Perception

Outline

❖  Perception: Meaning, Definition & Laws

❖  Social Perception: Non-verbal communication, Attribution & Impression

Management

❖  Factors Influencing Perception

❖  Errors in Perception
The ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses.
A child who has not seen an elephant earlier either in photo or directly - will he
identify that animal?

What about another child who has seen earlier?

A process of interpretation of a present stimulus on the basis of past experience.
Attention

●  Selection of certain inputs for

inclusion in our conscious experience,
or awareness, at any given time

●  Focus vs. margin

●  Filtering?
Sensory Processes
From Sensory Processes to Perception...
 PERCEPTION

●  Way the world looks, sounds, feels, tastes, or smells.

●  Whatever is experienced by you.

●  Perception is the organisation, identification,

& interpretation of sensory information in
order to represent and understand the
environment.
“If we understand the world as it appears to us, it will be a big booming - buzzing
confusion. Hence, we do not see the things as they appear, but we see them as
we want, i.e. more meaningfully.”

William James, An American Psychologist

●  Gestalt psychologists - brain creates a coherent perceptual experience by
perceiving a stimulus as a whole than perceiving discrete entities.

●  Gestalt principle - ‘the whole is better than sum total of its parts’.

●  This is explained under many sub-principles of perception.

Laws of Perception

❖  Figure Ground Relationship

❖  Perceptual Constancy

❖  Depth Perception

❖  Perception of Movement

❖  Apparent Movement
1.  Figure-Ground Relationship

●  Recognition of a figure on a background: Figure-Ground perception

●  The ability to distinguish an object from its background

●  Pictures on a hang on a wall; words are seen on a page; melody stands out
from the repetitive chords in the musical background
Grouping of Stimuli in Perceptual Organisation

The objects can be perceived meaningfully when they are grouped together.

●  Proximity: Objects that are close in time and space is perceived as belonging
together.

●  Similarity: Similar items are organised together.

●  Symmetry: Organise things to make a balanced or symmetrical figure.

●  Continuation: Any stimulus which extends in the same direction or shape will
be perceived as a whole.

●  Closure: Perceive world by filling in gaps in stimulation.

2. Perceptual Constancy
●  Stability of perception helps us to adapt to the world.

●  Tendency to perceive objects as relatively stable, unchanging in shape and

size, despite the change in image we receive: a man’s size doesn’t appear to
change as he walks towards us; the location of sound doesn’t appear to
change if you move your head; etc...

●  Stability of the environment as we perceive ~ perceptual constancy!

●  Past experience, expectancy, habits, motivations, cognitive styles, learning,

imagination, etc.
Size Constancy

●  Objects appear to stay the same

size even though the size of the
images that they make in our
eyes change as the object gets
nearer or further away.
Shape Constancy

●  Objects appear to stay the same

shape even though the images
changes.
Brightness Constancy

●  Tendency to perceive the object as

equally bright even though the
brightness around it changes.
3. Visual Depth Perception

●  How could we see a three-dimensional world with only a two-dimensional, or

flat, retina in each eye?

●  We use information and cues to generate 3-dimensional world.

●  Ability of a person to perceive the distance is known as depth perception.

●  Depth perception is possible due to certain cues.

●  These cues help us to understand the distance between one person and the
other person or object.

○  Monocular cues vs. Binocular cues

 Monocular Cues

●  Cues when only one eye is looking

●  Painters give three-dimensional

experience from a flat painting
●  Linear Perspective:
Distances separating images
of far objects appear to be smaller
●  Clearness:
More clearly we see an
object, the nearer it seems
●  Interposition:
When one object is completely
visible while another is partly
covered by it, the first object is
perceived as nearer
●  Gradient structure:
A gradient is a continuous change
in something - a change without abrupt transitions.

●  Usually the regions closer to the

observer have a coarse texture
and many details.

●  As the distance increases,

the texture becomes finer and finer.
●  Shadow:
If you look at an object and
it has no shadow, it appears flat
Binocular Cues

●  Retinal Disparity: Our retinas receive slightly different views of the world

●  The image of the object which falls

on both the retinas differs.

●  Disparity will be more when the

object is closer than when it is far away.
●  Convergence or divergence of eyeballs:

●  Hold up two pens with their points facing each other, one in each hand, at an
arm’s distance. Try to touch the points together. Now gradually bring them
closer to your eyes.
4. Perception of Movement

●  When a particular object appears in different places at different times we

understand that the object is in movement.

●  This process is called perception of movement.

●  Such an ability to perceive movement is gained from birth itself as a natural

process.
5. Apparent Motion

●  We perceive that the objects are moving, but they stationary.

●  Perception of an object which is not moving, as an object moving is an

illusion.

●  For example, when we are moving fast in a bus, the trees, plants and other
non-moving objects appear to move in the opposite direction.
 SOCIAL PERCEPTION

The process through we seek to know and understand other people!

●  Non-verbal communication - Components?

●  Attribution and attribution errors
●  Impression formation & impression management
Non-Verbal Communication

●  When do we rely on non-verbal communication?

●  Irrepressible - difficult to control

Non-Verbal Communication: Facial Expressions

●  Basic facial expressions

●  Combinations

●  Are facial expressions universal?

●  Gold and bronze medal winners show true smile, whereas silver winners
engage in social smiling - why?
Izard, 1971

1. Interest-Excitement
2. Enjoyment-Joy
3. Surprise-Startle
4. Distress-Anguish
5. Disgust-Contempt
6. Anger-Rage
7. Shame-Humiliation
8. Fear-Terror
Non-Verbal Communication: Eye Contact

●  Gaze vs. Stare

●  What do they reflect?

Non-Verbal Communication: Gestures,
Postures & Movements

●  Movements - touching, rubbing & scratching?

●  Postures adopted by threatening

characters vs. warm sympathetic characters?

●  Gestures: emblems are body movements

carrying specific meaning
Non-Verbal Communication: Touch

●  Determining variables?

●  Sexual interest, affection, dominance, caring or evening aggression

●  What about a handshake?

●  Or, pat on the arm or back?

Facial Feedback Hypothesis
But, how to spot Deception?

●  Focus on microexpressions

●  Pick up on interchannel discrepancies

●  What about eye-contact?

●  Are the facial expressions exaggerated?

Attribution

Efforts to understand the causes behind others’ behavior and, on some occasions,
the causes behind our behavior, too.
Kelley’s Theory of Attribution
Others…
●  Internal vs. External

○  Stable vs. Unstable

○  Controllable vs. Uncontrollable

Errors in Attribution

●  Correspondence Bias AKA Fundamental Attribution Error

●  Actor-observer effect

●  Self-serving bias

And,

Attribution and Depression?

Impression Formation & Management

First impression?

How quickly are they formed and are they correct?

Tactics of Impression Management

❖  Self-Enhancement

❖  Other-Enhancement
intelligent—skillful—industrious—warm—determined—practical—cautious
intelligent—skillful—industrious—cold—determined—practical—cautious
Tactics of Impression Management

❖  Self-Enhancement: Efforts to boost appearance (physical & professional)

Physical: Attractiveness & physical appeal

Professional: Personal grooming & hygiene

Others: Efforts to appear competent (past achievements, stories, etc.)

❖  Other-Enhancement

Ingratiation – Flattering others in various ways

Expressing agreement, showing interest, doing favors, asking for guidance &
feedback, expressing non-verbal agreements
But, does Impression Management work?

Do these tactics of impression management succeed in generating positive

feelings and reactions on the part of the people toward whom they are directed?
Yes, provided they are used with skill and care!
FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION
 ERRORS IN PERCEPTION

●  Illusion

●  Hallucination