Introduction to Physics @ ICTS

Speaker:Pallab Basu

Report Prepared by Sarthak Duary

Contents
1 Introduction to String Theory 2
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Different Kinds of Interaction in nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Running of Coupling Constants in QED and QCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Gravity and Black hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 String Theory as a theory of Quantum Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 String Theory in the context of QCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7 Gauge/gravity duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.8 Other examples of duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Pallab’s research work 6

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 1 Introduction to String Theory
1.1 Introduction
There is a question for a long time that how to quantize gravity. If we look at a smaller length scale(say atomic
length scale),then we need Quantum mechanics(QM). So,Quantum Mechanics is an important ingredient of
our world. Another important ingredient of our world is Field Theories. Real description of our world comes in
terms of QM and Field Theories. Quantum description of that field theory is Quantum Field Theory(QFT). In
QFT particles are exitations of fields, appearing only after quantization. Photons arise from the quantization of
the electromagnetic field and massive, charged particles such as electrons arise from the quantization of matter
fields. In order to describe the fundamental laws of Nature,we must not only introduce electron fields, but also
quark fields, neutrino fields, gluon fields, W and Z-boson fields, Higgs fields etc. There is a field associated to
each type of fundamental particle that appears in Nature.

1.2 Different Kinds of Interaction in nature

Now, some of the fields are responsible for causing interaction. If we put two charges seperated by some distance
from each other then these two charges repel or attract each other depending on the nature of the charge. The
force is carried by Electromagnetic field. So, electrically charged particles interact by means of exchange of
photons. The figure given below shows electron interaction with another electron through γ exchange.

Figure 1: Electron interact with other electron through γ exchange

Now, there are other kinds of force carrying field in nature.

Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) is the theory of the strong interaction between quarks and gluons, the
fundamental particles that make up composite hadrons such as the proton, neutron and pion. In QCD the
analog of electric charge is color. Gluons are the force carrier of Strong interaction, like photons are for the
electromagnetic force in quantum electrodynamics.
There are also weak interaction. The weak interaction is the mechanism of interaction between sub-atomic
particles that causes radioactive decay. In weak interaction, fermions can exchange three distinct types of force
carriers known as the W + , W − , and Z bosons. The weak interaction takes place only at very small, sub-atomic
distances.
There is also gravitational interaction in nature,alongside the electromagnetic interaction, strong interaction
and weak interaction. But gravity is weaker than other forces. For example when a small magnet attracts
some object, it overcomes the gravity of whole earth. When we climb upstairs our body by means of chemical
reaction overcomes earth gravity.

1.3 Running of Coupling Constants in QED and QCD

As gravity is part of nature so it should have some kind of quantum mechanical description. Gravity is decribed
by tensor field. The graviton must be a spin-2 boson because the source of gravitation is the stress–energy tensor,
a second-rank tensor(compared with electromagnetism’s spin-1 photon, the source of which is the four-current,
a first-rank tensor). But,we don’t know very well how to quantize a Spin-2 boson.
Now we like to know what happens in QFT. If we see an electron scattering another electron and what happens.
In QM,according to energy-time uncertainty principle
~
∆E∆t ≥ (1)
2
for a small time particles can be created from vacuum which again gets annihilated. A small violation of
energy is possible for a small time. This allows the creation of particle-antiparticle pairs of virtual particles. Due
to the energy-time uncertainty principle as mentioned above; e.g., virtual electron–positron pairs are created
from photon line.

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 Figure 2: electron positron pair creation from photon

Such charged pairs act as an electric dipole. This effect known as vacuum polarization has an important
implication.This effect shield the charge of an electron. So,if we design an experiment to measure the electric
charge of a particle, the result of the experiment is a function of how close our probe is to the charge: the
effective charge decreases at a great distance, while it increases as we get closer to the position of the original
charge.This is called runningof the electromagnetic field coupling constant α. As we probe e− more and more,the
charge is actually increasing. As a result,electromagnetic interaction gets stronger at higher energy,this is purely
quantum field theoretic effect.
Conversely, in QCD the beta function β(g) which encodes the running of a coupling parameter,g is negative

∂g
β= <0 (2)
∂lnµ
meaning the coupling increases with decreasing energy. Interactions between particles is asymptotically weaker
as the energy scale increases and the corresponding length scale decreases. This feature of quantum chromodynamics
(QCD) is called Asymptotic freedom. Quarks interact weakly at high energies,allowing perturbative calculations.
At low energies the interaction becomes strong, leading to the confinement of quarks and gluons within composite
hadrons.

1.4 Gravity and Black hole

Lets move to gravity. In 1915, Albert Einstein gave General relativity. According to this,gravity is not a force,
it’s a manifestation of spacetime geometry. If we look at a sphere, two big circles which are tangentially straight
meet at a pole. Somehow two big circles gets attracted towards the pole. It’s manifestation of geometry.
So,a massive body by virtue of its mass causes a bending in the flat spacetime and then another massive body
follows orbit which is the natural trajectory in this deformed spacetime. So,first the spacetime is deformed in
responce to matter and then matter moves in responce to this deformed spacetime.
In a Riemannian geometry the distance on the surface for points seperated by a shift dX i is
X
dS 2 = gij (X)dX i dX j (3)
i,j

Equation that governs the metric is Einstein field equations

1 8πG
Rµν − Rgµν + Λgµν = 4 Tµν (4)
2 c
where Rµν is the Ricci curvature tensor, R is the scalar curvature, gµν is the metric tensor, Λ is the cosmological
constant, G is Newton’s gravitational constant, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and Tµν is the stress–energy
tensor.
Now, Karl Schwarzschild gave a solution Schwarzschild solution which is the solution to the Einstein field
equations that describes the gravitational field outside a spherical mass, on the assumption that the electric
charge, angular momentum of the mass and universal cosmological constant are all zero. Now,this solution
can characterize a black hole. A black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting strong gravitational effects that
nothing not even light can escape from inside it.

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 The Schwarzschild metric has the form
 rs  2 2  rs −1 2
c2 dτ 2 = − 1 − dr + r2 dθ2 + sin2 θ dϕ2


c dt + 1 − (5)
r r
where, c is the speed of light, t is the time coordinate measured by a stationary clock located far from the
massive body, r is the radial coordinate, θ is the colatitude, ϕ is the longitude, rs is the Schwarzschild radius
of the massive body. The Schwarzschild radius rs is a physical parameter in the Schwarzschild solution to
Einstein’s field equations. Schwarzsschild radius rs can be defined for any mass M as follows. If from earth we
throw something,will it go away or not? This depends on escape velocity.We can do similar computation here.
If any mass M when confined to a small spherical volume of radius rs results in maximum escape velocity of c,
the speed of light, then rs is defined as the Schwarzschild radius of the mass M. It can be derived by calculating
the escape velocity and equating it to c,the speed of light.Therefore,
1 GM m
mv 2 = . (6)
2 R
At escape velocity v=c,R = rs
2GM
rs = . (7)
c2
The surface at the Schwarzschild radius acts as an event horizon in a Black hole and whatever inside it can’t
escape even with the speed of light. Near a gravitational body time flows slowly.Now if an observer reaches
closer and closer to the Black hole at some point time would stop,this phase is the surface at the Schwarzschild
radius, event horizon in a Black hole.
Once we go at the very short length scale,gravity becomes very very strong. If we go to the very short length
scale nothing can escape from the length scale. Using 3 fundamental parameters ~, c, G we can construct a
length scale Planck length, lp .
lp is given by r
~G
lp = ∼ 10−35 m. (8)
c3
At this length scale, gravity is stronger than any other forces of nature. Due to Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle, energy in such a small space by quantum fluctuations would create a tiny Black hole with the diameter
of its event horizon equal to a Planck length.
Now, if we want to understand the Physics of the Black hole which is strongly coupled gravitational object then
we need to understand how to quantize gravity. This thing has a semiclassical demonstration.
If we look at a Black hole, Black hole radiates, this is Hawking radiation. But,classically Black hole is a
smooth object, so it doesn’t have any temperature. In quantum field theory there are vacuum fluctuations
the spontaneous creation and annihilation of particle/antiparticle pairs in empty space. These fluctuations are
analogous to the zero-point fluctuations of a simple harmonic oscillator. In the presence of an event horizon,one
member of a virtual pair will fall into the black hole while its partner escapes to infinity. The particle that
reaches infinity will have to have a positive energy,but the total energy is conserved; therefore the black hole
has to lose mass. So,we can think of the particle that falls in as having a negative mass.We see the escaping
particles as Hawking radiation.

1.5 String Theory as a theory of Quantum Gravity

String theory is a proposed way of quantizing gravity. We know that gravity becomes strong at short distances
and if we just try to describe gravity by QFT, we find that at shorter length scale divergence arises. Gravity is
non-renormalizable, which means that the divergences that appear in the Feynman diagram expansion cannot
be absorbed by a finite number of counterterms.
If we replace the point-like particles of particle physics by one-dimensional strings, immediately we find that
general relativity comes as a ‘consequence’ of string theory. String theory has the massless spin-2 particle
graviton.States of the graviton obey the Einstein field equations.
So,Gravitational Physics comes once we say that everything is made out of Strings.But,unfortunate downside
of this kind of construction is that this kind of theory is only consistent in 10 dimension,not in 4 dimension.
People tried reduce the dimension of the space by compactification. Compactification is the way of modifying
the number of dimensions in a physical theory. In compactification, some of the extra dimensions are assumed
to close up on themselves to form circles. In the limit where these curled up dimensions become very small,one
obtains a theory in which spacetime has effectively a lower number of dimensions.

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1.6 String Theory in the context of QCD
But, String theory has originally been proposed not as a theory to unify gravity with other forces or to understand
Quantum Gravity. String theory was actually proposed in the context of QCD. In electrodynamics we see field
between two charges diminishes if we seperate the charges. But,in QCD the field lines attract themselves,effect
of it is the field lines form strings.Strings are made out of gluons. As we pull this apart,strings get longer
and longer. We can think it like a rubber band which has a property that on stretching every time there is a
gap between atoms and a new atom is inserted in between. So,if we stretch it energy of stretching goes into
creating more gluons in between. Now people tried various things. They tried to calculate using this string
quark mass,various propetries of gluon and glueball. That’s the original motivation of String theory. Then,
people find that it has other implications like describing Quantum gravity.

1.7 Gauge/gravity duality

The Anti-de Sitter/Conformal Field Theory (AdS/CFT) correspondence otherwise known as the gauge/gravity
duality, found out by Maldacena is one of the major breakthroughs in recent years. It’s a conjectured relationship
between two kinds of physical theories. On one side are anti-de Sitter spaces (AdS)of quantum gravity,formulated
in terms of string theory. On the other side there are conformal field theories (CFT) which are quantum
field theories, including theories similar to the Yang–Mills theories that describe elementary particles. The
correspondence states the equivalence between a string theory containing gravity living in a certain geometry,
and a gauge theory living on the boundary of that geometry.

Gravity of String theory

Gauge-theories of QFT
One can look at String theory in a funnel like 5 dimensional AdS5 space which have negative cosmological
constant.String theory on AdS5 is equivalent to N = 4(where N =number of supercharges=4) super Yang-Mills
(SYM) theory with gauge group SU(N) with large N, living on the flat 4−dimensional boundary of AdS5 .

Now, String theory can be well approximated by gravity when this no. lRs is very big,i.e. whenever the size
of the space is much bigger than the string scale. We say that string theory is weakly coupled at that regime.
So,the claim is one can learn about N = 4 SYM gauge theory by solving the Einstein’s equation in AdS5
space.This happens at a limit when gauge coupling,g for N = 4 SYM gauge theory g  1.

So, one can learn a strongly coupled gauge theory by studying the dynamics of the strings in AdS background
and often solving the Einstein’s equations.This is called holography because 5d dynamics has a hologram in the
4d gauge theory. It’s a puzzle that why a 5d theory is equivalent to a 4d gauge theory. One possible way to
understand this is the N = 4 SYM gauge theory is a large N theory,this is not just a 4d theory,but there are
N 2 − 1 copies of 4d theory and they are interacting. So,we can think that one extra dimension is emergent from
various copies of the same theory.

1.8 Other examples of duality

The idea that one can study a strongly coupled gauge theory by a weakly coupled gravity (this idea in a
holographic context)is not only confined to that example. Later,people found other example.Various QFT
phenomenon such as Confinement, Bose Condensation have also a holographic counterpart. There are various
ways people have looked at into this correspondance.One way is one can study the gauge theory to learn more
about String theory, other way is by studying weakly coupled gravity one can learn more about gauge theory
in general.
One of the problem we can solve using duality is to calculate transport property of a theory or viscosity of a
theory at finite temperature and at finite time.We can solve differential equations in AdS space to learn more
about Quantum properties such as viscosity at finite temperature.
Main idea is we had a duality, so if we had a problem on that side,whether the problem simplifies or not and
vice versa.

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 2 Pallab’s research work
The work he did mostly based on AdS/CMT(condensed matter theory) correspondence. The idea behind this is
often people did some kinds of construction in holography to realize field theoretic properties which are relevant
to Condensed matter theory.
Realization of Superconductors in the context of AdS, known as Holographic Superconductors is one such
problem. Other topics which falls under the broad category of duality are-
1. Quantum Quench in a holographic setup

2. Confinement deconfinement transition

3. large N unitary matrix model and its uses
4. Phases of Holographic black hole.

Quantum quench is the effect when coupling of the gauge theory is time dependent. For example if we consider a
2d electronic system and change its magnetic field from outside, then effective parameters in 2d theory changes,
one can make them time dependent also.Quantum quench is a question in QFT, we can tranfer it to holographic
setup. Holographic non-fermi liquid is one of the example.
Other thing is Confinement deconfinement transition and what one can say from holography.This is a problem
in AdS/QCD correspondence.One question of interest in this context is how to engineer this transition in
holography.
Large N unitary matrix model and its use to model matter of high density is one problem. Apart from the
problems falling under the broad category of AdS/CFT correspondence some of his problems of interests are-
1. Integrable structure in String theory

2. Bound on Chaos
etc.