Advancing Sociology Notes (Zahoor Elahi)

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER NAME PAGE #

Chapter 1 3
INDIVIDUAL & SOCIETY
Chapter 2 7
CULTURE
Chapter 3 19
COMMUNITY
Chapter 4 30
SOCIAL CHANGE
Chapter 5 44
SOCIAL CONTROL
Chapter 6 51
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Chapter 7 67
CASTE AND CLASS
Chapter 8 70
AUGUSTE COMTE
Chapter 9 76
EMILE DURKHEIM
Chapter 10 86
HERBERT SPENCER
Chapter 11 92
IBN KHALDUN
Chapter 12 97
KARL MARX
Chapter 13 102
MAX WEBER
Chapter 12 106
C.H. COOLY
Chapter 13 108
RESEARCH
Chapter 14 129
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
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INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY

Man is a social animal. He lives in social groups in communities and in society. Human life
and society almost go together. Man cannot live without society. Man is biologically and
psychologically equipped to live in groups, in society. Society has become an essential
condition for human life to arise and to continue.
The relationship between individual and society is ultimately one of the profound of all the
problems of social philosophy. It is more philosophical rather than sociological because it
involves the question of values.
Man depends on society. It is in the society that an individual is surrounded and encompassed
by culture, a societal force. It is in the society again that he has to conform to the norms, occupy
statuses and become members of groups.
The question of the relationship between the individual and the society is the starting point of
many discussions. It is closely connected with the question of the relationship of man and
society. There is two main theories regarding the relationship of man and society .They are the
social contract theory and the organismic theory.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

1. Industrial revolution and Industrialization: Factory system of production and
the consequent mechanization and industrialization brought turmoil in society. New industries
and technologies change the face of the social and physical environment. The simple rural life
and small scale home industries were replaced by the complex urban and mass production of
goods. Industrialization changed the direction of civilization. It destroyed radically altered, the
medieval customs, beliefs and ideas. Industrialization led to urbanization. Peasants left rural
areas and flocked to the towns, where they worked as industrial laborers. Cities grew at
unprecedented rate providing an anonymous environment for people. Social problems became
rampant. Aristocracies and monarchies crumbled and fell. Religion became to loose its forces
as source of moral authority. For the first time in the human history, social change became state
of affairs
2. Inspiration from the Growth of Natural Sciences: Nineteenth century was a

period in which natural sciences had made much progress. The success ascertained by the
natural scientists inspired and even tempted good number of social thinkers to follow their
examples. Inspiration provided by radically diverse societies and cultures of the colonial
powers. The colonial powers of Europe were exposed to different types of societies and cultures
in the colonial empires. Their exposure to such diversities in societies and cultures provided an
intellectual challenge for scientists of the day.
WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY:
A dictionary defines sociology as the systematic study of society and social interaction. The
word sociology” is derived from the Latin word socius (companion) and the Greek word logos
(study of), meaning “the study of companionship.” A general definition of sociology is the
systematic study of human society, culture, and relationships on a group level. Sociology is the
study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject matter is diverse,
ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of race and
social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to radical
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change in whole societies. Unifying the study of these diverse subjects of study is sociology’s
purpose of understanding how human action and consciousness.
Auguste Comete, the founding father of sociology, defines sociology as the science of social
phenomena "subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of
investigation". Kingsley Davis says that "Sociology is a general science of society". Harry M.
Johnson opines that "sociology is the science that deals with social groups". Emile Durkheim:
"Science of social institutions". Park regards sociology as "the science of collective
behavior". Small defines sociology as "the science of social relationships". Marshal Jones
defines sociology as "the study of man-in-relationship-to-men".
Ogburn and Nimkoff : "Sociology is the scientific study of social life". Franklin Henry
Giddings defines sociology as "the science of social phenomena". Henry Fairchild: "Sociology
is the study of man and his human environment in their relations to each other". Max Weber
defines sociology as "the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social
action in order thereby to arrive at a casual explanation of its course and effects". Alex Inkeles
says, "Sociology is the study of systems of social action and of their inter-relations". Kimball
Young and Raymond W. Mack say, "Sociology is the scientific study of social aspects of
human life". Morris Ginsberg: sociology in the following way: "In the broadest sense,
sociology is the study of human interactions and inter-relations, their conditions and
consequences".
THEORIES REGARDING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL

AND SOCIETY
SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY
The social contract theory throws light on the origin of the society. According to this theory all
men are born free and equal. Society came into existence because of the agreement entered into
by the individuals. The classical representatives of this school of thought are Thomas Hobbes,
John Locke and Rousseau.
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes was of opinion that society came into being as a means for the protection of
men against the consequences of their own nature. Man in the state of nature was in perpetual
conflict with his neighbors on account of his essentially selfish nature. ‘The life of man was
solitary poor, nasty, brutish and short’. Every man was an enemy to every other man.
Hobbes in his book Leviathan has made it clear that man found nothing but grief in the
company of his fellows. Since the conditions in the state of nature were intolerable and men
longed for peace, the people entered into a kind of social contract to ensure for themselves
security and certainty of life and property.
By mutual agreement they decided to surrender their natural rights into the hands of a few or
one with authority to command. The agreement was of each with all and of all with each other.
The contract became binding on the whole community as perpetual social bond. Thus in order
to protect himself against the evil consequences of his own nature man organized himself in
society in order to live in peace with all.
John Locke
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John Locke believed that man in the state of nature was enjoying an ideal liberty free from all
sorts of rules and regulations. The state of nature was a state of peace, goodwill, mutual
assistance and preservation. But there was no recognized system of law and justice. Hence his
peaceful life was often upset by the corruption and viciousness of degenerate men. The men
were forced to live in full of fears and continual dangers.
In order to escape from this and to gain certainty and security men made a contract to enter into
civil society or the state. This contract Locke called social contract. This contract put an end to
the state of nature and substituted it by civil society. The social contract was no more than a
surrender of rights and powers so that man’s remaining rights would be protected and
preserved. The contract was for limited and specific purposes and what was given up or
surrendered to the whole community and not to a man or to an assembly of men. According to
Locke the social contract later on contributed to the governmental control. The governmental
contract was made by the society when it established a government and selected a ruler to
remove the inconveniences of ill –condition.
Jean Jacques Rousseau

Jean Jacques Rousseau, the French writer of the 18th century in his famous book The Social
Contract wrote that man in the state of nature was a noble savage who led a life of primitive
simplicity and idyllic happiness. He was independent, contented, self-sufficient, healthy,
fearless and good. It was only primitive instinct and sympathy which united him with others.
He knew neither right or wrong and was free from all notions of virtue and vice.
Man enjoyed a pure, unsophisticated, innocent life of perfect freedom and equality in the state
of nature. But these conditions did not last long. Population increased and reason was dawned.
Simplicity and idyllic happiness disappeared. Families were established, institution of property
emerged and human equality was ended. Man began to think in terms of mine and yours.
When equality and happiness of the early state was lost, war, murder, conflicts became the
order of the day. The escape from this was found in the formation of a civil society. Natural
freedom gave place to civil freedom by a social contract. As a result of this contract a multitude
of individuals became a collective unity- a civil society .Rousseau said that by virtue of this
contract everyone while uniting himself to all remains as free as before.
There was only one contract which was social as well as political. The individual surrendered
himself completely and unconditionally to the will of the body of which he became a member.
The body so created was a moral and collective body and Rousseau called it the general will.
The unique feature of the general will was that it represented collective good as distinguished
from the private interests of its members.
The theory of social contract has been widely criticized as historically there is nothing to show
that the society has ever been deliberately created as a result of voluntary agreement or contract.
Nor can we suppose that man could ever think of entering into a contract with others when he
lived under conditions of extreme simplicity, ignorance and even brutality. The theory seemed
to be mere fiction as state of nature never existed. The most primitive people even lived in
some form of society however rudimentary or unorganized. There are always two parties to the
contract. There cannot be a one-sided contract as was conceived by Hobbes. The advocates of
the theory hold that the early individuals entered into the contract for their individual safety
and security of property. But history tells us the other way.
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Early law was more communal than individual and the unit of society was not the individual
but the family. Society has moved from status to contract and not from contract to status as the
theorists of the social contract argued. According to Sir Henry Maine contract is not the
beginning of society but the end of it.
ORGANIC THEORY
According to the organic theory on the other hand, society is an organism. Just as the parts of
an animal body are functionally related and none can exist isolated from the rest. So the
members of a social body are functionally related to each other and to the society as a whole.
Therefore, society is more real than the individual and is greater than the sum of its individual
members.
The organic or group-mind theories is correct in so far as it stresses the dependence of man on
society. But these theories almost entirely discount the roll of individual 4n social life and deny
individuality to the individual. It is wrong to say that society is more real than its members,
that our consciousness is only an expression of social consciousness, social mind. Indeed
society can have little meaning”, as says Maclver, “Unless individuals themselves are real”.
INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY

Society is a system of relations among individuals. The system moulds our attitudes, beliefs
and our ideals. This does not mean that individuals belong to society as the leaves belong to
the trees or the cells to the body. The relations between the individual and society are closer.
Society is a relation among individuals; its members. It is the sum of individuals who are in
state of interaction. But this interaction creates something which is more than the sum of
individuals. And it is this interaction which differentiates society from the mere aggregation of
individuals.
There is, thus, a fundamental and dynamic interdependence of individual and society. The only
experience that we know is the experience of individuals.
All thoughts or feelings are experienced by individuals. Feelings or thoughts are like, but not
common. There is no common will of society. When we say that a group has a common mind
or common will it means that there are tendencies to thought, feeling and action, widely
dominant in group. These tendencies are the product of past interaction between individuals
and their present relations. But they do not form a single mind, single will or purpose. Society
cannot have a mind or will of its own.
It is only in the light of our interests, our aspirations, our hopes and fears, that we can assign
any function and any goal to society. Conversely individuals have interests, aspirations, goals
only because they are a part of society. To quote Ginsberg, “Society is the condition of his
having any ends at all since social life moulds all his ideals and gives definiteness and form to
all his impulses.” It follows that the relationship between individual and society is not one-
sided.
It may be concluded that individual and society are interdependent. Neither the individuals
belong to society as cells belong to the organism, nor the society is a mere contrivance to satisfy
certain human needs. The individual and society interact to one another and depended on one
another. Both are complementary and supplementary to each other.
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CULTURE
THE MEANING OF CULTURE:
If you ask 100 anthropologists to define culture, you’ll get 100 different definitions. However,
most of these definitions would emphasize roughly the same things: that culture is shared,
transmitted through learning and helps shape behavior and beliefs. Culture is of concern to all
four subfields and while our earliest ancestors relied more on biological adaptation, culture
now shapes humanity to a much larger extent.
· One of the earliest definitions of culture was put forth by Tylor in 1871: “Culture, or
civilization, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom,
and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”
· Another, more modern, definition of culture is, “a society’s shared and socially
transmitted ideas, values and perceptions, which are used to make sense of experience and
generate behavior and are reflected in that behavior.”
· Culture is universal among all human groups and even exists among some primates.
· All cultures have to provide for the physical, emotional, and social needs of their members,
enculturate new members, resolve conflicts and promote survival for their members.
· Society must balance the needs of the whole with the needs of the individual. If individual
needs are continually suppressed, social systems can become unstable and individual stress can
become too much to handle. Every culture has its own methods of balancing the needs of
society in relation to individual needs.
Culture has five basic characteristics: It is learned, shared, based on symbols, integrated, and
dynamic. All cultures share these basic features.
· Culture is learned. It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of learning culture
is unconscious. We learn culture from families, peers, institutions, and media. The
process of learning culture is known as enculturation. While all humans have basic
biological needs such as food, sleep, and sex, the way we fulfill those needs varies
cross-culturally.
· Culture is shared. Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are
able to act in socially appropriate ways as well as predict how others will act. Despite
the shared nature of culture, that doesn’t mean that culture is homogenous (the same).
The multiple cultural worlds that exist in any society are discussed in detail below.
· Culture is based on symbols. A symbol is something that stands for something else.
Symbols vary cross-culturally and are arbitrary. They only have meaning when people
in a culture agree on their use. Language, money and art are all symbols. Language is
the most important symbolic component of culture.
· Culture is integrated. This is known as holism, or the various parts of a culture being
interconnected. All aspects of a culture are related to one another and to truly
understand a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few.
· Culture is dynamic. This simply means that cultures interact and change. Because
most cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols. All
cultures change, otherwise, they would have problems adapting to changing
environments. And because cultures are integrated, if one component in the system
changes, it is likely that the entire system must adjust.
CULTURE AND ADAPTATION

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Biological adaptation in humans is important but humans have increasingly come to rely upon
cultural adaptation. However, not all adaptation is good, and not all cultural practices are
adaptive. Some features of a culture may be maladaptive, such as fast food, pollution, nuclear
waste and climate change. However, because culture is adaptive and dynamic, once we
recognize problems, culture can adapt again, in a more positive way, to find solutions.
ETHNOCENTRISM AND THE EVALUATION OF CULTURE
The diversity of cultural practices and adaptations to the problems of human existence often
lead some to question which practices are the best. Ethnocentrism is when one views their
own culture as the best and only proper way to behave and adapt.
· Since most humans believe their culture is the best and only way to live, there are
small amounts of ethnocentrism everywhere in the world.
· Small doses help to create a sense of cultural pride and to build strong, cohesive
groups.
· But taken to extremes, and certainly when it includes an unwillingness to be tolerant,
it can be destructive. Ethnocentrism is at the heart of colonization and genocide.
· Cultural anthropologists have, however, pushed for cultural relativism, the principle
that all cultures must be understood in terms of their own values and beliefs, not by the
standards of another. Under this principle, no culture is better than any other and
cultures can only be judged on whether they are meeting the needs of their own people.
Subcultures are groups with distinct patterns of learned and shared behavior (ethnicities, races,
genders, age categories) within a larger culture. Despite these distinctive traits, members of
subcultures still share commonalities with the larger society. Subcultures exist in most state
level systems because those systems are pluralistic, they encompass more than one ethnic group
or culture.
Most individuals are members of multiple cultural worlds. Culture exists at several levels. We
typically refer to smaller cultures within a larger culture as subcultures. People have some
type of connection to that subculture but must also be able to operate effectively within the
larger culture. Some of the diversity we see across subcultures is based on class, race, ethnicity,
age, and gender. Social stratification is often the result of our recognition of these worlds as
different and a belief that they are somehow inferior to our own or to the larger culture.
· Class is a social category based on people’s economic position in society. Not all
societies exhibit class differences; ones who do not are called egalitarian. Class
societies are hierarchical, with one class having more access to resources than others.
Class is a recent feature of culture, as all early humans lived in egalitarian bands or
tribes.
· Race (in a cultural sense) is the socially constructed meanings assigned to the perceived
differences between people based on physical traits (skin color, facial features, hair
types). What differences we recognize and the meanings we assign those differences
are all culturally determined and not biologically created. These physical features do
not determine a person’s actions or explain their behavior.
· Ethnic group refers to people who identify themselves as a distinct group based on
cultural features such as common origins, language, customs and beliefs. Ethnic groups
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can be historically constituted (a group of people who shared a territory, language or

religion) or they can be more recently claimed (African Americans). Just because
people choose to see themselves as members of a specific ethnic group doesn’t mean
that all members of that group are the same or share beliefs and values. Ethnicity,
because it is a marker of group membership, can be used to discriminate.
· Indigenous peoples, “are groups who have a long-standing connection with some
territory that predates colonial or outside societies prevailing in the territory.”
Indigenous peoples are groups that were in a territory before Europeans or colonists
arrived, thus Native Americans are an indigenous group. They are frequently called
First Peoples, and often suffer from discrimination.
· Gender refers to the cultural meanings assigned to the biological differences between
the sexes. Most societies only have masculine or feminine cultural roles, but some have
a third, or even a blended, gender. Gender roles vary widely cross-culturally. Closely
tied to gender roles are issues relating to homosexuality. In many cultures around the
world, there is discrimination based on gender and sexual orientation.
· Age is both a biological fact as well as being culturally constructed. While we can
reckon how many years old an individual is (biological age), what that means in terms
of rights and responsibilities is culturally constructed. Most societies have obligations
and responsibilities that are assigned based on individuals reaching specific ages. Think
of driving, drinking, and voting.
VALUING & SUSTAINING DIVERSITY
Anthropologists recognize the importance of diversity and thus try to help maintain or
prevent the extinction of cultures. By describing, documenting and even advocating for
cultures they study, anthropologists help to contribute to continued cultural survival and
diversity.
FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE:
Among all groups of people we find widely shared beliefs, norms, values and preferences.
Since culture seems to be universal human phenomenon, it occurs naturally to wonder whether
culture corresponds to any universal human needs. This curiosity raises the question of the
functions of culture. Social scientists have discussed various functions of culture. Culture has
certain functions for both individual and society.
Following are some of the important functions of culture:
1. Culture Defines Situations:
Each culture has many subtle cues which define each situation. It reveals whether one should
prepare to fight, run, laugh or make love. For example, suppose someone approaches you with
right hand outstretched at waist level. What does this mean? That he wishes to shake hands in
friendly greeting is perfectly obvious – obvious, that is to anyone familiar with our culture.
But in another place or time the outstretched hand might mean hostility or warning. One does
not know what to do in a situation until he has defined the situation. Each society has its insults
and fighting words. The cues (hints) which define situations appear in infinite variety. A person
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who moves from one society into another will spend many years misreading the cues. For
example, laughing at the wrong places.
2. Culture defines Attitudes, Values and Goals:
Each person learns in his culture what is good, true, and beautiful. Attitudes, values and goals
are defined by the culture. While the individual normally learns them as unconsciously as he
learns the language. Attitude are tendencies to feel and act in certain ways. Values are measures
of goodness or desirability, for example, we value private property, (representative)
Government and many other things and experience.
Goals are those attainments which our values define as worthy, (e.g.) winning the race, gaining
the affections of a particular girl, or becoming president of the firm. By approving certain goals
and ridiculing others, the culture channels individual ambitions. In these ways culture
determines the goals of life.
3. Culture defines Myths, Legends, and the Supernatural:
Myths and legends are important part of every culture. They may inspire, reinforce effort and
sacrifice and bring comfort in bereavement. Whether they are true is sociologically
unimportant. Ghosts are real to people who believe in them and who act upon this belief. We
cannot understand the behaviour of any group without knowing something of the myths,
legends, and supernatural beliefs they hold. Myths and legends are powerful forces in a group’s
behaviour.
Culture also provides the individual with a ready-made view of the universe. The nature of
divine power and the important moral issues are defined by the culture. The individual does
not have to select, but is trained in a Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim or some other religious
tradition. This tradition gives answers for the major (things imponderable) of life, and fortuities
the individual to meet life’s crises.
4. Culture provides Behaviour Patterns:
The individual need not go through painful trial and error learning to know what foods can be
eaten (without poisoning himself), or how to live among people without fear. He finds a ready-
made set of patterns awaiting him which he needs only to learn and follow. The culture maps
out the path to matrimony. The individual does not have to wonder how one secures a mate; he
knows the procedure defined by his culture.
If men use culture to advance their purposes, it seems clear also that a culture imposes limits
on human and activities. The need for order calls forth another function of culture that of so
directing behaviour that disorderly behaviour is restricted and orderly behaviour is promoted.
A society without rules or norms to define right and wrong behaviour would be very much like
a heavily travelled street without traffic signs or any understood rules for meeting and passing
vehicles. Chaos would be the result in either case.
Social order cannot rest on the assumption that men will spontaneously behave in ways
conducive to social harmony.
Culture and Society:

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A society cannot exist apart from culture. A Society is always made of persons and their
groupings. People carry and transmit culture, but they are not culture. No culture can exists
except as it is embodied in a society of man; no society can operate without, cultural directives.
Like matter and energy, like mind and body, they are interdependent and interacting yet express
different aspects of the human situation.
One must always keep in mind the interdependence and the reciprocal relationship between
culture and society. Each is distinguishable concept in which the patterning and organisation
of the whole is more important than any of the component parts.
TYPES OF CULTURE (MATERIAL, NON –MATERIAL):

Material culture refers to the man-made objects (useful, mechanical & external objects) or
physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture. These include
homes, neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches, synagogues, temples, mosques, offices,
factories and plants, tools, means of production, goods and products, stores, and so forth. All
of these physical aspects of a culture help to define its members' behaviors and perceptions.
Non‐material culture refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their culture,
including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions. For
instance, the non‐material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs
about God, worship, morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the culture
responds to its religious topics, issues, and events.
When considering non‐material culture, sociologists refer to several processes that a culture
uses to shape its members' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Four of the most important of
these are symbols, language, values, and norms.
ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
Whereas social structure refers to the organization of society, culture refers to the meanings
and ways of life that characterize a society. The elements of culture include beliefs, values,
norms, sanctions, and symbols.
Beliefs refer to definitions and explanations about what is assumed to be true. The belief of an
individual or group influence whether that individual or group views a particular social
condition as a social problem. Does secondhand smoke harm nonsmokers? Are nuclear power
plants safe? Does violence in movies and on television lead to increase aggression in children?
Our beliefs regarding these issues influence whether we view the issues as social problems.
Beliefs not only influence how a social condition is interpreted, they also influence the
existence of the condition itself. For example, men who believe that when a woman says "no,"
she really means "yes" or "maybe" are more likely to commit rape and sexual assault than men
who do not have these beliefs (Frank, 1991).
Values are social agreements about what is considered good and bad, right and wrong,
desirable and undesirable. Frequently, social conditions are viewed as social problems when
the conditions are incompatible with or contradict closely held values. For example, poverty
and homelessness violates the value of human welfare; crime contradicts the values of honesty,
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private property, and nonviolence; racism, sexism, and heterosexism violate the values of
equality and fairness. Cultural values = shared assumptions about what is good, right or
important What is considered good, right or important in one culture may be considered bad,
wrong or unimportant in another.
Cultural values may change over time. In a complex society this may happen relatively
quickly.
Med School changed to COPS: women in the workforce, small cars instead of big ones.
Values of Americans?
1) Individual endeavour - the most "respected" are often the money-makers.
2) Education
3) Bigness - homes, businesses building, stadiums, planes, etc.
4) Spatial movement - cover long distances for movies, work, etc.
5) Time - time is money. Computers make things happen in less time. “Get here On time!'
6) Technology - invention/advances are continuous
7) Physical comfort - Lazy-boy chair, work overtime to get more money to make our lives
more comfortable
8) Self-improvement - physical, educational (foreign languages, correspondence courses).
Norms and Sanctions
Norms are socially defined rules of behavior. Norms serve as guidelines for our behavior and
for our expectations of the behavior of others. Norms define how to behave in accordance with
what a society has defined as good, right, and important, and most members of the society
adhere to them.
Formal norms are established, written rules. They are behaviors worked out and agreed upon
in order to suit and serve the most people. Laws are formal norms, but so are employee manuals,
college entrance exam requirements, and “no running” signs at swimming pools. Formal norms
are the most specific and clearly stated of the various types of norms, and the most strictly
enforced. But even formal norms are enforced to varying degrees, reflected in cultural values.
For example, money is highly valued in the United States, so monetary crimes are punished.
It’s against the law to rob a bank, and banks go to great lengths to prevent such crimes. People
safeguard valuable possessions and install antitheft devices to protect homes and cars. A less
strictly enforced social norm is driving while intoxicated. While it’s against the law to drive
drunk, drinking is for the most part an acceptable social behavior. And though there are laws
to punish drunk driving, there are few systems in place to prevent the crime. These examples
show a range of enforcement in formal norms.
There are plenty of formal norms, but the list of informal norms—casual behaviors that are
generally and widely conformed to—is longer. People learn informal norms by observation,
imitation, and general socialization. Some informal norms are taught directly—“Kiss your
Aunt Edna” or “Use your napkin”—while others are learned by observation, including
observations of the consequences when someone else violates a norm. But although informal
norms define personal interactions, they extend into other systems as well. Think back to the
discussion of fast food restaurants at the beginning of this chapter. In the United States, there
are informal norms regarding behavior at these restaurants. Customers line up to order their
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food, and leave when they are done. They don’t sit down at a table with strangers, sing loudly
as they prepare their condiments, or nap in a booth. Most people don’t commit even benign
breaches of informal norms. Informal norms dictate appropriate behaviors without the need of
written rules.
Sociologists divide norms into four types: Folkways, mores, taboos, and laws. These four types
of norms are ranked from least restrictive to most compulsory.
• Folkways refer to norms that protect common conventions. Most people in a society follow
traditional folkways but failure to conform to them is considered neither illegal nor immoral.
Examples of common folkways found in the United States include having turkey for
Thanksgiving dinner or mowing ones lawn.
• Mores refer to stronger norms with associated moral values. Examples of common mores
found in the United States include prohibitions against murder, multiple spouses, or desecration
of religious symbols.
• Taboos refer to the strongest types of mores. Taboos include the belief that certain activities,
such cannibalism, are outside the bounds of cultural acceptance. Violations of mores and taboos
tend to be treated with strong social disapproval or criminal consequences.
• Laws refer to the mores that are formally enforced by political authority and backed by the
power of the state. Laws may enforce norms or work to change them. Examples of laws that
worked to change existing norms include the liquor prohibition laws of the 1920s or civil rights
legislation of the 1950s.
Ultimately, social norms are important, in part, because they enable individuals to agree on a
shared interpretation of the social situation and prevent harmful social interactions. When
individuals transgress against existing norms, they are engaging in a norm violation. Norm
violations refer to public or private instances of transgression and deviance from culturally-
sanctioned behaviors
What makes people in a society conform to the norms?
1) Internalization = The belief that a norm is good, useful or appropriate. They obey and
feel others should. Ex: we have internalized what to do with a napkin. Did Genie?
2) Sanctions = rewards or punishments that a society sets up to enforce the norms. Done
to protect society from chaos. positive sanctions = rewards (promise, awards,
bonuses) negative sanctions =punishment (ridicule, fines, imprisonment, beatings, spankings)
physical sanctions = bring physical pain or pleasure. Ex: Having it brings pleasure, losing it
brings pain. ( A spanking also brings pain.) psychological sanctions = address the feelings and
emotions of a person. They can make one feel good or bad. Positive psychological
sanctions are found in compliments ribbons, badges and awards.
Negative psychological sanctions are found in insults and rejection.
Formal sanctions = rewards or punishments used to enforce the laws of organizations,

institutions, societies and are carried out by some regulatory body (award-granting
organizations, police). Example of rewards: physical: a trip : psychological : Victoria
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cross. Example of punishments: physical : capital punishment, imprisonment; psychological:

threat of being dispelled or loss of a license.
Informal sanctions = tend to be unwritten and are based on personal relations involving
folkways and mores, and tend to be based on public opinion. Physical informal sanctions:
people in your neighbourhood take up a collection for you because they want you to be able to
pay the lawyers bill for having defended yourself against a thief. Psychological informal
sanctions: insults, gossip, avoidance, rejection.
Social sanctions are 1) positive or negative, 2) physical or psychological, 3) formal or informal.
All norms are associated with sanctions, or social consequences for conforming to or violating
norms. When we conform to a social norm, we may be rewarded by a positive sanction. These
may range from an approving smile to a public ceremony in our honor. When we violate a
social norm, we may be punished by a negative sanction, which may range from a disapproving
look to the death penalty or life in prison. Most sanctions are spontaneous expressions of
approval or disapproval by groups and individuals--these are referred to as informal sanctions.
Sanctions that are carried out according to some recognized or formal procedure are referred
to as formal sanctions. Types of sanctions, then, include positive informal sanctions, positive
formal sanctions, negative informal sanctions, and negative formal sanctions.
Table 1.1 Types and Examples of Sanctions
Positive Negative
Being praised by one's Being criticized by one's

neighbors for organizing a neighbors for refusing to
Informal
neighborhood recycling participate in the neighborhood
program. recycling program.
Being granted a citizen award

Being fined by the city for
for organizing a
Formal failing to dispose of trash
neighborhood recycling
properly.
program.
 A CUSTOM (also called a tradition) is any thing which lots of people do, and have done
for a long time. Usually, the people come from the same country, culture, time orreligion.
If something is usually done the same way, you might say that is the "customary way" of
doing things.
The meaning of culture is similar to the meaning of custom. A custom is more about practices,
while culture is more about ideas or a group of customs. A custom overall is just similar to
culture and culture means the way of life of a people.
Custom can also have a second meaning, as in "Custom paint job" on a car. This means
paintwork that has been specially changed.
Custom can also mean changed to suit better: altered in order to fit somebody's requirements.
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Practices that are followed by many people in a society or culture are termed as customs.
Welcoming tourists from other countries by garlanding them and applying Tilaka or Tika on
their foreheads is an Indian custom known all over the world. Similarly, folding both hands
and holding them close to one’s chest while greeting a friend or acquaintance is also an Indian
custom that is famous worldwide. Marriage is a social institution that is common all over the
world but, in different societies and cultures, there are specific practices that are unique to those
cultures only and are performed during marriage ceremonies.
Customs are social practices that are common and are followed by most people in a society.
There are customs that are individual and family based. Once a practice that a father indulges
in is practiced by his son, it qualifies to become a custom. Then there are also local customs
that are followed over a particular area only.
The most common and universal custom is that of shaking hands with people when a person is
meeting them for the first time.
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS?

• Traditions and customs are beliefs and practices that have evolved over a period of time and
the only difference between a custom and a tradition seems to be the length of time and
observance by a larger section of the society.
• A tradition is a practice that has been passed down over generations and observed by most
people of a society or culture while custom could be short lived and even observed at a family
or individual level.
XENOCENTRISM:
Xenocentrism is a culturally based tendency to value other cultures more highly than one’s
own. In psychological terms, xenocentrism is considered a type of deviant behavior because it
sways from the norms of society. It is unexpected that an individual would value the goods,
services, styles, ideas and other cultural elements of another nation. However, in some limited
circumstances, it has been noted that xenocentrism can help to shed light on cultural
deficiencies, whether it be ideas or products, and offers the opportunity to fix that which may
legitimately inferior to another country or culture.
Examples: In the United States, it is often assumed that European products such as wine and
cheese are superior to those produced locally.
Consequences of Xenocentrism
Some examples of the consequences of Xenocentrism include:
 Loss of businesses in the home country
 Loss of jobs in the home country
 Degraded economical situation
 Overall reduction of morale within the nation
 A loss of population to emigration
 Negative impact on the identity of others in relation to culture
 If adopted by large like-minded groups, xenocentrism could cause political polarization
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CULTURAL LAG
The term cultural lag refers to the notion that culture takes time to catch up with technological
innovations, and that social problems and conflicts are caused by this lag. Subsequently,
cultural lag does not only apply to this idea only, but also relates to theory and explanation. It
helps by identifying and explaining social problems and also to predict future problems.
The term cultural lag is used to describe the situation in which technological advancements or
changes in society occur faster than the changes in the rules and norms of the culture that go
along with those advancements or changes. This can lead to moral and ethical dilemmas for
individuals as the new social norms are developed.
According to William F. Ogburn, cultural lag is a common societal phenomenon due to the
tendency of material culture to evolve and change rapidly and voluminously while non-material
culture tends to resist change and remain fixed for a far longer period of time. Due to the
opposing nature of these two aspects of culture, adaptation of new technology becomes rather
difficult. This distinction between material and non-material culture is also a contribution of
Ogburn's 1922 work on social change.
His theory of cultural lag suggests that a period of maladjustment occurs when the non-material
culture is struggling to adapt to new material conditions. This resonates with ideas of
technological determinism, in that it presupposes that technology has independent effects on
society at large.
Cultural lag creates problems for a society in a multitude of ways. The issue of cultural lag
tends to permeate any discussion in which the implementation of some new technology is a
topic. For example, the advent of stem cell research has given rise to many new, potentially
beneficial medical technologies; however these new technologies have also raised serious
ethical questions about the use of stem cells in medicine. Cultural lag is seen as a critical ethical
issue because failure to develop broad social consensus on appropriate applications of modern
technology may lead to breakdowns in social solidarity and the rise of social conflict.
HIGH CULTURE most commonly refers to the set of cultural products, mainly in the arts,
held in the highest esteem by a culture. It is the culture of an elite such as the aristocracy or
intelligentsia.
POPULAR CULTURE, traditionally used synonymously to mean low culture, is the entirety
of ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images, and other phenomena that are within the
mainstream of a given culture.
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However, conceptual barriers between so-called high and low culture have broken down, and
divisions between high and low culture have been increasingly seen as political distinctions
rather than defensible aesthetic or intellectual ones.
MULTICULTURALISM is the phenomenon of multiple groups of cultures existing within

one society, largely due to the arrival of immigrant communities, or the acceptance and
advocation of this phenomenon. Supporters of multiculturalism claim that different traditions
and cultures can enrich society; however, the concept also has its critics, to the point where the
term "multiculturalism" may well be used more by critics than by supporters. It could, indeed,
be classified as a snarl word or a buzzword, depending on the audience.
Criticism
Critics claim that multiculturalism promotes a tolerance of moral relativism and results in a
loss of national identity. There is also the unfortunate fact that some cultures simply don't mix,
and multiculturalism can sometimes lead to the development of souring subcultures: see, for
example, the bigotry promoted at the East London Mosque.
There is a central paradox in multiculturalism in that it is itself a cultural value, and one
particular to Western culture; other cultures are generally not tolerant of other cultures, and so
insisting on them respecting other cultures is not respecting them.
ASSIMILATION
A process by which members of an ethnic minority group lose cultural characteristics that
distinguish them from the dominant cultural group or take on the cultural characteristics of
another group.
Assimilation is a much contested notion whereby on entering a new country immigrant groups
are encouraged, through social and cultural practices and/or political machinations, to adopt
the culture, values, and social behaviors of the host nation in order to benefit from full
citizenship status. In this view of assimilation, over time, immigrant communities shed the
culture that is embedded in the language, values, rituals, laws, and perhaps even religion of
their homeland so that there is no discernible cultural difference between them and other
members of the host society. This idea is in stark contrast to multiculturalism where ethnic and
religious groups maintain strong links to their cultural heritage, and it is indeed understood that
these differences contribute to the rich diversity of a successful society.
FORMAL AND NON-FORMAL SOCIALIZATION:

FORMAL SOCIALIZATION:
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Formal socialization may also occur through a mentoring process whereby values, skills and
habits are communicated to a new hire by a formal way.
NON-FORMAL SOCIALIZATION:
Socialization also occurs through any number of informal channels via peer interactions and
informal interactions with management. In many ways, this is where the most effective and
lasting socialization take place.
Effects of Socialization
I. The socialization process preserves continuity for culture.
II. Individuals learn the history, values, and culture.
III. They also receive a sense of membership in the society.
IV. Once employees become fully socialized members of the society, they will preserve the
long-standing values and norms of the organization.
V. Individuals get identity.
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COMMUNITY
Urban-Rural Analysis
The rural and urban areas can be considered as separate entities due to the obvious difference
in their socio-economic and political structure. Although the concept of convergence in rural
and urban areas is more difficult to imagine within the existing administrative set up, however
the available information allows us to see the dynamics and have some useful insights.
Trends in average rural and urban outcomes: why worry?

First, rural-urban differences in mean consumption or poverty are not merely reflections of
differences in other characteristics such as literacy. Even given these, rural people still tend to
be poorer (de Haan and Lipton, 1999). Moreover, rural residence may itself reduce education-
al levels, e.g. because school provision is worse.
Second, the absence of any general downward trend in urban/rural ratios of welfare indicators
in developing and transitional countries contradicts long-run expectations. These ratios are
generally far above unity, yet are close to or below unity in OECD: one expects increasing in-
formation, education, capital and labour mobility, and political representation to induce falls in
arbitrary and persistent rural disadvantage. However, this need not be stimulated by the ad-
justment processes that have underpinned income-distribution change since the late 1970s.
These processes did reduce some anti-rural price distortions, but may have increased other an-
ti-rural distortions, especially given a roughly ‘constant’ urban policy bias. Moreover, market-
friendly adjustment has usually been accompanied by all-round cuts in public expenditure
during initial stabilization, and sometimes by a further push towards smaller government later;
but, to enable rural-urban disparities to fall, new market opportunities may need to be ac-
companied by measures that help rural people to exploit them, not by all-round cuts.
Third, our finding of non-convergent rural and urban welfare does not merely reflect produc-
tivity trends. Indeed, at first sight, it contradicts the tendency in 1970-85 towards a fall in
nonfarm/farm nominal ratios of labour productivity. These were around 1.5 in now-developed
countries during early modern growth (usually in the nineteenth century), but about 3 in the
early 1970s in Asia and Latin America, and in Africa around 6. The possible inefficiency of
ratios so far above unity—since they appear to exist also at the margin, and to be mirrored by
nonfarm-to-farm ratios of average and marginal GDP per unit of capital well below unity—led
to the urban bias hypothesis (Lipton, 1977). However, nonfarm-to-farm ratios of average GDP
per worker in 1970-85 fell, often dramatically, in most developing countries (Bourguignon and
Morrison, 1998), despite the falling world trend (around 0.4-0.5 percent per year) of farm
relative to nonfarm prices. The absence of correspondingly dramatic national—or any ‘third
world-wide’—convergence of rural and urban welfare indicators is therefore surprising,
especially given the rising proportion of rural income derived from nonfarm activity (which
still typically generates higher income per worker than farming, even if less so than in 1985
than in 1970).
Fourth, trends in rural-urban disparities matter, even if rapid growth temporarily ensures that
everybody’s economic welfare is increasing. First, an uptrend is often itself inefficient. For
example, after rural-urban inequality in primary-school provision per person has risen past a
certain point, an extra rural place is at once cheaper, more educationally productive, and more
contributory to GNP than an extra urban place. Second, an uptrend is often a sign of ineffi-
ciency. If the unskilled urban wage keeps rising relative to the rural, why is this trend not re-
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versed as labour moves from village to town, and capital (and employers) from town to vil-
lage? Third, high or rising rural-urban inequality may damage subsequent economic growth.
The balance of evidence strongly supports a negative impact from overall inequality (Bénabou,
1996; Kanbur and Lustig, 1999), but this is controversial, perhaps because different types of
inequality have opposite effects on growth. Inequality of earnings that rewards effort, or
provision of growth-constraining skills in income-elastic supply, is likely to be, at least up to a
point, pro-growth. Inequality of ascribed income, or income due to ascribed wealth—income
or wealth accruing because of, say, inheritance, priestly status, or positioning to seize monopoly
rent or to undertake political lobbying—rewards its beneficiaries, not as achievers, but with a
tax on the incentives payable to achievers; hence it is anti-growth. Rural-urban or other spatial
inequality is likely to be ascribed rather than attained. Rural-urban (and farm-nonfarm)
inequalities are generally far less in OECD than in developing or transitional coun-tries; one
would expect the reduction of such inequalities to be a concomitant of development, and they
may well also accelerate it.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN CONVERGENCE!

Much of the foregoing discussion (historic rural-urban distinction) has become outdated. Today
urban and rural differences (dichotomy) of all sorts are rapidly shrinking everywhere in the
world, though the speed of this change differs from place to place.
The rural-urban distinction has already become less important than occupational distinction.
Recent studies show that occupation has become more important than rural or urban residence
as a clue to one’s personality and way of life. Increasing urban world is beset by problems of
community integration and organisation and community planning has become a growing
concern in our urban society.
It should also be assumed that urbanisation necessarily brings in its train the situation of anomie
(a sense of normlessness or lack of moral guidance to behaviour), dis-organised and lack of
primary group relationships as observed by earlier writers (Tonnies, Durkheim, Simmel) of
urbanism. Some recent studies have found that with the increase in urbanism, primary group
relationships within kinship and friendship group increases.
When rural people migrate to the city, they rely heavily upon kinship and caste people and
other relatives (as we see in India) even if they are distant relatives for social interaction,
intimate response, identity and a sense of belonging. The rise of the proportion of secondary
contacts with urbanism implies no absolute weakening of primary group life.
Today, with the spread of urban patterns into rural areas, rural life is becoming urbanised. This
development is somewhat uneven. Rural areas closer to larger cities show the highest degree
of urbani-sation. More isolated areas and where farming practices are more traditional show
fewer urban influence. But, ever3where, the steady urbanisation of rural society is evident. Not
all, but many of rural non-farm people are urban commuters who become a powerful urbanising
influence upon rural life.
A new development that has undermined any simplistic rural- urban contrast is the growth of
‘commuter villages’. In Urbs in Rare (The City in the Countryside), R.E. Pahl draws our
attention to the commuter invasion of rural areas. Some villages are almost wholly in-habitated
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by people who work elsewhere. This phenomenon we can easily see in villages situated near
Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata etc.
RURAL AND URBAN CONVERGENCE

Every village possesses some elements of the city and every city carries some features of the
village. The concept of ‘rural-urban convergence’ refers to the striking similarities between the
village and the town in some aspects of community life.
Cities are growing in number and size everywhere. It is true that urban culture is diffusing at a
very fast rate in the rural areas. As Kingsley Davis has said “the city effects are wider than the
city itself”. The influence of the city varies with its size also. The urban way of life can be
carried far beyond the city boundaries and can thus characterise people who do not actually
live in cities.
With the diffusion of urban culture to the rural areas, the extreme differences between rural
and urban cultures have diminished. The growing transport and communications, the radio,
press, televi-sion, telephone, etc., the growing circulation of the urban newspapers in the rural
areas have changed the attitudes and outlook of the ruralites.
Medical, educational, commercial, recreational and other facilities are also being enjoyed by
the rural people. The automobile has played an important role in the rural areas. It has ended
the secluded life of the rural people.
People prefer to stay near the highways now. Villages in a way are closely linked with the
cities. Buses, trains, taxies and motor cycles, etc., have helped the city people to go out and
stay in the fringes of the city.
Everywhere big cities are characterised by sub-centres or sub-urban areas. In structure and
function they are like cities. Too much of concentration in the city contributes to an opposite
process of decentralisation. The sub-centres or sub-urban areas resemble the city in several
respects. A single city may have a number of small sub-urban areas.
These sub-urban areas may retain in them some of the features of the city. They are like satellite
cities built around a major city. Sub-urban areas represent the rough amalgam of rural and
urban ways of living. Here, we may find the urban way of life being mixed with the rural way
of life. In these areas we find the ‘rural-urban convergence’.
The Rural-Urban Continuum:

Some sociologists have used the concept of rural-urban continuum to stress the idea that there
are no sharp breaking points to be found in the degree or quantity of rural urban differences.
The impact of urban life over rural life is evident in many ways. With regard to birthrate, age
at marriage, infant mortality, church affiliations, divorce, suicide, etc., rural indices are moving
to nearer urban indices. In this way, rural areas can become highly urbanised.
As the contacts of the city become closer as transportation and communication become more
rapid, the rural community tends to assume more closely the urban social structure. We may
even speak of different degrees of “urbanness” or “ruralness”. One country can be
demographically more urban and yet socially more rural than another. Example: Chile has a
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greater percentage of its popu-lation living in cities than does Canada, but its people, by almost
all sets of indices, are less urban.
URBANIZATION IN PAKISTAN
Economic theory suggests that Structural transformation usually takes place when resources
are reallocated from low productivity agriculture to high productivity industry and services
sectors. Cities and urban areas are the magnets for location of these sectors which benefit from
migration of the surplus and underemployed labour. Rapid economic growth is therefore
associated with urbanization. The pace of urbanization is, in turn, accelerated with a larger
response of migration.
Empirical evidence shows that no country has grown to middle income status without
industrializing and urbanizing. None has grown to high income without vibrant cities.
Between 1980 and 1998, 86 percent of the growth in value added in developing countries came
from the manufacturing and services sector. Rapid productivity gains mainly reflected
improvements in the industry and services. Between 1985 and 2005, the urban population in
developing counties grew by more than 8.3 million a year. With falling costs of Transport and
communication and a greater potential for exploiting scale economies, towns and cities have
grown bigger and denser.
However, these gains are neither guaranteed nor are automatic but are much dependent on how
urbanization is managed. Urbanization can increase overall prosperity or produce congestion
and squalor and widen the income disparities with the rural areas. The preoccupation with these
disparities can in turn jeopardize competitiveness. Institutions, infrastructure and incentives
provide the foundation for urbanization. China has successfully managed both rapid growth
and pace of urbanization by investing in all these three dimensions. On the other hand some
African countries have experienced urbanization without growth.
Research by the World Bank presented in the World Development Report 2009 shows that
three attributes of Development – geographic unevenness, circular causation and neighborhood
effects – have not received much attention.
The first attribute of development – geographic unevenness implies that governments generally
cannot simultaneously foster economic production and spread it out smoothly. Circular
causation makes it possible for Rising concentrations of economic production to become
compatible with geographic convergence in living standards. The market forces of
agglomeration, migration and specialization can yield both a concentration of economic
production and a convergence of living standards. The third attribute of neighborhood effects
suggests that spillovers point to the promise for surmounting the handicap of unevenness and
circularity. Economic integration is an effective and the most realistic way to harness the
immediate benefits from concentration to achieve the long-term benefits of convergence.
The growth of economies and population density in towns and cities lead the countries to reach
per capita income of $3,500. At that point they cross over to the category of upper middle
income group. As countries develop, economic density in some places increases as more people
move to live or near towns and cities. The urban share of the population rises to 50 percent
when countries become upper middle income or the other way around. The cause and effect
relationships are not clearly established. These spatial transformations are closely related to
sectoral transformation from agrarian to industrial to services. Evidence indicates that the shift
from farming to industry is helped, not hurt, by healthy agriculture which helps towns and cities
prosper. People move to make their lives better. But when agriculture is doing well, migration
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makes not only the migrants better off, but also the villages they leave and the cities in which
they settle. Urbanization facilitates agglomeration as moving goods, people and ideas become
cost effective. Agglomeration economies concentrate manufacturing production facilitating
growth of services sector. Productive jobs are created that attract migrants from rural areas
whose average incomes improve considerably. These workers send a portion of their income
as remittances to their families living in the rural areas which help in upgrading their living
standards. This brings the leading and lagging regions closer in economic and social terms.
Movement of excess or underemployed labor from the farms raises agricultural productivity
and relatively higher income for those left behind as farm workers. Non-farm employment is
also created as a result of the improved farm incomes. Absorption of rural migrants in industrial
and services sector also generates higher incomes in the towns and cities. The aggregate
demand effect on the economic production is therefore overall upward sloping.
One problem is that the unit cost to invest in rural areas for building infrastructure is relatively
higher because of the dispersal of population over long radiuses. As cities, are more densely
populated these costs are only a fraction of those in the rural areas. Efficiency criterion in the
allocation of resources therefore favors investment in urban infrastructure. But this is a static
concept of allocative efficiency. In the medium and long term the higher per capita incomes in
urban areas create demand for income elastic products such as milk, dairy products, meat,
poultry, fruits and fish. The returns to the farmers on these products are higher than on cereals
such as wheat or rice. As the production of these commodities expands, rural incomes rise.
Along with remittances from the cities, their demand for consumer goods that are manufactured
in the urban areas also rises. Therefore, public policy should favor investment in the rural areas
in the first instance by allocating a larger share of provincial revenues. They should empower
the City Governments to mobilize their own resources. For example, Property tax, if properly
assessed and collected can finance most of the needs of Karachi. This allocation of resources
to improve, rural connectivity, market integration and delivery of basic services such as
Education would have a payoff over time.
This cycle of interdependency will be further reinforced when large supermarkets, hyper
markets and departmental stores cut the middle men and procure their supplies directly from
farmers. In this process, the farmers’ incomes received for their traditional products would also
increase. It has been found that the families who are better off economically send their children
to schools rather than keep them on the farms. This is the way the lagging regions will be able
to catch up with the leading regions and convergence will take place. Rural-urban income
disparities will be minimised and the fruits of economic growth widely shared.
This integration between lagging and leading regions can best be done by unleashing
the market forces of agglomeration, migration and specialization not by fighting or opposing
them.
Pakistan is one of the fastest urbanizing countries in South Asia and the share of urban
population has risen from 17 percent in 1951 to 37 percent in 2010. Projections show that in
next 10 to 15 years half of the population will be living in urban areas. Population growth and
net migration are the major forces behind urban growth. About one-fifth of the annual rise in
urban population can be attributed to net migration. Large cities (with population of 1 million
and above had a share in the total population of 50 percent in 1998 which by now would have
risen to at least 60 percent or more. Urban areas contribute 80 percent of GDP, almost all the
country’s tax revenues, and account for 60 percent of the employed labor force. Urban poverty
rate is almost one half of that the rural poverty rate. Per capita income levels and growth rates
have also been relatively higher in the Urban areas. Literacy and Enrolment ratios for both
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males and females are also better. Despite these positive outcomes, Public policy towards
urbanization in Pakistan has been that of sporadic spurts when enlightened political leaders
assumed power but in general lacks foundational stability or consistent planning or execution.
A cursory look at the large urban conglomerates in Pakistan which have been growing at 3
percent annually does not provide a satisfactory picture. Master plans have been prepared with
great effort and at considerable costs only to be breached in their practical applications or
execution. Between 35 and 50 percent of the urban population still live in Katchi Abadis. In
Karachi, there are 500 such informal settlements while in Lahore more than 300. Islamabad
has been spared the agony because the Master plan formulated fifty years ago is still the main
guiding instrument and the deviations are far and few. Lahore has benefitted by the personal
interest taken in its growth by successive Chief Ministers over last 15 years. Sialkot is atypical
because the local citizens and the business community took matters in their own hands and
created productive infrastructure and connectivity without the involvement of the government.
Karachi saw some semblance of better governance when it had its own City District
Government structure in place between 2002 and 2008. Since 2008, Karachi has suffered
from benign neglect as the institutional structure of the City District Government and
Town Councils was abolished without any alternative system. Land, Water, Transport
Mafias and Criminal gangs have assumed ascendency to the larger detriment of the citizens of
Karachi. Negative externalities have turned Karachi into a highly polarized, deeply contested
an almost unlivable metropolis.
Peshawar, Quetta, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi have witnessed some mixed outcomes at different
time periods but overall do not present a wholesome picture. Gujranwala, Hyderabad and
Sukkur are typically the worst examples of unplanned urban sprawl. Multan has made some
modest progress in infrastructure development in the last five years.
Public policy makers in Pakistan have not paid much attention or allocated adequate resources
for urban development or services because of the fear that they may antagonize the majority of
legislators who hail from the rural constituencies. The rural-urban divide has been a major
cause of concern and instead of building linkages and synergies this divide has created an
environment of adversity and confrontation. Instead of assuming a zero sum game the urban-
rural synergy can in fact lead to a positive sum game resulting in a win-win situation for both
the rural and urban population. Large metropolitan areas can spawn Intermediate cities and
town through better connectivity and these in turn can serve as the pivots for the rural areas.
The larger cities can draw workers from these towns through commuting. Towns can draw
sustenance from the agricultural activity of the rural areas if a network of Farm to Market Roads
is built connecting the two. Town would become market centres for agricultural output, places
of seasonal job opportunities for farm labour and as providers of secondary education and
health care services. This prosperity of towns can spill over to villages through non-farm
employment opportunities
The World Development Report 2009 argues that the way to get the benefits of uneven growth
as well as inclusive development is through economic integration. Some places are doing well
because they have promoted transformation through Higher densities, as seen in the growth of
cities and shorter distances, as workers and businesses migrate closer to density.
Agglomeration takes place when the firms of a specific industry locate together in a
neighborhood. When the scale of an activity expands, the production of many intermediate
services become profitable. The firms co-located are therefore able to get better access to
suppliers of inputs of goods and services and also to a pool of skilled workers who are attracted
to these locations. Smooth flow of information, technology spillovers and Intra-industry
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linkages act as externalities. However, these externalities can turn into diseconomies if the
cities where firms are clustered suffer from lack of basic urban infrastructure services and also
face traffic congestion, environmental degradation air and water pollution.
STRATEGY FOR THE FUTURE

The strategy for the future should therefore focus on
(a) developing and strengthening synergetic linkages between urban and rural areas and
(b) Managing Urbanization.
Rural-Urban Integration
More than half of the rural households in Pakistan are landless and therefore the head of theses
households form a natural group for migration in search of better jobs, higher wages and
acquiring ability to remit a portion of this income to their families back home. Rural –urban
migration and urban-overseas migration would therefore remain an essential part of their
coping strategy. It would be romantic idealism to imagine that in view of such powerful push
and pull factors migration to urban areas will recede. On the contrary, the electronic media now
available widely in even the remotest villages of the urban citizens further reinforces this trend.
It would be advisable to think of linking and integrating the rural-urban economies rather than
wishing the impulses for migration will go away with rural developing only. Agricultural
productivity gains through efficient water use, land leveling, high yielding seeds, increase use
of mechanization and diversification into value added products would further reduce the
demand for labor. Rural-urban migration is an essential ingredient for the structural economic
transformation.
Agricultural sector is itself undergoing a major intra sectoral change. Major and minor crops
form a smaller proportion of agriculture sector value added today compared to ten years ago
and the share of livestock, dairy, fisheries and horticulture has been gradually rising. The
growing dairy industry is an illustrative example of the synergetic linkages between cities and
villages. Most of the milk is produced in the rural areas but is consumed in the cities. Milk
collection, transportation, processing and pasteurization, packaging and retail distribution form
an entire value chain which is shared among the agriculture, industry and services sectors
benefitting both the rural and urban segments of the population. Meat and poultry consumption
is also on a secular rise and the location of abattoirs and poultry farms near the cities would
further contribute to this inter-linkages. More than half the value addition in these subsector
takes place after these products leave the farm.
Investments in agriculture R&D, soil and water management, veterinary and animal husbandry
services, storage and cool chains, refrigerated transportation etc. are important to realize the
supply potential of agriculture. Investments in roads, logistics, processing, packaging and
organized retailing will strengthen the seamless flow of investments will also augment the
incomes of the farmers which, in turn, will push the demand for consumer goods produced in
the cities. Mobile phones and satellite, cable TV channels are beginning to blue the distinctions
between the urban and rural life styles.
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Land Markets do not function well because land titles are not clear, documentation and records
remain incomplete and are subject to manipulation, and the control of the petty bureaucrats is
overwhelming. Eighty percent of the litigation in the courts of Pakistan pertains to land
disputes. If land markets work well, land will be mobile between users and allocated
productively.
Managing urbanization
The vicious cycle of unrealistic planning, unsatisfactory execution, weak enforcement of
bylaws and standards, poor financial situation of the City Governments, fragmented boundaries
and overlapping jurisdictions has, in Pakistan, tilted the balance of externalities agglomeration
and scale economies towards the negative Zone. How to break this vicious cycle is the major
challenge for managing urbanization.
The starting point should be the devolution of administrative and financial autonomy for
governing the cities – both large metropolises as well as Intermediate cities.
The 18th amendment has devolved powers from the Federal to the Provincial financial
resources. But this devolution will remain incomplete and impervious to the needs of the
common citizens until such time that a system of strong District Governments is put in place.
The capacities of the District Governments have to be built so that they can fulfill their
responsibilities. Institutional reforms will also extend to Land Markets, Labour Markets and
delivery of basic services.
The management of the large cities should be exclusively in the domain of the Metropolitan
Governments headed by an elected Mayor. Master planning, Land allocation and use, public
transport, housing, infrastructure development, parks and amenities, water, sewerage and solid
waste disposal should fall exclusively under the control of these MGs. For intermediate cities,
City District Governments with the requisite administrative powers and financial resources
would be the appropriate vehicle. In the absence of these governing mechanisms, Katchi-
Abadis and slums, inadequate municipal services, substantial infrastructure gap, poor and
expensive transport would continue to persist. The overlapping and parallel jurisdictions of
various bodies within the domain of the city or metropolitan governments have created
fragmentation. They will all have to be brought under the Master Planning discipline of the
Metropolitan government. They will be able to carry on the municipal functions within their
respective jurisdiction but abiding by the rules, norms, standards, specified in the Master Plan.
The second major challenge is the mobilization and sustainability of urban public finances.
Urbanization in Pakistan has become synonymous with informalization of the economy. Most
of the migrants from the rural areas are absorbed in the informal economy. This poses a serious
problem for urban public finances. As the increased influx of population along with natural
growth imposes a burden for expanding water, sanitation, sewerage, public transport and other
urban infrastructure services the proportion of those paying taxes and user charges for these
services keeps on declining. Those already in the tax net are asked to pay more and more out
of their incomes while receiving poor services in return. In other similar situations, they vote
by feet by migrating to suburbs where the tax burden is lower. In Pakistan, the tendency is to
evade the taxes by bribing the officials or using their influence and connections. This further
reduces the growth of overall tax collection while the expenditures keep on rising affecting the
financial situation of the cities. Municipal Bonds, an oft used instrument for financing lumpy
long gestation infrastructure projects, cannot be invoked because of the poor financial health
of the city Governments. Thus the future orderly planned growth of cities is constrained by
lack of financing viability.
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The third issue pertains to the sanctify and observance of the Master plan. Master plan
preparation and execution for all the major urban settlements in the country is the key
ingredient of urban management. Generating new spaces or rejuvenating existing spaces for
absorbing future inflows into cities requires investment in infrastructure and efficient delivery
of basic public services and would remain an abiding constraint.
The problem arises when the plans are reduced to pieces of paper and the execution is more in
violation rather than in adherence to the plan. Enforcement of by laws, rules, zoning laws,
seldom takes place because of the rampant corruption, malpractices, nepotism and favoritism
prevailing in the Building Control Authorities. Unless transparency and good governance are
introduced and practised no amount of exhortation would bring about any changes in the
present system of Urban sprawl, squatter and slum settlements, shortages of supplies of water
& sewerage, rickety old urban transport system.
Regional Growth Poles

The third component of this strategy is another possible initiative that needs some
consideration. This is to use the border areas between the neighboring countries as growth
poles. Gravity models suggest that the lower is the distance between two cities the larger is the
flow of goods and services between them. Border trade in both sides of Kashmir has already
been allowed. It is time to extend the notion of Regional Growth Poles to other border districts.
Gurdaspur, Amritsar and Firozpur in India with Lahore in Punjab; Jaisalmer, Bikaner and
Barmer in Rajasthan with Ghotki, Tharparkar and Mirpurkhas in Sindh; Quetta-Chaman with
Kandhar in Afghanistan; Peshawar with Jalalabad in Afghanistan; Zahedan in Iran with Chagai
in Pakistan; Kashargar in China with Sust in Pakistan. Most of these areas are capable of
agglomeration economies and can be developed as Special Economic zones on the lines of such
as Shenzen which got a boost from its proximity to Hong Kong. Regional Integration can thus
be used for developing the backward areas of the country and managing orderly urban growth
that will result from economic resurgence and stimulus provided by these regional integration
Economic ties will also ultimately ease political tensions if any and will be harbinger for
peaceful and harmonious relations between the neighboring countries.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN LIFE:
Rural Life/Urban life
1
Environment: Close / direct contact with nature. Preliminaries influenced by natural
environmental elements like rain, heat, drought, frost, sow etc. over which there is no control.
Greater isolation from nature. Predominance of manmade (artificial environment).
2
Occupation: Agricultural is the fundamental occupation. Majority of population is engaged in
agriculture. Neighbors of Agriculturist are also agriculturist
No fundamental occupation. Most of people engaged in principally in manufacturing,
mechanical pursuits, trade commerce, professions and other non-agricultural occupations.
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3
Size of Community: Size of community is very small in size. Agriculturalism and size of
community are negatively co-related.
Size of community is large in size. Urbanity and size of community are positively co-related.
4
Density of Population: Density of population is lower. Density and rurality are negatively co-
related.
Size of community is large in size. Urbanity and size of community are positively co-related.
5
Homogeneity and heterogeneity of population: More homogenous in social, racial and
psychological traits. Negative co0-relation with heterogeneity. (Most are agriculturists are
directly connected with agriculture).
More heterogeneous than rural. Urbanity and heterogeneity are positively co-related
(Different type of population is seen in cities, different places, religions, caste, class race,
community, economic and cultural differences, occupations and behavioral pattern also
different).
6
Social Differentiations: Low degree of social differentiation
High degree of social differentiation
7
Social Stratification: More rigid Fewer economic, occupational, and sociopolitical classes.
Less social stratification than urban.
Less rigid Urban community is much more strategic than the rural with having much more
economic, occupational and social political classes.
8
Social Mobility: Mobility is less intensive. Territorial, occupational and other forms of social
mobility of the population are less intensive. They follows same occupation, stay in the same
village
Social mobility is more intensive. People change occupation and even leave places in search
of new and better occupation
9
Social Interaction: Less numerous contacts. The area of interaction system is narrower. More
professional, simple, face to face. Informal, sincere relations.
More numerous contacts. Area of interactions is wider, the relation are superficial and short-
lived. The popular are more formal and showy.
10
Social Solidarity: Social solidarity or cohesiveness and unity are more stronger / greater than
urban. Common traits, similarity of experiences, common aims and purposes, common
customs and traditions are the basis of unity in village. Strong sense of belonging and unity.
Social solidarity is less stronger than rural, dissimilarities, division of labour,

interdependence, specialization, impersonal, strictly formal relationships results
comparatively less sense of belonging and unity.
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11
Social Control: Social pressure by community is strong. Conformity of norms is more by
informal social pressure.
Control is more by formal impersonal means of laws, prescribed rules and regulations.
12
Social Change: Rural social life is relatively static and stable.
Urban social life is under constant and rapid social change
13
Culture: Sacred (Religious) culture.
Secular (Non-religious) culture.
14
Leadership Pattern: Choice of leadership more on the basis of known personal qualities of
individual, due to greater face to face contacts and more intimate knowledge of individual.
Choices of leadership is comparatively less on the basis of know personal qualities of

individual
15
Group: Rural society is simple Unit-group society
Urban society is complex multi-group society.
16
Social Institutions: Most of the institutions are natural outgrowth of rural social life. Less
enacted institutions.
Numerous enacted institutions.
17
Standard of Living: Home conveniences, public utilities, educational recreational religious,
medical, communication and other facilities for living can be provided if supported by
sufficient population base
In urban areas such conveniences and facilities are provided due to greater density of
population
18
Standard of living is low.
Standard of living is high.
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SOCIAL CHANGE
DEFINITIONS:
1 The structural transformation of political, social and economic systems and institutions to
create a more equitable and just society.
2. Proponents target the underlying causes of critical social problems, such as homelessness,
discrimination and poverty.
3. While a variety of organizing and advocacy methods are utilized, social change organizations
are characterized by activism, cooperation, persistence, and dedication of their members.
(Example: An association of people with developmental disabilities working collectively to
address issues of discrimination by empowering its members to advocate for themselves and
collectively challenging service providers, government agencies and other institutions to
ensure equal access and rights for ALL developmentally disabled people.)
MEANING:
The meaning of the term “Social Change” can be better understood if we will discuss few
definitions formulated by the eminent sociologists. Some of the important definitions are stated
below.
Kingsley Davis, “By Social change is meant only such alterations as occur in social
organizations, that is, structure and functions of society.”
Maclver and Page, “Social change refers to a process responsive to many types of changes, to
changes in man-made conditions of life” to changes in the attitude and beliefs of men and to
changes that go beyond the human control to the biological and physical nature of things.
Lundberg, “Social change refers to any modifications in the established patterns of inter-
human relationship and standard of conduct.”
H.T. Mazumdar, “Social change may be defined as a new fashion or mode, either modifying
or replacing the old, in the life of people or in the operation of society.”
Morris Ginsberg, “By social change I understand a change in social structure, i.e. the size of
a society, the composition or balance of its parts or the type of its organisation.”
Gillin and Gillin, “Social changes are variations from the accepted modes of life; whether due
to alternation in geographical conditions, in cultural equipments, composition of the population
or ideologies whether brought about by diffusion or inventions within the group.
Alvin Toffler, “Change is the process through which future invades our life.”
M.E. Jones, “Social change is a term used to describe variations in, or modifications of, any
aspect of social process, social patterns, social interaction or social organisations.”
From the above definitions it may be concluded that social change is:
(i) A process.
(ii) It is a change in social organisation, that is the structure and functions of society.
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(iii) Social change means human change, which takes place in the life patterns of the people.
Basically it refers to the change in social relationship.
(iv) It refers to all historical variations in human societies. It means changes in all fundamental
relations of man to man. Which includes changes in political institutions, class structure,
economic systems, mores and modes of living.
From the analysis of the above definitions we come to know that the phenomenon of social
change is not simple but complex. It is very vast and a complicated process. It is a process in
which we always face problems in its conditions, forms, limitations, direction, sources, causes
as well as consequences. But it would be worthwhile to analyse the nature of social change for
clear understanding. The following natures of social change are discussed below.
CHARACTERISTICS:
(1) Change is Social:
Social change means a change in the system of social relationship. Social relationship is
understood in terms of social process, social interactions and social organizations. So in any
variation of social process, social interactions and social organizations social change-takes
place.
In an another instance it is found that society is like an organization, which never dies. New
civilizations and societies come up by replacing old societies and thereby retaining some of its
elements in its change. Thus social change is different from individual change. Its cause and
consequences are always social which make it social.
(2) Universal:
Social change is universal. Because it is present in all societies and at all times. No society
remains completely static. The society may be primitive or modern, rural or urban, simple or
complex, agrarian or industrial, it is constantly undergoing change. The rate or the degree of
change may vary from society to society from time to time but every society keeps on changing.
A changeless society is an unreality.
(3) Continuous:
Social change is a continuous process but not an intermittent process. Because the changes are
neither stopped nor the societies are kept in museum to save them from change. It is an on-
going process without any break. In the process of change every society grows and decays,
where it finds renewal and accommodates itself to various changing conditions. The sources,
direction, rate and forms of change may vary time to time but it is always continuous.
(4) Inevitable:
Change is inevitable. It is the human nature that desires change and also it is his tendency to
bring change and to oppose or accept change. Human wants are unlimited which always keep
on changing. To satisfy these wants social change has become a necessity not only to him but
also to the society.
(5) Temporal:
Social change is temporal. Change in anything or any object or in a situation takes place
through time. Time is the most important factor and social change denotes time-sequence.
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According to Maclver, “It is a becoming, not a being; a process, not a product”. Innovation of
new things, modification and renovations of the existing behaviour take time.
So a social change is temporary or permanent on the basis of time. Sometimes some social
changes may bring about immediate results while some others may take years to produce
results. Similarly, some social changes spread rapidly and also disappear rapidly. Movements,
style, fashion and cults are the examples of this type. But in the biological process of ageing
short time does not cause change.
(6) Degree or rate of change is not uniform:

Though social change is an ever-present phenomenon, its degree or rate or what we call the
speed is not uniform. It varies from society to society and even in the same society from time
to time. Sometimes the degree of change is high and sometimes low depending upon the nature
of society like open and close, rural and urban and traditional and modern etc. For example, in
the rural social structure the rate of change is slower because the rate of change is not governed
by any universal law, whereas it is quick in the urban societies.
(7) Social Change may be planned or unplanned:

Social change takes place sometimes with planning and sometimes without planning. Social
change which occurs in the natural course is called the unplanned change. The unplanned
changes are spontaneous, accidental or the product of sudden decision. Usually the change
resulting from natural calamities like flood; drought, famines, volcanic eruption, etc. are the
instances of unplanned changes.
Here in this unplanned change there is no control on the degree and direction of social change.
It is the inborn tendency of human beings that they desire change. So sometimes plans,
programmes and projects are made effective by them to bring change in the society. This is
called planned change. As it is consciously and deliberately made, there is every possibility to
have control on the speed and direction of change. For example, the five years plan made by
the government.
(8) Social change is multi-causal:

A single factor may cause a particular change but it is always associated with a number of
factors. The physical, biological, demographical, cultural, technological and many other factors
interact to generate change. This is due to mutual interdependence of social phenomenon.
(9) Social change creates chain-reactions:

Social change produces not a single reaction but chain-reactions as all the parts of the society
are inter-related and interdependent. For example, the economic independence of women has
brought changes not only in their status but also a series of changes in home, family relationship
and marriages etc.
(10) Prediction is uncertain:

We can see some elements for prediction in social change. But the prediction we make is
uncertain. It is because of three reasons. They are:
(a) There is no inherent law of social change.

(b) The forces of social change may not remain on the scene for all times to come.
(c) The process of social change does not remain uniform.
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Apart from the above characteristic features it may be said that social change can be qualitative
or quantitative. It is a value free term as it does imply any sense of good or bad, desirable or
undesirable. It is a concept distinct from evolution, process and development which are
regarded as key concepts in the literature of social change.
Factors of Social Change:

Social change takes place in all societies and in all periods of time. But here question arises
why does social change takes place? The word ‘Why’ represents the reasons, the causes or the
factors which are responsible for social change. From the discussion of the nature of social
change we know that there are some potential factors responsible for bringing social change.
Hence, it is multi-causal. Cause refers to a set of related factors which, taken together, are both
sufficient and necessary for the production of certain effect. Here it is necessary to take up each
factor by itself and to find out the way in which it affects social change. Some of these factors
are shown in the following diagram.
DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS:
Demography plays an important role in the process of social change. The term “demography”
has been derived from two Greek words, ‘Demos’ and ‘Graphs’ meaning the “people” and to
“draw” or “write” respectively. The dictionary meaning of demography is the scientific study
of human population, primarily with respect to their size, structure and their development.
In the study of social change demographic factors have been viewed from two different angles.
They are the qualitative and quantitative. Qualitatively speaking it refers to physical
potentialities, mental abilities etc. that are determined by genetic order, though the hereditary
quality of successive generation play some role in cultural determination, it cannot be ascribed
the place of a deterministic cause of social change. But the demographic factor in its
quantitative aspect has been playing the most decisive role in causing social change.
The quantitative view of demography takes into account, the size, composition and density of
human population that are determined by natural reproduction, migration and social mobility.
This aspect has been acknowledged by many past as well as modern thinkers. There are three
important factors that determine the rise, fall or density of population. They are:
(a) High Fertility (High Birth rate)
(b) Low Morality (Low Death Rate)
(c) Migration.
When there is high birth rate and the death rate is low, we find growth in population Let us
know few points regarding the causes of high birth rate. They are given in the following table.
(a) From the above table it is found that population increases due to illiteracy, popularity of
child marriage, widow remarriage, polygamy, craze for a male child, poverty and also because
of lack of proper implementation of family planning programmes. The fall in death rate has
also affected the growth of population.
There are many causes of low mortality or low death rate. They are modern education and
scientific knowledge to hygiene, better sanitation and therapeutic and preventive medicines,
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the increase of productivity which raises the standard of living, control of natural calamities,
control of nutrition of mother, maternity facilities etc.
(b) Excess growth of population accelerates the process of migration. Migration refers to the
process of movement of population from one place to another for considerable period of time.
It plays a significant role in population growth in the history for the past 100 years or more.
There are four forms of migration. They are:
(i) Immigration: It refers to migration into a country.
(ii) Emigration: It refers to migration of a country.
(iii) In-migration refers to migration into a particular area.
(iv) Out-migration refers to movement out of a particular area. Thus, migrants who come from
Bihar to Orissa are considered to be immigrants for Orissa and out-migrants for Bihar.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE PROCESS OF MIGRATION:
(a) Development of transport and communication.
(b) Natural calamities like earthquake, flood famine etc.
(c) Absence of restrictions on social mobility.
(d) Non-availability of land and vocational opportunities etc. So the changes in population have
a far-reaching effect on society. It has both positive and negative effects.
POSITIVE EFFECTS:
(a) The growth of population has a direct bearing upon the availability and utilisation of
resources.
(b) More population brings about more innovations and discoveries.
(c) It encourages rapid growth in industrialisation and urbanisation.
(d) The high birth rate and an alarming growth in population also stimulates attitude towards
birth, death and family life.
(e) Due to growth of population Acts are passed by the government for the control of
population. For example, in India due to rapid population growth, the government has
introduced family planning programmes.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS:
(a) The growth of population has decreased the standard of living of the people in the society.
(b) The growth of population has given birth to a variety of problems like poverty,
unemployment, child labor, crime, juvenile delinquency and beggary.
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(c) Increase in population leads to an increase of social differentiation and division of labor.
(d) It brings destructive social conflict and disorganization in migrants line.
(e) In the societies where the female population exceeds the male population, polygamy may
flourish and on the other hand, if the number of males exceeds the females, polyandry is likely
to prevail.
From the above discussion we find that demography plays a significant role in the socio-
economic and political transformation of society. It certainly brings drastic changes not only
in the micro- structures but also in macro-structures.
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS:
Social change is a complex process. It is caused by multiple factors. All factors of social change
are closely related to each other. But at the same time each individual factor brings change in
society in its own way. Accordingly biological factor plays an important role in the causation
of social change. An ordinarily biological factor refers to those which are concerned with the
genetic constitution of the human beings.
A biological factor includes both non-human beings such as animals, birds, herbs, insects,
plants etc. and human beings. Human beings use animals, birds, plants and herbs according to
the direction of his own culture. At the same time human beings protect themselves from
different harmful elements. If there is increase or decrease of these animals, birds, plants etc.
it will bring a number of changes in human society.
Rapid decline of useful animals, birds and plants will also create a number of problems in
human society and influences social change. Similarly rapid increase or decrease of population
also brings a number of changes in society. Different biological process like human
procreation, fertility and mortality also influence the rate of change in a society. Size, density,
Migration, immigration etc. bring a number of changes in society.
Rapid population growth influences our environment causes poverty, food shortage and
multiple health problems and thereby brings changes in society. Migration accelerate the
process of urbanization. Urbanization creates multiple problems like slum, quality of health
and life style. Increasing urbanization and declining number of useful animal and birds affects
our environment.
Similarly the nature and quality of human beings in a society influences the rate of social
change. Sociologist like pareto opines that the biological evolution of mankind brings social
changes. Elites in a society are determined by inherited biological instincts. Besides
composition of population also influences social change.
Both age composition and sex composition are very closely related to social change. Number
of population in the productive age group deeply influences the rate and speed of social change.
If the number of child and unproductive or ageing population increases, a country faces a
number of economic problems. If the number of ageing population decreases, the youths may
be deprived of wisdom and experience which resulted in slow change.
Besides the process of natural selection, social selection also affects the rate and speed of social
change. The process of natural selection works through twin alternatives like adaptation and
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annihilation. Here man is required to adapt to natural environment. But in social selection the
forces created within human society and operating through human relationships creates
situations that deeply affect the reproduction process and survival rates of population.
CULTURAL FACTORS:
In sociology the word ‘Culture’ denotes acquired behavior which are shared by and transmitted
among the members of the society. Man learns his behavior and behavior which is learnt is
called culture. Singing, dancing, eating, playing belong to the category of culture.
It includes all that man has acquired in the mental and intellectual sphere of his individual and
social life. It is the expression of our nature, in our modes of living and thinking, in our
everyday intercourse, in art, in literature, in recreation and enjoyment. For the clear
understanding of the term ‘Culture’ here, it is necessary to discuss some of the important
definitions of culture.
DEFINITIONS:
According to White, “Culture is a symbolic, continuous, cumulative and progressive process.”
Malinowski defines culture, “as the handiwork of man and as the medium through which he
achieves his end.”
Maclver and Page defines, “Culture is the realm of styles, of values, of emotional attachments,
of intellectual adventures.”
In the words of Green, “Culture is the socially transmitted system of idealized ways in
knowledge, practices and beliefs, along with the artifacts that knowledge and practice produce
and maintain as they change in time.”
Culture, as is defined by Tylor, refers to, “that complex whole which includes knowledge,
belief, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society.”
From the above definitions of culture, the features of culture may be summarized below. They
are:
(1) Culture is social, but not individual.
(2) Culture is idealistic.
(3) Culture is communicative.
(4) Culture is an acquired quality.
(5) Culture meets the recurring demand of mankind.
(6) Culture has the characteristics of adaptation.
(7) Culture has the quality of becoming integrated.

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Culture plays a very significant role in social change. No culture even remains constant. It
always keeps on changing. So it is treated as an important source or instrument of social change.
The very nature of culture makes it dynamic. The terms like continuous, cumulative adoptive,
transmissive etc. signify the elements of dynamism within the culture. Besides, there are host
of other internal and external variables that interact upon the culture and cause changes within
it.
Change in culture takes place by three important factors. They are discovery, invention and
diffusion. A discovery may be a material item or a non material item. But any discovery brings
about social change only when it is widely used. An invention generates pressure for change
in different parts of social life. Diffusion is the process by which cultural traits spread from one
culture to another or from one part of culture to another. It is a two-way process. Because in
this process one culture gives something to the other and at the same time takes something
from it.
Several sociologists have highlighted the determining role of culture effecting social change.
IMPORTANT EFFECTS OF CULTURE
(i) Culture gives speed and direction to social change:
If the culture is too much conservative, then its rate of change becomes too low and vice versa.
People whether accept change or not depends upon their attitudes and values which are the
products of the culture.
(ii) Culture influences the direction and character of technological change:
Our belief and social institutions not only correspond to the changes in technology but these
determine the use to which the technological inventions will be put. It is the culture that decides
the purpose to which a technical invention must be put.
(iii) Culture shapes economy and is effective towards economic growth:
Culture not only gives direction to technology but it shapes the economy which is too much
effective towards economic growth.
(iv) It keeps the social relationship intact:
It makes people think not of their own but also of the others. By regulating the behavior of the
people and satisfying their primary drives pertaining to hunger, shelter and sex, it has been able
to maintain group life.
CONCEPT OF CULTURAL LAG:
To examine the role of cultural factors in social change, it is necessary to discuss the concept
of “Cultural Lag”.
W.F. Ogburn, an American sociologist introduced the concept of ‘Cultural Lag’ in his book
“social change: which was published in the year 1920. The word ‘lag’ connotes crippled
movement. Hence cultural lag means the flatering of one aspect of culture behind another.
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According to Ogburn there are two aspects of culture. One is the material and another one is
the non-material.
(i) Material Culture:
It includes those elements or things which are tangible, visible and touchable like goods, tools,
machines and furnitures etc.
(ii) Non-material Culture:
It includes those elements which are neither tangible nor touchable rather these are experienced
by men like customs, values, ideologies, religion and behavior pattern etc.
It is found that technological innovations and discoveries stimulate the material culture to a
great extent. As a result, the changes are quick 4n material culture. But non-material culture
responds very slowly to such changes in material culture. So the material culture goes ahead
leaving behind the non-material culture. This is called the “cultural lag”. For example-The
development in the field of industry requires a corresponding change in the system of
education. The failure of education to meet the needs of modern industrial development leads
to cultural lag.
CAUSES OF CULTURAL LAG:
What is the cause of this cultural lag?
Regarding the answer we find many factors causing cultural lag.
They are:
(1)Difference in the degrees of changeability of various elements of culture.
(2)Changes in law.
(3)Man’s psychological dogmatism.
CRITICISMS:
The theory of ‘cultural lag’ of Ogburn is not free from the criticisms.
(a) There is no clear-cut distinction between material and non- material culture. Again, it is not
necessary that non-material culture should invariably lag behind material culture.
(b) A major defect in Ogburn’s theory is that he uses the “cultural lag” for expanding all gaps
in the process of social change. Maclver has suggested the use of different terms for the various
types of disequilibrium and conflicts, such as technological lag, technological restraint and
cultural clash etc.
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(c) According to the theory of cultural lag, while one thing progresses forward, another lags.
Hence this word should not be used in the context of those objects which are the encouraging
as well as the restraining and are similar and possess a common standard of evaluation.
(d) Finally Ogburn has not provided any standard or scale to measure the units of material and
non-material culture. So it is difficult to find out whether one aspect of culture changes faster
than the other or not.
In spite of the above short comings, the theory of “cultural lag” of Ogburn has been proved to
be beneficial for understanding the cultural factors in bringing about social change.
Technological Factors:
The technological factors also play important role in causing social change. Then what is
technology? How it brings social change?
In the study of sociology, technology has a wider connotation. It implies an appropriate

organization and systematic application of scientific knowledge to meet the human
requirements. Technology is a product of utilization. When the scientific knowledge is applied
to the problems of life, it becomes technology. Technology is fast growing. Modern age is the
“Age of Technology”.
According to W.F. Ogburn, “Technology changes society by changing our environments to

which we In turn adopt. This change is usually in the material environment and the adjustment
that we make with these changes often modifies customs and social institution initiates a
corresponding social change.
Sources of Technological Change:
There are mainly two important sources of technological change. They are:
(i) Inventions.
(ii) Discovery.
(i) Invention denotes creation of new ways of using existing knowledge or new ways of
combining existing artifacts. A single invention in technology can produce a large scale change
in society. One important example of invention is the invention of automobile.
(ii) Discovery means the new way of looking at the environment. Technological innovation
originates also from another source called discovery.
Example-Discovery of modern medicines is the result of discoveries in biology and partly the
result of invention.
Invention and discovery are significant characteristic of our age. Apart from these two, there
are three technological factors which are mainly responsible for social change.
They are:
(a) Technological Innovations.

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(b) Changes in production technology.
(c) Changes in transportation and communication.
(a) Technological Innovations:
The technological innovations have brought about revolutionary changes in man’s idea about
the world and universe. The world is no more a mysterious creation for man because even in
case of the natural calamities like flood, cyclone, earthquake and drought etc. are no more being
viewed as the divine punishments against man’s bad deeds. No man has been able to find out
their causes. As a result of which the degree of gaining control over them has increased.
(b) Changes in production technology:
Invention of new agricultural tools and chemical measures has led to the gradual development
of an agrarian system. Industrialization has caused a number of changes in family, status of
women, mode of living of people, religion and ideologies of people etc. It has also led to the
growth of urban centers with new types of social organization.
(c) Changes in transportation and communication:
Rapid development in transportation and communication has greatly influenced the socio-
cultural life. It has broken down the regional barriers. Due to transportation world wide trade
and commerce has been possible and communication technology has increased national
awakening.
Apart from the above factors, cultural factors play significant role in bring about technological
change. Customs, traditions, folkways, mores habits, conservatism etc. have resisted the
technological inventions and contribute to it.
Effects of Technology:
No device, technological or otherwise, whether originating within a society or borrowed from

outside, obviously set up a network of effects. The status of the individual is no more ascribed
rather achieved. A man is judged in what he has, not what he is.
The social relation is gradually becoming superficial, temporary as well as selfish by nature.
Changes in technology have resulted in some fundamental changes in social structure. The
impact of technological changes may be discussed under the following broad headings.
Technology and Different Process:
(a) Industrialisation:
Industrialisation refers to the process by which industries have been set up. It has given birth
to the factory system and replaced domestic system. The invention of machines has led to the
creation of big factories which employ thousands of people and where most of the work is
performed automatically. It has created new social class and has improved the condition of
women. It has affected the nature, character and the growth of economy.
(b) Urbanization:
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Industrialisation has led to urbanization. As a result of industrialisation people have started

moving towards the industrial areas, the areas neither very far from the cities nor from the
villages with the hope of getting employment in those industries and factories. Hence only
when a large portion of inhabitants in an area comes to cities, urbanization is said to occur.
Towns like Kanpur, Jamshedpur and Ahmadabad in India owe their birth to the factories
established there.
(c) Modernization:
It is a process by which adoption of the modern ways of life and values take place. It has
brought about remarkable changes in social relationship and installed new ideologies in the
place of traditional areas. It has changed the social structure, which adds impetus to the growth
of science and technology. As a result of which the rate of change increases rapidly.
Technology and Social Life:
The changes in technology have changed the whole gamut of social life. It has performally
altered out modes of life and thought. The different institutions which are already changed may
be discussed below one by one. They are:
(a) Caste:
Due to technological changes the structure as well as the functions of caste are already changed.
(i) The ascribed status has been replaced by achieved status.
(ii) There is no restriction on food, water as well as social relationship.
(iii) Marriage under caste system is no more endogamous.
(iv) Hereditary occupational structure has been replaced by occupation based on one’s own
choice depending on one’s own capacity, ability and talent.
(b) Joint Family:
Indian traditional family which was purely of joint pattern has started changing its size,
structure and functions by the impact of technology.
(i) Change in its unity and natural co-operation of its members.
(ii) Change in the control and rub of Karta.
(iii) Fragmentation of land or distribution of common property.
(iv) It has lost its importance and has started disintegrating day by day.
(c) Marriage:
Marriage is an important institution which has been undergoing tremendous changes due to the
impact of technology.
(i) It has lost its sanctity.

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(ii) It is treated more as a civil contract than a sacred bond.
(iii) It is becoming more and more unstable.
(iv) The rate of divorce is increasing rapidly day by day.
(d) Religion:
Religion has undergone the following changes.
(i) The role of superstition has been declined.
(ii) People are becoming more and more secular, rational and scientific in their outlook.
(iii) Conservative or orthodox religious activities have been replaced by simple activities.
(iv) The religious toleration among the people has been destroyed.
(e) State:
State have undergone the following changes.
(i) State have become secular in nature.
(ii) There is a shift of functions from local government to the central government of the whole
state.
(iii) Modern inventions have strengthened nationalism.
(iv) It has increased the size and power of bureaucracy.

Technology and Economic Life:
Technology has altered man’s economic life in many ways.
(a) War:
The highly dangerous effect of technology is evident through war. The most spectacular
invention of our age, the atomic energy, has vastly influenced our life. As an agent of war, it
brought about the most appalling annihilation of people in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. As an
agent of peace it may bring an unprecedented era of plenty and prosperity.
(b) Transportation and Communication:
Great technological advancement have contributed significantly to the field of transportation

and communication. The means of transport has progressed at a surprising rate. The
intermixing of people belonging to various countries led to the removal of much
misunderstanding, hatred and jealously. It has encouraged the sense of universal brotherhood.
The introduction of machinery into industry, news paper, radio, television, telephone, telegraph
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etc. have facilitated the spread of new principles and have become propaganda machines for
political parties.
(c) Agriculture:
Changes in technology have led to the development of new techniques in agriculture.

Agricultural production is increased due to the use of modern equipments, improved seeds in
quantity and quality. Hence it has greatly affected the rural community. As India is
predominantly an agricultural country, its future depends upon the progress of agriculture.
From the above analysis we come to know that with the development of technology changes
in different areas are constantly increasing and these are becoming more stable.
PROCESS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
The above is a dramatic example of social change that illustrates many of the characteristics of
this concept. The process of social change has four primary characteristics:
Social change happens all the time. Not every social change will be as dramatic as 9/11. One
clear way we can see social change happening is through technology. It seems that even the
newest technology is outdated a few days after you purchase it! Not all changes occur as fast
as technology - some changes (and societies) are much slower to adapt to change.
Social change is sometimes intentional, but oftentimes unplanned. Industrial societies such as
the United States actively promote many kinds of change. While many dreamed of the day
when cell phones would be commonplace, very few could have imagined all the consequences
that were created as a result of that one device.
Social change is controversial. One only has to look at the various equal rights movements to
see that social change, oftentimes, involves controversy. Even the various changes set into
motion because of 9/11 were controversial in nature - many of you will remember the various
debates surrounding the passing of the Patriot Act.
Some changes matter more than others. Changes in hairstyles and clothing patterns (while
embarrassing when looking at old pictures) carry little significance in the 'big picture'. Other
changes, such as the invention of the automobile, computer, and cell phone changed the way
the world interacts.
CAUSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE:

There are three major ways that culture produces social change. Invention produces new ideas,
objects, and social patterns. The invention of the personal computer is a good example.
Discovery is when people take note of existing elements of the world and create new social
patterns. While the personal computer was an invention, consider all of the different ways we
have discovered to use it. Where would we be without the internet? Finally, diffusion occurs
as these products, ideas and social patterns spread from on society to another. How boring
would our food choices be without diffusion?
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SOCIAL CONTROL
1. INFORMAL MEANS
The informal means of social control grow themselves in society. No special agency is required
to create them. The Brahmins do not take meat. They take meals only after bath. The Jains do
not take curd. They take their dinner before sunset. The Hindu women do not smoke. One can
marry only in one's caste. The children should respect their parents. All this is due to informal
social control. It is exercised through customs, traditions, folkways, modes, religion, ridicule
etc. Informal control prevails over all the aspects of man's life.
However, it is said that people are not afraid of informal social control. Yet informal means of
social control are very powerful particularly in primary groups. No man wants to suffer loss of
prestige. He does not want to become the target of ridicule. He does not want to be laughed at
by the people. He does not want to be socially boycotted. On the other hand, he wants praise,
appreciation, honor and recognition by the society. Thus, informal means, like praise, ridicule,
boycott etc. effectively control his behavior. Moreover, the child through the process of
socialization learns to conform to the norms of group. A person with socialized attitudes would
not do any work, which is socially harmful. Thus, socialization also exercises an influence over
him.
Now we may describe briefly the important means of informal control.
(I) Belief- Belief is a conviction that a particular thing is true. It is primarily of five kinds.
(a) The belief in the existence of an unseen power;
(b) The belief in the theory of Ye-incarnation,
(c) The belief in Nemesis, the Goddess of Vengeance,
(d) The belief in the existence of hell and heaven and,
(e) The belief in the immortality and soul.
All these different beliefs influence man's behavior in society. The first belief in the existence
of an unseen power leads a man to right actions because he believes that his actions are being
watched by an unseen power. The second belief in the theory of reincarnation keeps the man
away from wrongful acts because he believes that in order to have a good birth in next he must
do good, acts in this life. The third belief in the Goddess of Vengeance also regulates man's
behavior because he believes that he will be punished by the goddess of Vengeance for his sins.
A sinner is punished here and now. The Fourth belief in the existence of hell and heaven
influences a man to virtuous acts and avoid sins in order to go to heaven or avoid going to hell
after death. Heaven is place full of luxuries, fairies and romance. Hell is a place of terror,
miseries and tortures. The fifth belief in the immortality of soullend man to avoid such actions
as will cause pain to the soul of the deceased ancestors.
In this way, beliefs are powerful influences on human actions. They are vital for human
relations. They define the purposes and interests for the individual and control his choice of
means so that the purposes of the groups may be advanced of at least not hundred. No aspect
of social relationship escapes them. Beliefs may be false. They may be founded on factual or
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faculty evidence. But the question of their validity does not necessarily determine their
effectiveness of social controls, we act with as much determination from false beliefs as from
factually second ones.
Social Suggestions:
Social suggestions are also powerful means of social control. Suggestion is the indirect
communication may be made through various methods. The first method is putting the life
examples of great men. We celebrate the anniversaries of Mahatma Gandhi and Lal Bahadur
Sastri, We build monument in the memory of great men. We place their ideals before the people
and exhort them to follow these ideas. The second method of making suggestion is through
literature Books, Journals, newspapers etc. may inspire people to heroic deeds and develop in
them national feeling. The literature may also make people narrow minded conservative and
superstitious. These types of literature will indirectly influence his mind and consequently his
behavior. The third method is through education. The educational curriculum may
communicate certain ideas to the students and make them discipline citizens. The fourth
method is through advertisement. Many magazines carry beautiful advertisements depicting
the advantages of visiting certain places and suggesting the prestige attached to traveling to
these places. The advertisements from Radio. Ceylon may attract the people to Binaca
toothpaste. Many of our business enterprises employ advertising to influence-attitudes and
therefore, action. Suggestions may be conscious or unconscious. It may also be intentional or
unintentional.
Ideologies:
Ideology is a theory of social life, which interprets social realities from the point of view of
deals to prove the correctness of the analysis and to justify these ideals. It is the projection of
a certain ideal. Leninism, Gandhism and Fascism are ideologies, which have analyzed social
realities and laid down an ideal before the people. Ideologies influence social life to a very deep
extent. Leninism-had influenced the social life of Russians. Hitler's theory of socialism
influenced the German to the extent that they began to regard themselves as the supreme race
of the world. Gandhism has influenced social life in India. In the world we today, find a conflict
of ideologies. The conflict between U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. is a conflict of capitalism and
communism. The history of man has been one of struggle among conflicting ideologies.
Ideologies are powerful dynamic forces of contemporary social life. They satisfy the need of
all men to believe in a system of though that is rigorous. They express the vital interests of
social groups and satisfy their desire for a scheme of social betterment. They stimulate action.
They provide a set of values. They are motivators of social action. They make life meaningful.
The success of any ideology, as an effective means of social control depends on many factors.
Some of these factors are its completeness and coherence, its vision of the future is its ability
to hold men's imaginations, its consistency and its ability to meet criticism.
Folkways:
Folkways are the recognized modes of behavior, which arise automatically with a group. They
are the behavior patterns of every day life, which arise spontaneously and unconsciously in a
group. They are in general the habits of the individual and are common to a group. They are
socially approved. They have some degree of traditional sanction. It is not easy for the members
of a group to violate the folkways. They are the foundation of group culture. If an individual
does not follow them he may be socially boycotted by his group. A particular dress must be
worn at a particular function. The Brahmins shall not take meat. The Jains should not take curd.
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The Hindu women should not smoke. Since folkways become a matter of habit, therefore, these
are followed unconsciously and exercise powerful influence over man's behaviour in society.
Modes:
Modes are those folkways, which are considered by the group to be of great significance, rattier
indispensable to its welfare. The modes related to the fundamental needs of society more
directly than do the folkways. They express the group sense of what is right and conducive to
social welfare. They imply a value judgment about the folkways. Modes arc always molding
human behavior. They restrain an individual from doing acts considered as wrong by his group.
They are the instruments of control. In society, there are innumerable modes like to monogamy,
prohibition, endogamy, antislavery etc. Conformity to modes is regarded necessary. It is
essential for the members of the group to conform to them. Behavior contrary to them is not
permitted by society. Certain modes may even be harmful for the physical well-being of an
individual, yet these must be obeyed. Thus, mode control man's behavior in society to a very
great extent.
Customs:
Customs are the long established habits and usages of the people. They are those folkways and
modes, which have persisted for a very long time and have passed down from one generation
to another. They arise spontaneously and gradually. There is no constituted authority to declare
them to apply them or to safeguard them. They are accepted by society. They are followed
because they have been followed in the past. The importance of custom as a means of social
control cannot be minimized. They are so powerful that no one can escape their range. They
regulate social life to a great extent. They bind men together. They control the purely selfish
impulses. They compel the individual to conform to the accepted standards. They are held so
sacred that any violation of them is regarded not only a crime but also a sacrilege. In primitive
customs are main agencies of social control but in modern times their force has loosened.
Religion:
Religion also exercises a powerful influence upon man's behavior in society. The term religion
has numerous definitions. Religion is an attitude towards super human powers. It is a belief in
powers superior to man. It expresses itself in several forms like superstition, animism,
totemism, magic ritualism and fetishism. Religion pervades practically in all the societies,
though there may be different forms of religious beliefs and practices. The Hindu religion gives
great importance to ceremonies. At the time of birth, marriage arid death a number of
ceremonies is performed. Mantras are recited even if one does not understand their meaning.
Religion is a powerful agency in society. It influences man's behavior. Children should obey
their parents, should not tell a lie or cheat, women should be faithful to man, people should be
honest and virtuous and should limit one's desires, man should renounce unsocial activities are
some of the teaching of religion which influence man's behavior. Men should do good acts is
a common teaching of all the religion. Religion makes people benevolent, charitable,
forbearing and truthful. It may also be noted that religion may easily be destroyed into
superstition and dogmatism instead of being an incentive to ethical idealism. Religion may be,
used to make people be used their lot obedience to their rules and defenders of status quo. It
may deny freedom of thought. It may favor poverty exploitation and idleness and encourage
practices like cannibalism, slavery, untouchability, communalism and even incest.
Art and Literature

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Art in its narrow sense includes painting, sculpture, architecture, music and dance. Literature -
includes poetry, dream and fiction. Both art and literature influence the imagination and exert
control on human behavior. The marital music of the military band arouses feeling of
determination and strength. A classical dance creates in us an appreciation of our culture. The
statute of Mahatma Gandhi teaches us the virtue of simple living and high thinking. A painting
may arouse in us a feeling of sympathy, affection and hatred. There is always a close
relationship between the national lives. The civilization of any specified time can be judged by
an examination of its arts. Artists have been called an agent of civilization.
Literature also influences human behavior in society. We have 'good' literature and 'bad'
literature. A good literature possesses an indefinable quality which makes it live through the
ages, Ramayana, Bhagvadgita and Mahabharat are classical work of great social value. On the
other hand, detective literature may have its effect on crime. Romantic literature may make the
reader passionate while religious literature may make them virtuous or superistituous.
Rousseau1 in France has tended the French Revolution. Dickens changed the entire school
system in Britain by writing David Copperfield and other of his books. In this way, both art
and literature exert control through their influence on the imagination.
Humor and Satire:
Humor is also a means of social control. It assumes various forms depending upon the situation
and purpose. It often serves to relieve a tense situation. Sometimes it is used with a bad
intention to deflate others without a reason. It also used to gain a favorable response. Humor
controls by supporting the sanctioned values of the society. Through cartoons, comics and
reports it can support the values of the society in a form that is light in spirit but effective in
control.
Satire employs wit and scorn as indirect criticism of actions felt to be vicious and socially
harmful. It exposes by ridicule the falsity and danger of behavior. There by it causes the people
to give up their vicious and harmful actions.
Public Opinion
The influence of public opinion as a means of social control is greater in simple societies. In a
village, the people are known to one another personally. It is difficult for a villager to act
contrary to the public opinion of the village. Public opinion greatly influences our actions. For
fear of public ridicule and criticism, we do not indulge in immoral antisocial activities. Every
individual wants to win public praise and avoid public ridicule or criticism. The desire for
recognition is a natural desire. We want count for something in the eyes of our fellowmen.
Human praise is the sweetest music. The greatest efforts of the human race are directly
traceable to the love of praise. Persons behave according to social norms to win public
recognition or at least to avoid public ridicule. Thus, public opinion is one of the strongest
forces influencing the behavior of people.
2. FORMAL MEANS
Among the formal means of social control, the importance ones are law, education and
coercion. A brief explanation of these means follow,
Law:
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Law is the most important formal means of social control. Early societies depended upon
informal means of social control but when societies grew in size or in complexity, they were
compelled to formulate rules and regulations, which define the types of behavior and specify
the penalties to be imposed upon those who violate them. Law is a body of rules enacted by
legally authorized bodies and enforced by punishments for their violation. The modem societies
are large in size. Informal means of social control are longer, sufficient to maintain social order
and harmony. Therefore, modern societies had to resort to formal means of social control.
Education:
Along with law, the importance of education as a means of social control is being growingly
realized. Education is a process of socialization. It prepares the child, for a social living. It
reforms the attitudes wrongly formed by the children already. Thus, a family may make the
child superstitious, education will1 correct his beliefs and remove his prejudices. It teaches him
value of discipline, social co-operation, tolerance and sacrifice. It instills in him the qualities
of honesty, fair play and a sense of right and wrong. The importance, of education for creating
right social attitudes among the youth cannot be minimized. It is to note that education in India
has miserably failed to create right social attitudes among the youth of the country and act as
an effective means, of social control.
Coercion:
Coercion is the use of force to achieve a desired end. It may be physical or non-violent. It is
the ultimate means of social control when all other means failed. Physical coercion may take
the form of bodily injury, imprisonment and death penalty. Physical coercion is without doubt
the lowest form of the social control. Societies would least desire to use it. It may have
immediate effects upon the offender but it does not have enduring effects. If a society has to
depend on external force, it shows its weakness rather than .strength in social control. Society's
best protection lies in the development of its citizens.
Non-violent coercion consists of the strike, the boycott non-co-operation. A person, who
threatens to withdraw his support to a friend if he does not give up smoking, is using non-
violent coercion to change his action. The students may go on strike to force the principal
withholding of social or economic intercourse with others to express disapproval and to force
acceptance of demands. A student who teases the girls may be socially boycotted by the other
students of the college. Non co-operation is refusal to co-operate. The teachers may refuse to
co-operate with the principal for his insulting behavior. Nonviolent coercion can be a
successful way of effecting social control. Mahatma Gandhi used it to force the British
Government to grant political independence to India.
"Social Integration"
Social integration is a dynamic and principled process in which societies engage to advance
social development. The aim of social integration is to create a society for all based on non-
discrimination, tolerance, respect for diversity, equality of opportunity, solidarity, security and
participation of all people irrespective of race, class, age, ethnicity, cultural background,
political and religious beliefs and other differences.
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Social Integration can be seen as a dynamic and principled process where all members
participate in dialogue to achieve and maintain peaceful social relations. Social integration does
not mean coerced assimilation or forced integration.
Social Integration and system integration These terms were first coined by the British
sociologist David Lockwood.
Social integration refers to the principles by which individuals or actors are related to one
another in a society; system integration refers to the relationships between parts of a society or
social system.
Durkheim believed that society exerted a powerful force on individuals. According to
Durkheim, people's norms, beliefs, and values make up a collective consciousness, or a shared
way of understanding and behaving in the world.
The collective consciousness binds individuals together and creates social integration.
Durkheim saw increasing population density as a key factor in the advent of modernity. As the
number of people in a given area increase, so does the number of interactions, and the society
becomes more complex.
As people engage in more economic activity with neighbors or distant traders, they begin to
loosen the traditional bonds of family, religion, and moral solidarity that had previously
ensured social integration. Durkheim worried that modernity might herald the disintegration of
society.
Simpler societies are based on mechanical solidarity, in which self-sufficient people are
connected to others by close personal ties and traditions. Modern societies are based on organic
solidarity, in which people are connected by their reliance on others in the division of labor.
Although modern society may undermine the traditional bonds of mechanical solidarity, it
replaces them with the bonds of organic solidarity.
In the Elementary Forms of Religious Life, Durkheim presented a theory of the function of
religion in aboriginal and modern societies and described the phenomenon of collective
effervescence and collective consciousness.
Durkheim has been called a structural functionalist because his theories focus on the function
certain institutions (e.g., religion) play in maintaining social solidarity or social structure.
Organic versus Mechanical Solidarity

Further, Durkheim argued, the organic solidarity of modern societies might have advantages
over traditional mechanical solidarity. In traditional societies, people are self-sufficient, and
therefore society has little need for cooperation and interdependence. Institutions that require
cooperation and agreement must often resort to force and repression to keep society together.
Traditional mechanical solidarity may tend, therefore, to be authoritarian and coercive. In
modern societies, under organic solidarity, people are necessarily much more interdependent.
Specialization and the division of labor require cooperation. Thus, solidarity and social
integration are necessary for survival and do not require the same sort of coercion as under
mechanical solidarity.
In organic solidarity, the individual is considered vitally important, even sacred. In organic
solidarity, the individual, rather than the collective, becomes the focus of rights and
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responsibilities, the center of public and private rituals holding the society together—a function
once performed by the religion. To stress the importance of this concept, Durkheim talked of
the "cult of the individual. " However, he made clear that the cult of the individual is itself a
social fact, socially produced; reverence for the individual is not an inherent human trait, but a
social fact that arises in certain societies at certain times .
What is Anomie?
Anomie, as mentioned above, can be simply called as normlessness. Norm is a socially

accepted value and citizens in a community are required to adhere to the norm system of that
particular society. Norms make people live easier with each other because everybody may have
predictable behavioral patterns if they follow the required norms. This concept of Anomie was
introduced by theFrench sociologist, Emile Durkheim, and he sees this as a breakdown of
social regulations. According to Durkheim, in an anomic situation, there can be a mismatch
between the wider social etiquette and the individual or a group who do not follow this
standard. This anomic situation is created by the individual himself and not a natural condition.
Durkheim further states that anomie can lead to the suicide as well when the individual finds it
difficult to hold on to the community accepted values and ethics. When a person becomes
anomic, there is a psychological influence on him when he feels futility and purposelessness in
life. This will end up him/her being in despair and distress. Durkheim talked about a situation
called Anomic suicide that occurs when an individual’s lifestyle becomes unstable due to
breakdown of social norms.
What is Alienation?
When we look at the term Alienation, it also depicts a state of human beings. Alienation, in
simpler terms can be noted as the feeling of estrangement from an individual to another
individual or from an individual to a particular community itself. When talking about
alienation, Karl Marx’s “Theory of Alienation” should be taken into consideration. Marx
described the alienation in capitalist society, taking workers as examples. For example, a
worker becomes alienated from the objects produced because these objects are not his own
creations but just the orders from the employer. Thus, the worker does not feel a sense of
belongings to the object. Moreover, he/she can become alienated from him/herself since they
work long hours a day without having a single minute for themselves. So, there can be
alienation in humanity. Likewise, Marx introduced mainly four types of alienations in a
capitalistic society. However, alienation can occur in any type of society when there is a lack
of integration and lack of belongingness towards each other.
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SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
THE CONCEPT
Social institutions are usually conceived of as the basic focuses of social organization, common
to all societies and dealing with some of the basic universal problems of ordered social life.
Three basic aspects of institutions are emphasized. First, the patterns of behavior which are
regulated by institutions (“institutionalized") deal with some perennial, basic problems of any
society. Second, institutions involve the regulation of behavior of individuals in society
according to some definite, continuous, and organized patterns. Finally, these patterns involve
a definite normative ordering and regulation; that is, regulation is upheld by norms and by
sanctions which are legitimized by these norms.
These elements of institutions have been emphasized, in varied fashion, by most of the existing
definitions (see, for instance, Gouldner & Gouldneh 1963). Therefore, it is tentatively
suggested that institutions or patterns of institutionalization can be defined here as regulative
principles which organize most of the activities of individuals in a society into definite
organizational patterns from the point of view of some of the perennial, basic problems of any
society or ordered social life.
Major institutional spheres

It is the basic “points of view” discussed above which have delineated the major institutional
spheres or activities in all societies. Again, in the literature there seems to be a relatively high
degree of consensus as to the nature of these spheres.
There is the sphere of family and kinship, which focuses on the regulation of the procreative
and biological relations between individuals in a society and on the initial socialization of the
new members of each generation. The sphere of education extends from the family and kin
relationships and deals with the socialization of the young into adults and the differential
transmission of the cultural heritage of a society from generation to generation. The sphere of
economics regulates the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
within any society. The political sphere deals with the control of the use of force within a
society and the maintenance of internal and external peace of the boundaries of the society, as
well as control of the mobilization of resources for the implementation of various goals and the
articulation and setting up of certain goals for the collectivity. The sphere of cultural institutions
deals with the provision of conditions which facilitate the creation and conservation of cultural
(religious, scientific, artistic) artifacts and with their differential distribution among the various
groups of a society. Last, there is the sphere of stratification, which regulates the differential
distribution of positions, rewards, and resources and the access to them by the various
individuals and groups within a society.
Institutional principles
Institutions are very close to, but not identical with, groups or roles that are organized around
special societal goals or functions. Thus, not only are the principles of political regulation
effective with regard to those groups whose major function is some kind of political activity—
be it administration or mobilization of power—but they also regulate various aspects of groups
whose predominant goal or function is economic, cultural, or educational. Similarly, principles
of economic regulation also organize various aspects of groups or roles that are predominantly
cultural or political. The same applies to any institutional sphere with regard to any other group
or role within the society.
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Institutional units and resources

However, there exist in each society definite groups and roles which deal predominantly with
one of the major institutional problem areas. These groups tend to have some structural “core”
characteristics, which are explainable in terms of their major institutional function or
placement. Thus, for instance, small kinship-structured domestic groups with reproductive,
sex-regulating, and socialization functions (which are not necessarily any particular type of the
nuclear family) seem to constitute the basic units of the familial institutional sphere (see Levy
& Fallers 1959). Similarly, each such institutional sphere has its own specific resources, such
as labor, commodities, or money in the economic sphere or support and identification in The
political sphere (Parsons & Smelser 1956; Parsons 1964).
It is thus one of the major concerns of the comparative study of institutions to analyze the extent
to which different societal goals or functions are performed by the same or by different groups.
[SeeSocial INSTITUTIONS, article onCOMPARATIVE STUDY.]
Explanation of institutionalized behavior

Although the basic institutions can be found in one form or another in every society, societies
vary greatly in the concrete regulative principles upheld by any such institutions. They vary
especially in the more specific “partial” institutional crystallizations, such as various ritual
ceremonies or bodies of customs, on the one hand, and bodies of folkloristic traditions or styles
of art, on the other. These concrete institutional principles and structures may vary in the extent
of their universality; that is, the extent to which they can be found within a wide range of
societies, the extent to which they are spread within any given society, and the extent to which
they are institutionalized.
The existence of institutions, both as regulative patterns and as basic institutional spheres (but
not necessarily of any specific type of institutional principle or organization), has been
considered as given in the very nature of society. Institutions constitute a part of the basic
definition of society and are concomitant with the very existence of ordered social life (Parsons
1964).
Thus, institutionalized behavior can be seen as the most general evolutionary universal in the
history of human society. It constitutes one of the basic emergent qualities of human, as distinct
from prehuman, society. However, there are few adequate explanations of the ways in which
these patterns of normatively regulated behavior first arose.
Functionalist explanations
The emergence of institutions in the history of human society, the presumed universality of
some structural forms (for example, the incest taboo) as well as variations in the different
concrete institutional forms in various societies (for example, the development of a market
economy as compared with a barter economy) have been explained in several ways. One rather
common explanation is in terms of the needs of individuals and of societies ( “societal needs")
and of their interrelations. Thus, institutions (both institutions in general and varying concrete
institutional patterns in particular) are explained as providing for such presumed needs and
assuring the survival of the society and the adequate functioning of individuals within it.
Thus, for instance, Claude Levi-Strauss (1949) explains the prevalence of cross-cousin
marriage in terms of the “survival” or the “best adaptation” of society. Homans and Schneider
(1955) criticize this explanation mainly in terms of the inadequacy of such a “final-cause
theory” of social behavior; they argue for the preferability or necessity of explaining such
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marriage arrangements in terms of the “efficient causes” of certain types of individuals’ needs,
engendered by the specific social or kinship structure within which these individuals act.
Other common explanations—especially of various concrete institutional patterns—have been
couched in terms of needs of other institutions; of broad sociodemographic and technological
trends, or what can be called “ecosystems,” and conditions; or of some basic, universal
psychological laws governing human behavior. A specific concrete institutional pattern (for
example, political or economic) has been explained as being conditioned or necessitated by or
congruent with the “needs” and prerequisites of the functioning of certain organized systems
in other institutional spheres (cultural, familial, etc. ) or as emerging from some broad
ecological or demographic condition.
Thus, for instance, Fortes and Evans-Pritchard (1940), in their introduction to African Political
Systems, explained the difference between segmentary and centralized African political
systems in terms of certain broad demographic trends, such as relative density of population,
as well as in terms of the propinquity of certain kinship and family institutions to each of these
types of political structures. Similarly, the development of feudal or patrimonial political
systems has often been explained either in terms of some basic economic-ecologic condition
(such as barter or “natural” economy) or in terms of the “needs” of political or cultural
institutions (Hintze 1929; Coulborn 1956). The institutional patterns of pastoral nomadism
have often been explained in terms of the ecological pattern of the steppe (Lattimore 1940),
and those of the “ports of trade” in terms of the total ecological-political constitution of their
hinterland (Chapman 1957; Arnold 1957).
An explanation of institutional patterns in terms of psychological tendencies or in terms of a
combination of psychological tendencies and sociostructural laws can be found in George
Murdoch’s analysis (1949) of kinship nomenclature and settlement, which combines various
principles of psychoanalysis, learning theory, and some elementary postulates of structural
anthropology. A similar attempt is Swanson’s analysis of religious beliefs in terms of
psychological responses to the exigencies or problems inherent in or derived from different
patterns of social settlements (1960).
Various partial institutions, that is, bodies of customs and folklore such as initiation rites or
patterns of sorcery, have often been explained in terms of their gratification of various needs
or their resolution of psychological conflicts which develop between the members of society;
this approach is typical of the “culture and personality” school. The conflicts are seen as
developing primarily from the encounter between the institutional setting of the society,
especially as it is mediated through the process of socialization (Whiting 1954; Whiting et al.
1958), and the individual’s basic needs or innate predispositions, or as conflicts between
different societal norms and institutions.
Shortcomings of functionalist approach

All these varied explanations, however fruitful they may be as starting points for an explanation
of institutions in general or institutional patterns in particular, do not provide adequate
explanations. Insofar as they attempt to deal with the general emergence of institutions, they
usually do not go beyond the mere restatement of the basic emergent quality of institutions,
which is intrinsic to the very nature of human society. Insofar as they attempt to explain
institutional variations in terms of individual or societal needs, they tend to explain the
particular by the more general. Insofar as any concrete institutional constellation is explained
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in terms of its relation to the “needs” of other institutional spheres, such explanations are
usually ad hoc and not subsumed under more-general principles. Explanations in terms of
ecological or demographic settings or “laws” are also usually couched in ad hoc terms.
Attempts to formulate more-general laws usually fall into the fallacy of the older, deterministic
geographical schools and cannot account for the possibility of a great variety of institutional
responses to similar ecological conditions (for a criticism of all these approaches that is still
methodologically valid, see Sorokin 1928).
In general, such explanations evince several weaknesses from the analytical and
methodological points of view. The first weak point of such analysis has been the assumption
of the uniformity or homogeneity of any given institution within a society. Moreover, the
explanation of any given institutional form by reference to the needs of individuals and society
necessitates the clear distinction between the needs of individuals and those of society;
however, most of the existing analyses rarely specify either the ways through which various
specific needs of different groups are articulated within a society or the ways by which
presumably societal types of activities take their place in the social structure. Still less do they
specify the ways and mechanisms through which the two types of needs become linked.
In addition, these analyses tend to assume that such needs must be fulfilled. They fail to
investigate the degree to which they are satisfied and the conditions that facilitate or impede
satisfaction. Most of these explanations lack full explication of the different possibilities or
alternative solutions to the problems or needs which are generated in a given society and of the
conditions under which any single solution tends to develop.
Finally, most of these analyses do not specify the ways in which both such needs and their
relations to various structural arrangements may change. They usually assume that the same
conditions which explain the initial development or crystallization of a given institutional
pattern also necessarily explain its continuity. Hence, most of these analyses do not deal
explicitly with the processes of change of institutions, especially the ways in which a given
institutional arrangement may become defunct.
Interaction and exchange

Despite their deficiencies, all the varied explanations of institutions can serve as starting points
for analyses of institutions, institutional variability, and processes of institutionalization.
Perhaps the most important insight to be derived from these explanations is that the analysis of
any concrete institutional pattern has to start from the existence of institutional arrangements
as inherent in the very nature of human society; any such concrete pattern is the result of the
interactions between people placed in different structural positions and between the pressures
of organizational and other environmental forces as they impinge on these activities. This
indicates the possibility of viewing processes of institutionalization as processes of exchange
between different persons, groups, organizations, and spheres within a society (for various
analyses of institutions in such terms, see L&vi-Strauss 1949; 1958; Homans 1961; 1962;
Eisenstadt 1965).
Analyzing exchange processes

In order to attempt such analysis, it is necessary to specify, first, between whom such exchange
takes place; second, the commodities exchanged; and last, the patterns and mechanisms and
conditions of such an exchange or exchanges.
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The answer to the first question seems to be easy. Institutional interaction and exchange take
place between different people or groups who find it useful, from the point of view of the
implementation of their varied goals, to undertake processes of exchange with other people.
But the individuals or groups who engage in such exchange are not randomly distributed in the
society. Such exchange takes place between people placed in structurally different positions,
that is, in different cultural, political, family or economic positions, which in themselves may
be outcomes of former processes of institutional exchange. Their very aspirations and goals are
greatly influenced by their differential structural placements and their prior organizational
settings. Similarly, the resources which are at their disposal—such as manpower, money,
political support or religious identification—are determined by these institutional positions and
vary according to the specific characteristics of the different institutional spheres. These
resources serve as means for the implementation of various individual goals, and they may in
themselves become goals or objects of individual endeavors. But resources always evince some
tendency to become organized in specific autonomous ways, according to the specific features
of their different institutional spheres; this can be seen, for instance, in the fact that in any
society the exchange of economic resources is organized in different ways than is the exchange
of political or religious resources.
Institutionalized commodities
Institutional resources differ in many ways from those types of commodities, such as attitudes
and individual sentiments and activities, which are exchanged in purely interpersonal, “face-
to-face” relations (contrast Romans 1961, chapter 18). Several differences are of special
importance. One such difference is that institutionalized commodities have, even within a
primitive society, in which the scope of their flow and exchange is relatively restricted and
fixed, a much wider scope of generality (that is, applicability to wider sets of situations), and
they are relatively interchangeable between different groups and in different situations in the
society. Thus, for instance, bridewealth, whether in the form of cattle or right in land, is
composed of commodities which can be used (that is, exchanged) in other situations by the
recipients, in their relations with others; this does not hold true, on the same level of generality,
for interpersonal sentiments. Second, most institutional exchange is indirect. This indirectness
is of two types. One is what may be called a series of barter exchange between distant groups,
as, for instance, the continuous barter of commodities between different kinship and territorial
groups in certain primitive societies (Bohannan & Dalton 1962; Firth 1951). The other and
perhaps more important type of indirect exchange is the more “impersonal” one which is
effected through the flow of various media of exchange, such as money, or through more
generalized political support or cultural or religious identification (Parsons & Smelser 1956;
Parsons 1963a; 1963b; Smelser 1963).
Use of generalized media of exchange is perhaps the most distinctive aspect of institutional
exchange. True enough, such media of exchange become, from the psychological point of view,
direct rewards, reinforcements for the persons concerned. But from the organizational point of
view, they have an autonomy of their own (as evident, for instance, in the specific
characteristics of the market for money or labor), and their becoming a primary reward only
reinforces this autonomy.
Third, and closely connected with the foregoing, is the fact that the flow of these media and of
the respective commodities is regulated by sets of formalized norms, which regulate in a
relatively continuous way the rates of exchange between different commodities and uphold the
legitimacy of the generalized media of exchange.
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Last, the variety of the commodities which are exchanged within wider institutional settings,
such as the economy or the polity, and between such settings is necessarily much greater than
in interpersonal relations.
Institutional entrepreneurs
The direct or indirect exchange of various institutional resources between individuals or groups
which attempt to use these resources for the implementation of their goals constitutes, however,
only one aspect of institutional exchange or of the crystallization of institutional patterns.
Any institutional exchange also necessarily includes exchange between, on the one hand, those
individuals or groups that are able to articulate varied collective goals and crystallize valid,
acceptable norms and, on the other, those individuals, groups, or strata that are willing to “pay”
something for the crystallization and upholding of such norms. Payment is made, not in the
form of an equivalent “commodity,” such as the setting up of other types of norms or goals,
but by offering in return altogether different types of resources, such as money or political
support. They are willing to provide such payments, presumably, because the articulation of
goals and norms provides some sort of response to a felt need for some general stability and
order or to various more specific needs that may arise in different situations. Hence, the
capacity to create and crystallize such norms, articulate various goals, establish organizational
frameworks, and mobilize the resources necessary for all these purposes (such as the readiness
to invest in the appropriate activities) is a basic aspect or constituent of the flow of exchange
in any society.
Thus, for instance, it has been shown that the institutionalization of The political systems of
the great empires of antiquity was dependent not only on the existence of certain broad
sociodemographic conditions and various potential needs among broader groups and strata of
the relevant societies but also on the emergence of political entrepreneurs (the future emperors
and their entourages) who were able to articulate the new political goals, organize their
framework, and mobilize the resources necessary for their functioning. Insofar as such
entrepreneurs did not arise, the appropriate political systems did not become institutionalized
(Eisenstadt 1963b).
Similarly, the development and institutionalization of new types of political or economic

organizations or enterprises is greatly dependent on the emergence of various entrepreneurs
who are able to articulate new goals, set up new organizations, and mobilize the resources
necessary for their continuous functioning (Gerschenkron 1962; Hoselitz I960; Eisenstadt
1963a).
This capacity to set norms and organize various institutional frameworks is closely related to
control over basic institutional positions and resources, such as power, wealth, or symbols. But
the mere control of such resources is not sufficient to assure the effective institutionalization
of such norms and the successful articulation of varied societal goals. Special capacity for such
norm setting and for the articulation of goals is not always confined to the various hierarchically
superior positions representing the given structural units of a society; indeed, this capacity may
often be distributed, at least in part, without regard to hierarchy (Shils 1961).
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The activities of people in crucial positions, from which norms and organizations are set up,
are not, of course, entirely random. They are regulated by the structural (that is, institutional)
placement of their positions, by the limits set by needs and systematic properties of their own
and of other institutional spheres, by the basic “structural core” of each institutional sphere or
subsphere, and by the “coercive core” of the structure of the organizational forms from which
they start. These limits are not, however, fully fixed at any concrete situation; and the process
of institutionalization is to a great extent a process of innovation of various appropriate
institutional norms and organizational frameworks, as well as a process of setting up, beyond
such structural cores and pre-existing organizational settings, new types of structural
frameworks.
It is presumably people in such positions or aspiring to them who are especially sensitive to
what may be called societal needs, and who may be oriented to taking care of those activities
and problems that may be necessary for the maintenance and continuity of given social
organizations and institutions. But they are always interested in the maintenance and continuity
not only or mainly of the society in general but of some specific type of organization which
best suits their own orientation and goals. The concrete institutional framework which emerges
in any given situation is the outcome not only of some general appropriateness of a given
solution proposed by such people to the groups acting in this situation but also of the relative
success of different competing groups of such leaders and entrepreneurs, who attempt to
impose, through a mixture of coercive, manipulative, and persuasive techniques, their own
particular solution on a given situation. But we need not assume that such people will always
emerge when a need for their activities presumably develops within the society or parts thereof,
and we have to recognize that in any given situation adequate institutional arrangements may
fail to crystallize.
Institutional exchange and human needs
Thus, attempts to analyze processes of institutionalization in terms of the needs of individuals,

groups, and social systems point out several basic characteristics of the exchange between and
within these different spheres of social life. First, they point outthat any such needs are not
“universal” and unchanging but, rather, become differentially structured in different societies
or parts thereof. Moreover, such needs are not randomly or equally distributed among the
members of a given society but are crystallized in different ways among people occupying
different structural positions. Thus, it is especially necessary to specify those positions in which
the occupants may develop special sensitivity to so-called societal needs.
Second, most of the exchange which takes place in institutional settings is an indirect exchange,
in which generalized media of exchange play a crucial role. The more direct interpersonal
exchange, in which individual attitudes and sentiments constitute the most important
commodities, is not necessarily homologous to the indirect and institutional type of exchange.
However, these attitudes and sentiments may constitute very important conditions for
crystallizing and maintaining frameworks of institutional exchange.
Third, while in each institutional sphere there exist certain minimal prerequisites of its effective
functioning, together with certain basic structural characteristics and types of commodities, yet
the crystallization of any concrete institutional system—that is, of any concrete norms and
frameworks of exchange—is set within broad limits by the above considerations. In other
words, crystallization depends on the form taken by the position, power, and needs of the
various groups and individuals in any given situation.
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Finally, the mere development within any society or parts thereof of certain needs does not in
itself assure the crystallization of an institution and the maintenance of effective exchange
between its varying component parts. In the crystallization of such frameworks, a crucial part
is played by those people who evince a special capacity to set up norms and articulate goals.
However, the availability of such people, or their concrete orientation and activities, is not
always assured or determined by the development of the varying needs among different groups
in a society.
Institutionalization as a process
Instead of speaking of institutions as given, constant, self-contained entities, it might be more
profitable to talk about the process of institutionalization and to look on it as a process of
continuous crystallization of different types of norms, organizations, and frameworks which
regulate the processes of exchange of different commodities. Such institutionalization is, of
course, not random or purely accidental; but neither is it fixed or unchanging. Processes of
institutionalization always take off from several fixed starting points (which are given in the
nature of the major institutional spheres and their structural core characteristics) and from the
concrete organizational structures in the preceding situation; thus, they create the conditions
for their own change. Hence, the study of processes of institutionalization has to start with the
analysis of these general potentialities, that is, the general types of resources of the major
institutional and cultural spheres and the possibilities (as well as the limits) of their variability.
The institutionalization of concrete forms and patterns includes the development of new types
of major “institutional” commodities and the crystallization of varied norms and rates of
exchange.
Desiderata and norms of exchange

The crystallization of norms of exchange has, in any institutional system, several basic aspects.
The first such aspect is the definition of the basic goals of human existence and endeavor,
toward which the varied human activities in society may be oriented, and of those goals which
are defined as nonexchangeable. In every society there develop certain types of symbolic
expression which deal with the indication of the primordial attributes of human existence, the
goals of that existence, and the designation of any society or part thereof as a proper place for
the undertaking of human endeavor and interchange. These symbols define the basic pre-
contractual norms of society and certain situations and commodities which are not
exchangeable; they also reinforce the basic norms of reciprocity and exchange within it and
define the norms which regulate such exchange. In addition, they point out some possible
(realistic or imaginary) forms of escape from the outcomes of such norms and rules (Caillois
1958).
These varied symbolic expressions are articulated both in fully institutionalized and formalized
settings and, in a much more variegated and diffuse way (which has yet to be systematically
investigated), in various myths and other “partial” institutions (Dorson 1962). The setting up
and transmission of such symbols and orientations, on the normative and cognitive levels alike,
constitute also a crucial part of the process of socialization and communication in any society
(see, for instance, Piaget 1937). A very important and crucial element of this primary aspect of
any exchange is, as has been indicated, the definition of certain goals and situations as
nonexchangeable. The most important nonexchangeable commodities are the symbols and
situations of basic cultural, societal, and personal identity, such as those of personal honor or
of what it means to belong to any collectivity. In every society these constitute what may be
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called the basic, primordial core of personal relations and orientations to the broader social
order; they are usually perceived both as existing prior to any concrete exchange and as being
by nature nonexchangeable (Shils 1961).
The second major aspect of institutional exchange is the setting up of initial bargaining
positions for different individuals or groups within the society. Third is the setting up and
organizing of different generalized media of exchange, such as money or generalized political
support. These norms and media necessarily vary in the different institutional spheres. Each of
the different institutional spheres or types of commodities usually involves a typical exchange
order, such as market orders in the economic sphere or the interrelationship of power, support,
and bargaining in The political sphere.
Fourth is the setting up of various frameworks, organizations, and norms which serve as
channels of exchange and which aim at assuring the relatively smooth functioning of the
processes of exchange and at the upholding of the norms of exchange by those participating in
it. Legal institutions, systems of communication, economic or political markets, and
administrative organizations and frameworks serve as the best examples of such mechanisms.
A final major aspect of institutional change is the triple process of legitimation: of the basic
norms of exchange, of the media and channels of exchange, and of the concrete rates of
exchange.
Levels of exchange
The process of continuous institutionalization of norms and settings of exchange takes place,
in every society, on several different planes or levels. One is the level of exchange between
structurally equivalent units (whether equal or unequal, reciprocal or hierarchical) bound
together by bonds of “mechanical” solidarity or of the exchange that takes place in those
institutional spheres (such as kinship) where exchange between the basic units is mostly of
identical commodities. On this level, too, belong those cases (such as marriage arrangements)
which encompass universal categories of people the gratification of whose needs is closely
interlinked with the very existence of the society (Levi-Strauss 1958). On a second level is the
type of exchange which is effected between individuals and groups in different structural
positions yet bound by ties of “organic solidarity"; such interdependence grows out of the
complex division of labor (Durkheim 1893; Parsons 1951).
Cutting across these two types, a third type of exchange is effected between the holders of
differential positions in terms of norm setting and articulation of goals. Thus, exchange occurs
between the various institutional entrepreneurs who attempt to articulate societal goals, set up
new norms and new organizational frameworks, and mobilize the resources necessary for their
continuous functioning and those individuals, strata, and groups that are ready to provide such
resources and are willing to pay something for all these entrepreneurial activities.
Finally, change is effected on the level of the setting up of the basic, often diffuse, primordial
symbols of human existence, and the establishment of reciprocity and precontractual norms
(Gouldneh 1959).
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Each of these different levels of exchange tends to depend primarily (although probably not
entirely) on distinct types of exchange and regulative mechanisms. Thus, the first type of
exchange (between structurally equivalent units) seems to be characterized mainly by direct,
barterlike exchanges between various individuals and groups; the relative lack of distinction
between different institutional orders; the location of most of these regulative mechanisms in
the structure of concrete groups; and the overlapping of membership between the major groups
(Eisenstadt 1961). The second level of exchange (between those in different structural
positions) depends more on various impersonal exchange mechanisms, like economic or
“political” markets. The last two levels of institutional exchange are more dependent on the
maintenance of special communicative and hierarchical situations, and on a close relation
between the different orders of exchange and the basic, primordial symbols of human existence
and social order.
These varied mechanisms are perhaps most closely interwoven in so-called primitive societies,
and it is no accident that many anthropological studies have not distinguished between them
and have tended to assume that the first types of such mechanisms, together, perhaps, with the
last, are the most prevalent mechanisms of social control. But it is doubtful whether this is the
case, even in these societies. In more differentiated societies the complexity of the different
levels and mechanisms of exchange is even more varied and should, of course, constitute an
important focus of comparative research [seeSocial Institutions, article onComparative Study].
Variability of institutional solutions

The setting up of viable orders of exchange poses some of the basic problems and “challenges”
of institutionalization: innovation and crystallization of norms, articulation of goals, and
mobilization of resources. But it cannot be taken for granted that even if the various potential
needs for such crystallization of norm setting and goal articulation exist within a society,
crystallization will indeed take place and people will be found who are able or willing to invest
in the setting up of such norms and organizational frameworks. If such positions do not become
crystallized or filled, there may easily develop a disintegration of any given social system or
the institutionalization of a system at a very low level of efficiency. However, assuming the
existence of some minimal availability of such positions and people, there exist in any specific
situation several different (usually competing) possible elite groups, with different orientations
and institutional solutions. The analysis of such variability constitutes the major key to the
analysis of the crystallization of any concrete institutional setting.
Interdependence of institutional spheres

The preceding analysis indicates that the institutionalization of any social system (whether
economic, political, family, cultural, or stratification) means the setting up of certain values,
sanctions, and organizations that regulate access to different positions and establish certain
norms of exchange. Furthermore, policies are implemented through which these norms can be
upheld and applied to a relatively large and complex variety of social situations. These
activities are undertaken by people who are placed or attempt to become placed in structurally
strategic positions, who aspire to implement certain goals, and who succeed in competition
with other such people or groups. Institutional norms regulate the provision of various
resources from other parts of the society to these power positions, to the new organizations, to
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some of the relations among the different groups in the society, and to the obligations of the
occupants of these positions toward various groups in the society.
Thus, such institutionalization creates organizational and behavioral patterns directed to the
upholding of certain goals. Within these organizations there develop systemic boundaries and
mechanisms which attempt to regulate the flow of activities and resources. As we shall see
later in greater detail, no such system is ever fully homogeneous, that is, upheld and found
binding to the same degree in all areas of social life and by all groups in a society. It does,
however, set up some broad limits within which its norms are operative, even if in varying
degrees.
Each such system crystallized within any major sphere (economic, cultural, etc. ) is dependent
on the systems functioning in other major institutional spheres and is necessarily very closely,
although not deterministically, related to and dependent on such systems in other institutional
spheres. In general, each institutional sphere is dependent on others for various resources for
its own effective functioning, that is, for the maintenance of its specific structural forms,
activities, and rates and norms of exchange (Parsons 1951; Parsons & Smelser 1956).
While the general types of such resources (or “inputs” and “outputs") are necessarily the same
in all societies, the specific types of resources of any specific institutional spheres vary greatly,
according to their specific characteristics and problems. Thus, for instance, although all
political systems are necessarily influenced by external exigencies and pressure, the special
sensitivity of the centralized bureaucratic empires to such exigencies and pressures, as well as
to international economic fluctuations, has been shown to be rooted, first, in the great emphasis
of their rulers on military and expansionist goals and, second, in the dependence of these rulers
on various resources. The availability of the latter was, of course, dependent on such
international economic situations. The dangers of excessive taxation and inflation in these
political systems were also rooted in the high expense involved in the implementation of the
rulers’ goals and in the great importance of various flexible resources, not only for the
implementation of these goals but also for the general political position of the imperial rulers
(Eisenstadt 1963b).
The autonomy of each institutional sphere in relation to others probably does vary with
different institutions and in different situations. It is probable that the symbolic sphere will
usually exhibit greater autonomy than the others; but all of these problems have yet to be
investigated in detail.
Role performance and institutional change
Any institutional system regulates and organizes patterns of behavior of the individual
members of a society or of its component groups; in turn it is, of course, greatly dependent on
their activities, sentiments, and attitudes. It is not yet, however, at all clear in what exact ways
various personal sentiments and activities, limited to different (even if similar) informal
settings, become “exchanged” or crystallized into the more fully institutionalized commodities
and norms.
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Studies of social determinants of behavior and attitudes have rarely attempted to analyze how
these attitudes and behavior affect the process of setting up new norms and organizations (for
one of the few exceptions, see Merei 1949). However, such studies certainly do not support the
assumption of the existence of a direct relation between attitudes and sentiments, on the one
hand, and the undertaking of jural injunctions or the crystallization of institutional norms, on
the other. It is more likely that an individual’s performance of various roles and tasks and his
upholding of various norms vary greatly, according to his evaluation of their contribution to
his own values and goals. Initial patterns of socialization and child rearing, while certainly not
linked in a necessary way to any one concrete institutional form or organization, may
predispose the members of a society to covet certain types of commodities, to define certain
situations or goals as unchangeable, and to be ready to enter into exchange which is regulated
by certain types of norms.
The acquisition of such capabilities includes the development of certain basic orientations to
the nature of the world of human existence and the social order and to the various rules of social
exchange. But this does not necessarily assure the acceptance by individuals of the specific
institutional goals or of the specific institutional orders existing within the social order. On the
contrary, it may well first of all inculcate attitudes of critical evaluation toward certain types of
societal order. It is the individual’s evaluation of the institution’s contribution to his own goals,
together with his conceptions of social order, that seems to be of crucial importance in
influencing his adherence to institutional norms and his performance of institutional tasks
(Thibaut & Kelley 1959). True enough, such evaluation may be of different kinds and levels
and may be based on different criteria. It may range from a realistic appraisal of the very limited
choices offered by coercive frameworks, such as prisons or situations of conquest (and their
evaluation as the “least of evils” in a given situation) up to a fuller, more positive identification
with the norms, values, or goals of any given group or leadership.
In any given situation, we usually find, among different groups, various mixtures or
combinations of such types or levels of evaluation. Different situations or collectivities can
thus be compared in terms of the criteria of evaluation or identification prevalent in them
[seeSocial Institutions, article onComparative Study].
Whatever the combination of attitudes may be, a relative lack of identification or satisfaction,
on the part of individuals, with an institutional or organizational setting does not in itself
necessarily result in the immediate disorganization of the setting or in the disappearance of the
appropriate norms. The process tends, rather, to operate somewhat more indirectly: it may
influence the accessibility of various resources which are available to some, as contrasted to
other, groups; or it may greatly influence the predisposition to enter into some types of
exchange rather than others and hence also influence the chances of competing leaders and
norm setters.
SOCIALIZATION AND ROLE INNOVATION

The processes through which individuals are sensitized to the symbols, norms, and goals of
various groups in society and the ways in which they internalize and maintain various norms
and criteria of evaluation may be of crucial importance for the interlinking of their attitudes
and sentiments with the setting up and maintaining of institutional norms and frameworks.
Within this context the study of several mechanisms may be of special interest. One such
mechanism is the process by which institutional norms are transmitted to individuals through
their manner of orienting themselves to “reference groups” (Merton 1949; Eisenstadt 1954).
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Another is the process of social mobility, study of which can show the relation between
individual motivation and aspirations and the choice of different institutional positions and
norms [seeSocial Mobility; see alsoMiller 1960; Bendix &Lipset 1953; Eisenstadt 1964b].
Also of great importance in this context is the study of the crystallization of societal roles and
especially of individual participation in such crystallization. Most studies in this field have
dealt with the individual’s adaptation to a given role and with his ability (or inability) to
perform it. In fact, the picture found in or implied by much of the literature on this subject (see,
for instance, Southall 1959) paints the individual as progressing through some basic age, sex,
and other—economic, occupational, political, and religious—fundamental institutional roles.
It seems, however, that such a conception is oversimplified. The individual’s progress through
different roles necessarily brings him into situations which are, or at least may be, organized in
different ways, from the point of view of his ability to fulfill his own goals. The performance
of roles by individuals should not be viewed as a somewhat static assumption (or
nonassumption) of certain attributes or as a realization of certain types of fixed expectations
and norms set by society. Role performance should, rather, be conceived of as a much more
differentiated process, in which the individual’s aspirations and perceptions interplay in a
variety of situations, emphasizing in each of them different aspects of normatively regulated
behavior. Indeed, it is this “encounter"between individuals and the supposedly “given” roles
that often creates the possibility of role innovation, that is, of change in the constellation of
different components of a role and of different sub-roles (see Eisenstadt et al. 1963).
It is these mechanisms which greatly influence the nature of individual behavior and choices
within the respective institutional settings and the extent to which these choices conform to the
existing institutional norm or tend to change it. In a way, any given institutional structure can
be seen as a statistical outcome of such choices of individuals (Murdock 1949). However, these
choices are not random. They occur within the given institutional settings, and are activated by
people whose structural and organizational positions greatly influence the range and motive of
their choices (Firth 1951; Fortes 1962). The outcomes of their activities and choices greatly
influence the extent of stability, innovation, or change in any institutional system.
Social change in institutional systems
The possibility of innovation and change is not something external or accidental to any
institutional system. It is given in the very nature of the process of institutionalization and in
the workings of institutional systems (Eisenstadt 1964a). Whatever the success of the attempt
of institutional entrepreneurs to establish and legitimize common norms in terms of common
values and symbols, these norms are probably never fully accepted by the entire society. Most
groups tend to exhibit some autonomy in terms of their attitudes toward these norms and in
terms of their willingness or ability to provide the resources demanded by the given
institutionalized system. For very long periods of time a great majority of the members of a
given society or parts thereof may be identified to some degree with the values and norms of
the given system and be willing to provide it with the resources it needs; however, other
tendencies also develop.
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Some groups may be greatly opposed to the very premises of the institutionalization of a given
system, may share its values only to a very small extent, and may accept these norms only as
the least among evils and as binding on them only in a very limited sense. Others may share
these values and accept the norms to a greater degree but may look on themselves as the more
truthful repositories of these same values. They may oppose the concrete levels at which the
norms are institutionalized by the elite in power and may attempt to interpret them in different
ways; that is, they may attempt to establish different bargaining positions and different norms
of exchange. Others may develop new interpretations of existing values and strive for a change
in the very bases of the institutional order. Hence, any institutional system is never fully
“homogeneous,” in the sense of being fully accepted or accepted to the same degree by all
those participating in it, and these different orientations all may become focuses of conflict and
of potential institutional change.
Sources of conflict
Even more important, from the point of view of our analysis, is that whatever the initial
attitudes of any given group to the basic premises of the institutional system, these may change
greatly after the initial institutionalization of the system. Any institutionalization necessarily
entails efforts to maintain, through continuous attempts to mobilize resources from different
groups and individuals, the boundaries of the system and to maintain the legitimacy of its
values, symbols, and norms. But continuous implementation of these policies may affect the
positions of various groups in the society and give rise to continuous shifts both in the balance
of power among them and in their orientations to the existing institutional system.
Moreover, the institutionalization of any system usually creates new collectivities and
organizations. These organizations develop needs, interests, and orientations of their own,
which may impinge on various other groups and institutional spheres, thus changing their
attitudes toward the premises of the system. Similarly, changes in the balance of forces within
the system also facilitate the development and maturation of certain inherent tendencies in the
structure and orientation of key groups and elites. For example, some religious groups tend to
develop and establish wider, more universalistic orientations and membership units, which may
then develop beyond the basic premises of the given institutional system.
These processes may be intensified by the systematic relations between any given institutional
framework or sphere and other frameworks within the society. Whatever the degree of
integration of the total society, some such relations between different institutional spheres—
as, for example, The political and the economic or The political and the kinship systems—are
inherent in any ongoing society (Parsons & Smelser 1956). However, the basic or predominant
orientations and norms regulating the flow of exchange in each of these institutions tend to
differ to some extent. Hence, the occupants of the major positions within these different
institutional spheres may attempt to maintain their autonomy and may tend to make
contradictory demands on different groups to provide them with the necessary resources. Each
may look for support from different groups in the society, thus exacerbating potential conflicts
between the various groups, changing their relative strengths, and possibly undermining the
premises of any institutional system.
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These contradictions, conflicts, and shifts in the balance of power may lead to the depletion of
the resources needed to maintain any given system or give rise to the crystallization of new
focuses of resources and orientations, which may in turn create a new institutional system.
These conflicts are also closely bound up with the relations between any given institutional
system and its “external” environment. Each institutional system is especially sensitive, in
terms of dependence on resources and maintenance of its own limits, to certain aspects of its
relations to its environment.
Thus, the very nature of the setting up of institutional systems creates the possibility that
“antisystems” (both different institutional systems, such as religious and political, and different
types of the same system) may vary, and while they may often remain latent for very long
periods of time, they may also constitute important focuses of change, under propitious
conditions. Some of these antisystems can be viewed as temporary “reversals,” by various
lower groups, of the dominant values of the given system and as attempts to uphold, at least on
certain occasions, a different value scheme. Others may have wider and more-continuous
organizational tendencies. Both can, under certain conditions, serve as starting points for
processes of institutional change.
The existence of such contradictions or conflicts among the different institutional spheres and
among different groups does not, of course, preclude the possibility that the system will
maintain its boundaries more or less continuously through a hierarchy of norms and achieve
accommodation or partial insulation of different subsystems and that a definite order and stable
relations among the system’s parts will persist. But the possibility of conflict and potential
change is always present, rooted in the very process of crystallization and maintenance of
institutional systems, and the direction and occurrence of change depend heavily on the nature
of this process.
Just as the predilection for change is necessarily built into any institutional system, so the
direction and scope of change are not random. Rather, they depend on the nature of the system
generating the change; on its values, norms, and organizations; on the various internal forces
operating within it; and on the external forces to which it is especially sensitive because of its
systemic properties. These various forces naturally differ in different institutional spheres and
in different societies, but the very sensitivity of these forces and the tendency to change are
inherent in all of them.
FAMILY AS SOCIAL INSTITUTION

The institution of family has three important functions:
To provide for the rearing of children
To provide a sense of identity or belonging among its members
To transmit culture between generations
In Western societies, we tend to think of a family as consisting of a mother, father, and children
living under one roof: a nuclear family. Before societies modernize, families usually consist of
several generations and branches of extended family living in the same dwelling, or in the same
village. As modernization occurs, young people tend to move away from the villages in which
they were raised in search of jobs, leaving the older generations behind. They relocate to cities
and meet people they probably never would have met had they stayed home. People in
modernized, urbanized societies meet spouses on their own, rather than being introduced by
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family members, and marry and settle down in locations that are often far from their original
communities.
MARRIAGE
Marriage, a foundation of family life, exists in all cultures, with some variations:
Endogamy: Marriage between members of the same category, class, or group
Exogamy: Marriage between members of different categories, classes, or groups
Monogamy: Marriage between one man and one woman
Polygamy: Marriage between one man and more than one woman
Polyandry: Marriage between one woman and more than one man
In some cultures, after marriage, a couple lives in the wife’s family’s household—a practice
called matrilocality. When couples live in the husband’s family’s household, the practice is
called patriolocality. If they go out and get their own place to live, they practice neolocality.
DIVORCE AND REMARRIAGE

Once taboo, divorce is now common in the United States. Many factors have contributed to the
tenfold increase in the U.S. divorce rate over the past century. Women have become less
economically dependent on men, which means they are now able to leave unhappy marriages
and support themselves. Legal standards have also relaxed, making divorce easier to obtain.
Because the divorce rate is so high, so is the rate of remarriage. U.S. society is still coming to
terms with the ramifications of blended families, those composed of children and parents from
both present and past marriages.
CHILD-REARING
Rearing children is a primary function of a family. Being in a family provides children with a
sense of identity. They learn the norms and values of their societies, as well as the norms and
values of the smaller groups to which they belong. By learning about their cultural heritages,
children gain a sense of belonging to something larger than themselves. By teaching children
about their heritage, families insure their culture will live on.
Despite the many demands of child-rearing, most adults describe raising children as an
important and fulfilling duty. Nevertheless, the number of children in the households of
industrialized countries has been dwindling for generations. Economic pressures have led the
average U.S. family to have only one or two children. Because both parents must often work
outside the home to support the family, parents and children spend less and less time together.
ALTERNATIVE FAMILIES
Not all families are centered on a married couple with children. To an increasing degree, U.S.
households feature alternative types of families, such as the following:
 Single-parent household
 Cohabitating, unmarried couples
 Gay and lesbian couples
 Single adults
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SOCIAL STATUS: CASTE VS. CLASS AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

 Caste system is a very complex and intricate social system that determines social status
achieved by birth. There are four different ways in which ones social status can be
determined or can be controlled by caste: (1) Occupation or the work that a person does.
(2) Marrying another person within their own caste only. (3) Socializing with other
people within their own caste only. (4) Indulge into the religious code of belief or social
ideology that reinforces or strengthens the caste system only. There are five varnas or
social orders created by the Hindu god Brahman, which is highly believed to be the
classification of people for the caste system. (1) Brahmans or high priests. These priests
have the responsibilities to provide the spiritual and intellectual needs of the society.
(2) Kshatriyas or the warriors and the rulers. These warriors and rulers have the
responsibility to protect the society. (3) Vaishyas or the merchants and the land owners.
These people were entrusted by Brahman for the agriculture and commerce of the
society. (4) Shudras or the laborers and the artisans. These people are commissioned to
do and perform all the human labor for the society. (5) The Untouchables, the lowest
class where all the dirty jobs relating to bodily decay and dirt.
 Class system is also achieved by birth. But the big difference with it from caste is that
one’s social status can be changed. It’s more humane. If you were born a peasant, you
just might have to climb up that social ladder through nit and grit to become successful
in life. If you were born a royalty, then there’s also that big possibility that you’ll be
sacked off your throne. Merit is achieved or given out under the class system if a person
would be able to move up from a lower class to the upper class. These social climbing
is best achieved through education, employment, and skills. Scholars believe that the
class system is based on wealth, power and economic status. The class system is
identified with three categories: the Upper class, the extremely wealthy and powerful
bunch of people; the Middle class, the highly paid professionals; and the Lower class,
the weak and the poor.
SUMMARY:
 Caste system screams of inequality because no person can change his/her social stratum
under caste system. In short, he/she is stuck as being one of the five varnas until the day
that he/she dies. Class system, on the other hand, is more human as one person can
climb up and down the social ladder as much as he/she can.
 Caste system has been outlawed but many people in India still practice it. Class system,
although not creed by the law is somehow generally observed in every modern society.
 Both caste and class system’s social status are achieved by birth.
 Differences between Class and Caste Systems!
 In Max Weber’s phraseology, caste and class are both status groups. While castes are
perceived as hereditary groups with a fixed ritual status, social classes are defined in
terms of the relations of production. A social class is a category of people who have a
similar socio-economic status in relation to other classes in the society. The individuals
and families which are classified as part of the same social class have similar life
chances, prestige, style of life, attitudes etc.
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 In the caste system, status of a caste is determined not by the economic and the political
privileges but by the ritualistic legitimation of authority. In the class system, ritual
norms have no importance at all but power and wealth alone determine one’s status
(Dumont, 1958).
 Class system differs in many respects from other forms of stratification—slavery, estate
and caste system. In earlier textbooks such as written by Maclver, Davis and Bottomore,
it was observed that caste and class are polar opposites. They are antithetical to each
other. While ‘class’ represents a ‘democratic society’ having equality of opportunity,
‘caste’ is obverse of it.
CASTE AND CLASS

 A principle difference between class and caste is that class in open for all and social
mobility is possible. In the caste system the vertical mobility is not possible. Caste in
India has religious background and everybody tries to fulfill the caste duties, but in
class system of social stratification religion has place. There the physical and mental
qualities are more important.
 Caste and Class jointly determine the position of an individual in social strain.
Particularly in rural communities where caste system has maintained its rigidity. It
forms the basic for economic and special life. In a single village there may be as many
as 24 castes and of these are interdependent. Even in the urban society a constant
tendency to make caste distinction is observed in the upper and middle classes. Thus
the castes have maintained their importance in class system of social stratification.
FOLLOWING ARE THE MAIN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLASS AND CASTE

SYSTEMS:
 1. Castes are found in Indian sub-continent only, especially in India, while classes are
found almost everywhere. Classes are especially the characteristic of industrial
societies of Europe and America. According to Dumont and Leach, caste is a unique
phenomenon found only in India.
 2. Classes depend mainly on economic differences between groupings of individuals—

inequalities in possession and control of material resources—whereas in caste system
non-economic factors such as influence of religion [theory of karma, rebirth and ritual
(purity-pollution)] are most important.
 3. Unlike castes or other types of strata, classes are not established by legal or religious
provisions; membership is not based on inherited position as specified either legally or
by custom. On the other hand, the membership is inherited in the caste system.
 4. Class system is typically more fluid than the caste system or the other types of
stratification and the boundaries between classes are never clear-cut. Caste system is
static whereas the class system is dynamic.
 5. In the class system, there are no formal restrictions on inter-dining and inter-marriage
between people from different classes as is found in the caste system. Endogamy is the
essence of caste system which is perpetuating it.
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 6. Social classes are based on the principle of achievement, i.e., on one’s own efforts,
not simply given at birth as is common in the caste system and other types of
stratification system. As such social mobility (movement upwards and downwards) is
much more common in the class structure than in the caste system or in other types. In
the caste system, individual mobility from one caste to another is impossible.
This is why, castes are known as closed classes (D.N. Majumdar). It is a closed system
of stratification in which almost all sons end up in precisely the same stratum their
fathers occupied. The system of stratification in which there is high rate of upward
mobility, such as that in the Britain and United States is known as open class system.
The view that castes are closed classes is not accepted by M.N. Srinivas (1962) and
Andre Beteille (1965).
 7. In the caste system and in other types of stratification system, inequalities are
expressed primarily in personal relationships of duty or obligation—between lower-
and higher-caste individuals, between serf and lord, between slave and master. On the
other hand, the nature of class system is impersonal. Class system operates mainly
through large-scale connections of an impersonal kind.
 8. Caste system is characterised by ‘cumulative inequality’ but class system is

characterised by ‘dispersed inequality.’
 9. Caste system is an organic system but class has a segmentary character where various
segments are motivated by competition (Leach, 1960).
 10. Caste works as an active political force in a village (Beteille, 1966) but class does
not work so.
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AUGUSTE COMTE
AUGUSTE COMTE: THEORIES & CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOCIOLOGY
Personal Life
Auguste Comte was born in Paris, France, on January 19, 1798. Although the French monarchy
had been ousted, his parents maintained their devotion both to the royals and the Catholic
Church. But when he went to college at the University of Montpelier, Comte deviated from his
family's ideals and began to identify with the republican tenets that had bolstered the French
Revolution.
Although he was brilliant in his math and science classes, Comte decided to leave school before
he graduated. He returned to Paris but had a hard time, making a little money teaching.
Meanwhile, he was personally studying economics, history, and philosophy.
In 1826, he held a series of lectures about the social doctrine he was developing. However,
after he had delivered about a third of the lectures, he had a nervous breakdown. In between
various stints in the hospital over the next 15 years, he finished his major work, the 5-volume
The Course in Positive Philosophy. In this work, Comte presented his primary doctrine:
society, like nature, operated under its own set of laws. In the first volumes of the work, Comte
deals with existing sciences like mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, and biology. He
then shifts to exploring a new kind of science, social science, that, he believes, will inevitability
follow the physical sciences.
Important works are:

(1) Positive Philosophy (1830-42).
(2) Systems of positive polity (1851 -54)
(3) Religion of Humanity (1856).
His contribution to sociology can be divided into four categories. They are namely:-
(1) Classification and ordering of social sciences.
(2) The nature, method and scope of sociology.
(3) The law of three stages.
(4) The plan for social reconstruction.
(5) Positivism.
Philosophical Views
Comte developed two words that are still important today - sociology and positivism. Comte
is often cited as the father of sociology because he coined the term and held the belief that this
new, special science could combine the findings of other sciences to form more whole ideas
about the world.
Comte's positivism, then, came out of this belief that human society could be studied
scientifically. The theory of positivism holds that there is only real truth in scientific
knowledge. However, sensory experiences, gathered by humans about the world, are included
in this category. Things like intuition are not considered scientifically derived and, therefore,
not valid truths.
Comte’s View of Sociological Theory

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As a descendant of the French Enlightenment, Comte was impressed, as were many of the
philosophes, with the Newtonian revolution. Thus, he argued for a particular view of
sociological theory: All phenomena are subject to invariable natural laws, and sociologists must
use their
observations to uncover the laws governing the social universe, in much the same way as
Newton had formulated the law of gravity. Comte emphasized in the opening pages of Positive
Philosophy.
The first characteristic of Positive Philosophy is that it regards all phenomena as subject to
invariable natural Laws. Our business is—seeing how vain is any research into what are called
Causes whether first or final—to pursue an accurate discovery of these Laws, with a view to
reducing them to the smallest possible number. By speculating upon causes, we could solve no
difficulty about origin and purpose. Our real business is to analyse accurately the circumstances
of phenomena, and to connect them by the natural relations of succession and resemblance.
The best illustration of this is in the case of the doctrine of Gravitation. Several points are
important in this view of sociological theory.
First, sociological theory is not to be concerned with causes per se but, rather, with the laws
that describe the basic and fundamental relations of properties in the social world. Second,
sociological theory must reject arguments by “final causes”—that is, analysis of the results of
a particular phenomenon for the social whole. This disavowal is ironic because Comte’s more
substantive work helped found sociological functionalism, a mode of analysis that often
examines the functions or final causes of phenomena. Third, clearly the goal of sociological
activity is to reduce the number of theoretical principles by seeking only the most abstract and
only those that pertain to understanding fundamental properties of the social world. Comte thus
held a vision of sociological theory as based on the model of the natural sciences, particularly
the physics of his time. For this reason, he preferred the term social physics to sociology.
The laws of social organization and change, Comte felt, will be discovered, refined, and
verified through a constant interplay between theory and empirical observation. For, as he
emphasized in the opening pages of Positive Philosophy.
And he concluded,
Hence it is clear that, scientifically speaking, all isolated, empirical observation is idle, and
even radically uncertain; that science can use only those observations which are connected, at
least hypothetically, with some law.
For Comte, then, sociology’s goal was to seek to develop abstract theoretical principles.
Observations of the empirical world must be guided by such principles, and abstract principles
must be tested against the empirical facts. Empirical observations that are conducted this goal
in mind are not useful in science. Theoretical explanation of empirical events thus involves
seeing how they are connected in lawlike ways. For social science “endeavors to discover . . .
the general relations which connect all social phenomena; and each of them is explained , in
the scientific sense of the word, when it has been connected with the whole of the existing
situation.”
Comte’s Formulation of Sociological Methods

Comte was the first social thinker to take methodological questions seriously—that is, how
are facts about the social world to be gathered and used to develop, as well as to test,
theoretical principles?
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He advocated four methods in the new science of social physics:

(1) observation, (2) experimentation, (3) comparison, and (4) historical
analysis.
Observation
For Comte, positivism was based on use of the senses to observe social facts —a term that the
next great French theorist, Émile Durkheim, made the center of his sociology. Much of
Comte’s discussion of observation involves arguments for the “subordination of Observation
to the statical and dynamical laws of phenomena” 13 rather than a statement on the
procedures by which unbiased observations should be conducted. He argued that observation
of empirical facts, when unguided by theory, will prove useless in the development of
science. He must be given credit, however, for firmly establishing sociology as a science of
social facts, thereby liberating thought from the debilitating realm of morals and
metaphysical speculation.
Experimentation
Comte recognized that artificial experimentation with whole societies, and other social
phenomena, was impractical and often impossible. But, he noted, natural experimentation
frequently “takes place whenever the regular course of the phenomenon is interfered with in
any determinate manner.” 14 In particular, he thought that, much as is the case in biology,
pathological events allowed “the true equivalent of pure experimentation” in that they
introduced an artificial condition and allowed investigators to see normal processes reassert
themselves in the face of the pathological condition. Much as the biologist can learn about
normal bodily functioning from the study of disease, so also social physicists can learn about
the normal processes of society from the study of pathological cases. Thus, although Comte’s
view of “natural experimentation” was certainly deficient in the logic of the experimental
method, it nonetheless fascinated subsequent generations of scholars.
Comparison
Just as comparative analysis had been useful in biology, comparison of social forms with those
of lower animals, with coexisting states, and with past systems could also generate considerable
insight into the operation of the social universe. By comparing elements that are present and
absent, and similar or dissimilar, knowledge about the fundamental properties of the social
world can be achieved.
Historical Analysis
Comte originally classified historical analysis as a variation of the comparative method (i.e.,
comparing the present with the past). But his “law of the three stages” emphasized that the laws
of social dynamics could ultimately be developed only with careful observations of the
historical movement of societies. In sum, then, Comte saw these four basic methods as
appropriate to sociological analysis. His formulation of the methods is quite deficient by
modern standards, but we should recognize that before Comte, little attention had been paid to
how social facts were to be collected. Thus, although the specifics of Comte’s methodological
proposals are not always useful, their spirit and intent are important. Social physics was, in his
vision, to be a theoretical science capable of formulating and testing the laws of social
organization and change. His formulation of sociology’s methods added increased credibility
to this claim.
Comte’s Organization of Sociology

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Much as Saint-Simon had emphasized, Comte saw sociology as an extension of biology, which
studies the “organs” in “organisms.” Hence, sociology was to be the study of social organ
ization. This emphasis forces the recognition that society is an “organic whole” whose
component “organs” stand in relation to one another. To study these parts in isolation is to
violate the essence of social organization and to compartmentalize inquiry artificially. As
Comte emphasized, “there can be no scientific study of society, either in its conditions or its
movements, if it is separated into portions, and its divisions are studied apart.”
The Law of Three Stages:

According to Comte it is the universal law of intellectual development. According to him “Each
branch of our knowledge passes through three different theoretical conditions; the theological
or fictitious; the metaphysical or abstract; and the scientific or positive.” This is known as the
law of three stages because, according to it, human thinking has undergone three separate
stages in its evolution and development.
He opines, “The evolution of the human mind has paralleled the evolution of the individual
mind”. He focussed mainly on stages in the development and progress of human mind and
stressed that these stages co-related with parallel stages in the development of social order,
social units, social organisation and material conditions of human life.
Comte’s evolutionary theory or the law of three stages represents that there are three
intellectual stages through which the world has gone throughout its history. According to him,
not only does the world go through this process but groups, societies, sciences, individuals and
even minds go through the same three stages. As there has been an evolution in the human
thinking so that each succeeding stage is superior to and more evolved than the preceding stage.
However, these three stages are as follows:-
(a) Theological or Fictitious Stage.

(b) Metaphysical or Abstract Stage.
(c) Positive or Scientific Stage.
(A) THEOLOGICAL OR FICTITIOUS STAGE:

This stage was the first stage of law of three stages. It characterized the world prior to 1300
A.D. According to Comte in this stage “All theoretical conceptions whether general or special
bear a super natural impress”. It was believed that all the activities of men were guided and
governed by supernatural power. In this stage the social and the physical world was produced
by God. At this stage man’s thinking was guided by theological dogmas. It was marked by lack
of logical and orderly thinking. Theological thinking is characterized by unscientific outlook.
A natural event was the main subject matter of theological thinking. The usual natural events
tend man towards theological interpretation of the events. Unable to find the natural causes of
different happenings the theological man attributes them to imaginary or divine forces. This
kind of explanation of natural events in divine or imaginary conditions is known as theological
thinking. Excess or absence of rain was believed to be due to godly pleasure or displeasure.
Magic and totemism were given emphasis.
This stage was dominated by priests. It implied belief in another world wherein reside the
divine forces which influenced and controlled all the events in this world. In other words at this
theological stage all phenomena are attributed to some super natural power. The concept of
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super natural power itself passes through four sub-stages. In other words Comte had divided
the theological stage into the following four stages.
(i) Fetishism
(ii) Anthropomorphism
(iii) Polytheism
(iv) Monotheism
(i) Fetishism:
It is the first and primary sub-stage in theological thinking stage. In this stage men thought that
in every object or thing God resided. Fetishism is a kind of belief that there exists some living
spirit in the non-living objects.
(ii) Anthropomorphism:
It is the second sub-stage of theological stage. With the gradual development in human thinking
there occurred a change or improvement in the human thinking which resulted in the
development of this stage.
(iii) Polytheism:
With the passage of time human mind develops and there occurred a change in the form of
thinking. A more evolved and developed stage than fetishism and anthropomorphism appeared
which is known as Polytheism. As there were many things or many objects, the number of
Gods multiplied. So men were found to be engaged in the worship of a number of Gods. He
believed that each and every God had some definite function and his area of action or operation
was determined. At this stage man had classified God’s or natural forces.
(iv) Monotheism:
With the passage of time human mind further develops and there occurred a change and
development in the form of thinking. A more evolved and developed stage occurred which was
known as Monotheism. This is the last sub-stage of theological stage. This stage replaced the
earlier belief in many Gods by the belief in one God. ‘Mono’ means one. It implied that one
God was supreme who was responsible for the maintenance of system in the world. This type
of monotheistic thinking marked the victory of human intellect over irrational thinking.
(B) METAPHYSICAL OR ABSTRACT STAGE:

This is the second stage which occurred roughly between 1300 and 1800 A.D. This is an
improved form of theological stage. Under this stage it was believed that an abstract power or
force guided and determined all the events of the world. It was against the belief in concrete
God. There was development of reason in human thinking. By this man ceased to think that it
was the supernatural being that controlled and guided all the activities.
So it was the mere modification of the first one which discarded belief in concrete God.
According to Comte, “In the metaphysical state, which is only a modification of the first, the
mind supposes instead of supernatural beings, abstract forces, veritable entities (that is
personified abstraction) inherent in all beings and capable of producing all phenomena.” At
this stage the position of supernatural power of the first stage is taken over by the abstract
principles.
(C) POSITIVE STAGE:

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The last and the final stage of human thinking or human mind was the positive stage or the
scientific stage which entered into the world in 1800. This stage was characterized by belief in
Science. People now tended to give up the search for absolute causes (God or Nature) and
concentrated instead on observation of the social and physical world in the search for the laws
governing them.
According to Comte observation and classification of facts were the beginning of the scientific
knowledge. It was governed by industrial administrators and scientific moral guides. So at this
stage the priests or the theologians were replaced by scientists. The warriors were replaced by”
industrialists. Observation predominates over imagination. All theoretical concepts become
positive or scientific.
So it may be concluded that in the first stage the mind explains phenomena by ascribing them
to supernatural power or God. The second, metaphysical stage, is a mere modification of the
first; in it the mind suppresses that abstract forces produce all phenomena rather than
supernatural beings. In the final stage man observes nature and humanity objectively in order
to establish laws.
Corresponding to the three stages of intellectual development there are two major types of
society (i) Theological military type of society; (ii) Industrial Society.
SOME SALIENT FEATURES OF COMTEAN RELIGION OF HUMANITY:
• A Religion Without God: Comte’s “ Religion of Humanity” is based on morality and

religion and upon a belief in a divine force. The main slogan of the Comtean Religion thus
reads “ We should have religion but not God.
• New Religion Destined to a New Epoch: Comte claimed himself to be the high priest
of this new religion committed to “ institute a reign of harmony, justice and equity
• A Social Religion Based Upon Morality. Comte considered himself primarily founder
of a new religion that promised salvation for all the ailment of mankind. Comte thus tried to
create a purely “social religion”.
• Comte Not in Favor of Traditional Christianity. Comte did not see in Christianity a
social keynote. Hence he attempted to create a purely social religion.
Comtean Religion is virtually a Religion of Human Unity. Comte is the

sociologist of human unity and he wanted men to be united by common conviction and
by a single object of their love.
CRITICISM:
The theory of law of three stages of Comte is not free from criticisms.
According to Prof. Bogardus, Comte has failed to postulate a fourth thinking stage namely the
specialized thinking stage which would not merely emphasize the use of natural forces.
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EMILE DURKHEIM
Durkheim became interested in a scientific approach to society very early on in his career,
which meant the first of many conflicts with the French academic system, which had no social
science curriculum at the time. Durkheim found humanistic studies uninteresting, turning his
attention from psychology and philosophy to ethics and eventually, sociology. He graduated
with a degree in philosophy in 1882. Durkheim's views could not get him a major academic
appointment in Paris, so from 1882 to 1887 he taught philosophy at several provincial schools.
In 1885 he left for Germany, where he studied sociology for two years. Durkheim's period in
Germany resulted in the publication of numerous articles on German social science and
philosophy, which gained recognition in France, earning him a teaching appointment at the
University of Bordeaux in 1887. This was an important sign of the change of times, and the
growing importance and recognition of the social sciences. From this position, Durkheim
helped reform the French school system and introduced the study of social science in its
curriculum.
The Division of Labor in Society

In a momentous challenge to the theories of Adam Smith and Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim
presented a visionary reconception of the social structures of production and allocation that are
the cornerstones of capitalism. In the Division of Labor in Society originally published in
French in 1893, Durkheim asked how individuality can be maintained within the capitalist
system. The author argued that the class conflict is not inherent in capitalist society, as Marx
contended, but that the unfettered growth of state power would lead to the extinction of
individuality. Only in a free society that promotes voluntary bonds between its members,
Durkheim suggests, can individuality prosper.
The Rules of Sociological Method

One of Emile Durkheim's chief works, this book raises two controversial issues of cardinal
importance for all sciences directly concerned with human relationships--whether economic,
political, or genetic. The Rules of Sociological Method remains not only a landmark in the
history of the social sciences, but also is a dependable guide for the student and the professional
sociologist.
The first issue spotlighted is the genuine distinction between the natural and the social sciences.
Durkheim reveals that the methods used in the natural sciences are, nevertheless, valid within
the social field. Secondly, he show how attempts are being made to absorb the social sciences
into an enlarged psychology. Against this tendency Durkheim points out that social
phenomena, "far from being the product of the individual's own ideas or will, opinion or
caprice...have a constraining influence upon the individual and even upon the aggregate of
these individuals."
Suicide: A Study in Sociology

Emile Durkheim's Suicide addresses the phenomenon of suicide and its social causes. Written
by one of the world's most influential sociologists, this classic argues that suicide primarily
results from a lack of integration of the individual into society. Suicide provides readers with
an understanding of the impetus for suicide and its psychological impact on the victim, family,
and society.
"Even for the psychoanalytically oriented reader this book holds more than historical interest.
One cannot help being impressed by the wealth of knowledge and the perspicacity revealed in
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it, there certainly have been few more compact presentations of socio-psychological
problems....Psychoanalysts no less than sociologists will find the study of Durkheim's book
instructive and rewarding. The editor and translators are to be commended for making the
work available in an excellent and remarkably lucid translation."
The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life

In this classic study of primitive religion, Emile Durkheim, one of the founders of modern
sociology, examines religion in society in terms of animism, naturism, totemism, myth, and
ritual. Thus he takes up again the question of the origin of religion, which for him means
discerning the everpresent elements that underlie the essential forms of religious thought and
practice.
Durkheim's choice of archaic religion as a frame of reference for the analysis and explanation
of all religion was not irrelevant. Rather, it seemed to him the one approach best adapted, not
only to ultimate understanding of the religious nature of man, but also to illuminating an
essential and permanent aspect of humanity.
The author concludes that religion, philosophy, and morals can be understood only as products
of the social condition of man: that the source of religion and morality is in the collective mind
of society and not inherent in the isolated minds of individuals.
His methods and conclusions must be grasped by anyone seeking understanding of the bases
of religion and society.
To Durkheim, men were creatures whose desires were unlimited. Unlike other animals, they
are not satiated when their biological needs are fulfilled. "The more one has, the more one
wants, since satisfactions received only stimulate instead of filling needs." It follows from this
natural insatiability of the human animal that his desires can only be held in check by external
controls, that is, by societal control. Society imposes limits on human desires and constitutes
"a regulative force [which] must play the same role for moral needs which the organism plays
for physical needs." In well-regulated societies, social controls set limits on individual
propensities so that "each in his sphere vaguely realizes the extreme limits on individual
propensities so that "each in his sphere vaguely realizes the extreme limits set to his ambitions
and aspires to nothing beyond. . . . Thus, an end or a goal [is] set to the passions."
When social regulations break down, the controlling influence of society on individual
propensities is no longer effective and individuals are left to their own devices. Such a state of
affairs Durkheim calls anomie, a tern that refers to a condition of relative normlessness in a
whole society or in some of its component groups. Anomie does not refer to a state of mind,
but to a property of the social structure. It characterizes a condition in which individual desires
are no longer regulated by common norms and where, as a consequence, individuals are left
without moral guidance in the pursuit of their goals.
Although complete anomie, or total normlessness, is empirically impossible, societies may be

characterized by greater or lesser degrees of normative regulations. Moreover, within any
particular society, groups may differ in the degree of anomie that besets them. Social change
may create anomie either in the whole society or in some parts of it. Business crises, for
example, may have a far greater impact on those on the higher reaches of the social pyramid
than on the underlying population. When depression leads to a sudden downward mobility, the
men affected experience a de-regulation in their lives--a loss of moral certainty and customary
expectations that are no longer sustained by the group to which these men once belonged.
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Similarly, the rapid onset of prosperity may lead some people to a quick upward mobility and
hence deprive them of the social support needed in their new styles of life. Any rapid movement
in the social structure that upsets previous networks in which life styles are embedded carries
with it a chance of anomie.
Durkheim argued that economic affluence, by stimulating human desires, carries with it
dangers of anomic conditions because it "deceives us into believing that we depend on
ourselves only," while "poverty protects against suicide because it is a restraint in itself." Since
the realization of human desires depends upon the resources at hand, the poor are restrained,
and hence less prone to suffer from anomie by virtue of the fact that they possess but limited
resources. "The less one has the less he is tempted to extend the range of his needs indefinitely."
By accounting for the different susceptibility to anomie in terms of the social process--that is,
the relations between individuals rather than the biological propensities of individuals--
Durkheim in effect proposed a specifically sociological theory of deviant behavior even though
he failed to point to the general implications of this crucial insight. In the words of Robert K.
Merton, who was the first to ferret out in this respect the overall implications of Durkheim's
thought and to develop them methodically, "Social structures exert a definite pressure upon
certain persons in the society to engage in nonconforming rather than conforming conduct."
Durkheim's program of study, the overriding problems in all his work, concerns the sources of
social order and disorder, the forces that make for regulation or de-regulation in the body social.
His work on suicide, of which the discussion and analysis of anomie forms a part, must be read
in this light. Once he discovered that certain types of suicide could be accounted for by anomie,
he could then use anomic suicide as an index for the otherwise unmeasurable degree of social
integration. This was not circular reasoning, as could be argued, but a further application of his
method of analysis. He reasoned as follows: There are no societies in which suicide does not
occur, and many societies show roughly the same rates of suicide over long periods of time.
This indicates that suicides may be considered a "normal," that is, a regular, occurrence.
However, sudden spurts in the suicide rates of certain groups or total societies are "abnormal"
and point to some perturbations not previously present. Hence. "abnormally" high rates in
specific groups or social categories, or in total societies, can be taken as an index of
disintegrating forces at work in a social structure.
Durkheim distinguished between types of suicide according to the relation of the actor to his
society. When men become "detached from society," when they are thrown upon their own
devices and loosen the bonds that previously had tied them to their fellow, they are prone to
egoistic, or individualistic, suicide. When the normative regulations surrounding individual
conduct are relaxed and hence fail to curb and guide human propensities, men are susceptible
to succumbing to anomic suicide. To put the matter differently, when the restraints of structural
integration, as exemplified in the operation of organic solidarity, fail to operate, men become
prone to egoistic suicide; when the collective conscience weakens, men fall victim to anomic
suicide.
In addition to egoistic and anomic types of suicide, Durkheim refers to altruistic and fatalistic
suicide. The latter is touched upon only briefly in his work, but the former is of great
importance for an understanding of Durkheim's general approach. Altruistic suicide refers to
cases in which suicide can be accounted for by overly strong regulation of individuals, as
opposed to lack of regulation. Durkheim argues in effect that the relation of suicide rates to
social regulation is curvilinear--high rates being associated with both excessive individuation
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and excessive regulation. In the case of excessive regulation, the demands of society are so
great that suicide varies directly rather than inversely with the degree of integration. For
example, in the instance of the Hindu normative requirement that widows commit ritual suicide
upon the funeral pyre of their husbands, or in the case of harikiri, the individual is so strongly
attuned to the demands of his society that he is willing to take his own life when the norms so
demand. Arguing from statistical data, Durkheim shows that in modern societies the high rates
of suicide among the military cannot be explained by the deprivations of military life suffered
by the lower ranks, since the suicide rate happens to be higher for officers than for enlisted
men. Rather, the high rate for officers can be accounted for by a military code of honor that
enjoins a passive habit of obedience leading officers to undervalue their own lives. In such
cases, Durkheim is led to refer to too feeble degrees of individuation and to counterpose these
to the excesses of individuation or de-regulation, which account, in his view, for the other major
forms of suicide.
Durkheim's discussion of altruistic suicide allows privileged access to some of the intricacies
of his approach. He has often been accused of having an overly anti-individualistic philosophy,
one that is mainly concerned with the taming of individual impulse and the harnessing of the
energies of individuals for the purposes of society. Although it cannot be denied that there are
such tendencies in his work, Durkheim's treatment of altruistic suicide indicates that he was
trying to establish a balance between the claims of individuals and those of society, rather than
to suppress individual strivings. Acutely aware of the dangers of the breakdown of social order,
he also realized that total control of component social actors by society would be as detrimental
as anomie and de-regulation. Throughout his life he attempted to establish a balance between
societal and individual claims.
Durkheim was indeed a thinker in the conservative tradition to the extent that he reacted against
the atomistic drift of most Enlightenment philosophy and grounded his sociology in a concern
for the maintenance of social order. As Robert Nisbet has shown convincingly, such key terms
as cohesion, solidarity, integration, authority, ritual, and regulation indicate that his sociology
is anchored upon an anti-atomistic set of premises. In this respect he was like his traditionalist
forebears, yet it would be a mistake to classify Durkheim as a traditionalist social thinker.
Politically he was a liberal--indeed, a defender of the rights of individuals against the state. He
also was moved to warn against excesses of regulation over persons even though the major
thrusts of his argument were against those who, by failing to recognize the requirements of the
social order, were likely to foster anomic states of affairs. Anomie, he argued, was as
detrimental to individuals as it was to the social order at large.
Durkheim meant to show that a Spencerian approach to the social realm, an approach in which
the social dimension is ultimately derived from the desire of individuals to increase the sum of
their happiness, did not stand up before the court of evidence or the court of reason. Arguing
against Spencer and the utilitarians, he maintained that society cannot be derived from the
propensity of individuals to trade and barter in order to maximize their own happiness. This
view fails to account for the fact that people do not trade and barter at random but follow a
pattern that is normative. For men to make a contract and live up to it, they must have a prior
commitment to the meaning of a contract in its own right. Such prior collective commitment,
that is, such a non-contractual element of contracts, constitutes the framework of normative
control. No trade or barter can take place without social regulation and some system of positive
and negative sanctions.
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Durkheim's main shafts against individualistic social theories notwithstanding, he was by no

means oblivious of the dangers of overregulation to which Spencer's social philosophy had
been especially sensitive. Durkheim saw man as Homo duplex--as body, desire, and appetite
and also as socialized personality. But man was specifically human only in the latter capacity,
and he became fully human only in and through society. Hence, true moral action lies in the
sacrifice of certain individual desires for the service of groups and society. But such sacrifices
redound in the last analysis to the benefit of individuals, as well as society, since unbridled
desires lead to frustration and unhappiness rather than to bliss and fulfillment. Modern society
seems to contain, for Durkheim, the potentialities for individualism within social regulation. In
contrast to earlier types of social organization based on mechanical solidarity that demanded a
high degree of regimentation, modern types of organization rest on organic solidarity obtained
through the functional interdependence of autonomous individuals. In modern societies, social
solidarity is dependent upon, rather than repressive of, individual autonomy of conduct.
Though Durkheim stressed that in modern societies a measure of integration was achieved
through the intermeshing and mutual dependence of differentiated roles, he came to see that
these societies nevertheless could not do without some common integration by a system of
common beliefs. In earlier social formations built on mechanical solidarity, such common
beliefs are not clearly distinct from the norms through which they are implemented in
communal action; in the case of organic solidarity, the detailed norms have become relatively
independent from overall beliefs, responding as they do to the exigencies of differentiated role
requirements, but a general system of overall beliefs must still exist. Hence Durkheim turned,
in the last period of his scholarly life, to the study of religious phenomena as core elements of
systems of common beliefs.
THEORY OF SUICIDE
Essay on Durkheim’s Theory of Suicide – Durkheim’s third famous book “Suicide” published
in 1897 is in various respects related to his study of division of labour. “Suicide”, the act of
taking one’s own life, figures prominently in the historical development of sociology because
it was the subject of the first sociological data to test a theory.
Durkheim’s theory of suicide is cited as “a monumental landmark in which conceptual theory
and empirical research are brought together.
Durkheim’s book “Suicide” is an analysis of a phenomenon regarded as pathological, intended
to throw light on the evil which threatens modern industrial societies, that is, “anomie.” Suicide
is an indication of disorganisation of both individual and society. Increasing number of suicides
clearly indicates something wrong somewhere in the social system of the concerned society.
Durkheim has studied this problem at some length.
Durkheim’s study of suicide begins with a definition of the phenomenon. He then proceeds to
refute the earlier interpretations of suicide. Finally, he develops a general theory of the
phenomenon.
Definition of Suicide:
According to Durkheim, suicide refers to “every case of death resulting directly or indirectly
from a positive or negative death performed by the victim himself and which strives to
produce this result.”
It is clear from the definition of Durkheim that suicide is a conscious act and the person
concerned is fully aware of its consequences. The person who shoots himself to death, or drinks
severe poison, or jumps down from the 10th storey of a building, for example, is fully aware
of the consequences of such an act.
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Brief Evaluation of Durkheim’s Theory of Suicide Comments in Appreciation of the

Theory:
1. As L.A. Coser stated, Durkheim’s study of “suicide” could be cited as a monumental land
work study in which conceptual theory and empirical research are brought together in an
imposing manner.”
2. As Abraham and Morgan have said “the larger significance of suicide lies in its
demonstration of the function of sociological theory in empirical science”.
3. A successful attempt is made in this theory to establish logically the link between social
solidarity, social.
4. Durkheim has thrown light on the various faces of suicide. He is, indeed, the first person in
this regard.
Two Main Purposes behind this Study:

Durkheim used a number of statistical records to establish his fundamental idea that suicide is
also a social fact and social order and disorder are at the very root of suicide. As Abraham and
Morgan have pointed out, Durkheim made use of statistical analysis for two primary reasons.
They are stated below:
(a) To refute theories of suicide based on psychology, biology, genetics, climate,
and geographic factors,
(b) To support with empirical evidence his own sociological explanation of suicide.
Durkheim Displays an Extreme Form of Sociological Realism:
Durkheim is of the firm belief that suicide is not an individual act or a private and personal
action. It is caused by some power which is over and above the individual or “super-
individual.” It is not a personal situation but a manifestation of a social condition. He speaks
of suicidal currents as collective tendencies that dominate some vulnerable persons. The act of
suicide is nothing but the manifestation of these currents. Durkheim has selected the instance
or event of suicide to demonstrate the function of sociological theory.
Durkheim Chooses Statistical Method to Know the Causes of Suicide:
Durkheim wanted to know why people commit suicide, and he chooses to think that
explanations focusing on the psychology of the individual were inadequate. Experiments on
suicide were obviously out of question.
Case studies of the past suicides would be of little use, because they do not provide reliable
generalizations, about all suicides. Survey methods were hardly appropriate, because one
cannot survey dead people. But statistics on suicide were readily available, and Durkheim
chose to analyze them.
Durkheim Rejects Extra-Social Factors as the Causes of Suicide:

Durkheim repudiated most of the accepted theories of suicide.
(1) His monographic study demonstrated that heredity, for example, is not a sufficient
explanation of suicide.
(2) Climatic and geographic factors are equally insufficient as explanatory factors.
(3) Likewise, waves of imitation are inadequate explanations.
(4) He also established the fact that suicide is not necessarily caused by the psychological
factors.
Social Forces are the Real Causes of Suicide: Durkheim:

Suicide is a highly individual act, yet the motives for a suicide can be fully understood only by
reference to the social context in which it occurs. In his attempts to substantiate this fact he
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came to know that the incidence of suicide varied from one social group or set up to another
and did so in a consistent manner over the years.
Protestants were more likely to commit suicide than Catholics; people in large cities were more
likely to commit suicide than people in small communities; people living alone were more
likely to commit suicide than people living in families.
Durkheim isolated one independent variable that lay behind these differences: the extent to
which the individual was integrated into a social bond with others. People with fragile or
weaker ties to their community are more likely to take their own lives than people who have
stronger ties.
Durkheim’s Threefold Classification of Suicide:

Having dismissed explanations of extra-social factors, Durkheim proceeds to analyse the types
of suicide. He takes into account three types of suicide:
(a) Egoistic Suicide which results from the lack of the integration of the individual into his
social group.
(b) Altruistic Suicide is a kind of suicide which results from the over-integration of the
individual into his social group.
(c) Anomie Suicide results from the state of normlessness or degeneration found in society.
Having analysed the above mentioned three types of suicide, Durkheim concludes that “suicide
is an individual phenomenon whose causes are essentially social.”
Suicide – An Index to Decay in Social Solidarity:

Durkheim has established the view that there are no societies in which suicide does not occur.
It means suicide may be considered a “normal”, that is, a regular, occurrence. However, sudden
increase in suicide rates may be witnessed.
This, he said, could be taken as “an index of disintegrating forces at work in a social structure.”
He also came to the conclusion that different rates of suicide are the consequences of
differences in degree and type of social solidarity. Suicide is a kind of index to decay in social
solidarity.
Three Types of Suicide:

On the basis of the analysis of a mass of data gathered by him on many societies and cultures,
Durkheim identified three basic types of suicides. They are as follows:
(i) Egoistic Suicide
(ii) Altruistic Suicide
(iii) Anomic Suicide.
According to Durkheim, all these occur as an expression of group breakdown of some kind or
the other. These three types of suicide reveal different types of relations between the actor and
his society.
1. Egoistic Suicide:
Egoistic suicide is a product of relatively weak group integration. It takes place as a result of
extreme loneliness and also out of excess individualism. When men become “detached from
society”, and when the bonds that previously had tied them to their fellow beings become loose
– they are more prone to egoistic suicide.
According to Durkheim, egoistic suicides are committed by those individuals who have the
tendency to shut themselves up within themselves. Such individuals feel affronted, hurt and
ignored. Introversive traits gain upper hand in them.
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Egoistic persons are aloof and cut off from the mainstream of society and do not take full
interest in social matters. Such persons get alienated and find it difficult to cope with social
alienation and feel impelled to commit suicide.
Durkheim’s belief is that lack of integration of the individuals into the social group is the main
cause for egoistic suicide. Durkheim studied varying degrees of integration of individuals into
their religion, family, political and national communities.
He found that among the Catholics suicides were comparatively less than among the
Protestants. He also found that Catholicism is able to integrate its members more fully into its
fold.
On the other hand, Protestantism fosters spirit of free inquiry, permits great individual freedom,
lacks hierarchic organisations and has fewer common beliefs and practices. It is known that the
Catholic Church is more powerfully integrated than the Protestant church.
It is in this way the Protestants are more prone to commit suicide than the Catholics. Hence,
Durkheim generalised that the lack of integration is the main cause of egoistic suicide.
2. Altruistic Suicide:
This kind of suicide takes place in the form of a sacrifice in which an individual ends his life
by heroic means so as to promote a cause or an ideal which is very dear to him. It results from
the over- integration of the individual into his group. In simple words, altruistic suicide is taking
off one’s own life for the sake of a cause. It means that even high level of social solidarity
induces suicide.
Examples:
(i) In some primitive societies and in modern armies such suicide takes place.
(ii) Japanese sometimes illustrate this type of suicide. They call it “Harakiri.” In this practice
of Harakiri, some Japanese go to the extent of taking off their lives for the sake of the larger
social unity. They consider that self-destruction would prevent the breakdown of social unity.
(iii) The practice of “sati” which was once in practice in North India is another example of this
kind.
(iv) The self-immolation by Buddhist monks, self-destruction in Nirvana under the
Brahmanical influence as found in the case of ancient Hindu sages represent other variants of
altruistic suicide. Wherever altruistic suicide is prevalent, man is always ready to sacrifice his
life for a great cause, principle, ideal or value.
3. Anomie Suicide:
The breakdown of social norms and sudden social changes that are characteristic of modern
times, encourage anomie suicide. When the collective conscience weakens, men fall victim to
anomie suicide. “Without the social backing to which one is accustomed, life is judged to be
not worth continuing.”
Anomie suicide is the type that follows catastrophic social changes. Social life all around seems
to go to pieces. According to Durkheim, at times when social relations get disturbed both
personal and social ethics become the casualities. Values of life come down and outlook of
some persons changes radically. There are then certain dangerous developments in the society.
A sudden change has its vibrations both in social life and social relationship, which paves way
for suicide. If the change is sudden, adjustment becomes difficult and those who do not get
adjusted to changes commit suicide.
It is this social disruption which leads to suicide. According to Durkheim, not only economic
disaster and industrial crisis but even sudden economic prosperity can cause disruption and
deregulation and finally suicide.
Critical Comments:
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1. Durkheim has given importance only to social factors in suicide. In doing so, he has
neglected the role of other factors, especially the psychological. Hence this is a one-sided view.
2. The theory is based upon a very small sample of data concerning suicide.
3. As criminologists have pointed out, economic, psychological and even religious factors may
lead to suicide. But Durkheim did not give any importance to these factors.
Concluding Remarks:
These three kinds of suicide understood as social types also correspond approximately to
psychological types. “Egoistic suicide tends to be characterised by a kind of apathy, an absence
of attachment to life; altruistic suicide, by a state of energy and passion; anomie suicide is
characterised by a state of irritation or disgust” – Raymond Aron.
Raymond Aron pointed out that Durkheim in his study of “suicide” has been successful in
establishing a social fact that there are “specific social phenomena which govern individual
phenomena. The most impressive, most eloquent example is that of the social forces which
drive individuals to their deaths, each believing that he is obeying only himself.”
ORGANIC SOLIDARITY AND MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY

Key Difference – Mechanic vs Organic Solidarity
Mechanic and Organic Solidarity are two concepts that emerge in the field
of sociology between which a key difference can be identified. These concepts were first
introduced by Emilie Durkheim, a key figure in Sociology. Durkheim was a functionalist who
was rather optimistic about the division of labor in the society. His view is captured in the book
titled ‘The division of labor in society’ which was first published in 1893. In this book, he
presented two concepts known as mechanic solidarity and organic solidarity. The key
difference between mechanic and organic solidarity is that while mechanic solidarity is
visible in pre-industrial societies, organic solidarity is visible in industrial societies.
What is Mechanic Solidarity?

The concept of solidarity is used in sociology to highlight the agreement and support that exists
in a society where people share their belief systems and work together. Durkheim uses the term
mechanic solidarity to refer to societies governed by similarities. Most of the pre-industrialized
societies such as hunting and gathering societies, agricultural societies are examples of
mechanic solidarity.
The key characteristics of such societies are that people share common belief systems and work
with others in cooperation. Communal activities are at the heart of such societies. There is a lot
of homogeneity among people in their thought, actions, education and even in the work that
they perform. In this sense, there is very little room for individuality. Another feature of
mechanic solidarity is that there exist repressive laws. Also, there is very
little interdependence among people as all are involved in similar types of work.
What is Organic Solidarity?

Organic solidarity can be seen in societies where there is a lot of specialization which leads to
high interdependence among individuals and organizations. Unlike in mechanic solidarity,
where there is a lot of homogeneity among the people, a contrasting image can be seen in
organic solidarity. This is visible in industrialized societies such as many of the modern
societies, where people have specific roles and specialized work. Since every individual is
engaged in a special role, this leads to a high level of interdependence because a single
individual cannot perform all tasks.
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Some of the key characteristics of organic solidarity are high individuality, constitutional and
organizational laws, secularization, high population and density. Durkheim points out that
although there is a high division of labor in organic solidarity, this is necessary for the
functioning of the society because the contribution that each individual makes to the society
enables the society to function as a social unit.
What is the difference between Mechanic and Organic Solidarity?

Definitions of Mechanic and Organic Solidarity:
Mechanic Solidarity: Mechanic solidarity to refer to societies governed by similarities.
Organic Solidarity: Organic solidarity can be seen in societies where there is a lot of
specialization which leads to high interdependence among individuals and organizations.
Characteristics of Mechanic and Organic Solidarity:
Focus:
Mechanic Solidarity: Mechanic solidarity focuses on similarities.
Organic Solidarity: Organic solidarity focuses on differences.
Individuality:
Mechanic Solidarity: There is little room for individuality.
Organic Solidarity: Individuality is promoted.
Laws:
Mechanic Solidarity: Laws are repressive.
Organic Solidarity: Constitutional, organizational laws can be seen.
Division of Labor:
Mechanic Solidarity: Division of labor is low.
Organic Solidarity: Division of labor is very high as specialization is at the heart of organic
solidarity.
Beliefs and Values:
Mechanic Solidarity: Beliefs and values are similar.
Organic Solidarity: There is a great variety of beliefs and values.
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HERBERT SPENCER
Herbert Spencer was a theorist whose valuable insights have often been drowned in a sea of
irrelevance and spacious reasoning. He is popularly known as the British Aristotle and often
called the second founding father of sociology. Spencer's ideas have left an indelible
impression on the succeeding writers. Spencer's name was associated with the birth of
sociology in England. Herbert Spencer was born an April 27, 1820, in Derby in England. He
was a man of original and independent thinking. He has contributed to various fields of
knowledge like philosophy, biology, psychology, anthropology and sociology. Spencer wrote
a number of books. They are as follows.
1) Social Statics (1850)

2) First Principles (1862).
3) The study of Sociology (1873)
4) The Principles of Sociology in three volumes (1876-96)
5) The Man verses the State (1884) Organic Analogy:
Spencer is popularly known for his treatment of evolution. The evolutionary doctrine was no
doubt the foundation of Spencer's sociological theory. He, however, presented the organic
analogy, a secondary doctrine which also played a vital role in his thought system. He identified
society with a biological organism. But this comparison of the society with the biological
organism was not originally propounded by Herbert Spencer. Several other philosophers had
given the concept previously. He established the hypothesis that society is like a biological
organism and then proceeded to defend it against all objectives with great logical force. Indeed,
he regarded the recognition of the similarity between society and organism as the first step
towards a general theory of evaluation. In his "Principles of Sociology Spencer observed some
similarities between biological and social organism:-
An important work of Spencer which was shared with both Comte and Durkheim was his
theory of organic analogy in which he developed the tendency to see society as an organism.
He borrowed his concepts from biology.
Organismic Analogy:
He was concerned with overall structure of society, the interrelationship of the parts of society,
and the functions of the parts for each other as well as for the system as a whole. He had
compared the society with a living organism by taking into account the following points.
(i) There is growth and development of both society and living organism. The process of
growth and development is gradual and it passes from simple to complex. At the time of birth
of a living organism or biological organism it is very simple.
It has no self of its own. But gradually due to its development it becomes more and more
complex and complicated day by day. It changes its structure. In the beginning it is small but
becomes quite complex gradually.
In case of society we find the same thing. At the time of its origin it is very small and simple
but becomes vast and complicated gradually. For example, the hunting and food gathering
society has now reached at its modern state with the changes in its growth and development.
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(ii) There is close relationship in its parts and organs. In the bio logical organism or living
organism there is close relationship in the parts. It implies that all the parts or organs are
dependent upon each other. In a living organism, for example, each organ performs separate
function of its own. Similarly, different organs perform different functions for the continuity
of the whole. Neither the function of one organ can be carried on by other organs nor can the
whole be maintained with the help of all the functions of all other organs. This is also true of
society. All the parts of the society depend upon each other for its continuity.
(iii) There is importance of the whole in both society and living organism. Although all parts
of society and living organism are inter- dependant there is importance of the whole. We cannot
realize the importance of the different parts unless we look at the organism as a whole. If one
part gets destroyed then the new ones are born. There is no break in the importance of the
whole. It continues. This is true in both society and biological organism.
(iv) There is one centre of control in both-society and living organism. In the living organism
the Centre of Control is the brain which regulates all the activities of the different parts of the
whole. Similarly, in case of a society the government or the administration acts as the centre
of its control. It controls the functioning of the whole. Its different parts carry out the orders
issued by the centre of control. So society and the living organism are similar.
(v) According to Spencer, Society and the living organism are similar as both of them following
similar processes and methods for its efficient functioning. For example, in the living organism,
the various systems like digestion, circulatory, respiratory etc. are responsible for its
functioning whereas, in the society, the transport system, communication system, production
as well as distribution etc. fulfill their respective roles. Thus Spencer clarified that there is
similarity between society and living organism. Apart from the above similarities between the
biological organism and the society.
Spencer has analyzed some points of difference between these two.

They are:
(i) The living organism is a concrete and integrated whole whereas society is composed of
discrete and dispersed elements.
(ii) There is no centralization of consciousness in the society whereas in the living organism
although different organs do not have different consciousness, it has a centralized
consciousness. But in the society each and every part has separate consciousness of its own.
(iii) In the society the parts are not always necessarily meant for the welfare of the whole.
Rather, the whole is made for the welfare of its parts. This is not true of the living organism.
Because all the parts exist for the welfare of the whole.
(iv) The parts of the society are capable of independent existence but the parts of living
organism are incapable of independent existence. If the parts of the living organism are made
separated from the whole, then it becomes deformed and in the worst case it leads to death.
From the above discussion we come to know that Spencer has tried to treat society similar with
a living organism by taking into account few important points. But his theory is not free from
the criticisms. Some of the criticisms are the following.
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(i) It is not possible to bring out the differences between the society and the living organism.
Society is abstract whereas living organism is concrete. So the critics have commented that it
is not possible to compare the two. It is nothing but the imaginary description of Spencer.
(ii) The nature of consciousness of the society and the living organism differs. In the living
organism there is centralization of consciousness but in the society different parts have different
consciousness of their own. So the society and the living organism cannot be compared with
each other on this ground.
(iii) Another criticism is regarding their birth, growth and death. It is said that the process of
birth, growth and death of the living organism is purely different from the society. So society
can never be made similar with the living organism.
Apart from the above criticisms Spencer himself has also contradicted his own views.
SPENCER AND COMTE

Although the sociological theory of Herbert Spencer (1820-1902) has but a small following
today, his work was quite popular during his lifetime, particularly in America. Spencer's theory
of society does represent an advance over Comtian theory, even though Spencer, like Comte,
characterized himself as a positivist and derived his concepts of structure and function from
the field of biology. Spencer used the Comtian terms of social statics and social dynamics, but
not in a descriptive way as Comte did to refer to all types of societies, but rather in a normative
way to describe his version of the future ideal society. Furthermore, Spencer was more
interested in studying the progress of the external world or objectivity, while Comte focused
more on the subjective nature of the progress of human conceptions. Finally, there are
important political differences between Spencer and Comte. Spencer had little regard for
centralized political control and believed that the government should allow individuals the
maximum freedom to pursue their private interests. Comte, on the other hand, desired society
to be led by the high priests of positivistic religion.
Spencer's Evolutionary Theory and Sociology

Spencer defined sociology as the study of societal evolution and believed that the ultimate goal
of societal evolution is complete harmony and happiness. Spencer's theory of evolutionary
change is built upon three basic principles: integration, differentiation, and definiteness.
Spencer argued that homogenous phenomena are inherently unstable, which makes them
subject to constant fluctuations. These fluctuations force homogeneous systems to differentiate,
which results in greater multiformity. In other words, homogeneous systems grow to become
heterogeneous.
Spencer focused much of his energy on trying to legitimize sociology as a scientific discipline.
He argued that laypeople might think they deal with the same issues as sociologists do;
however, they are not trained to adequately comprehend these issues. One of the ways that
Spencer believed sociology could become more legitimate was for sociologists to study other
disciplines, especially biology and psychology. Biology could be linked to sociology through
the search for the basic "laws of life," understanding society as a "living body" and focusing
on human beings as the starting point of sociological inquiries. Psychology is useful to
sociology because it helps to show that emotions or sentiments are linked to social action.
According to Spencer, individuals are the source of all social phenomena, and the motives of
individuals are key to understanding society as a whole.
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Spencer's Methodology
Spencer realized that studying social phenomena was inherently different from studying natural
phenomena; therefore, sociology could not simply imitate the methods used by biologists.
Spencer also argued that the psychological method of introspection was ill-suited to studying
objective social facts and processes. Sociologists are also faced with the methodological
problem of how to keep their own bias in check and gather and report trustworthy data. Spencer
advocated a "value free" methodological approach for sociology and cautioned sociologists to
be aware of emotional biases that might influence their work, including educational, patriotic,
class, political, and theological biases. Spencer was committed to empirical research and
employed a comparative-historical methodology in much of his work.
The Evolution of Society

As stated above, Spencer's general theory of social evolution involves the progress of society
towards integration, heterogeneity, and definiteness. It also includes a fourth dimension, the
increasing coherence of social groups. Social groups, according to Spencer, strive towards
greater harmony and cooperation through the division of labor and the state. It is important to
note the Spencer does not develop a linear theory of social evolution; he acknowledges that
dissolution or no change at all may occur at any given moment. Spencer was a social realist in
that he viewed society as an entity in and of itself—thus, the whole of society can live on even
if its component parts die. As society grows, it becomes more complex and differentiated.
Structures accompany this growth, which function to regulate external concerns like military
activities and sustain internal issues like economic activities. Distributing systems eventually
emerge that function to help link together regulative and sustaining structures.
Spencer uses his evolutionary theory to trace the movement from simple to compounded
societies and from militant to industrial societies. Society evolves from the compounding and
recompounding of social groups. It also evolves from military societies dominated by conflict
and a coercive regulative system to industrial societies characterized by harmony and a
sustaining system of decentralized rule. Spencer thought the society that he was living in was
a "hybrid society," exhibiting traits of both military and industrial societies. Although he
ultimately hoped society in general would progress towards a state of industry, he recognized
that the regression to a militant state was possible.
Ethics and Politics

Spencer argued that individuals were the source of moral law in a given society, but that God
ultimately determined good and evil. Evil itself, according to Spencer, was a result of
nonadaptation to external conditions, and that in a perfectly evolved society it would disappear.
Spencer's politics can be best described as libertarian—he saw a limited role for state
intervention in everyday affairs, especially economic activities. Spencer also opposed state-
administered charity, education, and even basic services like garbage removal. Following his
doctrine of the survival of the fittest, Spencer even opposed private philanthropy. State and
private charity both helped to maintain "unhealthy" or unfit members of society, and this stifled
present and future society from evolving to perfect harmony.
A Word about Spencer’s Contributions:

 Spencer’s contributions to social thought are not negligible, but recognisable. Unlike
those of Comte, Spencer’s views were widely accepted during his lifetime. They
dominated the minds of many scholars and others from 1865 to 1895. During the three
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decades the leading thinkers and philosophers of the West had come under the influence
of Spencer.
 Spencer’s theories had a special appeal because they catered to the two needs of the
day, (a) the desire for unifying knowledge, and (b) the need for scientific justification
for the “laissez-faire” principle.
 Spencer emphasised the laws of evolution and natural causation. He described social
evolution as a phase of natural evolution.
 He strongly supported the principle of “individualism “, for he himself was
individualistic. He attacked the idea that the State is a master machine to which all the
citizens must submit automatically.
 Spencer formulated an integral theory of all reality. “His law of evolution is a cosmic
law. His theory is, therefore, essentially philosophical not sociological. Strictly
speaking, philosophers should check its validity” – L.A. Coser.
 Spencer’s organismic theory highly influenced the later sociologists like Paul Von
Lilienfeld, Jacques Novicow, Ward, Sumner and Giddings.
 Spencer in his organic analogy suggested likenesses and differences between biological
organisms and human society.
 He made the role of social structures, or institutions stand out distinctly.
In conclusion, it could be said that “…… Spencer spoke in his writings to the needs
of his time.
Times have changed, but once again his work seems to commend itself to our age as it searches
for answers to age-old questions about how to live in community while maintaining
individuality.
The Contrast Between Militant and Industrial Societies
Characteristic Militant Society Industrial Society

Dominant function or Corporate defensive and Peaceful, mutual rendering
activity offensive activity for of individual services
preservation and
aggrandizement
Principle of social Compulsory cooperation; Voluntary cooperation;
coordination regimentation by regulation by contract and
enforcement of orders; both principles of justice; only
positive and negative negative regulation of
regulation of activity activity
Relations between state and Individuals exist for benefit State exists for benefit of
individual of state; restraints on liberty, individuals; freedom; few
property, and mobility restraints on property and
mobility
Relations between state and Private organizations
other organizations All organizations public; encourage
private organizations
excluded
Structure of state Centralized Decentralized
Structure of social Fixity of rank, occupation, Plasticity and openness of
stratification and locality; inheritance of rank, occupation, and
positions
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locality; movement between

positions
Type of economic activity Economic autonomy and Loss of economic autonomy;
self-sufficiency; little interdependence via peaceful
external trade; protectionism trade; free trade
Valued social and personal Patriotism; courage; Independence; respect for
characteristics reverence; loyalty; others; resistance to
obedience; faith in authority; coercion; individual
discipline initiative; truthfulness;
kindness
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IBN KHALDUN
Abd al-Rahman Ibn Mohammad is generally known as Ibn Khaldun after a remote ancestor.
His parents, originally Yemenite Arabs, had settled in Spain, but after the fall of Seville, had
migrated to Tunisia. He was born in Tunisia in 1332 A.D., where he received his early
education and where, still in his teens, he entered the service of the Egyptian ruler Sultan
Barquq. His thirst for advanced knowledge and a better academic setting soon made him leave
this service and migrate to Fez. This was followed by a long period of unrest marked by
contemporary political rivalries affecting his career. This turbulent period also included a three
year refuge in a small village Qalat Ibn Salama in Algeria, which provided him with the
opportunity to write Muqaddimah, the first volume of his world history that won him an
immortal place among historians, sociologists and philosophers. The uncertainty of his career
still continued, with Egypt becoming his final abode where he spent his last 24 years. Here he
lived a life of fame and respect, marked by his appointment as the Chief Malakite Judge and
lecturing at the Al-Azhar University, but envy caused his removal from his high judicial office
as many as five times.
Ibn Khaldun was a renaissance man, the real father of sociology. He defined the foundations
of sociology more than 4 centuries before Auguste Comte “discovered” them. Ibn Khaldun
lived in an era when the Muslim Nation in North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula disintegrated
into a multitude of city states fighting against each other. At the same time the Spaniards were
uniting their kingdoms and steadily taking over the Muslim city states in Iberia. He was
directly involved in the political intrigue and served several Muslim rulers in different
capacities ranging from diplomatic envoy to minister. His first hand observations led him to
believe that societies are not controlled by resources or policies. He concluded that societies
are living organisms that experience cyclic birth, growth, maturity, decline, and ultimately
death due to universal causes. Each phase of the cycle lasts for several generations. He also
described the process through which peaceful or violent migrants blend with the native
population to form a homogeneous society subject to the universal cycles.
He correctly associated the maturity stage of any social system with affluence, luxury and
reluctance to perform menial tasks or defend the society against external threats. This leads to
the employment of foreigners and mercenaries which initiates the conflicts that lead to the
decline phase.
He identified the impact of climate and available resources on migrations and social changes.
He also identified the impact of governmental policy and taxation on social change.
Ibn Khaldun is a great Moslem thinker of the fourteenth century (b. 1332, d. 1406 A. D.).
Modern writers are inclined to consider him as a pioneer or a precursor in the science of society
and the philosophy of history. Some of them consider him as the first sociologist in the history
of mankind and even the founder of modern sociology. His Prolegomena, which is the primary
subject of study in the present work, is regarded by one authority as one of the six important
monographic works in general sociology. The aim of this dissertation is not to study either Ibn
Khaldun or his theory in minute detail. In fact, other modern students have successfully
achieved that task. The aim of this work is, rather, a different one. Our aim here is to see Ibn
Khaldun in a different light, or, to use Mannheim's term, through a perspective which is greatly
different from the customary one. Ibn Khaldun lived in a culture quite different from our
present culture, and was accustomed to view the world within a frame of reference with which
we are perhaps completely unfamiliar. The first duty that lies, therefore, before us, in order to
be able to understand Ibn Khaldun, is to reconstruct his perspective or his frame of reference
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anew, and to try to look at the social phenomena through it. In this work, the space which is
devoted to the discussion of Ibn Khaldun's theory per se is small in comparison to that devoted
to the reconstruction of the perspective and the categories of thought according to which Ibn
Khaldun and his fellow writers viewed their world. This work is, as its subtitle shows, a study
in the sociology of knowledge. Ibn Khaldun is then taken as a point in case. He is studied
primarily to show how his theory and the theories produced in his culture can fit into the general
scheme of the sociology of knowledge as recently developed by modern sociologists.
Ibn Khaldun's chief contribution lies in philosophy of history and sociology. He sought to write
a world history preambled by a first volume aimed at an analysis of historical events. This
volume, commonly known as Muqaddimah or 'Prolegomena', was based on Ibn Khaldun's
unique approach and original contribution and became a masterpiece in literature on
philosophy of history and sociology. The chief concern of this monumental work was to
identify psychological, economic, environmental and social facts that contribute to the
advancement of human civilization and the currents of history. In this context, he analysed the
dynamics of group relationships and showed how group-feelings, al-'Asabiyya, give rise to the
ascent of a new civilisation and political power and how, later on, its diffusion into a more
general civilization invites the advent of a still new 'Asabiyya in its pristine form. He identified
an almost rhythmic repetition of rise and fall in human civilization, and analysed factors
contributing to it. His contribution to history is marked by the fact that, unlike most earlier
writers interpreting history largely in a political context, he emphasised environmental,
sociological, psychological and economic factors governing the apparent events. This
revolutionised the science of history and also laid the foundation of Umraniyat (Sociology).
Apart from the Muqaddimah that became an important independent book even during the
lifetime of the author, the other volumes of his world history Kitab al-I'bar deal with the history
of Arabs, contemporary Muslim rulers, contemporary European rulers, ancient history of
Arabs, Jews, Greeks, Romans, Persians, etc., Islamic History, Egyptian history and North-
African history, especially that of Berbers and tribes living in the adjoining areas. The last
volume deals largely with the events of his own life and is known as Al-Tasrif. This was also
written in a scientific manner and initiated a new analytical tradition in the art of writing
autobiography. A book on mathematics written by him is not extant.
Ibn Khaldun's influence on the subject of history, philosophy of history, sociology, political
science and education has remained paramount ever since his life. His books have been
translated into many languages, both in the East and the West, and have inspired subsequent
development of these sciences. For instance, Prof. Gum Ploughs and Kolosio consider
Muqaddimah as superior in scholarship to Machiavelli's The Prince written a century later, as
the forrner bases the diagnosis more on cultural, sociological, economic and psychological
factors.
Ibn Khaldun employed a revolutionary approach to writing history, rejecting the prevalent
notion of history consisting of mere facts. He acknowledged that a documentation of history is
directly dependent on who is interpreting it, when, and where. Historians are using this
methodology even today. Along with analyzing how the Islamic civilization unraveled over
time, he has left a detailed study of nomadic and non-nomadic life, dynasties and caliphates,
and society in general. His analysis of the rise and fall of civilizations has formed the basis of
social science, the science of civilization and sociology, according to 1001 Inventions: Muslim
Heritage in Our World. Ibn Khaldun was also a forerunner in terms of his economic theory,
paving the way for economics as we know it today.
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His Work
Of course, history, in the sense of a written record of past events, existed before Ibn Khaldun.
Ancient writers like Tacitus and Thuycides became famous for their historical accounts. It is
also true that a sense of history as having purpose existed before Ibn Khaldun. In fact, it is one
of the basic premises of Christianity. That said, Ibn Khaldun made a great contribution to the
progress of western thought by his theory of history as logical procession of events which
follow from each other in reasonable ways. He himself considered this conclusion to be so
significant that he devoted most of the Muqaddimah (Prolegomena to History) to explaining
the details, declaring several times that he had created an entirely new field of study. By
changing history from the telling of stories to an observable science which could explain and
perhaps even predict human behaviour, he claimed to have changed the understanding of
human behaviour entirely. Although many of his basic explanations are today discarded, the
idea that such explanations could exist has led modern thinkers to claim Ibn Khaldun as a
founder in the philosophy of history, historiography, anthropology, and sociology.
ASABIYYAH:
Àsabiyya or asabiyyah (Arabic: ‫ )ةّيبصع‬refers to social solidarity with an emphasis on unity,
group consciousness and sense of shared purpose, and social cohesion,[1] originally in a
context of "tribalism" and "clanism". It was a familiar term in the pre-Islamic era, but became
popularized in Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah where it is described as the fundamental bond of
human society and the basic motive force of history. Àsabiyya is neither necessarily nomadic
nor based on blood relations; rather, it resembles philosophy of classical republicanism. In the
modern period, the term is generally analogous to solidarity. However, it is often negatively
associated because it can sometimes suggest loyalty to one's group regardless of circumstances,
or partisanship. Ibn Khaldun also argued that àsabiyya is cyclical and directly related to the
rise and fall of civilizations: it is most strong at the start of a civilization, declines as the
civilization advances, and then another more compelling ʿasabiyyah eventually takes its place
to help establish a different civilization
• Ibn Khaldun uses the term Asabiyyah to describe the bond of cohesion among humans
in a group forming community. The bond, Asabiyyah, exists at any level of civilization, from
nomadic society to states and empires.
• Asabiyyah is most strong in the nomadic phase, and decreases as civilization advances.
As this Asabiyyah declines, another more compelling Asabiyyah may take its place; thus,
civilizations rise and fall, and history describes these cycles of Asabiyyah as they play out.
• Ibn Khaldun argues that each dynasty (or civilization) has within itself the seeds of its
own downfall. He explains that ruling houses tend to emerge on the peripheries of great empires
and use the much stronger àsabiyya present in those areas to their advantage, in order to bring
about a change in leadership. This implies that the new rulers are at first considered
"barbarians" by comparison to the old ones. As they establish themselves at the center of their
empire, they become increasingly lax, less coordinated, disciplined and watchful, and more
concerned with maintaining their new power and lifestyle at the centre of the empire—i.e, their
internal cohesion and ties to the original peripheral group, the àsabiyya, dissolves into
factionalism and individualism, diminishing their capacity as a political unit. Thus, conditions
are created wherein a new dynasty can emerge at the periphery of their control, grow strong,
and effect a change in leadership, beginning the cycle anew.
Ibn Khaldun also further states in the Muqaddimah that "dynasties have a natural life span like
individuals", and that no dynasty generally lasts beyond three generations of about 40 years
each.
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• In the first generation, the people who established the civilization are used to "privation
and to sharing their glory (with each other); they are brave and rapacious. Therefore, the
strength of group feeling continues to be preserved among them".
• In the second generation, when the dynasty moves from "privation to luxury and
plenty", the people "become used to lowliness and obedience ... But many of the old virtues
remain" and they "live in hope that the conditions that existed in the first generation may come
back, or they live under the illusion that those conditions still exist."
• By the third generation, the people have forgotten the period of toughness "as if it had
never existed ... Luxury reaches its peak among them, because they are so much given to a life
of prosperity and ease. They become dependent on the dynasty ... Group feeling disappears
completely. People forget to protect and defend themselves and to press their claims ... When
someone comes and demands something from them, they cannot repel him."
What It's All About

The most basic premise of the Muqaddimah was that the purpose of civilisation was to bring
people together in larger and larger groups so that they could produce things that they couldn't
produce individually and to provide for common defence. However, he also recognised that
people as a general rule are selfish, violent, and cruel and that bringing them together in cities
exacerbates these tendencies. Therefore, the purpose of the dawlah6 can be seen as being a way
to keep a densely-packed society together despite its inherent tendency to fall apart. The
responsibility of a good leader was to keep society stable and the measure of his greatness was
the degree to which he succeeded.
The thing which kept some societies together while others fell apart was something called
'asabiyah. This is an Arabic word which can mean 'solidarity' or 'group consciousness' but is
usually translated 'group feeling'. At the most basic level, 'asabiyah is something that a person
feels for his family. In this respect, it might also be translated as 'brotherhood'. When a ruler is
successful he manages to spread the 'asabiyah to all members of the society, so that all think of
one another as they would think of their own brothers. Because of the limited scope of his study
and his inability as a medieval Muslim to think of religion in a functionalist way, Ibn Khaldun
never mentioned the role which religion can serve in promoting 'asabiyah.
Predictive History
Ibn Khaldun stated that, given the natural progress of things, a dawlah would fall apart in four
generations. This is based on his observation that, while the concentration of people makes
possible the specialisation to support a full-time government and army (and religious hierarchy,
although he appears to have missed that part) it also introduces luxuries into people's lives
which eventually corrupt them with selfishness and deteriorate the 'asabiyah. A particularly
strong ruler can delay the collapse, but in Ibn Khaldun's theory, events are inherently cyclical
and each dawlah contains within itself the seeds of its own destruction.
Unfortunately, perhaps because of Ibn Khaldun's own experience which mostly dealt with very
similar and short-lived states, some of his conclusions are very obviously in opposition to
observed history. Some dawlahs last considerably longer than four generations for reasons
other than strong group feeling, while others, including many that are strongly unified in
nationalism, fall apart almost instantly. Even today, there has yet to be any definitive theory
which will allow for the prediction of future history. Nevertheless, Ibn Khaldun's work changed
the way in which humans understand each other and made possible the study of human
behaviour in a logical way.
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KARL MARX
Not everyone has shared Spencer's vision of societal harmony and stability. Chief among those
who disagreed was the German political philosopher and economist Karl Marx (1818–1883),
who observed society's exploitation of the poor by the rich and powerful. Marx argued that
Spencer's healthy societal “organism” was a falsehood. Rather than interdependence and
stability, Marx claimed that social conflict, especially class conflict, and competition mark all
societies.
The class of capitalists that Marx called the bourgeoisie particularly enraged him. Members of
the bourgeoisie own the means of production and exploit the class of laborers, called
the proletariat, who do not own the means of production. Marx believed that the very natures
of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat inescapably lock the two classes in conflict. But he then
took his ideas of class conflict one step further: He predicted that the laborers are not selectively
“unfit,” but are destined to overthrow the capitalists. Such a class revolution would establish a
“class‐free” society in which all people work according to their abilities and receive according
to their needs.
Unlike Spencer, Marx believed that economics, not natural selection, determines the
differences between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. He further claimed that a society's
economic system decides peoples' norms, values, mores, and religious beliefs, as well as the
nature of the society's political, governmental, and educational systems. Also unlike Spencer,
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Marx urged people to take an active role in changing society rather than simply trusting it to
evolve positively on its own.
A) Marx’s Theory of Surplus Value

Marx’s Theory of Surplus Value
Outline
Introduction
Theory of surplus value
Explanation of the theory of surplus value
• Labour
• Understanding labour under capitalism
• Meaning of Surplus Value
Impacts
Karl Marx Theory of surplus value in the contemporary affairs Conclusion
Karl Marx theories and the books revolutionised the world. His concepts on the equality for all
gave birth to a new system of governance.
INTRODUCTION:
Heinrich Karl Marx was a renowned sociologist of the 19th century (1818-1883). He presented
several theories, books and essays which later led to socialism. Marx was exponent supporter
of creating a balance between the 'Petit bourgeoisie' and 'Lumpen Proletariat'. Thus, he
overwhelmingly objected the capitalism. His work like The Communist Manifesto, Das Kapital
and political economy revolutionised the whole world. Communist were all Marxist in nature.
The theory of Surplus Value is part of political economy, written by Karl Marx. Karl Marx’s
theory of class conflict, theory of alienation and theory of surplus value are interrelated as all
these theories speak against the capitalism or market economy. The further detail will only
illustrate the Marx theory of surplus value and its validity in the contemporary affairs.
THEORY OF SURPLUS VALUE:

The price of commodity produced is determined by the labour involved in that commodity. In
the complex capitalist environment labourer provides his services to his boss in order to
produce a commodity but in response to it he just gets a small chunk of the profit. The
remaining profit goes to the boss or who is responsible to conducting that business. The theory
of surplus value says that this labourer, his efforts are helpful, meaningful to the owner of that
business as the surplus amount goes to the boss instead of that labourer who is actually
responsible for carrying out the whole business. Thus, Karl Marx is of the view that a labourer
and the person who is carrying out the business be treated on the equal grounds but the capitalist
economy does not take care of this fact.
Explanation of the theory of surplus value

Labour
Labour is a domain between a man and the nature. The content of labour may remain the same
at different stages of man's history but the character of labour, however, undergoes
revolutionary changes whenever one mode of production is superseded by another. Therefore,
objectively to man's vital activity, labour is his eternal companion. Labour is a most important
factor in the evolution of world civilisation.
Understanding labour under capitalism

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This means that the means of production are owned by the capitalist and the labour will have
an association with the production of the commodity only. Furthermore, the product of the
labour is capitalist property by all means. He is just contributing his efforts for the well-being
of the capitalist.
Meaning of Surplus Value

 To understand the importance of value, it is important to brief about Marx's theory of
Surplus Value. According to this theory, the main postulates emphasised by Karl Marx
are:
 Commodity production is the outcome of a specific division of labour: “Only such
products can become commodities with regard to each other, as result from different
kinds of labour, each kind being carried on independently and for the account of private
individuals.”

The value of commodities expresses what private labours have in common: it is a
socially necessary quantity of labour.
Impacts
Karl Marx criticised this concept of dividing the class between the 'haves' and 'have-nots'. In
the Marx theory of class conflict he enunciated the impacts of theory of surplus value. Surplus
value generates a handsome income for the 'owner' however it gives the diminishing returns to
the labour. Hence, this gives birth to petit bourgeois and lumpen proletariat. The former are
those who are rich, wealthy and influential in the society and the latter are those who are weak,
poor and remain at the discretion of the influential persons. Therefore, surplus value generates
a class conflict between the different strata of the people.
Secondly, surplus value gives birth to alienation. This means that a person who is capable and
talented yet, he cannot impart his full abilities to the work, led him to alienation. The reason
behind is that the boss is just concerned about his product regardless of the talent in the labour
and on the other hand, the labour being at the mercy of poor environmental conditions, he is
supposed to do the work under the wage system. The poor labourer does not have any other
option to make his livelihood.
Thirdly, the theory of alienation, class conflict and surplus value give birth to the polarisation
in the society. The poor are getting poorer and the rich are getting richer. Thus, such kind of
exploitation paralyses the society. So polarisation creates a sense of deprivation amongst the
members of the society.
Fourthly, according to Marxist, surplus value gives birth to wars and arm conflict. The reason
is that the additional amount or profit earned by the big cartels is utilised on the wars. Thus,
gives birth to chaos and anarchy. Therefore, the Marxist school of thought believes in the closed
economy.
Karl Marx theory of surplus value in the contemporary affairs Karl Marx theories and the books
revolutionised the world. His concepts on the equality for all gave birth to a new system of
governance, i.e. communism. However, the communist could not refrain themselves from
aggressive design as Marxist believe that the surplus money in the capitalism is utilised for
fighting wars. But, history shows that the Russians also had an aggressive ideology. “Only such
products can become commodities with regard to each other, as result from different kinds of
labour, each kind being carried on independently and for the account of private individuals.”
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Another point is that Marxist totally negates the liberalisation of the economy. It talks about
the closed economy however, the capitalist economy is based upon the opening up the market
for all. Globalisation is the essence of the capitalist economy. In doing so, it is noteworthy that
China is second largest economy of the world. The growth rate of China is 8%. She has
surpassed Germany. It is a well-established fact that China was never been able to reach such
an apogee prior to abolishing socialism. Now Chinese economy is open for the entire world.
Similarly, Indian economy was also a closed economy prior to bringing economic reforms by
the then finance minister Manmohan Singh. Now, the country is making rapid progress in the
economic field. America wants to capture the Indian market. Therefore, the future of the world
lies in the globalisation. One cannot remain aloof from the entire world.
Conclusion
In a nutshell, Karl Marx theories are right in the sense of giving relief to the labour. This was
also good during that century. Russian and the Chinese who were the greatest exponent of the
communism also failed to convince the people for that economic system. Competitive markets
have made a rapid progress in the economic field. The competitive markets are making the
things cheaper for the people. This is also a good example of the market economy. The 21st
century is facing many other challenges to make this planet a peaceful place to live. World has
pledged to reduce poverty, improve maternal conditions and enhance global trade in the
Millennium Development Goals during World Summit. This can only be achieved by
globalization.
B) Labor Theory
Karl Marx's labor theory of value asserts that the value of an object is solely a result of the
labor expended to produce it. According to this theory, the more labor or labor time that goes
into an object, the more it is worth. Marx defined value as "consumed labor time", and stated
that "all goods, considered economically, are only the product of labor and cost nothing except
labor".
The labor theory of value is the fundamental premise of Marx's economics and the basis of his
analysis of the free market. If it is correct, then much of Marx's critique of capitalism is also
correct. But if it is false, virtually all of Marx's economic theory is wrong.
Here is an example of how the labor theory of value works: A worker in a factory is given $30
worth of material, and after working 3 hours producing a good, and using $10 worth of fuel to
run a machine, he creates a product which is sold for $100. According the Marx, the labor and
only the labor of the worker increased the value of the natural materials to $100. The worker
is thus justly entitled to a $60 payment, or $20 per hour.
If the worker is employed by a factory owner who pays him only $15 per hour, according to
Marx the $5 per hour the factory owner receives is simply a ripoff. The factory owner has done
nothing to earn the money and the $5 per hour he receives is "surplus value", representing
exploitation of the worker. Even the tools which the factory owner provided were, according
to Marx, necessarily produced by other workers.
According to the labor theory of value, all profits are the rightful earnings of the workers, and
when they are kept from the workers by capitalists, workers are simply being robbed. On the
basis of this theory, Marx called for the elimination of profits, for workers to seize factories
and for the overthrow of the "tyranny" of capitalism. His call to action has been heeded in many
countries throughout the world.
DURKHEIM & WEBER THEORIES:

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COMPARISON AND RELEVANCE TODAY Introduction Classical, seminal sociological

theorists of the late 19th and early 20th century such as Durkheim and Weber were greatly
interested in religion and its effects on society. Like those of Plato and Aristotle from ancient
Greece, and Enlightenment philosophers from the 17th through 19th centuries, the ideas
posited by these sociologists continue to be examined today.
Durkheim and Weber had very complex and developed theories about the nature and effects of
religion. Of these, Durkheim and Weber are often more difficult to understand, especially in
light of the lack of context and examples in their primary texts. Religion was considered to be
an extremely important social variable in the work of these two.
Emile Durkheim: Emile Durkheim was a French sociologist with a background in
anthropology, and became known as ‘the father of sociology’. He lived from 1858-1917 and
was educated in both France and Germany. Durkheim viewed religion as an essential part of
one’s social life and went as far as to say that without religion society could not possibly exist
cohesively. Religion, as ‘the cement of society’, is entirely a social concept.
Durkheim’s method in studying religion was based on the scientific method. It does not take
into account specific beliefs or the origins of religions. Matters regarding the truth of religion
are not accounted for, nor is there any such thing as a false religion. The fact that a religion has
survived for so long gives the religion meaning, and that is central to the social dimension of
religion.
Unlike most other sociologists of religion, Durkheim did feel that religion was real, and will
survive. There was nothing illusion or deceptive of religion, and a strong religion will simply
ensure social solidarity.
Max Weber: Max Weber was a German sociologist, economist, and political scientist. He lived
during the same time frame as Durkheim, from the late 19th to the early 20th century. Weber
saw religion as fulfilling self-interest. Although not to the same extent at Marx, Weber did feel
that religion was something that arose out of an individual need for life to have meaning. Unlike
Durkheim, society was not central, but rather what was important to study is how different
individuals of a religion relate to one another.
Weber’s method was groundbreaking at the time because he refuted all previous
understandings of history dealing with religion, particularly those of Marx, and of course,
Durkheim. Nonetheless, he did share some similarities with his French colleague. Like
Durkheim, he used a strict scientific outlook when studying the field, which helped to establish
the field of sociology as an academic discipline.
Comparison of Durkheim & Weber : In comparison studies, unlike Durkheim, who compared
social entities, Weber used the notion of the individual and ideal-types. From his studies, Weber
hypothetically created an ideal form, from whose characteristics can be taken from various
individuals or events. Weber argued that no scientific process can account for every issue
regarding his studies of sociology of religion.
Along with the use of ideal-types, Weber’s goal of sociology of religion was to understand the
individual impact of religion. While Durkheim stressed how religion caused society to remain
interconnected and moral, Weber did not feel it was necessary to delve into the social function
of religion. The personal role of religion and its individual meaning was much more crucial.
He refuses to allow the importance of religion to be reduced to something merely social. Max
Weber believed that religions provided meaning for individuals who aspired it. Religious
beliefs are an example of these self-interests. As far as Durkheim’s society theory relates,
Weber believed that the study of society and religion for that matter should be the study of the
interrelation between individuals.
Weber did not disagree with Durkheim regarding the reality of religions or its future. Weber
and Durkheim were in the minority of sociologists who believed that religion was real and
sacred.
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They also agreed that religion did have a future, albeit for different reasons. While Durkheim
thought religion was necessary for the society to exist, Weber believed that individuals who
were religious would be influenced to take part in so called worldly affairs, and succeed, such
as capitalist Protestants.
Emile Durkheim and Max Weber were not only the two founders of sociology, but also the
founders of sociology of religion. These two men, from roughly the same time period and
geography, approached their field with due scientific processes. However, while Durkheim
viewed religion to simply the basis and entity of social function, while Weber refused reduce
religion to a single theory, but saw the importance of religious ideas in the personal realm and
the influences it could have not only to oneself but to other surrounding individuals. Both
Durkheim and Weber attempted to interpret religion and its social composition, and understood
the nature of its utmost real importance and role it would have in the future of humanity
C) Conflict Theory
Conflict theory: Basic Background Notes
Conflict theory emphasizes the role that a person or groups ability has to exercise influence
and control over others in producing social order. It states that a society or organization
functions so that each individual participant and its groups struggle to maximize their benefits,
which inevitably contributes to social change such as changes in politics and revolutions. The
Conflict theory explains the conflict between social classes, proletarian versus bourgeoisie; and
in ideologies such as capitalism versus socialism. It is the theory that a continual struggle exists
between all different aspects of a particular society. The struggle that occurs does not always
involve physical violence; it can point to an underlying struggle for each group or individual
within a society to maximize its own benefits. The theory was founded by Karl Marx, and later
developed by theorists including Max Weber. Variants of conflict theory can depend on basic
radical assumptions, which is when society is in external conflict, which in some circumstances
can explain social change, or moderate ones that is a combination where conflict is always
mixed/combined.The moderate version of the conflict theory allows Functionalism as an
equally acceptable theory, since it would accept that even negative social institutions play a
part in society's self-perpetuation.
The basics of the theory
The essence of conflict theory is best epitomized by the classic 'pyramid structure' in which an
elite dictates terms to the larger masses. All major institutions, laws, and traditions in the
society are created to support those who have traditionally been in power, or the groups that
are perceived to be superior in the society according to this theory. This can also be expanded
to include any society's 'morality' and by extension their definition of deviance. Anything that
challenges the control of the elite will likely be considered 'deviant' or 'morally reprehensible.'
The theory can be applied on both the macro level (like the US government or Soviet Russia,
historically) or the micro level (a church organization or school club). In summary, conflict
theory seeks to catalogue the ways in which those in power seek to stay in power. The conflict
theory basically states that all problems are caused by different groups and their status and how
they compete for the necessities in life.
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MAX WEBER
Bureaucratic Form According to Max Weber —
Weberian bureaucracy was a term coined by Max Weber, a notable German sociologist,
political economist, and administrative scholar, who contributed to the study of bureaucracy,
administrative discourses, and literature during the mid-1800s and early 1900s . In his 1922
masterpiece, Economy and Society, Weber described many ideal types of public administration
and governance. His critical study of the bureaucratization of society was one of the most
enduring parts of this work. It was Weber who began the study of bureaucracy and whose
works led to the popularization of this term. Many aspects of modern public administration
date back to him. This is epitomized in the fact that a classic, hierarchically-organized civil
service is still called a "Weberian civil service”.
Key Points
Weber listed several preconditions for the emergence of bureaucracy: the growth in size of the
population being administered, the growth in complexity of the administrative tasks being
carried out, and the existence of a monetary economy requiring a more efficient administrative
system.
Weber identified in bureaucracies a rational-legal authority in which legitimacy is seen as

coming from a legal order and the laws enacted within it. This is contrasted with traditional
forms of authority, which arose from phenomena like kinship.
Rationalization describes a transition in society, wherein traditional motivators of behavior,

like values, beliefs, and emotions, are replaced with rational calculations.
Weber termed the increasing rationalization in Western societies an "iron cage" that traps
individuals in systems based solely on efficiency, rational calculation and control.
Weber termed the increasing rationalization in Western societies as an "iron cage" that traps
individuals in systems based purely on efficiency, rational calculation and control.
Before covering Weber's Six Major Principles, I want to describe the various multiple
meanings of the word "bureaucracy."
1. A group of workers (for example, civil service employees of the U. S. government), is

referred to as "the bureaucracy." An example: "The threat of Gramm-Rudman-Hollings cuts
has the bureaucracy in Washington deeply concerned."
2. Bureaucracy is the name of an organizational form used by sociologists and organizational

design professionals.
3. Bureaucracy has an informal usage, as in "there's too much bureaucracy where I work." This
informal usage describes a set of characteristics or attributes such as "red tape" or "inflexibility"
that frustrate people who deal with or who work for organizations they perceive as
"bureaucratic."
As you read about the bureaucratic form, note whether your organization matches the
description. The more of these concepts that exist in your organization, the more likely you
will have some or all of the negative by-products described in the book "Busting Bureaucracy."
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In the 1930s Max Weber, a German sociologist, wrote a rationale that described the
bureaucratic form as being the ideal way of organizing government agencies.
Max Weber's principles spread throughout both public and private sectors. Even though
Weber's writings have been widely discredited, the bureaucratic form lives on.
Weber noted six major principles.

1. A formal hierarchical structure
Each level controls the level below and is controlled by the level above. A formal hierarchy is
the basis of central planning and centralized decision making.
2. Management by rules
Controlling by rules allows decisions made at high levels to be executed consistently by all
lower levels.
3. Organization by functional specialty

Work is to be done by specialists, and people are organized into units based on the type of work
they do or skills they have.
4. An "up-focused" or "in-focused" mission

If the mission is described as "up-focused," then the organization's purpose is to serve the
stockholders, the board, or whatever agency empowered it. If the mission is to serve the
organization itself, and those within it, e.g., to produce high profits, to gain market share, or to
produce a cash stream, then the mission is described as "in-focused."
5. Purposely impersonal
The idea is to treat all employees equally and customers equally, and not be influenced by
individual differences.
6. Employment based on technical qualifications

(There may also be protection from arbitrary dismissal.)
The bureaucratic form, according to Parkinson, has another attribute.
7. Predisposition to grow in staff "above the line."

Weber failed to notice this, but C. Northcote Parkinson found it so common that he made it the
basis of his humorous "Parkinson's law." Parkinson demonstrated that the management and
professional staff tends to grow at predictable rates, almost without regard to what the line
organization is doing.
The bureaucratic form is so common that most people accept it as the normal way of organizing
almost any endeavor. People in bureaucratic organizations generally blame the ugly side effects
of bureaucracy on management, or the founders, or the owners, without awareness that the real
cause is the organizing form.
WHAT IS BUREAUCRACY?
It is a form of administrative system used by both public and private institutions. Simply put,
it is a government body that is composed of non-politicians but who are appointed to help in
policy-making and be in charge of administrative tasks in government agencies.
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In government, bureaucrats implement policies, write rules and regulations and administer
them on people, among others. In organizations, bureaucracy structure is divided into different
levels, from frontline employees up to the upper management. While there are countries doing
well with this kind of structure, there are also groups not in favor of this system. Here are some
of the views about this controversial issue:
The German sociologist Max Weber was the first to formally study bureaucracy and his works
led to the popularization of this term. In his 1922 essay Bureaucracy, published in his magnum
opus Economy and Society, Weber described many ideal-typical forms of public
administration, government, and business. His ideal-typical bureaucracy, whether public or
private, is characterized by:
 hierarchical organization
 formal lines of authority (chain of command)
 a fixed area of activity
 rigid division of labor
 regular and continuous execution of assigned tasks
 all decisions and powers specified and restricted by regulations
 officials with expert training in their fields
 career advancement dependent on technical qualifications
 qualifications evaluated by organizational rules, not individuals
Weber listed several preconditions for the emergence of bureaucracy, including an increase in
the amount of space and population being administered, an increase in the complexity of the
administrative tasks being carried out, and the existence of a monetary economy requiring a
more efficient administrative system.
Development of communication and transportation technologies make more efficient

administration possible, and democratization and rationalization of culture results in demands
for equal treatment.
Although he was not necessarily an admirer of bureaucracy, Weber saw bureaucratization as

the most efficient and rational way of organizing human activity and therefore as the key
to rational-legal authority, indispensable to the modern world. Furthermore, he saw it as the
key process in the ongoing rationalization of Western society. Weber also saw bureaucracy,
however, as a threat to individual freedoms, and the ongoing bureaucratization as leading to a
"polar night of icy darkness", in which increasing rationalization of human life traps individuals
in a soulless "iron cage" of bureaucratic, rule-based, rational control. Weber's critical study of
the bureaucratization of society became one of the most enduring parts of his work. Weber
Many aspects of modern public administration are based on his work, and a classic,
hierarchically organized civil service of the Continental type is called "Weberian civil service".
List of Advantages of Bureaucracy
Advantages of Bureaucracy
1. Specialization: A bureaucratic organization provides the advantages of specialization
because every member is assigned a specialized task to perform.
2. Structure: A structure of form is created by specifying the duties and responsibilities and
reporting relationships within a command hierarchy. Structure sets the pace and framework for
the functioning of the organization.
3. Rationality: A measure of objectivity is ensured by prescribing in advance the criteria far
decision making in routine situations.
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4. Predictability: The rules, regulations, specialization, structure and training import

predictability and thereby ensure stability in the organization. Conformity to rules and roles in
the structural framework bring about order to cope with complexity.
5. Democracy: Emphasis on qualifications and technical competence make the organization
more democratic. Officials are guided by the prescribed rules, policies and practices rather than
by patronage or other privileged treatment.
Disadvantages of Bureaucracy
1. Rigidity: Rules and regulations in a bureaucracy are often rigid and inflexible. Rigid
compliance with rules and regulations discourages initiative and creativity1. It may also
provide the cover to avoid responsibility for failures.
2. Goal Displacement: Rules framed to achieve organizational objectives at each level become
an end to themselves. When individuals at lower levels pursue personal objectives, the
overall objectives of the organization may be neglected.
3. Impersonality: A bureaucratic organization stresses a mechanical way of doing things.
Organizational rules and regulations are given priority over an individual’s needs and emotions.
4. Compartmentalization of Activities: Jobs ore divided into categories, which restrict people
from performing tasks that they are capable of performing. It also encourages preservation of
jobs even when they become redundant.
5. Paperwork: Bureaucracy involves excessive paperwork as every decision must be put into
writing. All documents have to be maintained in their draft and original forms. This leads to
great wastage of time, stationery and space.
6. Empire Building: People in bureaucracy tend to use their positions and resources to
perpetuate self interests. Every superior tries to increase the number of his subordinates as if
this number is considered a symbol of power and prestige.
7. Red Tape: Bureaucratic procedures involve inordinate delays and frustration in the
performance of tasks.
Proposed Civil Services Reforms priorities in Pakistan:

The limited progress on civil service reform in Pakistan has not been due to a lack of knowledge
about what needs to be done. Over the course of the past sixty years there have been more than
twenty studies on administrative reform prepared by various government committees or
commissions (including six since 1996), that have clearly identified the most serious
problems.8 Instead, the lack of progress is due primarily to political factors and ineffective
political strategies for pushing through reforms. The following section briefly examines some
of the major civil service reform priorities in Pakistan and describes some of the political
factors that have contributed to the lack of progress in addressing them.
1. Reducing the Politicization of the Bureaucracy

2. Reversing the Militarization of the Bureaucracy
3. Recruiting, Training and Retaining “The Best and the Brightest”
4. Greater accountability
5. Enhanced efficiency and transparency
6. Rightsizing
7. Reform of the cadre system
Conclusion
A bureaucracy structure might be considered ineffective by critics but there are also valid
arguments posited by supporters. Other countries run well with bureaucrats but there are also
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obvious flaws within the structure which make others critical about it. But the fact still remains,
bureaucracy exists and is here to stay.
C.H. COOLY
A) Self Looking Glass
The looking-glass self is a social psychological concept introduced by Charles Horton
Cooley in 1902 (McIntyre 2006). The concept of the looking-glass self describes the
development of one's self and of one's identity through one's interpersonal interactions within
the context of society. Cooley clarified that society is an interweaving and inter-working of
mental selves. The term "looking glass self" was coined by Cooley in his work, Human Nature
and the Social Order in 1902.
The looking-glass self has three major components and is unique to humans (Shaffer 2005).
According to Lisa McIntyre’s The Practical Skeptic: Core Concepts in Sociology, the concept
of the looking-glass self expresses the tendency for one to understand oneself through their
own understanding of the perception which others may hold of them. This process is theorized
to develop one's sense of identity. Therefore identity, or self, is the result of learning to see
ourselves as others do (Yeung & Martin 2003).
The looking-glass self begins at an early age, continuing throughout the entirety of one's life
as one will never stop modifying their self unless all social interactions are ceased Some
sociologists believe that the effects of the looking-glass self wane as one ages. Others note that
few studies have been conducted with a large number of subjects in natural settings.
Symbolic Interaction: In hypothesizing the framework for the looking glass self,
Cooley stated, "the mind is mental" because "the human mind is social." From the time they
are born, humans define themselves within the context of their social interactions. The child
learns that the symbol of his/her crying will elicit a response from his/her caregivers, not only
when they are in need of necessities such as food or a diaper change, but is also a symbol that
signals to caregivers that the child is in need of attention. Schubert references in Cooley's On
Self and Social Organization, "a growing solidarity between mother and child parallels the
child's increasing competence in using significant symbols. This simultaneous development is
itself a necessary prerequisite for the child's ability to adopt the perspectives of other
participants in social relationships and, thus, for the child's capacity to develop a social self."
George Herbert Mead described the creation of the self as the outcome of "taking
the role of the other," the premise for which the self is actualized. Through interaction with
others, we begin to develop an identity of our own as well as developing a capacity to empathize
with others. As stated by Cooley, "The thing that moves us to pride or shame is not the mere
mechanical reflection of ourselves, but an imputed sentiment, the imagined effect of this
reflection upon another's mind." (Cooley 1964)
Three Main Components: There are three main components that comprise the
looking-glass self (Yeung, et al. 2003).
1. We imagine how we must appear to others.
2. We imagine and react to what we feel their judgment of that appearance must be.
3. We develop our self through the judgments of others.
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1. Step One:
 We imagine how our personality and appearance appears to others
 Attractive/unattractive, heavy/slim, friendly/unfriendly
2. Step Two:
 We imagine how other people judge the appearance we think we present in
step one
 How do we think they feel about us
3. Step Three:
 We develop a self-concept based on how we feel we are judged in step two
 If we are judged in a good way, we have a favourable self-concept
 If we are judged in a bad way, we have an unfavourable self-concept
Conclusion: Everyone is the society has self looking glass concept and people normally adopt
the behaviour according to the concept.
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RESEARCH
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular topic.
It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through objective
and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of hidden truths. Here
knowledge means information about matters. The information might be collected from
different sources like experience, human beings, books, journals, nature, etc. A research can
lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge. Only through research is it possible to
make progress in a field. Research is done with the help of study, experiment, observation,
analysis, comparison and reasoning. Research is in fact ubiquitous. For example, we know that
cigarette smoking is injurious to health; heroine is addictive; cow dung is a useful source of
biogas; malaria is due to the virus protozoan plasmodium; AIDS (Acquired Immuno
Deficiency Syndrome) is due to the virus HIV (Human Immuno deficiency Virus). How did
we know all these? We became aware of all these information only through research. More
precisely, it seeks predictions of events and explanations, relationships and theories for them.
Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular
topic.
WHAT ARE THE OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH?
The prime objectives of research are:
1. to discover new facts
2. to verify and test important facts
3. to analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect relationship
4. to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific and
nonscientific problems
5. to find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and
6. to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our every day life.
What Makes People do Research?

This is a fundamentally important question. No person would like to do research unless there
are some motivating factors. Some of the motivations are the following:
1. to get a research degree (Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)) along with its benefits like better
employment, promotion, increment in salary, etc.
2. to get a research degree and then to get a teaching position in a college or university or become
a scientist in a research institution
3. to get a research position in countries like U.S.A., Canada, Germany, England, Japan,
Australia, etc. and settle there
4. to solve the unsolved and challenging problems
5. to get joy of doing some creative work
6. to acquire respectability
7. to get recognition
8. curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an event
9. curiosity to find new things
10. to serve the society by solving social problems.
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Some students undertake research without any aim possibly because of not being able to think
of anything else to do. Such students can also become good researchers by motivating
themselves toward a respectable goal.
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific fields. In our life new problems,
events, phenomena and processes occur every day. Practically imple- mentable solutions and
suggestions are required for tackling new problems that arise. Scientists have to undertake
research on them and find their causes, solutions, explanations and applications. Precisely,
research assists us to understand nature and natural phenomena.
SOME IMPORTANT AVENUES FOR RESEARCH ARE:

1. A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific community or an
industry or a government organization or a society experiences. It may be a theoretical or a
practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding and possible solution.
2. Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the range and applications of them.
3. It is the fountain of knowledge and provide guidelines for solving problems.
4. Research provides basis for many government policies. For example, research on the needs and
desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs helps a government
to prepare a budget.
5. It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to improve the
quality of products.
6. Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes the problems in them.
7. It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living things, new stars,
etc.
8. Only through research can inventions be made; for example, new and novel phenomena and
processes such as superconductivity and cloning have been discovered only through research.
9. Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena and seek
solution to social problems.
10. Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious.
Emphasizing the importance of research Louis Pasteur said “I beseech you to take interest in
these sacred domains called laboratories. Ask that there be more and that they be adorned for
these are the temples of the future, wealth and well-being. It is here that humanity will learn to
read progress and individual harmony in the works of nature, while humanity’s own works are
all too often those of babarism, fanaticism and destruction.” (Louis Paster – article by
S.Mahanti, Dream 2047, p.29-34 (May 2003)).
In order to know what it means to do research one may read scientific autobiographies
like Richard Feynmann’s “Surely you are joking, Mr.Feynmann!”, Jim Watson’s “The
double helix”, “Science as a way of life – A biography of C.N.R. Rao” by Mohan
Sundararajan, etc.
RESEARCH METHODS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Is there any difference between research methods and research methodology?

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Research methods are the various procedures, schemes, algorithms, etc. used in research. All
the methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed as research methods. They
are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral. They include theoretical procedures,
experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Research methods help us
collect samples, data and find a solution to a problem. Particularly, scientific research methods
call for explanations based on collected facts, measurements and observations and not on
reasoning alone. They accept only those explanations which can be verified by experiments.
Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of studying how

research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their
work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. It
is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the
work plan of research.
Importance of Research Methodology in Research Study

It is necessary for a researcher to design a methodology for the problem chosen. One should
note that even if the method considered in two problems are same the methodology may be
different. It is important for the researcher to know not only the research methods necessary
for the research under taken but also the methodology. For example, a researcher not only needs
to know how to calculate mean, variance and distribution function for a set of data, how to find
a solution of a physical system described by mathematical model, how to determine the roots
of algebraic equations and how to apply a particular method but also need to know (i) which is
a suitable method for the chosen problem?, (ii) what is the order of accuracy of the result of a
method?, (iii) what is the efficiency of the method? and so on. Consideration of these aspects
constitute a research methodology.
To understand the difference between research methods and methodology let us consider the
problem of finding the roots of the quadratic equation
The formulas often used for calculating the roots of eq.(1) are
These formulas are, however, inaccurate when . The equivalent formulas are
When one must proceed with caution to avoid loss of precision. If b > 0,
then should be computed with the formula given by eq.(2) and should be computed with the
formula given by eq.(3). If b < 0 then should be evaluated using eq.(4) and should be evaluated
using eq.(5). Here the two formulas constitute the method of finding roots of the equation of
the form given by eq.(1). If you use the formulas given by eqs.(4- 5) instead of the formulas
given by eqs.(2-3) (often used and familiar to us) to compute the roots then you should clearly
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explain why the formulas in eqs.(4-5) were chosen and why the other formulas given by eqs.(2-
3) were not considered. This is what we mean by a research methodology. That is, research
methodology tells you which method or formula or algorithm has to be used out of the various
existing methods or formulas or algorithms.
More precisely, research methods help us get a solution to a problem. On the other hand,
research methodology is concerned with the explanation of the following:
1. Why is a particular research study undertaken?

2. How did one formulate a research problem?
3. What types of data were collected?
4. What particular method has been used?
5. Why was a particular technique of analysis of data used?
The study of research methods gives training to apply them to a problem. The study of research
methodology provides us the necessary training in choosing methods, materials, scientific tools
and training in techniques relevant for the problem chosen.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
Research is broadly classified into two main classes:

1. Fundamental or basic research
2. Applied research
Basic Research
Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for occurrence of a particular
event or process or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. Study or investigation
of some natural phenomenon or relating to pure science are termed as basic research. Basic
researches some times may not lead to immediate use or application. It is not concerned with
solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original or basic in character. It
provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and facilitates extraction of scientific
and logical explanation and conclusion on it. It helps build new frontiers of knowledge. The
outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied research. Researchers working on
applied research have to make use of the outcomes of basic research and explore the utility of
them.
Research on improving a theory or a method is also referred as fundamental research.

For example, suppose a theory is applicable to a system provided the system satisfies
certain specific conditions. Modifying the theory to apply it to a general situation is a
basic research.
Attempts to find answers to the following questions actually form basic research. Why are
materials like that? What they are? How does a crystal melt? Why is sound produced when
water is heated? Why do we feel difficult when walking on seashore? Why are birds arrange
them in ‘>’ shape when flying in a group?
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Fundamental research leads to a new theory or a new property of matter or even the existence
of a new matter, the knowledge of which has not been known or reported earlier. For example,
fundamental research on
1. astronomy may lead to identification of new planets or stars in our galaxy,

2. elementary particles results in identification of new particles,
3. complex functions may leads to new patterns or new properties associated with them,
4. differential equations results in new types of solutions or new properties of solutions not known
so far.
5. chemical reactions leads to development of new compounds, new properties of chemicals,
mechanism of chemicals reactions, etc.
6. medicinal chemistry leads to an understanding of physiological action of various chemicals
and drugs.
7. structure, contents and functioning of various parts of human body helps us identify the basis
for certain diseases.
Applied Research
In an applied research one solves certain problems employing well known and accepted
theories and principles. Most of the experimental research, case studies and interdisciplinary
research are essentially applied research. Applied research is helpful for basic research. A
research, the outcome of which has immediate application is also termed as applied research.
Such a research is of practical use to current activity. For example, research on social problems
have immediate use. Applied research is concerned with actual life research such as research
on increasing efficiency of a machine, increasing gain factor of production of a material,
pollution control, preparing vaccination for a disease, etc. Obviously, they have immediate
potential applications.
Some of the differences between basic and applied research are summarized in table 1.1. Thus,
the central aim of applied research is to find a solution for a practical problem which warrants
solution for immediate use, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that
has broad base of applications and thus add new information to the already existing scientific
knowledge.
Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
The basic and applied researches can be quantitative or qualitative or even both. Quantitative
research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. Here a process is expressed or
described in terms of one or more quantities. Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon involving quality. It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses
words. Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation. We measure and weigh
things in the study of substance or structure. Can we measure or weigh patterns? We cannot
measure or weigh patterns. But to study patterns we must map a configuration of relationships.
That is, structures involve quantities whereas patterns involve qualities. If one wishes to
investigate why certain data are random then it is a qualitative research. If the aim is to study
how random the data is, what is the mean, variance and distribution function then it becomes
quantitative. Explaining how digestion of food takes place in our body is a qualitative
description. It does not involve any numbers or data and quantities.
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The detection of a particular compound is a qualitative analysis. This can be done by

carrying out physical or chemical tests. Determination of exact amount of a par-ticular
compound present in a volume is essentially quantitative analysis. This can be done by
volumetric, gravimetric and calorimetric methods or instrumental methods.
Experimental and simulation studies are generally quantitative research.
Differences between basic and applied researches.
Basic research Applied research

Studies individual or specific cases without the objectiv
Seeks generalization generalize
Aims at basic processes Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference
Attempts to explain why things
happen Tries to say how things can be changed
Tries to get all the facts Tries to correct the facts which are problematic
Reports in technical language of
the topic Reports in common language
Other Types of Research
Other types of research include action research (fact findings to improve the quality of action
in the social world), explanatory research (searching explanations for events and phenomena,
for example finding answer to the question why are the things like what they are?), exploratory
research (getting more information on a topic) and comparative research (obtaining
similarities and differences between events, methods, techniques, etc.). For discussion on these
types of research see refs.[1-3].
Assignment:
1. List out at least 10 theoretical and applied methods which you have learned in your UG, PG
courses and write their features in two or three sentences.
2. Write at least 20 questions in your subject the investigation of which forms basic research.
Then point out how many of them have already been solved and how many were found in
applications.
3. Distinguish between theory and experiment.
4. Write a note on importance of theory in basic and applied researches.
5. Bring out the importance of inter-disciplinary research.

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VARIOUS STAGES OF A RESEARCH
Whenever a scientific problem is to be solved there are several important steps to follow. The
problem must be stated clearly, including any simplifying assumptions. Then develop a
mathematical statement of the problem. This process may involve use of one or more
mathematical procedures. Frequently, more advanced text books or review articles will be
needed to learn about the techniques and procedures. Next, the results have to be interpreted to
arrive at a decision. This will require experience and an understanding of the situation in which
the problem is embedded. A general set of sequential components of research is the following:
1. [heading] Selection of a research topic [/heading]

2. [heading] Definition of a research problem [/heading]
3. [heading] Literature survey and reference collection [/heading]
4. [heading]Assessment of current status of the topic chosen [/heading]
5. [heading] Formulation of hypotheses [/heading]
6. [heading] Research design[/heading]
7. [heading] Actual investigation [/heading]
8. [heading] Data analysis[/heading]
9. [heading] Interpretation of result[/heading]
10. [heading] Report [/heading]
Selection Of a Research Topic and Problem
The starting point of a research is the selection of a research topic and problem. Identifying a
suitable topic for work is one of the most difficult parts of a research. Before choosing a
research topic and a problem the young researchers should keep the following points in mind.
 Topic should be suitable for research.

 The researcher should have interest in it.
 Topic should not be chosen by compulsion from some one else.
Topic and problem can be fixed in consultation with the research supervisor. In our country
often research supervisors suggest a topic and state a problem in broad view. The researcher
has to narrow it and define it in operational form. One may ask: Is it necessary that the topic of
a Ph.D. should be different from M.Sc. project and M.Phil dissertation? The answer is not
necessary. If a student is able to get a supervisor working in his M.Sc.project or M.Phil
dissertation topic then it would save about six months in the duration of his Ph.D. work.
Can a Researcher Choose a Topic by himself?

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A youngster interested to start a research career wishes to know whether he/she has freedom to
do research in the topic of his/her own interest. The style of research in our country and various
other factors like the infrastructure facility available in a research institute, time limit, our
commitment to family and social set up hardly allow a young researcher to choose a topic by
himself for his PG project, M.Phil. dissertation and Ph.D. thesis. However, many research
supervisors give complete freedom to choose a problem in the topic suggested by him for a
Ph.D. research work. Because the normal time duration of M.Phil dissertation is about 6-8
months, it is better to work on the problem suggested by the supervisor.
If a student wishes to do research (for Ph.D. degree) with fellowship then he cannot have
freedom to choose a topic since he has to work on a project the goal of which is already defined
by the project investigator. On the other hand, after choosing a topic of his own interest he has
to find a supervisor who is working in that topic or interested in guiding him. In this case one
has severe limitation in our country for getting a fellowship and for registering for a research
degree. If a student is not very much particular about the fellowship he has a chance to do
research in the topic of his own interest. A researcher in India after two years of research
experience with few (two or more) publications can apply for a senior research fellowship
(SRF) to CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) (for details see its and other
relevant web sites). He can prepare a project under the direction of his Ph.D. supervisor which
can lead to a fellowship. For details see the book ‘How to get scholarships, Fellows and
Stipends’ by K.D.Kalaskar (Sultan Chand and Sons, New Delhi))
Considering the above, a researcher should make-up his mind so as to work in a topic suggested
by the supervisor. However, a research problem may be chosen by a researcher himself. This
has several advantages. In this case
 the researcher can pursue his/her own interest to the farthest limits,
 there is an opportunity to spend a long time on something that is a continuous source of his
pleasure and
 the results would prove better in terms of the growth of the investigator and the quality of the
work.
If the researcher is not interested in the topic and problem assigned to him but is working on it
because of supervisor’s compulsion, then he will not be able to face and overcome the obstacles
which come at every stage in research.
Identification of a Research Topic and Problems

Some sources of identification of a research topic and problems are the following:
1. Theory of one’s own interest

2. Daily problems
3. Technological changes
4. Recent trends
5. Unexplored areas
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6. Discussion with experts and research supervisor

Suppose one is interested in the theory of nonlinear differential equations or quasicrystals or
fullerenes. Then he can find a research guide who is working in this field or interested to work
in this field and then choose a problem for research.
Our daily experiences and day to affairs have rich openings on various aspects such as the
daunting tasks of AIDS, air pollution, afforestation and deforestation, child labor, problems of
aged citizens, etc.
Technology in various branches of science, business and marketing changes rapidly. For
example, in the early years, computers were built in larger size with vacuum tubes. Then
evolution in electronic technology replaced them by integrated circuits. Recently, scientists
have developed quantum dots. Now the interest is in developing efficient, super-fast and
miniaturized computing machine made up of material whose particle size of the order of nano
(10-9) meter or even smaller. Similarly, another fascinating topic namely, thin film has multiple
fields of applications. Recent research on fullerenes resulted in many practical applications.
Choosing a topic of current interest or recent trends provides bright and promising
opportunities for young researchers to get post-doctoral fellowship, position in leading
institutions in our nation and abroad.
In each subject there are several topics which are not explored in detail even though the topic
was considered by scientists long time ago. For example, string theory, quantum computing,
nano particles, quantum cloning and quantum cryptography and gene immunology are
fascinating topics and are in preliminary stages.
The supervisors and experts are working on one or few fields over a long time and they are the
specialists in the field considered and well versed with the development and current status of
the field. Therefore, a young researcher can make use of their expertise in knowing various
possible problems in the topic the solving of which provide better opportunities in all aspects.
Don’t choose a topic simply because it is fascinating. In choosing a topic one should take care
of the possibility of data collection, quantity of gain, breadth of the topic and so on. The topic
should not be too narrow. For example, the study of social status and sexual life of married
couples of same sex (man-man marriage and woman-woman marriage) is interesting and of
social relevance. But the intricate problem here is that we do not find enough number of such
couples to study. This is a very narrow topic at the same time we will not get enough data to
analyze. On the other hand, the changes in the social life of aravanis in recent times is a valuable
social problem and one can collect enough data.
Further, one has to study advanced level text books and latest research articles to identify
problems. Is it necessary to know all the methods, techniques, concepts in a research topic
before identifying a problem for investigation? This is not necessary. After learning some
fundamental concepts, recent developments and current trends of a topic, one can identify a
problem for research. Then he can learn the tools necessary to solve it.
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Definition and Formulation of a Problem

After identifying a problem, in order to solve it, it has to be defined and formulated properly.
For this purpose, one can execute the following.
 State the problem in questionnaire form or in an equivalent form

 Specify the problem in detail and in precise terms
 List the assumptions made
 Remove the ambiguities, if any, in the statement of the problem
 Examine the feasibility of a particular solution
Defining the problem is more important than its solution. It is a crucial part of the research
study and should not be defined in hurry.
How do you Assess Whether the Defined Problem as a Good Problem?
A problem in its first definition may not be appealing. It may require redefinition in order to
make it a good problem. That is, by suitably rewording or reformulating the chosen problem,
it can be made to meet the criteria of a good problem. This is also important to solve the
problem successfully. To this end a researcher can ask a series of questions on the problem.
Some are:
1. Is the problem really interesting to him and to the scientific community?
2. Is the problem significant to the present status of the topic?
3. Is there sufficient supervision/guidance?
4. Can the problem be solved in the required time frame?
5. Are the necessary equipment, adequate library and computational facilities, etc. available?
If the answers to these questions are satisfactory, then the researcher can initiate work on the
chosen problem. In addition, discuss the problem with the current doctoral students and obtain
the scope of the problem and other related aspects.
How are these Questions Important and Relevant to a Researcher?

The researcher should be interested on the problem for the reasons mentioned earlier at the end
of the Sec.(V A). The problem should also be interesting to the supervisor so that the researcher
can get the necessary guidance from him. Otherwise sometimes the researcher may find it very
difficult to convince the supervisor on the importance and significance of the results obtained.
More importantly, the problem must be of interest to scientific community and society. If not
then the researcher will find great difficulty to publish his findings in reputed journals and
convince the funding agency.
Next, the status of the problem, particularly the importance of finding its solution should match
with the current status of the field. But, if the problem investigated is of not much interest to
science and society then publications will become useless to him in his research career.
Specifically, they cannot help earn a post-doctoral fellowship, respectability and a permanent
job in an institution.
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A researcher needs proper guidance and encouragement from the supervisor regularly. This is
important for keeping the research in right track, to overcome the difficulties which come at
various states of research and also to have moral support. A researcher should avoid working
under the guidance of a supervisor having serious health problems or family problems,
committed his large time to administrative work and strong involvement in nonacademic
matters.
Another important point is that before initiating research work on a problem, a rough estimate
on costs and time required to complete the work must be made. A problem suitable for Ph.D.
degree should not be taken for M.Phil. degree. A problem suitable for M.Phil. degree is not
appropriate for Master’s degree. If the collection of data or resources or related information
takes many years, then the topic is obviously inappropriate for Ph.D. degree. Controversial
subjects should not be chosen. Problems that are too narrow or too vague should be avoided.
Finally, the researcher must make sure that the necessary experimental setup and materials to
perform the actual research work are available in the department where research work is to be
carried out. Without these, if the researcher initiated the work and has gone through certain
stages of work or spent one or two years in the problem then in order to complete the task he
would be forced to buy the materials and instruments from his personal savings.
Literature survey
After defining a problem, the researcher has to do literature survey connected with the problem.
Literature survey is a collection of research publications, books and other documents related to
the defined problem. It is very essential to know whether the defined problem has already been
solved, status of the problem, techniques that are useful to investigate the problem and other
related details. One can survey
1. the journals which publish abstracts of papers published in various journals,
2. review articles related to the topic chosen,
3. journals which publish research articles,
4. advanced level books on the chosen topic,
5. proceedings of conferences, workshops, etc.,
6. reprint/preprint collections available with the supervisor and nearby experts working on the
topic chosen and
7. internet
A free e-print service provider for physics, mathematics, nonlinear science, computer
science and biology is
http: //www.arXiv.org
No research shall be complete unless we make use of the knowledge available in books,
journals and internet. Review of the literature in the area of research is a preliminary step before
attempting to plan the study.
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Literature survey helps us

1. sharpen the problem, reformulate it or even leads to defining other closely related problems,
2. get proper understanding of the problem chosen,
3. acquire proper theoretical and practical knowledge to investigate the problem,
4. show how the problem under study relates to the previous research studies and
5. know whether the proposed problem had already been solved.
Through survey one can collect relevant information about the problem. Clarity of ideas
can be acquired through study of literature.
Apart from literature directly connected with the problem, the literature that is connected with
similar problems is also useful. It helps formulate the problem in a clear-cut way. A review on
past work helps us know the outcome of those investigations where similar problems were
solved. It can help us design methodology for the present work. We can also explore the vital
links with the various trends and phases in the chosen topic and familiarize with characteristic
precepts, concepts and interpretations. Further, it can help us formulate a satisfactory structure
of the research proposal.
Because a Ph.D. thesis or M.Phil. dissertation is a study in depth aiming contribution to

knowledge, a careful check should be made to ensure that the proposed study has not previously
been performed and reported. The earlier studies which are relevant to the problem chosen
should be carefully studied. Ignorance of prior studies may lead to a researcher duplicating a
work already carried out by another researcher. A good library will be of great help to a
researcher at this stage. One can visit nearby research institutions and avail the library facility.
Review the latest research papers and Ph.D. theses to acquire recent trends.
Reference Collection
As soon as the survey of available source begins, the preparation and collection of references
preferably with annotations should be undertaken. The important source of reference collection
is the journal called Current Contents. This comes once in a week. It is available in hard copy
and also in floppy diskette. Almost all the universities and institutions buy this document. It
contains the table of content of research journals and magazines in various subjects. It provides
title of articles, names of the authors, date of publication, volume number, starting page number
of the articles and address of the author from whom one can get the reprint of the article. If the
title of the article indicates that the paper is in the topic of one’s interest then he can take a copy
of the article if the journal is available in the local library. Otherwise, he can get it from a
document delivery service centre. For example, in India INFLIBNET provides this service
through six institutions. For details visit the following web sites:
http://web.inflibnet.ac.in/index.isp
http://www.iisc.ernet.in/
http://www.jnu.ac.in/
One can obtain a research article on paying the charge fixed by the INFLIBNET provided the
particular journal is available in it. Articles can also be purchased from the publishers on
payment. Alternatively, reprint of the article can be had from the author by sending a letter/card
to the author. A format of reprint request card is shown below.
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Front Side
Place:
Date :
Dear Dr./Prof.
I would appreciate in receiving a reprint of your following article and other related
preprints/reprints, if any.
Title :
Journal name :
Volume number: Page(s): Year:
With kind regards,
Yours sincerely,
Reverse Side
Sender’s Address
To
The references from current contents or from journals can be noted on a separate card or sheet
with the names of authors and the title of the paper/book, etc. For a research paper, its title,
journal name, volume number, starting and ending pages of it and year of publication should
be noted. For a book, publisher’s name, place of publication and year of publication must be
written down. Instead of cards, nowadays one can store the details of the references in
computers and have a copy in two or three floppy diskette. The references can be classified.
For example, sources dealing with theory, dealing with experimental techniques, concerned
with numerical methods, etc. can be grouped separately. The copies of the research articles can
also be classified and bounded. Cross references (that is research articles or books referred or
cited in a research report) should also be collected and classified. These also provide useful
information.
Assessing The Current Status
Generally, it is not difficult to know the current status of research work in a specific topic. The
current status of the chosen topic can be identified by reading the relevant journals and the
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recent papers, discussions in conferences, seminars and workshops. One can perform inquiries
at several important places known for research on proposed topic.
A study of the current literature in the chosen topic explores the current status of it. More
importantly, review articles point out not only to the basic aspects and features of the topic
concerned but also give a brief account of its present status. For this purpose, one can survey
the journals (for a topic in physics) such as Physics Reports, Reviews of Modern Physics,
Physical Review Letters, Review section of American Journal of Physics, Pramana, Current
Science and Proceedings of recently conducted seminars and conferences, etc.
Rapid communication and Letter sections of international journals publish articles which are
very important and fall in recent trends category. There are several areas in internet where the
papers just submitted to journals are placed. One can download such articles free of cost. These
articles indicate the recent trends in a particular topic. Some relevant web sites are listed below.
http://arxiv.org/
http://www.ams.org/global-preprints/
http://front.math.ucdavis.edu/math.AG/
http://www.ma.utexas.edu/mp−arc/
http://www.clifford.org/anonftp/clf-alg/
Hypothesis
Researchers do not carry out work without any aim or expectation. Research is not of doing
something and presenting what is done. Every research problem is undertaken aiming at certain
outcomes. That is, before starting actual work such as performing an experiment or theoretical
calculation or numerical analysis, we expect certain outcomes from the study. The expectations
form the hypothesis. Hypotheses are scientifically reasonable predictions. They are often stated
in terms of if-then sentences in certain logical forms. A hypothesis should provide what we
expect to find in the chosen research problem. In other words, the expected or proposed solu-
tions based on available data and tentative explanations constitute the hypothesis.
Hypothesizing is done only after survey of relevant literature and learning the present status of
the field of research. It can be formulated based on previous research and observation. To
formulate a hypothesis the researcher should acquire enough knowledge in the topic of research
and a reasonably deep insight about the problem. In formulating a hypothesis construct
operational definitions of variables in the research problem. Hypothesis is due to an intelligent
guess or for inspiration which is to be tested in the research work rigorously through
appropriate methodology. Testing of hypothesis leads to explanation of the associated
phenomenon or event.
What are the criteria of a good hypothesis?

Any hypothesis should have conceptual clarity and a theoretical orientation. Further, it should
be testable. It should be stated in a suitable way so that it can be tested by investigation. A
hypothesis made initially may become incorrect when the data obtained are analyzed. In this
case it has to be revised. It is important to state the hypothesis of a research problem in a
research report. We note that if a hypothesis withstands the experiments and provides the
required facts to make it acceptable, not only to the researchers performing the experiments but
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to others doing other experiments then when sufficiently reinforced by continual verification
the hypothesis may become a theory [4].
Mode of Approach
Mode of approach means the manner in which research is to be carried out. It should keep the
researcher on the right track and make him complete the planned work successfully . One
should sharpen the thinking and focus attention on the more important aspects of the study.
The scientific thinking must be more formal, strict, empirical and specific and more over goal
oriented. In order to make steady progress in research and to asses the progress of the research
work, a research design is very helpful.
Research Design
For a scientific research one has to prepare a research design. It should indicate the various
approaches to be used in solving the research problem, sources and information related to the
problem and, time frame and the cost budget. Essentially, the research design creates the
foundation of the entire research work. The design will help perform the chosen task easily and
in a systematic way. Once the research design is completed the actual work can be initiated.
The first step in the actual work is to learn the facts pertaining to the problem. Particularly,
theoretical methods, numerical techniques, experimental techniques and other relevant data and
tools necessary for the present study have to be collected and learnt.
It is not necessary that every theory, technique and information in the topic of research is useful
for a particular problem. A researcher has to identify and select materials which are useful to
the present work. Further, the validity and utility of the information gathered should be tested
before using them. Scientific research is based on certain mathematical, numerical and experi-
mental methods. These sources have to be properly studied and judged before applying them
to the problem of interest.
What are the Possible Approaches to be Followed by a Researcher?

A researcher can exercise the following aspects regularly throughout the research carrier. These
will keep him in right track and tightly bind him to the research activity.
 Discussion with the supervisor, experts and colleagues about the research work, particularly,
the problem and its origin, objectives and difficulties faced in the execution of the problem.
 Reading of the latest research papers, relevant theories and possible application to the present
problem and to overcome the difficulties faced.
 Review of the work reported on the similar problems.
 Theoretical calculations, setting-up of an experimental setup, numerical calculations, computer
programs, preparation of graphs, tables and other relevant work related to the research should
be done by a new researcher by himself without assistance from others.
 Have a practice of periodically writing the work done, results obtained and steps followed in a
work. This is important because sometime we may think that a particular aspect will be a center
piece of the problem under investigation. But once we make a write-up of it, this aspect or part
of it may turn out to be only of marginal importance. In fact, writing of the progress of the
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work will help us better understand our work and forms a solid basis for further progress. It
also points out to the gaps in our work.
 Participation and presentation of research findings in national and international meetings.
These regular practices provide useful information like new ideas and can help the researcher
1. sharpen and focus attention,

2. confining to the formulation and
3. in the interpretation of the solution obtained.
Each and every bit of task related to the research work has to be done by the researcher. A
young researcher should not do the entire work in collaboration with others. The researcher is
advised to perform all the works starting from identification of the problem to report
preparation by himself under the guidance of supervisor. Particularly, collaboration work with
experts and senior researcher may be avoided. (However, he can discuss his problems with
them). This is important to acquire
1. enough knowledge,
2. confidence and
3. training
to carry out research independently after getting Ph.D. degree. Part of the dissertation should
demonstrate the researcher’s originality. The dissertation should reflect the efforts of a single
researcher. Keeping this in mind one should avoid collaboration as far as possible in the young
stage.
Prof.Balaram wrote “There are guides who have no interest in their discipline and leave their
wards to their own devices. Surprisingly, it is these guides who produce some of the most
resilient scientists, self-taught men and women, who develop great confidence in their abilities”
[Current Science 87(2004)1319].
A researcher should provide new information to the supervisor and avoid getting information
from the supervisor. He should learn and collect many information related to his work. He
should definitely avoid embarrassing the supervisor and senior researchers by asking doubts
often. A good supervisor or a senior researcher does not provide answers to your questions but
gives appropriate directions to clarify your doubts.
During the course of research, one should focus the mind mainly on the research work. Don’t
allow the personal life to interfere with research. Diversions to other activities should be
avoided. Further, after working about say three years and when the time has came to
consolidate the work done so far a researcher should not start to work on an entirely new topic.
He can complete his thesis work and then work on new topic of his interest. The woman Nobel
Laureaute Maria Goeppert Mayer said, “If you love science, all you really want is to keep on
working.”
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A researcher must be clear in his thoughts. He should know what he has to find out. In order to
perform the work successfully the researcher should acquire proper training in the techniques
of research. The training equips the researcher with the requirements of the task. Further, he
should be clear about his task and possess intellectual insight. Then only he is able to find out
the facts that would help him in his task. Make your research a part of your every day life.
Think about your research work in background mode, ideas will come out even when you are
seeing a movie, traveling to a place, sight-seeing and shopping. Ted Gottfried the author of
biography of Fermi said, “Scientific research is like sports. To score, the focus of the scientist
must be narrow and intense to the exclusion of everything else around him. The batter never
takes his eye off the ball, the hoopster shuts out everything but the court, the golfer always
follows through-and the scientist focuses his complete attention on the task at hand and nothing
else.”
A young researcher should also have persistence, tolerance and self-control over the unpleasant
outcomes such as not getting an expected result, not recognized by the supervisor and rejection
of a research article from a journal. “Don’t get dejected when your paper is rejected” —
Prof.P.R. Subramanian. Some times one may complete a piece of work within a week which
he might have expected to finish it in a month time. On the other hand, at some times one may
get stuck with a particular part of the work and unable to make a substantial progress, say, in
three months. Avoid feeling remorseful at these circumstances and maintain a high tolerance
for poor results. Remember that failure and wasted works are also part of the research career.
Young researchers should create good relationship with their seniors and colleagues.
Getting Joy in Doing Research
To get a deep insight on the topic or the research problem a suggestion from Dr K.P.N. Murthy
is that one should enjoy doing research and approach it as an entertainment and a mode of
getting happiness. In the research career one should treat doing research as a way of life and
not just a job. In order to achieve a goal in the research one has to work harder. The harder one
works the happier one feels. One need not try to conquer the world of science. One has to come
in order to work and to find his way. Initially one must work hard. Getting insise a research
topic or a research career is like a pushing a door. It is hard to push the door open. But when
one understand it it is ver interesting and joyful.
Chandrasekhar pointed out that in the arts and literature quality of work improves with age and
experience while in science generally it does not. He felt that it is because of doing science in
isolation, very narrow focus on immediate goals and insufficient broad in interests and pursuits.
In order to continue research even at old age one should develop the spirit of experiencing the
beauty of science. The spirit of experiencing it is not restricted to only the great scientists.
Chandrasekhar said, “This is no more than the joys of creativity are restricted to a fortunate
few. They are instead accessible to each one of us provided we are attuned to the perspective
of strangeness in the proportion and conformity of the parts of one another and to the whole.
And there is satisfaction also be gained from harmoniously organizing the domain of the
science with order, pattern and coherence.”
Professor G.Baskaran stressed that group discussion is indeed an important component of doing
research particularly in small and isolated institutions. He said, “One cannot explain the power
and usefulness of group discussions – it has to be experienced. When I was a student at the
Indian Institute of Science (I.I.Sc.), Bangalore, a few of us students of physics from I.I.Sc. and
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National Aeronautic Laboratory were introduced to this joyous experience by S.K.Rangarajan,

formerly a Professor of chemistry, in whose house we assembled virtually every evening to
discuss such grave issues as amorphous solids and renormalization group. Each one of the
discussants has made a mark” (Current Science, 75(1998)pp.1262).
Actual Investigation
One should aim at doing good research. What is good research? Which universities and
research institutions in your country do the best research? How do you distinguish the great
from a good, a black hole from an ordinary hole, a superconductor from a normal conductor,
supernova from mere stars, poles from ordinary points, linear differential equations from
nonlinear ones?
To distinguish one from another we can use various quantities. Like wise, to identify the best
from among the available, one can use various quantities to measure the quality of them. For
example, to identify a best research the quality of the one’s research publications, number of
citations of his publications, projects completed, books published, contribution made to the
science and society, etc. can be considered.
Research work
1. published in reputed international journals,
2. cited by other researchers working in the same or similar topic and
3. which added new information to the existing knowledge on a topic are generally considered as
good.
At the beginning of research career a young researcher should aim to produce a good research,
particularly, his research findings should distinguish him from other researchers and keep him
one among the top young researchers in the nation. In order to encourage young researchers
and motivate them to produce high quality of research work awards are given yearly by certain
academic and research bodies in each country. For example, in India, Indian President Award,
Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Young Scientist Award and many other awards are
given every year. Some Conference/Seminar organizers also provide best papers award to
young scientists.
What are the Points to be Kept in Mind in Order to do a Good Research?

Actual investigation should lead to original contribution and not involve objectionable
duplication. Originality is the basic credit point of any research. Therefore, actual investigation
must be directed towards obtaining novel results. A researcher should develop new ideas and
obtain deep insight into the problem in order to get novel and new results which are the
characteristics of a good research.
Trivial analysis should not be performed. Recently introduced theories, experimental

techniques and numerical algorithms have to be used instead of outdated methods. Before
applying any method, the researcher should familiarize with the features of the method. It it
not worthwhile to continue in a particular direction if the results are trivial and less informative.
If similar problems have already been done, for instance about ten years ago, then a researcher
should not consider it as important but could treat it as a useful exercise.
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We do research by conceiving information and openings from important research papers

published by other researchers in the topic of interest and continue in our own directions. The
work of some other researchers might have formed the basis of our research. Similarly, our
research outcomes should help other researchers. That is, the work should be such that it should
invite others to read and more importantly use it and cite it in their research work. Our work
should lead to recognition and respect. It should fetch joy and benefits others and as well as us.
As pointed out by Professor M.Lakshmanan, generally, each and every work of us may not
produce novelty, but if we work towards novelty then definitely in the course of research there
would come a fascinating and exciting breakthrough.
The researcher must remember that ideally in the course of a research study, there should be
constant interaction between initial hypothesis, observation and theoretical concepts. It is
exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical orientation and observation that op-
portunities for originality and creativity lie.
Actual work finally leads to results and conclusions of the research undertaken. For proper
results it is necessary that various steps of the work should be scientifically taken and should
not have any flaw. Developed computer algorithms must be tested for the problems for which
results are already available. The work should be free from mistakes. Important analysis must
be repeated in order to make sure that they are free from human mistakes. Professor Devanathan
suggests that a researcher should check, recheck, cross check all the results before submitting
a research paper to a journal. Before beginning to write a part of the work done and the results
obtained check and recheck the data and the results by repeating the experiment, rerunning the
programs and going through the theoretical derivations and arguments.
When analysing the data, appropriate statistical tools have to be employed. The number of data
used, units of the data, error bars and other necessary details must be noted in the graphs. As
many statistical tools as possible should be used. Appropriate curve fitting can be done.
Necessary interpretations on the results of statistical analysis have to be made.
In the case of development or modification of a theory and proposal of a new method the
assumptions made, basic idea, and calculations should be clearly stated and analyzed. Various
special cases of the theory or method must be identified. The validity, efficiency and applica-
bility of it must be demonstrated with examples. Merits and demerits have to be identified.
Comparison of the proposed method with the already existing and widely used similar methods
should be performed.
In any experimental work, mere measurement of certain quantities is not enough. The
interpretation of the kind of data observed and explanation for the particular pattern must be
made. On the basis of interpretation general principles underlying the process can be formu-
lated. One has to check whether the generalizations are universal and true under different
conditions.
Some common errors made in research are;
1. Selective observation
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2. Inaccurate observation
3. Over-generalization
4. Made-up information
5. Ex post facto hypothesizing
6. Illogical reasoning
7. Ego involvement in understanding
8. Premature closure of inquiry
9. Mystification
For a very interesting discussion on the above aspects with examples refer to the ref. [6]
Results And Conclusion
The next step after performing the actual research work on the chosen problem is preparation
of results and conclusion of the performed work. Predictions, results and conclusion are
ultimate goals of the research performed.
There are two indispensable rules of modern research. The freedom of creative imagination
necessarily subjected to rigorous experimentation. In the beginning any experimental research
on a specific subject, imagination should give wings to the thought. At the time of concluding
and interpreting the facts that were collected observation, the imagination should be dominated
and prevailed over by concrete results of experiments.
Proper interpretations of the results must be made. Interpretation refers to the task of drawing
inferences from the actual research work. It also means drawing of conclusion. Conclusion is
based on the study performed. It would bring out relations and processes that underlie the
findings. The utility of the outcome of the research greatly lie on proper interpretations and is
the hardest part of solving a scientific problem.
Interpretation of results is important because it
1. links the present work to the previous,

2. leads to identification of future problems,
3. opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge,
4. makes others understand the significance of the research findings and
5. often suggests a possible experimental verification.
The basic rule in preparing results and conclusion is to give all the evidences relevant to the
research problem and its solution. A bare statement of the findings are not enough. Their
implications must be pointed out. Discuss your answers to the following questions with experts:
1. Are the supporting evidences sufficient?, and if not, What to do?
2. How many pieces of evidence are required? Instead of producing all, is it possible to restrict to
one or two pieces of evidence? If so, what are they? and
3. Why are they sufficient?
and so on. Such directions can help us minimize work and the quantity of presentation of the
report. Do not rely on a bogus evidence which would increase the chances of errors. The
investigator has to give suggestions. These should be practical and based on logic, reasoning
and fact. The suggestions should be such that they can be actually implemented.
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The researcher should not be in hurry while preparing the results and conclusion. After
preparing them the researcher may ask the following questions:
1. Are the quantitative and qualitative analysis performed adequate for the conclusion drawn?
2. Are the results and conclusion general?
3. Are the results and conclusion valid only for the particular situation considered in the present
work?
4. Is the conclusion too broad considering the analysis performed?
5. Is any evidence which weaken the conclusion omitted?
The results and conclusion prepared can be revised based on the answers to the above questions.
Each and every statement made in the results and conclusion sections must be based on
evidence obtained from theoretical or experimental analysis. Baseless statements should never
be made.
Assignment:
 For each of the following topics write at least two questions, the answers to which must be
available in the respective topics. For example, for the topic, “introduction”, a relevant question
is ‘why am I doing it?’.
i. Introduction,
ii. Review of a research topic,
iii. Methodology,
iv. Research design,
v. Results,
vi. Discussion and
vii. Conclusion
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
Intro on social problems of Pakistan almost in all topics:
Pakistan is a developing state which is going through various problems and issues. These issues
are from various origins having long lasting impact on the stability of the economy and the
goodwill of country. The problems are being divided in to several heads amongst which one of
the very important head is the Social problems of Pakistan.
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Social Problems of Pakistan and their Solutions Education which is considered as the cheapest
way of defense is not being promoted in our country which has made the literacy rate of our
country decline to a major extent. The people will not have the education so they will not be
able to put any impact on the country. The literacy rate of Pakistan is 49.9% which makes them
fall on the rating of 136th in the world that shows that the world's 6th largest populated country
is being kept away form education. According to a survey the primary education completing
rate in Pakistan is 33.8% in females and 47.18% in males. The solution to this problem is that
the education at least till the secondary part should be made compulsory and free for the
students so that they can get full advantage form this blessing.
The gender discrimination is another very much important factor in the decline of Pakistan as
males are being given priority over females in a country where females are more in number.
This is a big shame as in FATA the conditions are even worse where the literacy rate of males
is 29.1% and in females it is less than 3%. That is where we are going wrong. Equal opportunity
should be given to both male and females although the rules and regulation of Islam should not
be over ruled but weightage should be given to both the genders.
Terrorism is another social issue which has got in to the roots of the country and is damaging
it. The main cause for the terrorism is political instability, economic conditions, standard or
living and the most important one is the religious extremism. For this purpose the religious
scholars should poke their head up and should come forward and should demonstrate the real
Islam and its ideology so that such extremist acts should be avoided and human lives and
property could be saved.
Other social problems which include child labor, sexual harassment, inflations, injustice,
smuggling and drug abuse are also getting more and more common in the country which is
causing harm to the youth of the country as well as to the law and order situation of the state.
So to get rid of this problem the government had to take strong and strict actions in preventing
such activities to prevail in the premises of the country and not only federal government but
the provincial government should also play its vital role in eliminating all such social problems
from the country, otherwise they will keep eating Pakistan like pesticide.
1) ESSAY ON Chronic illiteracy:
“Are those equal, those who know and those who don’t know.”
1. INTRODUCTION:
It is now a universally recognized fact that mass education is a pre-requisite for the
development and prosperity of a country. The main priority of the developing countries, in
recent years has been to foster the development and renewal of primary education and to
eliminate illiteracy. Pakistan, unfortunately, like the other under developed countries, has made
little progress in this aspect. Since independence, she continues to remain in the group of
countries with the lowest literacy rate.
Half of the world’s illiterate and 22 percent of the world’s population live in South Asia.
Pakistan does not fare well on account of literacy within the region. Sri Lanka and Maldives
have almost attained full literacy. The adult literacy rate for India is 61 as compared to 53
percent in Pakistan. India, according to a recent study done by the World Bank, has attained
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100 percent Gross Enrollment ratio (GER) and 90 percent Net Enrollment Ratio (NER) at the
primary level.
2. MEANING OF ILLITERACY:
For an Adult, illiteracy means primitive manual labour in agriculture and industry, uncertain
employment opportunities and low wages, life-long miserable living conditions, and
humiliating dependence on the literates of the community for the day-to-day civic and business
interactions and deprivation in all walks of life. For adults illiteracy also means exclusion from
most of economic, social and cultural activities.
For the Out-of-school Children, illiteracy means forced labour, vagrancy, sickness and slavery.
For Women, literacy is a survival kit and symbol of status. It means emancipation, participation
in the decision making of the family and equality.
3. IMPORTANCE OF LITERACY:
Illiteracy is a small pane in a large window, opening into the world of knowledge based on
reading and writing as one of the earliest cultural activities of mankind. Mankind’s civilization,
and its accumulation, sharing and transmission of knowledge over the centuries has been made
possible by written and readable words. Every Muslim knows that the first command revealed
by Allah to the Holy Prophet of Islam Muhammad (PBUH) was ‘READ’.
Literacy, over the centuries, has become the lever of human progress and the leveler of social
and economic conditions. It is a basic human need, and human right to knowledge. Illiteracy is
brake on human development, and maps of illiteracy – poverty, underdevelopment, social
discrimination and disease are always co-incident. It is a challenge to human dignity and
imposes a second-class status on a person in all societies. Life without literacy is life without
hope, security and freedom.
4. CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING THE LITERACY STATUS:
The literacy status of a country is determined by the following parameters:

I. The existing level of literacy.
II. The rate on increment of new literates.
III. The volume of the education system’s output.
IV. The demographic factors engage structure, mortality and birth rate.
V. The last but not the least is the percentage of budget engaged for the education.
5. RAISING THE LITERACY RATE:

Countries have succeeded in raising their literacy rates by taking the following steps:
I. Universalization of primary education.
II. Providing non-formal primary education facilities for out of school youth and dropouts.
III. Launching countrywide programmes for adults backed by political leadership.
IV. Broad involvement of various social groups, institutions, public and voluntary
organizations etc.
6. ILLITERACY SCENARIO IN PAKISTAN:

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The picture of illiteracy in Pakistan is grim. Although successive governments have announced
various programmes to promote literacy, especially among women, but they have been unable
to translate their words into actions because of various political, social and cultural obstacles.
Access to basic education is the right of every individual. Education is the most important
instrument in enhancing human capabilities, and in achieving the desired objectives of
economic development. Education enables individuals to make informed choices, broaden their
horizons and opportunities and to have a voice in public decision-making. It is one of the most
important factors that act as a counterweight to social and economic mobility imposed by
cultural and historical biases. Education is a vehicle of nation building through which a nation’s
shared interpretation of history and cultural values are reproduced across generations. At the
country level, education means strong economic growth due to productive and skilled labor
force. At the individual level, education is strongly correlated to higher returns in earning and
a more informed and aware existence. The emerging global scenario offers immense
opportunities and challenges, and only those nations can benefit from it, which have acquired
the required knowledge base and skills.
There are 163,000 primary schools in Pakistan, of which merely 40,000 cater to girls.
According to UNICEF, 17.6 per cent of Pakistani children are working and supporting their
families.
6. CAUSES OF ILLITERACY IN PAKISTAN:
1) Half-hearted planning and management of literacy and continuing education.
2) Limited budget.
3) Lack of reliable statistics and research researchers.
4) Weak community participation.
5) Lack of multimedia material.
6) Lack of special skilled textbook writers.
7) Poor follow up of programmes.
8) In-service teachers do not take such work seriously.
9) Dependence on foreign aid.
10) Dropout rate is high.
11) Over-crowded classrooms.
12) Panacea of private sector.
13) Outdated curriculum.
14) Problems of higher education; brain drain etc.
15) Corruption.
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16) Rote learning.
17) Unfair examinations.
18) Lack of adequate facilities such as clean water, electricity etc. in the rural schools.
7.
8. EFFECTS OF ILLITERACY:
1) Over-population.
2) Low-GDP and per capita income.
3) Increase unskilled labour.
4) Infant mortality and maternal mortality.
5) Political instability.
6) Poor use of natural resources.
7) Heavy international debts.
8) Child labour.
9) Poor international image.
10) Low per acre agriculture yield.
11) Halting industrial growth and less trade activities.
9. PRESENT GOVERNMENT POLICY:

According to World Bank Report, Pakistan’s spending on public sector education is only 2.3
per cent of the GDP and this is much lower than the south Asian average of 3.6 per cent and
the low-income countries’ average of 3.4 per cent
I. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs):

Pakistan has committed to all the International declaration to extend the agenda of providing
the basic right of education to all of its citizens. Pakistan is among the signatories of
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as well as the Dakar World Education Forum 2000.
The Government of Pakistan has taken several policy and program initiatives to achieve these
international goals since then. The National Plan of Action for Education for all was initiated
in response to the commitment made at Dakar for World Summit. The Education Reform
Action Plan (ESR), which is built upon the National Education Policy 1998-2010, is a long-
term plan, with three yearly action plans. The ESR addresses the development of the overall
education sector through investment in rehabilitation of schools, improving the curriculum and
assessment reform system, an adult literacy campaign, mainstreaming the Madressahs, a pilot
school nutrition program and technical stream in secondary schools. The Poverty Reduction
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Strategy Paper (PRSP) views education as a strong policy instrument in bringing poverty
down.
Three main goals that are the underlying objectives of all of these programs and initiatives
include universal access to primary education by increasing the net enrollment and higher rate
of survival of children till grade 5, increase in the adult literacy rate and to attain gender equality
at all levels.
Currently, adult literacy rate is 53 percent; net enrollment at the primary level is 52 per cent,
retention rate for 2004- 05 is noted as 61 per cent and significant gender gaps at all levels
especially in the rural areas persist. Public spending on education as a percentage of GDP is
2.1 per cent and has approximately increased by less than one percentage point since 2000-01.
II. Education Institutions and Enrollment

Attainment of Universal Primary Education (UPE) has become a compelling national priority.
This is a challenge that has been accepted at the highest level in the federal and provincial
governments. UPE is anticipated to increase in access to education by 4%, reduction in gender
disparity by 10% and enhancing primary completion rate by 5% per annum. In the past year,
2187 new primary schools were established, 1221 in the public sector and 881 in the private
sector. This increase has occurred in both rural and urban areas. Statistical annexure table 9.1
and 9.2, show the number of the girls in the primary and middle school in year 2004-05. The
expansion in the number of institutions is inconsistent with the need to provide easy access to
the half the country’s school going population. The public sector was able to establish only 999
new primary schools for girls in 2004-05. The responsibility of expanding the primary and
middle schools for girls has been devolved to District Governments under the devolution plan.
III. Primary education

Two main indicators that show the changes in the primary schooling are Gross Enrollment Rate
(GER) and Net Enrolment rate (NER). The last four years have witnessed 14 percentage points
increase in the gross primary enrollment which is more then 3 percentage point per annum
increase on average. This increase from 72 percent in 2001-02 to 86 percent in 2004-05 is a
result of targeted and resilient polices of the government. Adoption of free provision of
universal basic education polices in the provinces (except Balochistan) is gradually delivering
the promised increase in the enrolment rate. In the urban areas, the GER is impressive in all
provinces, ranging from 84 percent in Balochistan to 108 percent in Punjab. In the rural areas,
Punjab has made a marked progress, particularly in female GER, which increased from 61
percent in 2001-02 to 82 percent in 2004-05. The Gender gap has also seen an improvement at
the primary level in Punjab and has been modest in Sindh, NWFP and Balochistan.
IV. Gender gap

Gender disparity in literacy and enrollment is one of the key concerns of the Government.
Pakistan’s overall record in promoting and delivering gender equality has been weak. There
are, however, areas in which significant progress has been made and indicators point to a steady
though slow improvement in the ratio of girls to boys at all levels of education, the ratio of
literate females to males, share of women in urban employment (as proxy indicator for share
of women in wage employment in non-agricultural sector) has improved marginally and
improvement in participation of women in national decision making process.
Statistics show that gender disparity has been declining since 1998-99, however the recent
decline is only marginal from 26 percent in 2001-02 to 25 percent in 2004-05. Reducing gender
gap in education at all level will ensure equality of opportunity and economic participation for
females. Gender disparity in literacy is lower in urban areas where it is 16 percent, as compared
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to 29 percent in rural areas in 2004-05. In fact there has been no progress in reducing the gender
gap either between the urban and rural areas or between genders in both areas.
V. Public Private Partnership

The Community Support Rural Schools Program (CSRSP) is NEF’s largest program and it
encourages pilot innovations to promote education in rural areas. Notable among them are
Child Friendly School Program and Education for Working Children. Currently, 260 schools
are running under CSRSP with an enrollment of 23300 students and another 350 schools are
established in 2005 supported by NORAD. Moreover, teacher training has been a significant
component of CSRSP, with the goal to enable in-service community teachers to re-learn
modern pedagogical principles and techniques to manage today’s classrooms.
VI. Higher Education Commission

Pakistan is ranked amongst the lowest in the world in higher education enrollment rates at 2.9
percent. Other Asian developing countries, such as India and Korea, stand at 10 percent and 68
percent respectively. According to a report of the steering committee for higher education in
2001, only 2.6 percent of the students between the ages 17-23 enrolled in universities, which
have increased to 2.9 in 2005. The target is to double enrollment in the next five years by
increasing the capacity of the existing higher education institutions and also establishing new
ones. The quality of education provided is not up to the mark, which can be gauged from the
fact that not a single Pakistani university is ranked among the top 500 universities of the world.
VII. Financing of Education in the public sector

Public expenditure on education as a percentage to GDP is lowest in Pakistan as compared to
other countries of the South Asian region. Pakistan spends 2.1 percent of it’s GDP on education
as compared to India which spends 4.1 percent, Bangladesh 2.4 percent and Nepal spends 3.4
percent.
VIII. National Education Assessment System

National Education Assessment System (NEAS) is a World Bank funded project with a total
cost of Rs. 319.364 million including foreign exchange component with World Bank share of
Rs. 273.110 million. The government of Pakistan is committed to improve the quality of
education at all levels. The NEAS is one of the key programs of the Ministry meant to improve
the quality of education at elementary level, with the objective to measure learning
achievements of grade 4 and 5 students, to develop capacity in educational assessment related
activities, to institutionalization of sustainable monitoring system and information
dissemination.
IX. Curriculum Development

The curriculum development is an on going process to respond to global challenges and
emerging trends. This process has been initiated in collaboration with the federal units and
provincial and regional governments (AJ&K, FATA). The present government realizing the
importance of vibrant and dynamic curriculum has decided to review /revise curriculum of
class 1 to 8. The committee has initiated consultative meetings to develop a curriculum
reflecting the latest trends in individual subjects as well as equipping the education of the
country with the requirement of today and tomorrow.
10. SUGGESTIONS:
1) A uniform education policy.

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2) Ability and merit must be declared as corner stones of our national life.
3) Adequate educational facilities.
4) Removal of fake schools; 23000 present in whole country.
5) Fair examination system.
6) Updated curriculum.
7) High standard of academic research.
8) Removal of corruption.
9) Training of teachers.
10) Removal of rote learning.
“Education makes people easy to lead, but difficult to drive; easy to govern, but
impossible to enslave.”
2) RAMPANT CORRUPTION
Corruption in Pakistan breeding extremism
The Transparency International has ranked Pakistan 139th among 180 countries in its 2009
Corruption Perception Index (CPI) issued in November 2009. Pakistan’s 2009 vs. 2008 score
further reduced by 0.1 (2.4 vs. 2.5). A recent World Bank report lists corruption and lack of
transparency as the two core reasons that hamper Pakistan’s drive for development. However,
these indices do not convey the terrible pain and sufferings that the brutal practice of corruption
has caused to common people of Pakistan.
Many people in Pakistan believe that much of the development and a significant portion of the
operations allocations are lost due to bribery and other related illegal and unethical activities.
The extreme poverty and lack of infrastructure and basic services in the rural areas of Sindh
and Balochistan is in part fueled by bribery, influence peddling, extortion, and abuse of power.
The people of Pakistan and the international donors must rise to the occasion and start
pressuring the Pakistangovernment to curtail corruption and to improve governance. Failure to
do so in a timely manner will continue to frustrate poor people and make them weary of the
current democratic system and drive them to extremism.
What Constitutes Corruption?

The most comprehensive definition of “corruption” can be found at the web site of the Global
Infrastructure Anti Corruption Center (GIACC) http://www.giaccentre.org. It says “In its wider
sense, corruption includes one or more of bribery, extortion, fraud, deception, collusion, cartels,
abuse of power, embezzlement, trading in influence and money laundering.”
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The underlying motive of corruption is to provide some one unfair advantage at the expense of
either another individual entity (person or corporate) or a collective entity (country, province,
city, community or company). In all cases, it is illegal, dishonest, and/or unethical. A bribe may
be a cash payment or a gift item of considerable value.
Examples of Corruption in Pakistan

A government official or government Minister or his/her business partner receiving money in
exchange for awarding a contract, job, promotion or approving invoices for payment (an
example that involves Bribery and Abuse of Power and may involve Collusion).
A policeman receiving money to drop charges against some one or receiving bribe from some
one to arrest another person (an example that involves Bribery and Abuse of Power and may
involve Collusion and Extortion).
A political party leader of a party in power ordering police to arrest a political opponent until
that opponent supports that political leader (an example that involves Abuse of Power, and
Collusion and Extortion).
A medical doctor using supplies received for use in a public hospital uses them in his private
practice (an example that involves Abuse of Power, Fraud, and Embezzlement).
A military General receiving commission to be deposited in an overseas bank account to
facilitate procurement of military equipment (an example that involves Bribery, Abuse of
Power, Fraud, Deception, Collusion and Extortion).
A contractor who uses sub-standard material in the construction of a large public project such
a university building, a road by-pass, or a village road. An inspecting engineer who receives
bribe to ignore the use defective material and/or workmanship and approves the project for
payment. A treasury official who receives money to pass contractor invoices knowing that
inspection certificates lacks all required approvals (an example that involves Bribery, Abuse
of Power, Fraud, Deception, Collusion and Extortion).
A senior manager in a public or private organization giving a job to a friend or relative
bypassing a proper selection process (an example that involves Abuse of Power and Trading-
in-influence).
A senior official threatening and/or coercing a junior official to support his/her position (an
example that involves Extortion and Abuse of Power).
The elected and appointed officials conspiring to sell government prime land to friends,
relatives or business partners at much lower price with considerable loss to government
Treasury (an example that involves Abuse of Power, Fraud, Deception, and Collusion).
A teacher who rarely goes to school to teach but collects his/her salary regularly. A bad village
leader (wadero)illegally occupies a school and uses it as guest house (an example that involves
Bribery, Abuse of Power, Fraud, Deception, and Collusion).
An international oil or gas company that instead of investing the contract-mandated
percentage/amount on improving education, health, and social services of local people, uses
that money to secure favors from government officials and local chieftains (an example that
involves Bribery, Fraud, Deception, and Collusion).
Senior Managers of private company or a government autonomous entity that contrary to the
commitments made to local people and/or provincial laws, hire much of their staff from their
home provinces instead of offering jobs and on-the-job training opportunities to local people,
even though local areas suffer a very high unemployment rate(an example that involves Abuse
of Power, Trading in Influence, Deception, and Collusion).
An ordinary citizen and Electric Company Inspection Employee who pays and receives bribe
respectively to allow stealing of electricity illegally (an example that involves Bribery, Abuse
of Power, Fraud, Deception, and Collusion).
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A Bank Manager, Bank Employee, relative, or associate who convolute to move a large amount
Bribery cash into a foreign account illegally (an example that involves Money Laundering,
Deception, fraud, and collusion and may involve Bribery).
Owners and Representatives of a commodity or manufactured products or traders (for example,
sugar or shaving blades) conspire to keep prices high by agreeing to charge a minimum
consumer price ((an example that involves Cartels, Collusion, and Abuse of Power and may
involve, Fraud, and Deception).
Levels of Corruption in Pakistan

It is a widely held view that corruption in Pakistan is widespread, systematic, and that it is
entrenched at all levels of government. A World Bank report containing an assessment of the
Pakistan’s Infrastructure Capacity (PICA) dated February 2008 states that 15% of Pakistan’s
Development budget for 2007-08 was lost in the procurement process alone due to corruption.
This does not include subsequent costs of corruption in the implementation and maintenance
stages of projects.
The important business publications such as World Economic Forum’s Global
Competitiveness Report (2007-08) says that corruption is the third greatest problem for
companies for doing business in Pakistan. The report lists the first two problems as government
bureaucracy and poor infrastructure(http://www3.weforum.org/en/index.htm).
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) [Web Site:
http://www.oecd.org says that the World Bank and the Auditor General of Pakistan have
complained about governance problems inrecruitment, site selection, absenteeism and bribery.
This has resulted in cancellation or suspension of some of the World Bank’s projects such as
the Balochistan Primary Education Project. Also, certain other loans were withheld after
irregularities were uncovered.
A survey of South Asian countries reports the following percentages of respondents for having
encountered corruption in key sectors in various South-Asian countries:
Country Education Health Power Land Adm. Tax Police Judiciary
Bangladesh 40% 58% 32% 73% 19% 84% 75%
India 34% 15% 30% 47% 15% 100% 100%
Nepal 25% 18% 12% 17% 25% 48% 12%
Pakistan 92% 96% 96% 100% 99% 100% 96%
General perceptions and actual public surveys about corruption show that Police, Power
Sector,Judiciary, various Taxation departments (Custom duties, Income Tax), and irrigation
departments are considered the most corruption prone departments in Pakistan.
According to a report, appointments in the police force are often based on political
considerations. The instances where conflicts of interest due to personal loyalties and family
connections exist are numerous. Many complain that local landlords or urban groups with
police support exploit poor people through extortion (bogus fines, etc.).
According to a 2006 survey, 96 percent of the people said that they had encountered corruption
inJudiciary. 44 percent of them reported that they paid a bribe to a court official. In Pakistan,
The judiciary is not viewed as independent of the Executive side of the government but rather
part of it. Another report says that the Pakistani judiciary takes an average of 880 days to settle
a business dispute at a cost of 24 percent of the claim
Pakistan’s tax and public finance administration is also affected by corruption. The World
Bank’s 2004 Public Expenditure Management report says that there is a widespread collusion
between taxpayers and tax officials leading to lack of tax compliance by businesses.
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An article in one of Pakistan’s major English newspaper Daily Times page=story_9-1-

2003_pg3_3 says that the cost of corruption by political leaders using public office for private
gain in banking sector alone cost 10 to 15%. The same newspaper reports that the overall cost
of corruption by political leaders in Pakistan is between 20% and 25% of the GDP. This is
equitant to an annual average GDP growth rate over 4 years.
A statement by Asian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) issued on December 8, 2009 says
that “. . . long periods of martial law have provided opportunities for the generals to loot the
country, by siphoning public funds for their own personal gain. The media, judiciary, military
and civil bureaucracy, became part of the loot of the generals’ corruption.”
A report accessible at asp provides the following explicit and implicit examples of corruption
in Pakistan:
”Perks are a type of corruption which country’s ruling politicians, bureaucracy and military
elite is enjoying in the form of free fuel, electricity, accommodation, luxury cars, army of
servants. There is no legal and/or moral justification for such perks.”
“It is opined that 30 percent of total corruption is in government departments and banks. In
1997 Nawaz Sharif government appointed 30 judges to settle 48,000 registered bank loans
cases of 217 billion rupees. The reports of 193 billion rupee loan right off from 1999 to 2009.
The 2005 Karachi Stock Exchange Scam that cost 25,000 families allegedly some 800 billion
rupees while Islamabad, State Bank of Pakistan and Securities and Exchange Commission
looked the other way.
A 1996 investigation by Sindh Education Department discovered that 2,932 schools in rural
areas existed only on paper. Many of the buildings had been converted into guesthouses,
stables, or storage facilities. Similarly, the Punjab government found that about 1,600 “ghost
schools” which had not operated for years, but the teachers continued to get paid.
Impact of Corruption
To a varying degree, Corruption exists in the almost all countries. However, the degree to which
corruption adversely impacts common people’s lives and increases poverty is directly
proportional to the level of corruption and how wide spread it is in the society. A country’s or
province’s development depends on how much of that country’s resources are lost to
corruption. In developed countries where corruption is limited to a small number of projects
and where common people do not encounter corruption on a daily basis, the adverse impacts
tend to be marginal and do not jeopardize the welfare of its people. In contrast, a poor country
like Pakistan, where each paisa must be spent to uplift people from poverty, corruption has a
significant impact. The following are some examples of the damage that is caused by
corruption:
Defective or dangerous Infrastructure – poor roads, badly constructed college buildings,

schools, railway tracks, hospital facilities, water projects, bridges or housing units.
Inadequate Infrastructure – incomplete roads, fewer classrooms in schools, dams that cannot
stop floods or buildings that do not meet original requirements.
Poor education standards as Schools remain unoccupied due to absence by teachers or fewer
teachers to effectively educate students. Technical and Engineering schools that lack laboratory
facilities or library books.
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Hospitals that have inadequate number of beds, no medicine for patients, and no vehicles to
transport patients to hospitals.
Eventually, the budget planners and donor countries loose confidence in the ability of an
organization to deliver improved infrastructure and become reluctant to provide further
funding. As people of rural areas are poor and cannot pay for any services, they will not have
access to educational or health institutions. Alternatively donor agencies force privatization of
infrastructure building and delivery of services giving contracts to companies that specialize in
urban areas. Such private companies often do not trust or have confidence in the local labor
and tend to bring labor from other provinces or focus only on projects in urban areas resulting
in the continued suffering of people living in rural communities.
Causes of Corruption and Current anti-corruption institutions in Pakistan

A culture that encourages display of affluence without any regard how the wealth was obtained.
Lack of accountability
Low Salaries
Unrestrictive discretionary powers given to officials

In addition to the law enforcement agency call anti-corruption department which is largely a
non-effective organization, a high-level body called National Accountability Bureau (NAB) is
supposed to ensure accountability of high officials and political leaders. According to
governance experts, the NAB is influenced by the military and largely ignores corruption by
military. Its real function appears to be a tool for those in power to target political opponents
and junior government officials. They rarely investigate cases against judges, military, and
political allies of the group that is in power. More over, NAB suffers from structural limitations
and its authority is widely contested. Other than innuendo and allegations, there is hardly any
high-profile cases prosecuted in Pakistan.
The U4 case study discusses various obstacles that have hampered the effective performance
of NAB. The reputation of the office of the Auditor General (AG) of Pakistan is largely
tarnished as rumors of collusion between auditors and civil servants have long persisted.
Although lately, Pakistan’s television media has increased their interest in the rampant
corruption, the newspapers generally do not engage in investigative journalism and support
allegations of corruption.
Some Steps to curb Corruption

Most experts think that corruption is one of the most difficult problems in Pakistan’s society.
Its impact on country’s towns and villages is extremely profound and poses long term threat to
its culture, economics, and general well-being of provinces such as Sindh. The following are
some of steps and methods at grass roots and government levels that have helped to curb
corruption in some countries, particularly in South East Asia, where once corruption was as
rampant as it is now in Pakistan:
Increase salaries of government officials and workers in line with the remuneration prevalent
in private sector of Pakistan.
Speedy Judicial process.

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Persons who can clearly see the damage that is being caused by corruption in Pakistan must
speak up. They should discuss, debate, and voice their concerns openly with friends and family.
They should help create a culture where corruption is looked down. The virtue of being honest
and simple living should be lauded and only the persons who possess such qualities be accepted
as the role models.
The media should take a lead in launching anti-corruption campaigns. They should conduct
investigations and report cases of corruption supported by facts report on estimated damage
done and identify people who are involved in such cases.
Authorities that provide funding for projects should encourage whistle blowing and provide
monetary and other awards to those whose reports on corruption proven to be correct.
Authorities should maintain black-lists of those officials and agencies that are known to engage
corrupt practices and should keep them away assignments that involve public projects and
services.
Authorities should not shy away from prosecuting senior civilian and military officials and
political leaders who engage in corruption to set examples.
The political parties of Pakistan should have policies that shun any leaders and workers who
engage corrupt practices.
All institutions including political parties should have policies that force those officials to
temporarily resign when credible allegations of corruption surface until those allegations are
proven to be false in a court of law.
Encourage formation of Non-Governmental Organizations and voluntary groups within public

and private organizations to act as coalitions against corruption.
The educated and those would like to curb corruption should visit the web site of Global
Infrastructure Anti Corruption Center (CIACC) This site has excellent resources on measures
to prevent corruption in the infrastructure, construction and engineering sectors.
For a more lasting solution we will have to adopt effective measures to check corruption.
Some of them (given below) can be helpful in reducing it if not uprooting it.
1. People should be made aware of their rights. By providing general awareness to the
masses, the chances of grabbing money from the people lowers to the minimum.
2. Institutions should be made strong for proper working of the democratic system.
3. Proper system of accountability and check and balance should be implemented
4. Red tapism is the major cause of corruption and e-governance is the best solution for
this solving this problem.
5. Anti-social activities should be condemned and resisted.
6. Justice delayed is justice denied. In time justice can minimize corruption practices,
7. Salaries and wages should be increased in order to decrease the chances of corruption.
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8. The unemployed class should be provided jobs and recruited purely on merit.
9. Education system must be revised and improved according to national needs.
10. Stable governments are essential to prevail justice and to uproot corruption.
It is multi-faceted problem so it should be countered on all possible fronts with
sincerity. We must reform ourselves. Only proper planning and strictly implemented
policies with public support can put halt to this growing menace
The future of Pakistan and alleviation of poverty in rural areas of Pakistan is highly dependent
on successful and completion of all development projects. This success is threatened by the
evil of corruption that must be stopped on urgently before it is too late. The religious extremism,
deteriorating economic conditions, and worsening living conditions are unnerving the people
of rural Sindh and Balochistan, who until now have refused to fall in the trap of extremism. It
is imperative that all stakeholders including political parties, government officials, civil society
organizations, private companies, donor agencies and common people recognize the carnage
that current levels of corruption can do to the heartlands of Pakistan. They must form a grand
coalition to stop the menace before it is too late.
3) POPULATION EXPLOSION AND PAKISTAN
Outline:
 Introduction
 World Scenario In Respect Of Population
 Pakistan And Overpopulation
 CAUSES OF OVERPOPULATION
• Illiteracy
• High Birth Rate And Low Death Rate
• Early Marriages
• Polygamy
• Unawareness About The Proper use Of Contraceptive
• Desire For Male Child
• Misinterpretation Of Religious Ulemas
• Lack Of Recreational Activities

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• Failure Of Governmental Population planning Policies
 IMPACTS OF OVERPOPULATION
• Low Economic Growth
• Low Investment and Unemployment
• Poor Social Services
• Low productivity
• Urbanization
•Social Evils Like lawlessness, Crime And corruption
•Pollution Problem
 RECOMMENDATIONS
 CONCLUSION
Population is considered as an asset for a country. But it turns to be a burden when increases
uncontrollably. This is the case with the world. Rapid growth in population has become a
global problem and Pakistan is no exception. Pakistan inherited many chronic problems at
the time of its inception. Problems like illiteracy, poverty, unemployment, corruption,
lawlessness, political instability, poor infrastructure etc. were uncalled gifts for Pakistan.
Overpopulation has further added to the fire. Many reasons are behind it; most of them
seem to arise from our social and cultural norms. All of them are leaving adverse effects
on our society. Some of the major impacts are shortage of food and housing facilities,
overcrowding in cities, low investment etc. Let’s discuss the problem of overpopulation
from world’s perspective and then see what are its causes and impacts on Pakistan.
The whole world is in the grip of overpopulation. It has crossed the six billion mark.
After terrorism, the population explosion can be called the biggest problem the world is
facing today. Every day, we come across the often repeated phrase, “Population Bomb is
ticking”.
At the time of partition, Pakistan had a population of 33 million. Today, our country
has crossed the number of 170 million. At present, Pakistan’s population is growing at the
rate of 1.57% yearly. if the current growth rate of Pakistan remained continued, the day is
not away when Pakistan would be number 1 in term of population. Let’s discuss some of
the major causes responsible for this phenomenon.
Illiteracy is the major cause of overpopulation. Those lacking education fail to

understand the need to prevent excessive growth of population. They are unable to
understand the harmful effects that overpopulation has. Lack of family planning is
commonly seen in the illiterate lot of the world. In Pakistan’s rural areas, there is a trend of
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large families and due to the lack of awareness and proper knowledge people go on
producing more and more children.
Thanks to science for its contribution, on one hand it is saving the lives of people but if we
look it on other hand it is playing a negative role to population growth.
Along with it, the rapid growth in population can be attributes to the custom of early
marriages in our society. More than half of the population of Pakistan lives in rural areas.
In rural areas, due to ignorance, people have a conservative approach. They prefer early
age marriages for their children. They do so to prevent them from indulging in immoral
activities. Child marriage not only affects the health of the couple but also the child they
give birth to.
Furthermore, the trend of polygamy is also responsible for this problem. Polygamy is
the most common in our rural areas. In rural areas people prefer to have more than one wife
at a time. This inclination of people further aggravates the situation of population in the
country. Likewise, improper usage of contraceptive method has contributed negatively.
Furthermore, preference of male child over female infant has deteriorated the existing
situation of backward countries. Again the religious zeal, inculcated into the minds of
illiterate class at the hands of pseudo orthodox contributes very harmful effects on ever
increasing population. The one of the reason described by these orthodox not to interfere
in the work of creator.
Only a few of all Pakistanis participate in outdoor activities such as eating out,
domestic and foreign travel for fun and work etc. Majority is unable to do any of these
activities. This is mainly due to lack of finances and opportunity. Therefore, the lack of
recreational activities force people to stay with their life partner. The male performs his
duty like drone.
Lastly, the failure of proper implementation of government’s Population Planning

Policies is the major cause of population growth. Many policies have been formulated
up till now. But none of them has produced the desired results. There are many challenges
to population planning implementation in Pakistan. In Pakistan, the cultural and religious
institutions consider family planning a very wrong deed. This factor is the primary reason
why many areas of Pakistan are still devoid of family planning centres. Misconception,
rumours and false propaganda about family planning practices are also among the common
reasons.
Overpopulation has badly hampered the economic growth in the country. High
population is responsible for a decline in the per capita income. This leads to a decline in
the purchasing power of the people. As the demand for goods decreases then by “Demand
and Supply” law, the investment in the country also suffers. Such a stagnant economy will
lead to closing of factories and businesses and the outcome is joblessness and poverty.
Even if the country somehow is successful in attracting foreign investment, still

overpopulation will not allow effects on the country’s economy. Greater population means
more number of hungry souls to feed. This is the problem of “Dependency ratio” which is
acutely felt in our country.
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For years, social services in the country have suffered even after sincere efforts by
successive governments. The fact remains that more schools, hospitals and parks are of
little comfort if the population keeps on increasing at an alarming rate.
Agriculture is another sector, which has been adversely affected by the rapid increase
of population. About 70% of Pakistan’s population rely on agricultural sector.
Overpopulation is even having an adverse effect on agricultural outcome. More population
means smaller farms and that leads to a decline in productivity. The same would happen
with the forests and also with the availability of fresh water.
People having smaller farms have no other choice but to mitigate in hope for better life.
This leads to urbanization, which itself is a major social problem.
Overpopulation has contributed towards an increase in a number of social evils, like

lawlessness, crime and corruption. The fight over resources has divided the society into
groups i.e. one who possess all and the other who fight for its mere survival.
Overpopulation in cities has also contributed to toxic pollution. A greater number of

vehicles on the roads mean the availability of large quantities of poisonous gas for people
to inhale. Sewage problems and lack of clean drinking water can also be attributed to the
population problem.
Despite the adverse effects of rapidly growing population, the government of Pakistan can
mitigate these effects and can achieve control on population.
Following are some suggestions:
1. Family planning facilities be made a part of health facilities.

2. There should be a greater role for local and provincial governments.
3. Role of NGOs and doctors in disbursement of Aid received for family planning
should be increased.
4. Males should be urged to cooperate more.
5. Status of women be raised in society as done by present government by giving more
seats in assemblies.
6. Better health and educational facilities be provided for women.
7. Issue to be taken as a nation crisis.
8. Role of media be encouraged especially in rural areas.
9. Government programs should involve Ulemas and NGOs
10. Greater participation of landlords.
Pakistan today is standing at the crossroads. What is need of the hour is vision and
sincere leadership that could transform dreams into reality. The problem of
population has started to haunt us and unless we tackle it pragmatically our dream
of bright and glorious future will just remain a pious wish. It needs a multi-pronged
attack with overpopulation. A strong Pakistan should be our first priority. If we have
to make certain hard decisions for its accomplishment no one should hesitate to lead
and pull the trigger. Indeed, Pakistan comes first even before our personal vested
interests.
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generation gap
Generation gap refers to the difference in the ways of thinking and perception in the people of
two different generations which results in behavioral differences and sometimes, conflict
among them. In other words, it is the difference in the thinking of the people of the older and
younger generation which is generally connoted with the lack of understanding or
misunderstanding between them.
The most common example of generation gap is seen in the family between parents and their
children. It is not only because of the gap in age but also because of the way parents react to a
particular situation. Children being very young and immature do not understand the way of
thinking of their parents. In many cases, the parents, even if they are matured, do not empathize
with the changing values and thinking pattern of the modern world. This creates a
communication gap between these two generations.
Another main reason for generation gap between parents and children are parents themselves.
They do not talk openly to their children and take part in solving their problems. That behavior
makes the impression about parents as authoritative persons, in the mind of children, because
they only dictate them to do one thing or the other without understanding the problems faced
by their children. As a result, the children become mentally isolated from their parents. Some
parents become too busy with their work that they don’t spend some quality time with their
family which makes them completely unaware about how their children are growing, what kind
of mentality is being developed, and so on? This ultimately creates a gap between them. They
only realize it when it is too late.
Generation gap is also created in the family due to religious teachings where parents are very
strict with the duties their kids have to follow. They steal their children’s confidence that does
not let them develop and find their inner self. Kids usually reject their parent’s boundaries
because parents do not take their feelings into account. This directly leads the child lying to
their parents, and thinking about other ways of fulfilling their aims and desires, thus creating a
generation gap.
Advancement in technology has lead to the generation gap in this modern world. Children tend
to spend most of their time with their digital devices and busy with social media that they do
not discuss their problems with their parents. The internet provides solutions to most of the
worldly problems that children instead of contacting their own parents use the help of the
internet in case of any problem, thus again reducing the communication and leading to a
generation gap between them.
Generation gap occurs not only in between the parents and children but also between teachers
and students. Students are likely to enjoy the classes of an open minded teacher, who shows
mutual respect to his/her students. The teachers, who tend to keep their students under
unnecessary strict disciplines and practice hard ways to make them obey his/her orders, are
usually disliked by the students. This narrow minded thinking, especially seen in the teachers
of older generation, eventually creates a gap between the students and teacher.
Similarly, the way the teachers behave and react to a particular situation, especially by taking
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unnecessary actions in case of clashes and other childlike activities of young students is another
reason for creating generation gap. They restrict students for everything instead of
understanding and explaining things positively to them. Another difference is the use of
technology. Young teachers tend to use more digital devices in class for their lectures that has
a good impact on the students. Students take more interest and participate actively in the class
discussion. Whereas an old teacher has less frequent use of electronic devices that makes
lectures boring, which is not enjoyed by the students and it instead, creates a gap between them.
In conclusion, I think the generation gap has been greatly increased these days because the time
is changing fast and people find it difficult to cope up with this change. So, to overcome this
problem parent or teachers must be close to their children. They should show interest in all
their matters and deal with them positively instead of just scolding them and leaving them alone
to deal with their problems. Giving time to the children, having open communication, and
allowing the child to feel free and not in any kind of pressure, will eventually reduce the
generation gaps to a tolerable extent. -
Life styles, rapid changes in Science and Technology has transformed our outlook towards life,
increasing the divide, much more than it has ever happened in the past. The divide has always
been there but never before has it been so wide.
Life style changes with the passage of time and with a changing life style, attitudes and values
also undergo a transformation. No two generations have shared the same views and options.
However, there has never been a greater divide between two generations than in modern times.
With rapid changes in science and technology, the exposure, which today’s teenager is getting,
is enormous. Value systems have gradually degenerated and the youth is assimilating a new
culture. The result is confused parents who are unable to reconcile with the views of their
children.
There is a great divide between the perception of both, the young people and the adults. One
finds that both are unable to communicate with each other, quite often. One of the reasons
could be that neither knows what the other is interested in though they may be living under the
same roof.
This gap results in direct confrontation between the young and the old. This is a universal truth
which is applicable to all times be it the past or future. Shakespeare King Lear beautifully
depicts this confrontation between the young and the old. King Lear represents the older
generation and the younger generation is represented by his daughters.
Generation gap is not only reflected in the choice of dresses but also in music, opinions and
other behavior patterns. The younger generation which has acquired a different set of values
rebels against the older generation as they wish to impose their own value system on them.
They resist this forceful intrusion as they are unable to reconcile with the thought of accepting
what they think has become outdated. The parent’s displeasure is obviously natural as it is a
defiance of their authority and the right way to lead one’s life. Parents fail to realize that the
wheel of change irreversible and those, who do not move with it, tend to become disillusion
aggravating conflict.
SOCIOLOGY/CSS
The kids are moving much faster on the technologic track, as well as in daily life, than the
parents. Children, today, are capable using complicated gadgets and this phenomenon of
superior knowledge children as compared to adults has never happened as much as now in 13
societies. The conflict arises when adults stick to their old ways and refuse accept any change
while the world rapidly moves ahead.
In short, Generation Gap is nothing but the resistance in adults to adapt| change – They forget
that the only thing constant in life is ‘change’. The realization requires a lot of patience and
understanding of change perceptions.
The adults need to look back, introspect and think also the differences they had with their
parents. No doubt, memory is she lived and one tends to forget the past which they are fond of
referring to ‘Good old days’, where they as children were obedient, respectful and servile.
Generation Gap is a term which is given to the gap between two generations-one the past and
the other the forthcoming. Everything is affected with the change of time-the age, the culture,
mannerism, morality, and thinking. It is a fact that this difference affects everyone extensively.
This difference brings out a wide change in the making of the society and its culture.
There has always been a clash between the two generations. It is because time is fleeting and
with it everything gets a change. This change changes our minds though this change is always
in a natural way but the people belonging to the past generations always take it in a negative
way. This is the cause of the clash and this state of clash and difference of opinion is termed to
be the generation gap.
Human life has come to this stage after passing through various stages of evolution. Right from
the early days of primitive era man has progressed a lot. From the naked scattered and savage
human being has come to this stage of scientific era. Now everything is being controlled by
science and technology. We are not guided by fiction but by facts. There was a time when sun
and moon were gods. Now they are only objects like earth where we live. There was time when
old people were regarded and consulted time to time, now they are the neglected lot of the
society. There was a moral value prevalent in society, now society sans morality.
The present generation is running very fast after money, matter, lust, modernity and excessive
exposure in every field cf life. The beliefs and considerations have been completely changed,
TV. Movie, bollywood, and Hollywood are the trend setters of our society.
This all has made our life very critical because the people of the previous generation feel
suffocated. Today's exposure, for them is only a step prior to nakedness. The mad mania of the
present generation to run after money-matter, Hollywood and bollywood is in no way
acceptable for the past generation.
But it is really a matter of great concern to think deeply over this deep ditch of thoughts between
the two generations. Who is responsible for this critical stage of life? It is certainly the growing
influence of western culture. Hence it is the difference between the two cultures-Eastern and
Western- that creates a difference between parents and their children.
Indian culture teaches us to our elders with love and respect. This comes out of our value
systems and close family ties. But nowadays parents have no time to devote with their children
SOCIOLOGY/CSS
and hence there is no family tie. This leads the young generation to diversions. Sometimes our
children go astray because they don't get enough parental love and care.
They are attracted to the fascinating shows on TV. or in films. They learn a lot of things from
TV. Everything that they learn is not healthy for them. This creates most of the problems. Our
children are becoming immoral for which the past generation is also equally responsible.
Parents should compromise with the situation and they must tackle the young minds delicately
and wisely. No doubt the world is changing fast and change in our life style is automatic which
can't be completely avoided. There is a need of proper guidance for the young generation which
alone can prevent them from going on the wrong path.
DIVORCE A SOCIAL PROBLEM:
In the last two decades there is a raise in divorce rate in Pakistan.
The main reasons are:
1) Lack of sacrifice,
2) forced marriages,
3) greed,
4) Joint family system,
5) difference in social status
6) and one of the main reason highly career oriented women
There are situations in which Divorce is the only answer. Divorce is something which
is hated by ALLAH, but it is allowed because there are situations where divorce is the
only option.
Surah Al Baqarah:
''AND IF YOU FEAR THAT THE TWO (I.e) Husband and wife) may not be able
to keep the limits ordered by ALLAH, there is no blame on either of them if she
redeems herself (from marriage tie)
It is not beneficial to raise children in an unstable home. Most of the divorces take
place due to lack of communication plus inferiority complex. With the divorce rate
on the increase in Pakistan women becoming increasingly independent often placing
their careers before family and husband.
According to a survey most of the lawyers acknowledged that divorce rate is increasing
in middle and lower middle class.
Financial problems is one of the big reasons for separations. Normally in lower
middle class husbands fail to fulfil the demands of their wives, which becomes the main
reason of dispute.
Joint family system becomes the reason of divorce in which, dispute with mother in-
law is one of the example. Divorce cases are increasing day by day because women
from all segments of society are fully aware of their rights. women want to follow the
lifestyle of modern girls as shown in television that's why they don't compromise.
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A ‘tendency towards individualisation’, the ‘pursuit of happiness’, secularisation of the

state and society, increased labour force participation of women,the ensuing female
economic independence and even the feminist movement have been blamed.
The Pakistani context is quite different in terms of diverse ‘family’ structures and the
high numbers of lone parents and female headed households which characterise western
countries today, nevertheless, Pakistani demographic trends also display rapid
urbanisation, nuclear households, increasing literacy and labour force participation, a
rise in overall age at the time of marriage and decreasing fertility — all of which have
been correlated to divorce by demographers.
Marital dissolution also seems have become a topic of some speculation in the
newspapers here, particularly the Urdu press. Some contributory factors identified by
these papers — petty arguments, ‘egotistical issues’, low levels of literacy, early age at
the time of marriage and frequent fracas with the mother-in-law — also lead to a
somewhat reductive representation of women.
Others have identified a growing “awareness” among women, even speculating that
“most (women) have the degrees and ... the will, to earn their living. As wives they feel
they can afford to take more risks with their marriages.”
Pakistan’s last census reveals that marital dissolution occurs mainly through
widowhood; the number of divorced individuals seem insignificant to that of widows.
Also divorce seems more visible in Punjab and Sindh.
Significantly, after 2002 when the Muslim Family Courts Amendment Ordinance (that
a move for khulla be finalised if reconciliation fails and should be done so within six
months), was effected, female initiated divorce rose by almost 50 percent the following
year. Male divorces also rose by 40 percent.
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CHAPTER NAME PAGE #

INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

2. Inspiration from the Growth of Natural Sciences: Nineteenth century was a

THEORIES REGARDING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL

Jean Jacques Rousseau

INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY

CULTURE AND ADAPTATION

ETHNOCENTRISM AND THE EVALUATION OF CULTURE

can be historically constituted (a group of people who shared a territory, language or

VALUING & SUSTAINING DIVERSITY

Following are some of the important functions of culture:

1. Culture Defines Situations:

2. Culture defines Attitudes, Values and Goals:

3. Culture defines Myths, Legends, and the Supernatural:

4. Culture provides Behaviour Patterns:

Culture and Society:

TYPES OF CULTURE (MATERIAL, NON –MATERIAL):

Norms and Sanctions

What makes people in a society conform to the norms?

Negative psychological sanctions are found in insults and rejection.

Formal sanctions = rewards or punishments used to enforce the laws of organizations,

cross. Example of punishments: physical : capital punishment, imprisonment; psychological:

Social sanctions are 1) positive or negative, 2) physical or psychological, 3) formal or informal.

Table 1.1 Types and Examples of Sanctions

Being praised by one's Being criticized by one's

Being granted a citizen award

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS?

MULTICULTURALISM is the phenomenon of multiple groups of cultures existing within

FORMAL AND NON-FORMAL SOCIALIZATION:

Trends in average rural and urban outcomes: why worry?

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN CONVERGENCE!

RURAL AND URBAN CONVERGENCE

The Rural-Urban Continuum:

STRATEGY FOR THE FUTURE

Regional Growth Poles

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN LIFE:

Rural Life/Urban life

Greater isolation from nature. Predominance of manmade (artificial environment).

Social solidarity is less stronger than rural, dissimilarities, division of labour,

Choices of leadership is comparatively less on the basis of know personal qualities of

(6) Degree or rate of change is not uniform:

(7) Social Change may be planned or unplanned:

(8) Social change is multi-causal:

(9) Social change creates chain-reactions:

(10) Prediction is uncertain:

(a) There is no inherent law of social change.

Factors of Social Change:

(1) Culture is social, but not individual.

(2) Culture is idealistic.

(3) Culture is communicative.

(4) Culture is an acquired quality.

(5) Culture meets the recurring demand of mankind.

(6) Culture has the characteristics of adaptation.

(7) Culture has the quality of becoming integrated.

IMPORTANT EFFECTS OF CULTURE

(i) Culture gives speed and direction to social change:

(ii) Culture influences the direction and character of technological change:

(iii) Culture shapes economy and is effective towards economic growth:

(iv) It keeps the social relationship intact:

CONCEPT OF CULTURAL LAG:

(i) Material Culture: