational Intelligence Society and Life Member of ISTE. He established
IEEE Student Branch at S.J.P.M.L. Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Radaur in 1999 as Founder Counselor.
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G. S. Yadava received the B.Sc. degree from Vikram University, Ujjain, India,
in 1964, the B.E.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from Jabalpur University,
Jabalpur, India, in 1967, and the M.Tech. and Ph.D. degrees from the Indian
Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India, in 1973 and 1989, respectively.
Currently, he is with the Industrial Tribology, Machine Dynamics and Main-
tenance Engineering Centre (ITMMEC) at the Indian Institute of Technology,
New Delhi. He has 35 years of teaching and research experience. He was Chair
of ITMMEC from 1999 to 2001. His research interests include maintenance
management, condition monitoring, reliability-centred maintenance, reliability
availability and maintainability engineering and use of expert system in mainte-
nance. He has been involved in research and consultancy projects with various
industries in the above areas.
Dr.Yadava is Fellow of IE (I) and IIPE. He is also a member of the Tribology
Society of India, ISTE, and Society for Clean Environment.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 20, NO. 1, MARCH 2005
Bhim Singh (SM’99) was born in Rahamapur, U. P., India, in 1956. He received
the B.E. electrical degree from the University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India, in
1977, and the M. Tech. and Ph.D. degrees from the Indian Institute of Tech-
nology (IIT), New Delhi, in 1979 and 1983, respectively.
In 1983, he joined as a Lecturer and in 1988, became a Reader in the Depart-
ment of Electrical Engineering, University of Roorkee. In 1990, he joined as an
Assistant Professor, became Associate Professor in 1994, and Professor in 1997
in the Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Delhi. His research interests
include power electronics, electrical machines and drives, active filters, static
VAR compensator, and analysis and digital control of electrical machines.
Dr. Singh is Fellow of INAE, IE (I) and IETE, and a Life Member of ISTE,
SSI, and NIQR.