General Sociology  Social Change – all the transformations that societies go

through.
o Economic Change
 Sociology – systematic study of social life and behavior. o Cultural Change
Relation to social systems; how they o Technological Change
work/change/consequences they produce. Complex o Population Change
relation to people’s lives. o Environmental Change

 4 Structures  Biotechnology – covers sex selection and genetic

engineering
 Microstructure - individual members of society
(YOU)  Bioterrorism
 Mesostructure - groups we are a part of.  Food tech
 Exostructure – groups we are not a part of  Genetically modified organisms
 Macrostructre – society as a whole
 Human Ecology – relationship of humans to the natural
 Society and its members are intervened with each other, and social environment.
when 1 thing fails, everything else will fail.
 Population Studies (FF)
 Areas of Sociology
 Birth Rate
 Social Psychology – how an individual’s behavior is  Death Rate
shaped by the group/s he/she belongs  Morbidity Rate – proportion of a disease that
 Social Organization & Disorganization appears in a population
 Groups - conglomeration of individuals  Social Epidemiology – effects of social structural
 Group Formation- reason why groups are formed factors on the state of health.
 Group Dissolution -reason why groups break  Population Composition – the number of
apart populations acc. To; age, sex, marital status, social-
 Social Institutions – family, peer group, economic status
government, religious group, economic  Population Change- change in the number of
Institutions, school, and mass media populations in a specified area during a specific
 Association/Org.–formal groups with set of time period.
policies
 Migration – movement of people in and out of a given 2 Types of Functions:
territory.
1. Manifest
 In/migration – entry of people
2. Latent
 Emigration – exit of people
 Internal – movement of people in the same country 3 Stages of Functionality
but in a different province
1. Functional
 External – movement of people from one country
2. Dysfunctional
to another.
3. Non – Functional
 History of Sociology
- Equilibrium Theory
- Social System Theory
 Claude Henri Saint-Simon – the laws of the natural
sciences can be adapted in studying society.
 Max Weber
 Aguste Comte – father of Sociology
- Symbolic Interactionism
- Positivism
- Verstehen – empathy
- Law of Three Stages of Society
1. Theological – fictitious
 Major Theories in Sociology
2. Metaphysical- abstract
3. Scientific- Positive
 Evolutionary Theory - based on the assumption that
 Karl Marx
societies gradually change from simple beginnings
- Capitalism
into even more complex forms.
- Communism
 Symbolic Interaction Theory - is a micro-level
- Conflict Theory
theory that focuses on the relationships among
-Communist Manifesto (co-authored w/ Friedrich
individuals within a society. Communication—the
Engels)
exchange of meaning through language and
 Herbert Spencer
symbols—is believed to be the way in which people
- Evolutionary Theory
make sense of their social worlds
- Social Darwinism
 Social Exchange Theory – holds that life is a process
- Survival of the Fittest
of give and take
 Emile Durkheim
 Conflict Theory – conflict in society is an
- Structural Functional Theory
indispensable aspect. There’s always a conflict over
fame, power, and fortune.
 Theories on Society o Horticultural & Pastoral
 Domestication of animals
 Divine Theory - State is established by God himself  Preservation of food
(Pentatirch Deutrononial) o Agricultural/Agrarian
 Massive land ownership
 Mass Production
 Social Contract Theory – attributes the beginning of
 Use of agricultural plows
society through the existence of exchange.
o Industrial Society – governed by machines/use of
money
 Evolutionism Theory – simple to complex.
o Post – Industrial Society – governed by information
(Adapt=Survive) (Fail=Extinct)
and scientific technology
 Types of Agta
 Urbanism (Louis Wirth)
o Agta Cimarron – adapted to human nature
Measured By:
o Agta Tabangnon – assimilated
1. Liberalism
2. Change in the System
 Culture – a nation’s social heritage embodied in their
material and non-material components of culture passed
 Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft Theory (Ferdinand
on from generation to generation
Tonnies)
o Gemeinschaft – rural/ family/ bloodline/ intimate
 Factors Affecting Culture
relationship/ communal society
o Gesellschaft – urban/ money driven/ liberalism/
o Human Biological Needs and drives
associational society
o Psychological Processes
o Man’s highly developed nervous system
 Sociocultural Evolution Theory (Jean and Gerhard Lenski)
o Man’s highly developed vocal apparatus
– society and its evolution are greatly determined by
o Man’s upright posture
technology
o Physical and social environment
o Hunting & Gathering
 Language is a very important part of culture
 Nomadic Societies – move from One place to
another
 Characteristics of Culture
 Subsistence Society – search for food in order
to survive
o It is learned
 Sexual Distribution of Labor – men hunt,
o Socially transmitted through language
women urge for food
 o It is a social product
o Source of gratification
o Distinctive way of life of a group of people
o Material and Non-Material
o Has Sanctions and controls
 Organization of Culture
o Based on extent of being practiced.
 Universal – shared among all members of a
given population Common to members of
society
 Specialties – cultural beliefs and practices
that are distinct or unique in a particular
group.
 Alternatives – are shared by some
individuals but are not common to all
members of the society.
o Based on Scope (Levels of Culture)
 International -culture that extends beyond
national borders. Ex. Food
 National – distinct in one particular country.
Ex. Balot
 Subculture – smaller groups which develop
norms and values different from the broader
society.
 Counter Culture –direct opposition to the
larger culture.
Ex. Hippie/Green Movement, Feminist Groups.
 Components of Culture
o Non-material – intangible world of ideas created by
members of society
 Beliefs – specific statements that people hold
to be true
 Knowledge
 Natural – things found in the
environment
 Supernatural – creatures
 Technological – things found in the
environment turned into something
useful
 Magical
 Norms – guides or models of behavior that
tells us what is right or wrong
 Folkways – customary/ repetitive/
typical patterns of behavior followed
within a group.
 Mores – must and should of society.
 Laws – formalized social norms
enacted by people with political
powers.
 Values – culturally defined standards
 Rational – thoughts and actions are
scientific oriented.
 Irrational – resistance to scientific
methods & obedience to authority.
 Universal – premium to the welfare of
a lot of individuals
  Particular – dependent of the place is
based on the politician who is sitting.
 Personal – blood relationship /
Nepotism- hiring relatives to sit in
position
 Impersonal – Meritocracy / individuals
hired based on his qualification
 Material Culture – tangible things created by members of
society.
o Basic
 Food
 Clothing
 Shelter
o Technology and Artifacts
o Collective Forms of Behavior
 Fads – new trend
 Fashion
 Craze – reoccurring trend
 Concepts Related to Culture
o Cultural Relativism – trait has no meaning by itself
but has meaning only within its culture setting.
Ability to understand a culture on its own terms
o Cultural Diversity – quality of diverse or different
cultures.
o Cultural Pluralism – smaller groups within a larger
society still maintained their cultural identities.
o Culture Shock – result of frustration when a person
encounters a new culture. uneasiness possibilities
in the future (Alvin Toffler)
o Ethnocentrism – belief that one’s own set of values
is superior to others.
o Xenocentrism – preference for the products/culture
of others rather than of one’s own culture.
o Culture Lag – culture takes time to catch up with
technological innovation.
 Noble Savage Mentality – is a belief that one’s culture is
better than the other one
 2 Views on Culture
o Emic – the insiders’ approach to studying culture.
(within the social group/perspective of the subject)
o Etic – the outsider’s approach to studying culture.
(perspective of the interviewer.)
 World View – cognitive view of culture
 Iceberg Model of Understanding Culture – you can only
understand 10% of culture, u have to go deeper to
understand the rest
 Paradoxes of culture and globalization.
 Causes of Cultural Change
o Discovery – a new perception of an already existing
fact or relationship.
o Invention – based on putting existing knowledge to
new use.
o Diffusion – spread of cultural traits from one society
to another, and from one group within society to
another.
  Forms of Diffusion
 Acculturation – cultural borrowing
and imitation.
 Assimilation – blending of 2 distinct
cultures through long periods of
interaction
 Amalgamation – biological or
hereditary fusion of members of
different societies
 Enculturation – the deliberate
infusion of a new culture
 Colonization – the political, social, and
political policy of establishing a colony
which would be subjected to the rule
of governance of the colonizing state
 Rebellion & Revolutionary Movements
– this aim to change the social order
and replace the leader ship
 Socialization - Life long process of learning the culture of
any society.
 Feral Children – children raised in isolation provide
negative evidence for socialization: they show what
happens when socialization does not occur.
 Process of Socialization
o Identities are formed how we see and define
ourselves/personalities
o How other people see and define us.
 Theories Explaining Socialization
o Definition of the Situation – views the meaning
people attribute to a social setting before
undertaking any action.
o Dramaturgy – views social interaction as
resembling a theatrical performance.
o Ethnomethodology – studies the way all people try
to make sense of what other people do and say.
 Status and Roles- Affects Socialization
 Status – socially defined positions with in a larger group of
society.
 2 Kinds of Status
o Ascribed Status – acquired by the person from birth
o Achieved Status – attained by a person from his
achievements
 Status Set – conglomeration of statuses a person holds
 Master Status – gives 1 the highest position of authority.
 Roles – patterns of behavior which are expected from
people in different positions in society.
o Role Conflict – when incompatible expectations
arise from two or more social position held by the
same person
o Role Strain – difficulty that arises when the same
social position imposes conflicting demands and
expectations
 o Role Exit – process of disengagement from a role  Characteristics of Groups
that is central to one’s self-identity and
establishment of a new role. o Members interact on a fairly regular basis through
communication
 Agents of Socialization o Members develop a structure, where each member
o Family assumes a specific status and adapts a particular
o School role
o Peers o Members agree to some extent on important
o Gender Roles norms/goals/values
o Mass Media o Members feel a sense of identity
o Religion
 Type of Social Groups
 Factors Affecting Socialization
o Group Size o According to Social Ties
o Type of group goals  Primary group – personal basis/family
o Motivational base shared by individuals  Secondary group – impersonal/ temporary/
o Kind of group cohesion classroom
o Social Conformity o According to Self-identification
o Group-decision making  In-group – you associate yourself with
o Leadership  Out-group – you don’t belong to
 Reference group – set of people we use as a
 Types of Conglomeration of Individuals standard of comparison to ourselves
o Aggregate – cluster of people who may be in close o According to Purpose
proximity but do not interact with one another.  Special Interest groups
Ex. People staying in the food court  Task group
o Collectivity – people interacting with one another in  Influence/pressure groups
a passing or short-lived manner. o According to Geographical location / Degree /
Ex. Rallyists Quality of Relationships
o Social Category – a collection of people who are  Gemeinschaft Groups – communal society
categorized according to status  Gesselschaft Groups – associational society
o According to Form Organization
 Groups – set of individuals who identify and interact with  Formal Groups
one another in a structured way based on shared values  Informal Groups
and goals.
 Social Control – term given to the various methods used  Based on Unity/Opposition
to persuade or force individuals to conform to those social o Conjunctive Social Process – refers to patterned
values and norms which have been learned through forms of social interactions which lead to unity,
socialization. Social control could be formal or informal, organization, cooperation, and harmony.
and positive or negative. o Disjunctive Social Process – refers to patterned
forms of social interactions which lead to disunity,
 Conformity – is going along with individuals who have no disorganization, division, and disharmony.
special right to direct our behavior.
 Deviance – results when there is failure to conform to
social norms hence it stands for behavior that violates the
 Classification of Social Processes:
standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society.
o Universal social processes - refers to patterned and
In general, it is a recognized violation of cultural norms.
recurrent responses observable in all human
 Deviant – person committing deviance.
societies.
 Cooperation
o Foundations of Deviance:
 Competition
 Deviance varies according to cultural norms.
 Conflict
 People become deviant as others define
o Problem of Order (Anthony Giddens) – how we
them that.
maintain order / action - how do we push people to
 Both norms and the way people define rule-
contribute to the order.
breaking involve social power.
o Derived social Processes
 Types of Crimes
 Acculturation
o Hate crime – racial crime/killing of lesbians/killing
 Assimilation
of blacks/massacre
 Amalgamation
o Crimes against person – all types of
 Differentiation – takes place when the
homicide/murder
conflict between 2 different groups is not
o Crimes against property
resolved.
o Victimless crimes – no one can pin point who is the
victim
 Functional Differentiation –
segmentation of society
 Social Stratification – refers to patterns of social inequality
 Accommodation – live and let live
in the world as a whole. It also covers the division of
principle revolves on the concept of
society into a pattern of layers or strata made up of a
toleration
hierarchy of unequal social groups.

o 4 Basic Principles:
 It is a trait of society, not simply a reflection
of individual differences.
 It carries over from generation to generation
 It is universal but variable
 It involves not just inequality but belief as
well
o Factors Affecting Stratification:
 Technology
 Population growth
 Cultural patterns
 Gender inequality
 Global power relations
o Components of Social Stratification:
 Social Class – refers to a stratum or category
of persons who have similar socio-economic
privileges in the society
 Upper class
 Middle class
 Lower class
 Social Status
 Social Role
o Systems of Stratification:
 Case System – most rigid system of
stratification and is associated with India
where the levels of social hierarchy are
called castes and this hierarchy is fixed and
clearly defined. The social position of
individuals is ascribed at birth in accordance
with Hindu religious beliefs and customs.
 An example is the Indian case
system:
o Brahmin – priests & scholars
o Ksatriya – warriors
o Vaisya – merchants & farmers
o Sudra – labors & peasants
 Estates – typically found in Medieval Europe,
the levels of stratification are called estates
and is based on land ownership. There is no
legal equality between estates and people in
higher estates had more legal rights and
privileges than those in the lower ones.
 Classification of People:
o Nobility – kings, nobles and
military aristocracy
o Clergy – religious leaders
o Peasantry – farmers, laborers,
and serfs
 Social Class
 The less developed the country is, the greater the
manifestation of stratification
 World System Theory (Wallerstein)
o The world is divided into 3
 Corestates – developed countries
 Semi – periphery – developing countries
 Periphery – underdeveloped countries
 Stereotype – an exaggerated description applied to every
person in the same category
 Prejudice – a rigid and unfair generalization about an
entire category of people.
 Gender Inequality
o Sex – refers to the natural or biological differences
between men and women.
o Gender – refers to culturally and socially
constructed differences between 2 sexes.
o It also refers to the way society encourages and
teaches the two sexes to behave in different ways
through socialization. As we move through our
developmental stages, we are sex and/or gender
socialized thus forming our respective sex/gender
identities.
 Ph has 4 Gender classifications
o Heterosexual
o Homosexual
o Bisexual
o Asexual
 US – 64 /// UK -32
 Gender Continuum (McKinsley) – our gender changes from
the time we are born up to the day we die.
 Elements of Contemporary Sociological Theory on Gender:
o The universality of differentiation by sex and
gender across societies.
o This differentiation is passive throughout any
society, extending to families, economic
arrangements, political arrangements, religion,
recreation and others.
o The conceptual differentiation between sex and
gender is maintained.
o In recognizing the distinction, sociological theory
has developed away from theories on gender which
specify it in terms of sex roles and towards
consideration of gendered social structures.
o Gender inequality is also universal across societies.
o Theories of patriarchy often rely on a distinction
between private and public spheres of life.
o Patriarchy is supported and reproduced by
religious, symbolic, linguistic and cultural systems.
 Feminism is the advocacy of social equality for women and
men, in opposition to patriarchy and sexism
o Liberal Feminism – it accepts the basic organization
of society but seeks to expand the rights and
opportunities of women.
o Socialist Feminism – it proposes that the basic
transformation of society requires that women and
men pursue their personal liberation collectively.
o Radical Feminism – there is a belief that patriarchy
is so deeply rooted that even a socialist revolution
would not end it, instead society must eliminate
gender itself.