4.1 Semiconductors: 4.1.1 Diodes

Semiconductors
Electronic Fundamentals 4.1 – HO - 1
4.1 SEMICONDUCTORS
4.1.1 DIODES
Introduction to Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a class of crystalline solids. Its energy state is indeterminate between

that of an insulator and a conductor. A pure semiconductor is known as an ‘intrinsic
semiconductor’. For example, 99.99% pure silicon is known as ’high purity’ silicon.
An intrinsic semiconductor is a poor conductor (good insulator) and is very dependant on

temperature. The resistance of a semiconductor decreases with an increase in
temperature. This is known as a ’negative temperature co--efficient’.Examples of intrinsic
semiconductors are silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide. The main semiconductor in
commercial use is silicon. Silicon is a base material of sand; hence it is in abundant
supply.
Electrons and Current Flow
An electron is a physical particle with a negative charge. When a battery is placed across
a conductor the electrons will be attracted to the positive terminal of that battery. Figure 1
illustrates the actual current flow when a power supply is connected across a conducting
circuit. Electron current flow is ‘negative to positive’.
FIGURE 1: ACTUAL CURRENT FLOW IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

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A hole is not a physical particle. It is simply the space (missing bond) remaining after an
electron vacates the outer ring of an atom during current flow. However, a hole can be
treated as a physical particle because it has a positive charge and moves in exactly the
opposite direction to the flow of electrons.
When a battery is placed across a conductor the holes will be attracted to the negative
terminal of that battery. This is known as conventional current flow. Figure 2 illustrates the
conventional current flow when a power supply is connected across a conducting circuit.
Conventional current flow is ‘positive to negative’.
FIGURE 2: CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

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4.1.2 ATOMIC STUCTURE
FIGURE 3: ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF GERMANIUM AND SILICON
The atomic structures of the two most commonly used semiconductors are illustrated in
Figure 3. It should be noted that orbiting electrons are not arranged in an orderly manner.
The above is a two—dimensional representation of particles moving on a three--
dimensional plane. The electrons do not rotate in perfect circles or on a flat plane.
The above atoms are known as ’group--4’materials. This is because they have four
electrons on their outer shell. These are known as ’valence electrons”.
Valence Electrons
These electrons are farthest away from the nucleus of the atom. They are less tightly
bound by the attractive force of the nucleus. These outermost electrons have higher
energy than those within the atom this makes it easier for them to move between atoms.
The movement of valence electrons between atoms is the main factor in electrical
conduction.
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The movement of valence electrons between atoms is shown in Figure 4. It should be

noted that, as an electron is attracted away from the atom, it leaves a hole. That hole
subsequently attracts another electron, leaving another hole. For illustrative purposes, the
diagram shows the valence electrons moving left to right. It can be seen that holes move
from right to left (as indicated by the arrows).
FIGURE 4: MOVEMENT OF VALENCE ELECTRONS BETWEEN ATOMS
Covalent Bonds
The valence electrons of a semiconductor atom can link together with the valence
electrons of other adjacent atoms. These links are known as ’covalent bonds’. As a result
of covalent bonding, each atom has a half share in eight valence electrons. This linking
arrangement of multiple atoms forms a stable crystal lattice. The two dimensional
arrangements of covalent bonds in a silicon crystal lattice are shown in Figure 5.
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FIGURE 5: COVALENT BONDING OF A SILICON CRYSTAL LATTICE
4.1.3 DIODES IN SERIES AN PARALLEL
Diodes may be connected in series or parallel. For carrying high voltage, a series
configuration would be used. If a high current carrying capability were required, the
diodes would be connected in parallel
MAJORITY AND MINORITY CARRIERS
To understand the concept of electrons moving one way and holes moving the other is
not easy but it can be likened to an empty seat at the end of a row in a cinema. Assume
the vacant seat to be at the right hand end of the row. If the first person next to the seat
moves into it, then he/she has moved to the right, but the vacant seat has moved one
place to the left. If each person in the row does the same (i.e. moves to the empty seat to
his/her right) as soon as it becomes empty, the vacancy (hole) appears to have moved
along the row in one direction while the occupants (electrons) have move in the opposite
direction.
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If the temperature is raised more bonds break down and conduction increases i.e.,
resistance decreases, this means more heat is generated, and more conduction occurs,
resistance decreases further, more heat is generated - and so on. This is called thermal
runaway and will eventually destroy the crystal structure.
Semiconductors have a negative temperature coefficient. In other words their resistance

decreases with an increase in temperature. We need now to look at how we can change
the basic insulator into a conductor. This is achieved by mixing (doping) a very small
quantity of a selected impurity atom into the semiconductor material. (Typically 1 part in
1010) The material now becomes an extrinsic semiconductor.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors:
 N-Type semi-conductor material.

 P-Type semi conductor material.
N-Type Semi-conductor Material
Doping impurities such as phosphorus or arsenic are used. These have five (pentavalent)
electrons in the outermost orbit. When introduced into the basic material, four of the
electrons join up with the co-valent bonding, whilst one electron is left 'free'. (The number
of free electrons can be strictly controlled by this doping).
The free electrons can migrate through the inter-atomic space and can therefore act as
current carriers when a (very low) voltage is applied.
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FIGURE 6: N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR
Note: Although extra electrons have been inserted, it must be remembered that each
impurity atom is itself neutral and so the whole of the N-type material is also neutral.
MAJORITY CARRIER - ELECTRONS (NEGATIVE)
[N = N-TYPE] MINORITY CARRIER - HOLES (due to intrinsic conduction)
FIGURE 7: ELECTRON FLOW IN AN N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR

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P-Type Semi-conductor Material
In this material, impurities such as Indium or Aluminium are used. These have three
(trivalent) electrons in the outermost orbit. When introduced into the basic material, all
three electrons link into the crystal structure but this leaves a 'hole' in the structure. This
hole is looking for an electron to fill it and so it is a form of positive current carrier. If a
(very small) voltage is applied, electrons will move to fill in the holes but this forms fresh
holes and so there is a general drift of holes through the material from positive to negative
(in the opposite sense to the electron flow in the N-type material). Again, the material is
neutral.
FIGURE 8: P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR
MAJORITY CARRIER - HOLES (POSITIVE)
[P = P-TYPE] MINORITY CARRIER - ELECTRONS (due to intrinsic conduction)

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THE P-N JUNCTION
Imagine a piece of N-type material being brought into contact with a piece of Ptype
material. Both pieces are, up to the instant of contact, neutral.
Remembering that the holes are looking for electrons to complete the lattice network, it
can be seen that electrons will migrate across the junction to fill in the holes as soon as
the two materials are brought together.
FIGURE 9: ELECTRON FLOW IN A P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR
Semiconductor Doping
Semiconductor doping is a chemical treatment performed on an intrinsic semiconductor

to either increase or decrease conductivity. Doping improves the ability to transmit and
control electrical current through the semiconductor.
Processes also exist to further purify an intrinsic semiconductor prior to doping. This is
often necessary in order to effectively control/ measure the doping process. Doped
semiconductors are often referred to as ’extrinsic semiconductors’. Doping involves
adding a small volume of impurity atoms (usually only approx. 1*106) to the
semiconductor material.
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As noted earlier, the intrinsic semiconductor has four valence electrons. The impurity
element is selected to have atoms with an extra electron or a missing electron (in relation
to the semiconductor atom). The addition of an impurity atom is added with the intention
of altering the number of electrons in a semiconductor.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductor:
 N--type semiconductor
 P--type semiconductor.
N--Type Semiconductor
Group- 5 materials are used to provide an extra electron after doping with the intrinsic
semiconductor. These elements have five valence electrons. This means that one
electron is free after the covalent bonding occurs. This electron is referred to as a ’donor
electron’.
These donated electrons have the effect of lowering the semiconductor’s resistance,
therefore making it more conductive. These electrons are unbonded and free to wander
within the crystal lattice. The donor electrons migrate through the atomic structure and
can therefore act as current carriers when a low voltage is applied.
FIGURE 10: ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT AFTER DOPING WITH GROUP--5 MATERIAL
The number of free electrons can be strictly controlled by the doping process.
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FIGURE 11 : CURRENT FLOW IN AN N--TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
4.1.4 FORWARD BIASED AND REVERSED BIASED
As electrons leave the N-type material, it will become positively charged. As electrons fill
holes in the P-type material, it will become negatively charged. A BARRIER POTENTIAL
is built up at the boundary, forming what is known as the Depletion Layer (figure 12). This
build-up in potential will eventually be strong enough to stop further migration of electrons
across the junction.
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FIGURE 12: P-N JUNCTION
The Barrier Potential is approximately 0.2V for Germanium and 0.6V for Silicon. It must
be remembered that the barrier potential is always present at a P-N junction - even if it is
sitting in a storage bag on a shelf.
If an external supply is connected +ve to the P-type material and -ve to the N-type, it will
oppose the barrier potential. If it is bigger than the barrier potential, the barrier potential
will be overcome and current will flow, electrons moving from supply negative to positive
and holes moving in the opposite direction, as shown in figure 13. This is known as
FORWARD BIASING the junction.
FIGURE 13: FORWARD BIAS P-N JUNCTION

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The intrinsic conduction, (covalent bonds breaking down at normal temperature)

produces minority carriers and thus small current flows in the same direction as the
majority carriers i.e., it adds to it.
If the external supply is connected in the other sense, +ve to the N-type and -ve to the P-
type, it will reinforce and increase the barrier potential and therefore no current will flow,
except for any slight leakage current (see below). The depletion layer will be enlarged as
shown in figure 14. This is known as REVERSE BIASING the junction.
FIGURE 14: REVERSE BIAS P-N JUNCTION
4.1.6 DIODE PARAMETERS
Diodes are manufactured in a wide range of voltage and current ratings. These must be
taken into account when choosing a diode for a particular circuit. Typical parameters
considered are:
 Maximum forward current

 Peak inverse voltage
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Maximum operating temperature
The diode has a small forward resistance when it is conducting, so power must be
dissipated as it conducts. This power dissipation causes heat at the junction, this local
heating must be kept down, as excessive leakage current will occur. There is therefore a
MAXIMUM FORWARD CURRENT so that the temperature is not reached which will
cause deterioration of the structure of the diode.
The PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE (PIV) is the maximum operating voltage appearing
across the terminals of the diode acting in the reverse direction, and therefore represents
the maximum reverse voltage that may be applied to the diode without reverse
breakdown occurring. This may be written as Maximum Reverse Voltage instead of PIV.
MAXIMUM OPERATING TEMPERATURE is a maximum junction temperature above,

which the structure of the diode deteriorates. The maximum forward current is so chosen
that this temperature is not exceeded in the worst combination of circumstances.
At first sight it might appear that there is no current flow, but due to intrinsic conduction,
which produces minority carriers, which causes a tiny current to flow across the junction
this is known as the LEAKAGE CURRENT.
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Characteristics and applications of the following devices:
1.Zener diode.
2. Light emitting diode.
3 .Photoconductive diode
4 .Schottky barrier diode
5 .Silicon controlled rectifier
6 .Tunnel diode
7 .Varactor diode
8. Varistors
9. Bridge rectifiers
ZENER DIODES
Characteristics
In the previous unit you learned that an ordinary PN junction diode breaks down and
conducts a relatively high reverse current when it is subjected to a sufficiently high
reverse bias voltage. This high reverse current occurs because the high reverse voltage
is capable of tearing valence electrons away from their parent atoms and therefore
increasing the number of minority carriers in the N and P sections of the diode. The
reverse voltage which causes an ordinary PN junction diode to break down in this manner
is commonly referred to as the diode’s breakdown voltage.
Ordinary PN junction diodes can be damaged if they are subjected to their respective
breakdown voltages. This is because the high reverse currents can produce more heat
than the diodes can safely dissipate. However, special diodes are constructed which can
operate at voltages that equal or exceed their breakdown voltage ratings. These special
diodes are commonly referred to as Zener diodes.
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We will now examine the exact relationship that exists between the current flowing
through a Zener diode and the voltage across the device. We will consider the action that
takes place when the Zener diode is rated according to its breakdown voltage.
FIGURE 15: SHOWS CIRCUIT SYMBOLS FOR ZENER DIODE.
VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS
A typical Zener diode V −Ι (voltage-current) characteristic curve is shown in Figure 16.

Notice that the overall forward and reverse characteristics of the Zener diode are similar
to those of an ordinary junction diode. The primary difference is simply that the Zener
diode is specifically designed to operate with a reverse voltage that is increased to a
value that is sufficient to cause the diode to breakdown. Then the reverse current through
the diode increases at an extremely rapid rate as the reverse voltage increases beyond
the breakdown point. The V −Ι curve therefore shows that beyond the breakdown point, a
very large change in reverse current is accompanied by only a very small change in
reverse voltage. This action occurs because the resistance of the diode drops
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considerably as its reverse voltage is increased beyond the breakdown point. Once the
breakdown point is exceeded the diode is said to be operating in its zener breakdown
region or simply its zener region. The current that flows through the diode while it is
operating in its zener region is often referred to as the zener current and may be
represented by the symbol Ιz.
F IG 1 T YPICAL VI C HARACTERISTIC C URVE FOR A Z ENER D IODE
FIGURE 16
If you examine Figure 16 closely you will see that breakdown (also called Zener
breakdown) does not occur instantaneously. The curve is rounded near the breakdown
point. This curved or rounded portion is often called the knee of the curve. When a
Zener diode has a knee with a very sharp edge, the diode enters the breakdown region
very quickly. However, when the knee is more rounded, the breakdown region is entered
at a slower rate. The importance of this consideration will be explained later in this
discussion.
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ZENER VOLTAGE
The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is determined by the resistivity of the diode
which in turn can be controlled by the various doping techniques that are used to form the
device. A Zener diode is manufactured to have a specific breakdown voltage rating which
is often referred to as the diode’s Zener voltage and is designated as VZ . Typical VZ
values may vary from several volts to several hundred volts. For example, some of the
popular low voltage units have ratings of 3.3, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.2, and 9.1 volts; however,
additional voltage ratings are also available. It is important to realise that when a Zener
diode is rated as having a specific Zener voltage (VZ ), the rated voltage does not
represent the reverse voltage that is required to initially cause the diode to breakdown.
The rated Zener voltage is a nominal value that represents the reverse voltage across the
diode when the Zener current is at some specified value called the Zener test current ΙZT .
The (V −Ι) curve in Figure 16 shows the relative Zener voltage (VZ ) and Zener test current
(ΙZT ) values for a typical Zener diode. Notice that these values are located within the
Zener breakdown region of the curve. The Zener test current (ΙZT ) simply represents a
typical value of reverse current that is always less than the maximum reverse current that
the diode can safely handle.
Like resistors and capacitors, Zener diodes cannot be produced with Zener breakdown
voltages that are always exactly equal to a specified value. Therefore, it is necessary to
specify minimum and maximum breakdown voltage limits for each device. This is done
by specifying a breakdown voltage tolerance for each type of diode that is manufactured.
The standard Zener breakdown voltage (Zener voltage) tolerances are ±20%, ± 10%, and
± 5%, however specially manufactured Zener diodes are also available in ± 1% tolerance.
For example, a 6.8 volt ± 10% Zener diode will have a Zener voltage somewhere in the
6.12 to 7.48 volt range.
POWER DISSIPATION IN ZENER DIODES
Manufacturers of Zener diodes also specify the maximum power dissipation of each
device. Some devices are rated at only several hundred milliwatts while others are rated
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as high as 5 watts. However some of the most popular and widely used devices have
relatively low ratings of 400 milliwatts, 500 milliwatts, and 1 watt. A Zener diode’s power
dissipation rating is given for a specific operating temperature. The actual power that a
Zener diode can safely dissipate will decrease if the temperature increases above this
specified level or increase if the temperature decreases below the specified level.
CURRENT LIMITATIONS IN ZENER DIODES
The maximum reverse current that can flow through a Zener diode without exceeding the
diode’s power dissipation rating is commonly referred to as the maximum Zener current
and is represented in the V −Ι curve in Fig 1 by the symbol Ι zm. The Ιzm value of a Zener
diode is often specified by the manufacturer of the device. However, if Ι zm is not
specified, it can be determined by simply dividing the power dissipation rating of the diode
by its breakdown voltage (Zener voltage) rating or stated mathematically:
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
Ι ZM =
𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
However, it is best to play it safe and use the maximum limit of Zener voltage in your
calculations. For example, suppose you have a Zener diode that is rated at 10 watts, and
the diode has a Zener voltage of 5.1 volts at ± 10% tolerance. The maximum voltage limit
would be equal to 5.1 volts plus 10% of 5.1 volts or 5.1 + 0.51 which is equal to 5.61
volts. The maximum Zener current would therefore be equal to:
Ι ZM = = 1.78 amperes
ZENER DIODE PACKAGES
Basically, Zener diodes are packaged in the same manner as the ordinary PN junction
diodes described in the previous unit. The low power devices usually have axial leads
and are mounted in either glass or epoxy cases while the high power units are usually
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stud mounted and are contained in metal cases. A typical low power Zener diode is
shown in Figure 17A and the commonly used Zener diode symbol is shown in Figure 17B.
A band is used to identify the cathode end of the Zener diode as shown, therefore, the
Zener diode resembles an ordinary PN junction diode in appearance. The Zener diode
symbol is also similar to the ordinary diode symbol. The only difference is that the
cathode end of the diode is represented by a zigzag or Z shaped bar instead of a straight
bar.
FIGURE 17: TYPICAL ZENER DIODE AND ITS SCHEMATIC SYMBOL
VOLTAGE REGULATION WITH ZENER DIODES
Although the Zener diode may be used to perform a number of important functions it is
perhaps most widely used in applications where it is continually reverse-biased so that it
operates constantly within its Zener breakdown region. Under these conditions, the
Zener diode is effectively used to provide stabilisation or regulation.
Voltage regulation is often required because most solid-state circuits require a fixed or
constant dc power supply voltage for proper operation. If this dc voltage changes
significantly from the required value, improper operation will usually result. If an ac line
operated power supply is used (one that is not regulated), the dc output voltage will vary if
the power line voltage changes or if the load resistance connected to the power supply
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changes. However, by using a Zener diode regulator circuit, it is possible to compensate

for these changes and maintain a constant dc output voltage.
THE BASIC ZENER DIODE REGULATOR
The diode is always operated in the reverse bias breakdown region. In this state the
voltage across the diode and thus across the load RL remains almost constant despite
variations in input voltage and/or load current.
FIGURE 18: ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTIC
Briefly, when a zener diode is operated in the breakdown region the reverse voltage
across the device remains almost constant for a wide variation of reverse current flow.
Circuit Action
Refer to Figure 19. The voltage across the load (VL ) is equal to the input voltage minus
the voltage dropped across RS . The voltage across RS is equal to the sum of I L and IZ
multiplied by RS .
Vin =(I L +I Z )RS +I L RL

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Increase in Vin
If Vin increases, the diode current IZ increases so that the voltage across Rs increases by
an amount almost equal to the increase in Vin. The increase in IZ has little effect on the
voltage across the zener, thus the voltage across the load remains almost constant.
Increase in IL
Now consider the action if Vin remains constant, but I L increases due to a change in load
value. If I L , increases, the voltage across RS which is RS (IL +I Z )initially increases. This
causes the voltage across the zener to fall, which in turn causes I Z to fall. The action
results in the current through RS remaining almost constant, therefore the voltage across
RS remains almost constant. The voltage across the load therefore remains almost
constant for changes in load current.
To summarise, if I L rises, I Z falls and vice versa. Therefore, the sum of I L and I Z
remains almost constant, which in turn keeps the voltage across RS and D almost
constant.
Calculation of Component Values
Refer to Fig 5. Suppose a nominal 15 volts, which could vary ±1 volt, is to be used to
provide a 12 volt stabilised supply to a load which will draw a maximum current of 500mA.
When IL is maximum, I Z will be minimum and it is important that this minimum value does
not fall below the knee in the diode characteristic otherwise the diode will fail to operate in
the zener region. If this occurs, the load voltage will be unstable.
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FIGURE 19
If I Z min is 2mA and I L max is 500 mA, the total current in RS is 502 mA.
∴RS =Vin −VL =14−12 = 2 =4Ω I S 0.502 0.502
Max Power Dissipated by RS
This will occur when Vin rises to max value of 16V. the voltage across RS will then be 16
V – 12 V = 4 V.
∴maximum, power dissipation =V 2 =(4) 2 =16 =4W
Therefore the power rating of RS must be chosen to be greater than 4 watts, otherwise
overheating and damage may occur.
Choice of Diode
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The zener diode must have a breakdown voltage of 12 volts. When the load current falls
to zero, or the load is removed, the zener diode current will be maximum. In this case
IZ max will be 500 mA + 2 mA = 502 mA. Therefore the maximum power dissipation of the
diode will be:
Max power dissipation of diode = 12 V x 502 mA
= 12 x 502 x 10-3
= 6.03 watts.
To provide some degree of safety, the power rating of the diode should be greater than 6
watts.
Temperature Stability
 The breakdown voltage of a zener diode may vary a little with variations in
temperature. Above a breakdown voltage of about 6V zener diodes exhibit a positive
temperature coefficient. A typical value might be +2 mV/°C which means for every
degree C rise in temperature the breakdown voltage increases by 2 mV.
 Below the breakdown voltage of about 6 V, zener diodes have a negative temperature
coefficient. That is, as temperature rises the breakdown voltage decreases.
 To stabilise the supply for changes in temperature 2 diodes could be used, one with a
positive temperature coefficient and the other with a negative temperature coefficient.
An example is shown below in Figure 20.
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FIGURE 20: VOLTAGE STABILISER WITH IMPROVED TEMPERATURE

COEFFICIENT
Example:
In Figure20 6 the 5V zener diode has a temperature coefficient of –2 mV/°C and the 9V
zener diode has a temperature coefficient of +1.8 mV/°C. The circuit, therefore, provides
a 14V stabilised output with a temperature coefficient of –0.2 mV/°C which is a noticeable
improvement compared with the figure for the individual diodes.
Multiple Stabilised Outputs
When there is a requirement for a number of different stabilised outputs, 2 or more diodes
can be connected in series as shown in Figure 21.
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FIGURE 21
TUNNEL DIODES
Introduction
The ordinary PN junction diodes and zener diodes that you have already examined have
lightly doped PN junctions and they have voltage-current characteristics that are quite
similar. However, there is a special type of PN junction diode that is produced by using
special construction techniques and heavy doping (a high concentration of impurities) to
obtain characteristics that are radically different from those of ordinary PN junction or
zener diodes. This device is commonly referred to as a tunnel diode.
Due to its heavily doped PN junction, the tunnel diode has a high internal barrier voltage
and an extremely narrow depletion region. The device also has an extremely low reverse
breakdown voltage (almost zero) and therefore conducts large currents when it is
reversed-biased. The forward characteristics of the device are also unique. It would
appear that the high barrier voltage would prevent forward current from flowing through
the diode when it is subjected to low forward bias voltages; however, this is not the case.
At low forward bias voltages, electrons are forced through the narrow depletion region at
an extremely high velocity because of the high concentration of charges on each side of
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the junction. The electrons effectively appear to tunnel through the potential barrier
(barrier voltage) as they move across the junction. Also, during this period of time when
the tunneling action is occurring a point is reached where an increase in forward voltage
can actually cause a decrease in forward current through the diode. This movement of
electrons can be explained by a theory known as quantum mechanical tunneling;
however, a detailed account of this theory is not necessary at this time.
VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS
A typical diode V-Ι characteristic curve is shown in Figure 22. As shown in this figure, the
diode will conduct high reverse currents when it is subjected to reverse voltages.
However, the diode’s most important electrical characteristics occur when it is forward-
biased. Notice that the forward current through the diode initially increases as the forward
bias voltage is increased, but a point is soon reached where forward current stops
increasing with an increase in forward voltage. The current that flows through the tunnel
diode at this time is referred to as the peak current ΙΡ and the voltage across the diode is
referred to as the peak voltage VP. A further increase in forward voltage causes the
forward current through the diode to decrease as shown. The current continues to
decrease as forward voltage is increased until it reaches a minimum value which is
referred to as the valley current Ι V. At this time the voltage across the diode is referred to
as the valley voltage Vv. If the forward voltage across the diode is increased still further,
the diode’s forward current will again increase. However, this time the current increases
in the same way as it would in an ordinary PN junction diode that’s subjected to an
increasing forward bias voltage.
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FIGURE 22: TYPICAL TUNNEL DIODE V-Ι CHARACTERISTICS
Between the peak and valley points on the V-Ι curve, the tunnel diode’s forward current
decreases as the forward voltage across the device is increased. This portion of the
diode’s V-Ι curve is therefore referred to as the negative resistance region. The tunneling
action previously mentioned is reduced throughout this portion of the curve and it ceases
when the Ι v value is reached. It is this negative resistance region that makes the tunnel
diode an extremely useful electronic component.
Construction
Tunnel diodes may be constructed from several types of semiconductor materials. Basic
semiconductor materials such as germanium and silicon have been used for years but
many of the newer devices are constructed from gallium arsenide and gallium antimonide.
The tunnel diode PN junctions may be formed by using the grown method, the diffusion
method, or the alloyed method. however, the alloyed method is perhaps the most widely
used construction technique. Many tunnel diodes resemble ordinary PN junction diodes
or zener diodes in appearance but some tunnel diodes are packaged in special cases or
containers which make them suitable for various applications. A typical tunnel diode and
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its approximate dimensions are shown in Figure 23. This particular diode is packaged in
a metal case and has a peak current rating in the low milliampere range. Since the
device is only one tenth of an inch long and one tenth of an inch wide, it is smaller than
the head of a match.
FIGURE 23:TYPICAL TUNNEL DIODE PACKAGE AND TUNNEL DIODE SYMBOLS
Several commonly used tunnel diode symbols are shown above. Two of the symbols
resemble the conventional PN junction diode symbol, but the third symbol is completely
different. This symbol consists of a bar; which represents the anode, and a half circle,
which represents the cathode. This symbol is also occasionally drawn within a full circle
like the diode symbol shown.
APPLICATIONS
The tunnel diode is particularly suitable for use in oscillator circuits which are designed to
generate high frequency AC signals. A typical tunnel diode oscillator circuit is shown in
Figure 24. When used in this manner the diode must be biased so that it will operate
within its negative resistance region. Notice that the diode is connected in series with an
LC resonant circuit. The circuit receives its power from the battery, and the two resistors
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(R1 and R2) are used to set the diode’s operating current and voltage into the negative
resistance region.
FIGURE 24: TYPICAL TUNNEL DIODE OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
The resonant LC circuit cannot sustain oscillations when it is used alone. However, when
the LC circuit is used with the tunnel diode as shown, continuous oscillations are
produced and an AC output voltage can be taken from the resonant circuit. The
continuous oscillations result because of the diode’s negative resistance. When power is
first applied to the circuit, oscillations are produced within the LC circuit. These
oscillations produce a voltage across the LC circuit and this voltage alternately causes a
shift in the diode’s operating point. This in turn causes the diode’s resistance to change
in a manner which allows the current through the diode to reinforce the circulating current
that flows through the resonant LC circuit.
Therefore the tunnel diode’s negative resistance is used to support the oscillations that
are produced within the LC circuit and the power losses within the LC circuit are
effectively reduced to zero.
The tunnel diode may also be used as an electronic switch. When used in this manner
the device is made to change between two-operating states. In one state the device
conducts a relatively high forward current at a point just before Ιp is reached. In the other
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state it conducts a relatively low current at a point just beyond the Ιv value of the device.
Tunnel diodes have been used to implement switching circuits that perform high speed
digital logic functions.
When used in either of the applications just described the tunnel diode requires very little
power and it is capable of operating at very high speeds. When used as an oscillator the
tunnel diode is capable of operating in the microwave frequency range (above 200
Megahertz) and when used as a switch the device can change states in only a few
nanoseconds. Unfortunately, tunnel diodes also have disadvantages which have
seriously limited their use in many applications. In general, the tunnel diode’s important
electrical characteristics vary widely with changes in temperature and their operation is
greatly affected by changes in operating voltages. These two factors make it extremely
difficult to stabilise the operation of tunnel diode circuits.
VARACTOR DIODE
Introduction
When any PN junction diode is reverse-biased, majority carriers are swept away from the
diode’s junction and a relatively wide depletion area is formed. When the diode is
subjected to varying reverse bias voltage, the width or thickness of this depletion region
will also vary. When the reverse bias voltage increases in value, the depletion region
becomes wider. When the reverse voltage decreases, the depletion region becomes
narrower. The depletion region acts like an insulator since it provides an area through
which no conduction can take place. It also effectively separates the N and P sections of
the diode in the same way that a dielectric separates the two plates of a capacitor. In
fact, the entire PN junction diode is basically a small electronic capacitor that changes its
capacitance as its depletion region changes in size.
Ordinary PN junction diodes possess only a small amount of internal junction capacitance
and in most cases this capacitance is too small to be effectively used. However, special
diodes are constructed so that they have an appreciable amount of internal capacitance
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and are used in much the same way that ordinary capacitors are used in electronic
circuits. These special diodes are commonly referred to as VARACTOR DIODES or
simply VARACTORS, or VARICAP on CAPACITANCE DIODES.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
A varactor is usually operated with a reverse bias voltage that is less than its reverse
(zener) breakdown voltage rating. As the reverse voltage is increased, the depletion
region within the device widens and therefore acts as a wider dielectric between the N
and P sections of the device. Since the value of any capacitor varies inversely with the
thickness of the dielectric between its plates, the diode’s junction capacitance will
decrease as the reverse voltage increases. This means that a decrease in reverse bias
voltage will cause an increase in the varactor diode’s internal junction capacitance. The
varactor diode’s capacitance therefore varies inversely with the reverse bias voltage
applied to the device. However, the capacitance does not vary in a linear manner and
therefore is not inversely proportional to the reverse bias voltage. The non-linear change
in capacitance that occurs in a typical varactor diode is shown in Figure 25. Notice that
the capacitance drops rapidly from a maximum value of approximately 40 picofarads as
the reverse bias voltage is increased from zero volts. However, the capacitance levels off
to a value of approximately 5 picofarads when the reverse bias voltage approaches 60
volts. Although not shown in Figure 25, the capacitance of the diode will actually increase
above 40 picofarads if the diode is forward biased and will continue to increase as
forward bias is increased. However, a point is soon reached where the diode’s barrier
voltage is overcome (0.6 or 0.7 volts for silicon diodes) and the diode will conduct a high
forward current. This forward current makes the diode useless as a capacitor and
operation in forward conduction region must therefore be avoided. Also, should the
reverse breakdown voltage of the diode be reached the device would again become
useless as a capacitor because of the high reverse current that would occur.
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FIGURE 25: TYPICAL CAPACITANCE VERSUS VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF A

VARACTOR DIODE
A varactor’s internal capacitance will increase or decrease slightly when temperature

increases or decreases. Therefore, manufacturers of these devices will usually show a
range of capacitance values at a particular operating temperature. For example, the
curve shown in Fig 1 was plotted at an ambient temperature of 25° centigrade. The
amount of capacitance change that can be expected for a given change in temperature is
usually expressed as a temperature coefficient of capacitance TCc. The TCc is expressed
in percent of capacitance change per degree centigrade.
CONSTRUCTION
Varactor diodes are designed for a number of specific applications. They come in a
variety of sizes and shapes and have various power, current, and voltage ratings. These
diodes may have capacitance values that range from less than 1 picofarad to 500
picofarads. General purpose , low power diodes are available which closely resemble the
ordinary PN junction diodes described in a previous unit. These low power units are often
rated at several hundred milliwatts and they are usually packaged in a glass case with
axial leads. Other types are available that have higher power ratings (25 to 35 watts) and
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are stud mounted just like power diodes. These are commonly used at frequencies below
500 Megahertz. At frequencies much above 500 Megahertz the physical layout of the
diode package becomes extremely important. therefore most of the diodes that operate
at these higher microwave frequencies are usually contained in packages that are
designed to minimise stray or unwanted capacitance and inductance which can cause
undesirable effects at these frequencies. Two varactor diodes that are designed to
operate at frequencies well above 500 Megahertz are shown in Figure 26. These devices
are extremely small, as indicated by the approximate dimensions shown, and have power
dissipation ratings of 500 milliwatts.
FIGURE 26: TYPICAL HIGH FREQUENCY VARACTOR DIODE PACKAGE
It is important to realise that the power dissipation rating of a varactor diode does not
have the same meaning as it does in the case of an ordinary PN junction diode. The
power dissipated by an ordinary diode is equal to the product of the diode’s forward DC
current and its forward voltage. however, a reverse-biased varactor diode effectively
does not allow a reverse current to flow, but it will pass an AC current. It is this AC
current that determines the amount of power dissipated by the device because it flows
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through the series resistance (R3) of the device and causes heat to be generated. The
power dissipated by the device is therefore based on AC calculations rather than DC
calculations. Varactor diodes may also be rated according to the amount of AC input
power that they can accept or the amount of AC output power that they can produce
when used in specific applications.
Several symbols that are commonly used to represent the varactor diode are shown in
Figure 27. The symbol on the left actually includes a small symbol of a capacitor thus
making the device easy to identify.
FIGURE 27: COMMONLY USED VARACTOR DIODE SYMBOLS
APPLICATIONS
Varactor diodes are used to replace conventional capacitors in many applications. A

varactor diode is often used to vary the frequency of a resonant circuit. In this application
the diode may represent the only capacitance in the circuit or represent only part of the
capacitance of the circuit. The frequency of the resonant circuit is controlled by simply
varying the diode’s reverse bias voltage. This means that the diode must be connected
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so that it is properly biased within the circuit. A basic circuit arrangement is shown in
Figure 28. Capacitor C1 is quite large and therefore has a very low reactance at the
resonant frequency of the parallel resonant circuit which consist of the varactor diode ad
the inductor L.
FIGURE 28
Capacitor C1 is used only to prevent the DC bias from flowing through the inductor. The
DC voltage, resistor R and capacitor C2 are used to reverse bias the diode as shown.
The capacitance of the varactor diode changes as the bias voltage is varied and therefore
changes the frequency of the resonant circuit. When used in this manner the varactor
diode becomes a tuning component and is often called a tuning varactor or voltage
variable capacitor.
Varactor diodes may also be used in many other applications. For example, they find
extensive use in various types of high frequency amplifiers and in devices known as
frequency multipliers. They are also used in the automatic frequency control (AFC)
circuits found in many FM radios and they are used in a variety of circuits that are found
in both AM receivers and transmitters.
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HOT CARRIER DIODES (SCHOTTKY-DIODE)
The hot carrier diode (HCD) is formed by placing an N-type semiconductor material
(usually silicon) in contact with a metal such as gold, silver or aluminium to form a metal-
to-semiconductor junction. This diode operates in a manner similar to ordinary PN
junction diodes but there are several important differences. The barrier voltage
developed within the device is approximately one half as great as the barrier voltage
within an ordinary silicon diode. This means that the forward voltage drop across the
diode is approximately 0.3 volts instead of 0.6 or 0.7 volts. Also, the HCD operates with
majority carriers (electrons); virtually no minority carriers are involved. This means that
the reverse or leakage current through the device is extremely small. Figure 29 shows
the basic HCD diode constructions and the symbol normally used to represent it.
The term hot carrier diode is used because the electrons move from the N-type
semiconductor material cathode across the junction to the metallic anode (the forward-
biased direction of current flow) in a manner similar to the movement of electrons through
a vacuum tube diode. In other words the electrons possess a high level of kinetic energy
just like the electrons leaving the heated cathode of a vacuum tube.
The barrier voltage produced within the HCD is often referred to as the Schottkybarrier
because the German scientist Schottky discovered the operating principle of the device in
1938. For this reason the HCD is also commonly referred to as a Schottky-barrier diode
or simply a Schottky-diode.
The HCD is able to change operating states (turn on and off) much faster than ordinary
PN junction diodes, and it is used extensively to process high frequency AC signals. This
device finds extensive use in microwave electronic mixers (circuits which combine AC
signals), detectors (circuits which use rectification as a means of extracting information from
AC signals) , and high speed digital logic circuits. Figure 29
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FIGURE 29
LIGHT EMITTING DIODES
Construction
Light emitting diodes are available in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, and they can be
manufactured to fulfil a specific purpose or for general use. In size, they range from a
miniature decimal point for use in multi-number configuration to a three inch high single
character display.
Figure 30 shows a section of one type of LED. The diagram shows the PN junction
encapsulated in clear plastic with the light from the device focused by a lens. The lens is
usually made of self-coloured plastic to match, or modify slightly, the colour being emitted
by the junction. The lens can be made to focus the light to a small pinpoint or to spread it
over a wide area.
A more detailed drawing of the PN wafer of the light emitting diode is shown in Figure 30
and, from this diagram, it can be seen that one face of the silicon is left clear of any
obstructions or connecting wire which may impede the path of the light rays. For a single
indicator diode, the junction uses a square section of silicon. During manufacture it is
considerably easier to slice the silicon die into squares than it is to cut and trim
complicated shapes; the desired outward appearance of the LED can be more easily
obtained by shaping the lens of the device. Thus, from a square section of silicon, plastic
lens caps of square, rectangular, circular or star shape can achieve
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BI-COLOUR LED
In some equipments, there frequently arises the need for a device to act as a simple GO
or NO GO indicator. Previously, this was accomplished by using a milliammeter with its
scale divided into a green zone and a red zone to indicate the two states. A much more
economical and more easily discernible method of achieving the same result can be
obtained by fabricating two light emitting diodes onto a single substrate. Figure 30 shows
such a piece of silicon where one junction is doped with gallium phosphide (green output)
and the other junction with gallium arsenide phosphide (red output). Depending on which
junction is energised, the LED will emit either a red light or a green light; an overlap
period can be provided when both diodes illuminate to show a border-line condition.
FIGURE 30: BI-COLOUR LED
MULTI-SEGMENT LED
A further development of the standard LED package is the seven segment numerical
indicator and the sixteen segment alpha-numeric indicator. In these devices, the PN
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junctions are elongated into a rectangular format and the light is emitted in a bar shape.
The letter or number which a multi-segment display is required to produce is formed from
a combination of illuminated segments. Figure 31a shows the layout of the constituent
light emitting diodes which are used in seven segment displays and Figure 31b shows the
layout for sixteen segment indicators. A sample of the letters or figures which may also
be produced by some of the possible combinations of illuminated diodes is also
illustrated.
FIGURE 31: MULTI SEGMENT LAYOUT
Because these displays are composed of linear segments (that is, there are no curls or
twists which can be produced), some anomalies could exist between similarly formed
letters or numbers. Any combination which may introduce a misinterpretation is usually
not specified in the equipment manual which covers the interpretation of the display. As
an example, the number 1 and the letter I could easily be read one for the other, and the
distinction will be shown in the display dictionary.
The diode junctions which form the segments of the display require both an anode and a
cathode connection. For a sixteen segment display this would result in thirty two
connectors. Fortunately, most situations allow for a common connection to all the
cathodes (or, alternatively, all the anodes). The displays are then referred to as common
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anode connected or common cathode connected and the number of leads reduces to
eight or seventeen for the two types of display.
FIGURE 32: MULTIPLEX DISPLAY
DOT MATRIX DISPLAY
An alternative to the segmented arrays is a LED diode device which consists of a matrix
of single diode indicators. The diodes are arranged in a series of horizontal rows and
vertical columns as shown in Fig 30. With these devices, it is possible to select any
required combination of diodes to form the desired pattern. Like the segmented displays,
a dot matrix can be wired for common anode or common cathode but, like the display
shown in Fig 4, is more usually wired for multiplex operation. This type of operation
involves a scan of the array so many times every second, the rate depending on the turn-
on and turn-off times of the diodes. The vertical and horizontal arrays are scanned
separately and a diode is illuminated only when a supply voltage and an earth connection
are available across it. Multiplex theory and operation will be covered in more detail later.
POWER REQUIREMENTS
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Any device which is provided with a supply voltage and has current through it consumes
power. The amount of power consumed by a light emitting diode is determined mainly by
the size of the PN junction. The light emitting diode is essentially a surface operated
device and the current through the junction must be limited to prevent burnout. Maximum
operating currents at a supply voltage of 1.6 volts are typically 10mA to 20mA.
PHOTODIODES
Introduction
The photodiode is another light-sensitive device which utilises a PN junction. It is

constructed in a manner similar to the photovoltaic cell, but it is used in basically the
same way as the photoconductive cell. In other words it is used essentially as a light-
variable resistor.
The photodiode is a semiconductor device (usually made from silicon) and may be
constructed in basically two ways. One type of photodiode utilises a simple PN junction
as shown in Figure 33. A P-type region is diffused into an N-type substrate as shown.
This diffusion takes place through a round window that is etched into a silicon dioxide
layer that is formed on top of the N-type substrate. Then a metal ring or window is formed
over the silicon dioxide layer (through an evaporation process) as shown. This window
makes electrical contact with the P-type region and serves as an electrode to which an
external lead can be attached. However, the window also accurately controls the area
that will receive or respond to light. A metal base is then formed on the bottom N-type
layer. This metal layer serves as a second electrode to which another lead is attached.
The PN junction photodiode operates on the same basic principles as the photovoltaic
cell. In fact, the photodiode may be used in basically the same manner as a photovoltaic
cell. When used as a photovoltaic cell, the device is said to be operating in the
photovoltaic mode and it will generate an output voltage (across its electrodes) that varies
with the intensity of the light striking it’s P-type layer. However, the photodiode is most
commonly subjected to a reverse bias voltage. In other words its P-type region is made
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negative with respect to it’s N-type region. Under these conditions a wide depletion region
forms around the PN junction. When photons enter this region to create electron-hole
pairs, the separated electrons and holes are pulled in opposite directions because of the
influence of the charges that exist on each side of the junction and the applied reverse
bias. The electrons are drawn toward the positive side of the bias source (the N-type
region) and the holes are attracted toward the negative side of the bias voltage (the P-
type region). The separated electrons and holes therefore support a small current flow in
the reverse direction through the photodiode. As the light intensity increases, more
photons produce more electron-hole pairs which further increase the conductivity of the
photodiode resulting in a proportionally higher current. When a photodiode is used in this
manner it is said to be operating in the photoconductive or photocurrent mode.
The photodiode may also be constructed similar to the type just described but there is
one important difference. This device has an intrinsic (Ι) layer between its P and N
regions and is commonly referred to as a PIN photodiode. The intrinsic layer has a very
high resistance (a low conductivity) because it contains very few impurities. A depletion
region will extend further into this Ι region than it would in a heavily doped semiconductor.
The addition of the Ι layer results in a much wider depletion region for a given reverse
bias voltage. this wider depletion area makes the PIN photodiode respond better to the
lower light frequencies (longer wavelengths). The lower frequency photons have less
energy content and tend to penetrate deeper into the diode’s structure before producing
electron-hole pairs and in many cases do not produce pairs. The wider depletion region
in the PIN photodiode increases the chance that electron-hole pairs will be produced.
The PIN photodiode is therefore more efficient over a wider range of light frequencies.
The PIN device also has a lower internal capacitance due to the wide Ι region which acts
like a wide dielectric between the P and N regions. This lower internal capacitance allows
the device to respond faster to changes in light intensity. The wide depletion region also
allows this device to provide a more linear change in reverse current for a given change in
light intensity.PN junction and PIN photodiodes are often mounted on an insulative
platform or substrate and sealed within a metal case as shown in Figure 33. A glass
window is provided at the top of the case, as shown, to allow light to enter and strike the
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photodiode. The two leads extend through the insulative base at the bottom of the case
and are internally bonded (with fine wires) to the photodiode’s electrodes.
FIGURE 33: A TYPICAL PHOTODIODE PACKAGE
When the input radiant power is reduced to zero or when the photodiode is in complete
darkness, the diode’s photocurrent will drop to an extremely low value but not quite to
zero. This very low current is simply a reverse leakage current which occurs in any type
of PN junction device. This very low leakage current is referred to as the photodiode’s
dark current. The dark current is too small to be plotted since it will generally be in the
nanoampere range for most photodiodes. Dark current increases only slightly with an
increase in reverse voltage.
Photodiodes have an important advantage over the photoconductive devices described

earlier. A photodiode can respond much faster to changes in light intensity. In fact, the
photodiode operates faster than any other type of photosensitive device. It is therefore
useful in those applications where light fluctuates or changes intensity at a rapid rate.
The major disadvantage with the photodiode is that its output photocurrent is relatively
low when compared to other photoconductive devices.
Photodiodes and PIN photodiodes are both commonly represented by the same
schematic symbol and several symbols have been used to represent these devices. A
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commonly used symbol is shown in Figure34A. Notice that a conventional diode symbol
is used with two arrows. The arrows point toward the diode to show that it responds to
light. Figure 34B shows a properly biased photodiode. A load resistor simply represents
any resistive load which might be controlled by the photodiodes as it varies its
conductivity in accordance with input light intensity. The changes in the diode’s
conduction will cause the photocurrent (Ι) in the circuit to vary.
FIGURE 34: A PHOTODIODE SYMBOL (A),
A PROPERLY BIASED PHOTODIODE (B)

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THE SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
The SCR, or thyristor, is a semi-conductor device made up of both N and P materials. It

has two stable states, “OFF” or “ON”, and is used as a switching device.
Construction
The SCR is made up of four regions of semi-conductor material, either NP NP or PN PN.

There are three connecting electrodes, the anode, cathode and gate. The outer N and P
regions are connected to the cathode and anode respectively while the central N and P
region is connected to the gate. In this case the P section. Figure 35 shows the
construction and circuit symbol for a SCR.
FIGURE 35: SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

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SWITCHING ON
In the off condition with the circuit connected to a supply, the junction between the two
bases is reverse biased whilst the junction between the base and the anode and the base
and the cathode are forward biased. For all practical purposes, current flow is blocked,
although a small leakage current will exist.
The SCR is switched either by increasing the supply voltage to a value known as
breakover voltage, or by application of a current pulse to the gate. In this state both inner
regions are saturated with carriers and the junction between them is forward biased. In
consequence, the potential difference across the SCR is very low. Beyond the breakover
point the current increases rapidly, limited only by the resistance of the circuit.
If the current should fall below a value termed the ‘holding current’, the SCR reverts to the
off or forward blocking position. It should be noted that once the gate is pulsed it no
longer controls the current so that its supply can be removed without affecting the
operation of the SCR.
SCR CHARACTERISTICS
Figure 36 shows a typical SCR characteristic with 10 milliamps on the gate. When the
anode voltage reaches the breakover point, in this case 360 volts, the current through the
device goes to a maximum. If the gate current is increased, then the breakover point
occurs at lower anode voltages.
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FIGURE 36: BREAKOVER VOLTAGE
The advantage of the SCR can be seen from the fact that a large current can be switched
with a very small controlling current.
Use Of The SCR
As well as a high current switching device (up to 1000A), the SCR can be used as a
current controlling device. When a thyristor is used with an ac supply it can only conduct
on the positive half-cycles like a rectifier. This means that a trigger pulse would be
necessary to fire the thyristor every half-cycle. By synchronizing the firing point on the
positive half-cycle, the amount of current flowing in the circuit is fixed, as shown in Figure
35 below.
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FIGURE 35 : THYRISTOR ON ALTERNATING CURRENT
By varying the firing point (phase shift) the current can be controlled. In this circuit,
capacitance C and resistance R act as a potential divider. As R is decreased, so the
phase difference between the anode and the gate will increase, delaying the firing time.
Thus, R gives control over the firing point, so controlling the power to the load. A light
dimming circuit can be operated in this manner. Figure 36 shows a typical circuit.
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FIGURE 36 : THYRISTOR ON ALTERNATING CURRENT
VARISTORS
The varistor is a semi-conductor device used for clipping 'noise spikes' off ac voltage.
Noise spikes are of very short duration and large amplitude. They may pass through a
power supply and appear on a dc regulated output voltage. Low pass filters are often
ineffective against noise spikes so the spikes are attenuated before rectification of ac to
dc.
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METAL OXIDE VARISTOR (MOV)
The MOV is a semi-conductor resistor made of zinc oxide crystals. When voltage across
it exceeds a certain voltage, in negative or positive direction, the device conducts to clip
off noise spikes. Figure 37 shows the characteristic of the varistor, the circuit symbol and
equivalent circuit. Although the varistor acts in a similar way to a zener diode, it is much
faster in operation.
FIGURE 37: METAL OXIDE VARISTOR (MOV)
Therefore this form of rectification can only be used where there is a star connection
using a neutral line. Assume this star connection is the secondary of a three phase
(DELTA-STAR) transformer as shown in Figure 38.
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FIGURE 38: DELTA STAR TRANSFORMER
Three Phase Full Wave Rectification
Figure 39 shows the waveform of the three-phase supply and the resultant supply voltage
to the load. This form of connection does not require a neutral line, so can be used on
either Star or Delta connected systems. Figure 24 shows the diode circuit diagram.
FIGURE 39: WAVEFORMS - THREE PHASE RECTIFIER
Note that the ripple frequency of this rectifier output is three times the supply frequency,
with three DC output voltage 'blips' for one sequence of the three-phase AC supply.
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CLIPPING OR LIMITING
As the name implies it is the limiting' or 'clipping off of part of the voltage waveform that
lies above or below a certain chosen level. This level is called the bias, or reference level.
Some examples are shown in figure 40.
FIGURE 40: EXAMPLES OF LIMITING
Figure 41: SERIES NEGATIVE LIMITER
In figure 42, assume the input is a sinewave of (say) +20 to -20 volts. When the diode is
conducting (assuming negligible resistance) the voltage across it is negligible and the
output voltage (VOUT) will be equal to VIN. When the diode is cut off the output voltage is
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practically zero. The circuit therefore clips the portion of the waveform, which goes
negative.
FIGURE 42: WAVEFORM OF SERIES NEGATIVE LIMITER
If the diode was to be turned round we then have a series positive limiter and the diode
only conducts on the negative going cycles and so the positive going portion of the input
waveform is clipped.
Figure 43 shows a shunt positive limiter with the diode in shunt (parallel) with the
component (VOUT) and the resistor is in series.
FIGURE 43: SHUNT POSITIVE LIMITER
During the positive half cycles, with the diode conducting the voltage developed across it
is practically zero, so output voltage is zero. When the diode is cut off on the negative
half-cycles, practically the whole of the input voltage is across the diode and therefore
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VOUT = VIN. This circuit therefore clips the portion of the input waveform, which goes
positive.
FIGURE 44: WAVEFORM OF POSITIVE LIMITER
If we wish to remove the negative cycles of the waveform all that is required us to turn the
diode around; the circuit now becomes a shunt negative limiter. The circuits so far
discussed have all 'clipped' or limited the waveform above zero volts. In practice it is
often necessary to clip the portion of the waveform above or below some reference
voltage other than zero. This can be done using slightly modified versions of the basic
limiting circuits already shown. Figure 45 shows a shunt negative limiter to -10V.
Figure 45: SHUNT NEGATIVE LIMITER

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The waveform may be limited to any positive or negative value by holding the appropriate
electrode of the diode at the required bias or reference level.
On one half cycle of the input, the diode is cut off and practically the whole of the input
voltage appears as VOUT. On the other half cycle the diode is cut off until it reaches
above the bias level, up to this point VIN = VOUT, when the diode conducts the VOUT is
equal to the bias level and clips the negative half cycle as shown in figure 46. If the
polarity of the bias was turned around the other way then the output would be as shown in
figure 47.
Figure 46: WAVEFORM OF SHUNT NEGATIVE LIMITER
Figure 47: REVERSE POLARITY WAVEFORM OF SHUNT NEGATIVE LIMITER

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If the diodes are turned round then the reverse outputs will occur. The same principle can
be applied to series limiters. Figure 48 shows a series positive limiter to -10V and its
waveform.
Figure 34: SERIES POSITIVE LIMITER
Figure 35: WAVEFORM OF SERIES POSITIVE LIMITER

Figure 34: SERIES POSITIVE LIMITER
FIGURE 48
Clamping
These circuits are widely used in radar and communications equipment to change the
reference level of a waveform without reducing its amplitude. Circuits which move
waveforms up or down in this way are known as Clamping Circuits because their effect is
to Figure
fix or 35:
clamp the topOForSERIES
WAVEFORM bottom level LIMITER
POSITIVE of the waveform. Figure 39 shows the difference
between a limiter/clipping circuit and a clamping circuit. The limiter circuit simply 'cuts off’
a part of the waveform, whilst a clamping circuit moves the whole waveform up or down.
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FIGURE 50: LIMITING / CLAMPING
The simplest form of clamping circuit is a diode circuit that consists of a capacitor and
resistor, forming a long CR circuit to the input waveform. The voltage to which the bottom
ends of the resistor or diode are returned is again known as the bias or reference level. It
may be of either polarity including zero volts.
FIGURE 51: CLAMPING CIRCUIT

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The circuit is clamped to this bias level. In the previous drawing the output waveform is
clamped to zero volts. The two types of clamping circuits are:
 Positive clamping - the bottom of the output waveform is clamped to the bias
voltage, so the output waveform is positive to the bias level.
 Negative clamping - the top of the waveform is clamped to the bias voltage, so the
output waveform is negative to the bias level.
Figure 52 shows a circuit with positive clamping to zero volts and figure 42 shows the
waveforms.
Figure 52: POSITIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT
Figure 53: WAVEFORM - POSITIVE CLAMPING

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With reference to figure 54, since R and the diode are in parallel the output voltage
always equals the voltage developed across R. In any CR circuit the input voltage VIN =
VC+ VR at all times.
The description of the waveforms (figure 54) is as follows:
 A to B The input rises to 100V from zero. The capacitor is initially uncharged and
cannot charge immediately. VR therefore rises instantly to 100V and since this
voltage is applied to the cathode of the diode, the diode is cut-off. B to C With the
diode cut-off, C charges on a long time constant CR seconds and V C (voltage
across the capacitor) rises by a small amount. Thus VR falls by the same amount.
 to D VIN changes instantaneously from +100v to zero volts and this step appears
in full across R. Thus vr becomes immediately -100V, the diode is non-conducting
and VC is unchanged.
 to E The circuit is now a long CR and C discharges slowly, VR rises slowly towards
zero volts. (In a very long CR circuit the change of D to E is only a very small
proportion of the input waveform amplitude).
 to F VIN instantly becomes 100V again, and this rise causes V R jump from -98V
(say) to +2V, which causes the diode to conduct.
 C to D The input falls by 100V to zero and since VC cannot change immediately
VR also falls to 100V to a small negative potential which causes the diode to
conduct.
 D to E With the diode conducting, C discharges on a short time constant CRD
seconds. RD is diode resistance. Both VC and VR quickly return to zero volts and
the diode is cut off.
 E to F The input rises again by 100V and the cycle is repeated.
Except for small negative 'pips' the output VR is clamped to a base level of zero volts and
is positive going from this level.
Semiconductors
A similar action takes place with a negative going square wave.
Figure 54 shows a negative clamping circuit and figure 55 shows the waveforms.
FIGURE 54: NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT TO ZERO VOLTS
Figure 55: WAVEFORM OF NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT TO ZERO VOLTS

Semiconductors
 A to B The input voltage rises from zero, and since C cannot change its state of
charge instantaneously, the rise appears in full across R (VOUT). Since VR is the
same as the voltage across the diode the diode conducts.
 B to C Capacitor C and the conducting diode form a short CR circuit and so the
capacitor quickly charges to +100v. VOUT falls to zero volts.
 After F C quickly charges back to +100V on the short CR circuit and the process
repeats itself.
Thus after the initial spike is over, the waveform VOUT is a very slightly distorted version
of the input waveform, but negatively clamped to zero volts. Assuming a square wave of
0V and +100V (figure 57).
 Prior to A - the capacitor is initially uncharged and since VIN equals zero volts,
VOUT equals zero volts.
FIGURE 56: NEGATIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS
In the examples shown the output waveform is clamped to either positively or negatively
to zero volts. If it was necessary, as in some radar circuits, to clamp to a level other than
zero, then the bias voltage is placed in the resistor rectifier line as shown in figures 55, 56
and 57. The waveforms produced are shown respectively in figures 58, 59 and 60.
Semiconductors
FIGURE 57: WAVEFORM OF NEGATIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE
BIAS
FIGURE 58: POSITIVE CLAMPING TO POSITIVE BIAS

Semiconductors
FIGURE 59: WAVEFORM OF POSITIVE CLAMPING TO POSITIVE
FIGURE 60: POSITIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS

4.1 Semiconductors: 4.1.1 Diodes

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4.1 Semiconductors: 4.1.1 Diodes

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Semiconductors

Electronic Fundamentals 4.1 – HO - 1

A semiconductor is a class of crystalline solids. Its energy state is indeterminate between

An intrinsic semiconductor is a poor conductor (good insulator) and is very dependant on

Electrons and Current Flow

FIGURE 1: ACTUAL CURRENT FLOW IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

FIGURE 2: CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

4.1.2 ATOMIC STUCTURE

FIGURE 3: ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF GERMANIUM AND SILICON

The movement of valence electrons between atoms is shown in Figure 4. It should be

FIGURE 4: MOVEMENT OF VALENCE ELECTRONS BETWEEN ATOMS

FIGURE 5: COVALENT BONDING OF A SILICON CRYSTAL LATTICE

4.1.3 DIODES IN SERIES AN PARALLEL

MAJORITY AND MINORITY CARRIERS

Semiconductors have a negative temperature coefficient. In other words their resistance

There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors:

 N-Type semi-conductor material.

N-Type Semi-conductor Material

FIGURE 6: N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR

MAJORITY CARRIER - ELECTRONS (NEGATIVE)

[N = N-TYPE] MINORITY CARRIER - HOLES (due to intrinsic conduction)

FIGURE 7: ELECTRON FLOW IN AN N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR

P-Type Semi-conductor Material

FIGURE 8: P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR

MAJORITY CARRIER - HOLES (POSITIVE)

[P = P-TYPE] MINORITY CARRIER - ELECTRONS (due to intrinsic conduction)

THE P-N JUNCTION

FIGURE 9: ELECTRON FLOW IN A P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR

Semiconductor doping is a chemical treatment performed on an intrinsic semiconductor

There are two types of extrinsic semiconductor:

FIGURE 10: ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT AFTER DOPING WITH GROUP--5 MATERIAL

FIGURE 11 : CURRENT FLOW IN AN N--TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

4.1.4 FORWARD BIASED AND REVERSED BIASED

FIGURE 12: P-N JUNCTION

FIGURE 13: FORWARD BIAS P-N JUNCTION

The intrinsic conduction, (covalent bonds breaking down at normal temperature)

FIGURE 14: REVERSE BIAS P-N JUNCTION

4.1.6 DIODE PARAMETERS

 Maximum forward current

Maximum operating temperature

MAXIMUM OPERATING TEMPERATURE is a maximum junction temperature above,

Characteristics and applications of the following devices:

2. Light emitting diode.

4 .Schottky barrier diode

5 .Silicon controlled rectifier

FIGURE 15: SHOWS CIRCUIT SYMBOLS FOR ZENER DIODE.

A typical Zener diode V −Ι (voltage-current) characteristic curve is shown in Figure 16.

F IG 1 T YPICAL VI C HARACTERISTIC C URVE FOR A Z ENER D IODE

POWER DISSIPATION IN ZENER DIODES

CURRENT LIMITATIONS IN ZENER DIODES

ZENER DIODE PACKAGES

FIGURE 17: TYPICAL ZENER DIODE AND ITS SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

VOLTAGE REGULATION WITH ZENER DIODES

changes. However, by using a Zener diode regulator circuit, it is possible to compensate

THE BASIC ZENER DIODE REGULATOR

FIGURE 18: ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTIC

Vin =(I L +I Z )RS +I L RL

Calculation of Component Values

∴RS =Vin −VL =14−12 = 2 =4Ω I S 0.502 0.502

Max Power Dissipated by RS

∴maximum, power dissipation =V 2 =(4) 2 =16 =4W

Max power dissipation of diode = 12 V x 502 mA

FIGURE 20: VOLTAGE STABILISER WITH IMPROVED TEMPERATURE