Solar & Wind Technology Vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 671~74, 1988 0741-983X/88 $3.1)0+.

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Printed in Great Britain, Pergamon Press pie

TECHNICAL NOTE

Selection of materials for use in solar water heaters

ALI ANANI a n d FAISAL ABU-ALLAN

Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, P.O. Box, 140027, Amman, Jordan

(Received 7 April 1988; accepted 17 June 1988)

Al~traet--A solar water heater (SWH) may be made of many different materials which are more often
than not lacking compatibility: A. Anani and F. Abu-Allan, A reasoned approach to the study of efficiency
of solar water collectors in Jordan. Presented at the 4th Arab Energy Conference held in Iraq (February
1988). These include wooden or metallic frames, plastic or metallic pipes, organic sealants, glazing materials
and insulation materials. Incompatibility of these materials is further aggravated upon exposure of SWH
to different degradative environments such as intense solar radiation, high diurnal temperature variations,
corrosive atmosphere and corrosive water. Although it appears that selection of materials in solar heaters
is not of over-riding importance because there are no movable parts in the system, the latter is not immune
to environmental degradation that is accelerated by the fluid system in use. Variations in fluid quality and
prevailing environments could lead to change-over of mechanism of corrosion and also influence erystailine
habits of scales : A. Anani, F. Abu-Allan and S. Kiwan, A three pronged approach to the study of eflicieney
of solar water collectors in Jordan. Sol. Wind Technol. 5, 379 (1988). Jordan has long experi-
ence in the use of solar water heaters (SWHs)---the first system was installed as early as 1973. At the
moment, more than one hundred thousand units are installed. A field survey was conducted to inspect the
performance of materials under different climatic conditions and water quality prevailing in Jordan, so we
can learn from its experience in this field.

INTRODUCTION Guidelines
In the process of selecting a suitable material for use in a
The rate of penetration of SWHs is steadily increasing in
Jordan reaching 24.0% in early 1987. A field study was SWH system, it is suggested to consider the interaction of
each material with the environment as well as the fluid in
conducted to survey problems identified by the owners of
SWHs. Major observations show that caulking materials use. The combined interaction effects of the triangle, i.e.
material, environment and fluid should then be considered.
and sealants were sometimes used with disregard to their
weatherability. Upon their degradation, moisture and dust Next, field inspection, following installation of the system,
found easy entry to the collector housing which accelerated should be conducted so as to correlate material performance
corrosion of the system. This is because dust denies oxygen with actual findings to improve futuristic predictions. Fol-
to surfaces underneath thus rendering them anodic with the lowing this course of action a sieving process of elimination
adjacent surfaces being cathodic. In the presence of moisture,
galvanic corrosion adds to the severity of corrosion.
Likewise, scale formation, upon evaporation of infiltrated 17-
c D At 2 0 % efficiency
water, restricts the access of oxygen and establishes a galvanic "~ 15 ~ AtS0% efficiency
cell leading to pitting corrosion.
It can be safely said that the main problems encountered
can be attributed to incorrect selection of materials, which
are occasionally assembled in incorrect designs, improper
installation of the solar system and faulty use of SWHs such
as their shadowing with owner's laundry.
A good part of the problems indentified are attributed to
the incorrect selection and treatment of materials used in the
manufacturing of SWHs. Some materials were subject to
intense change and were beyond repair in periods of less than
three years. This situation drastically reduces the economic io 15 20 25 50
viability of SWH. In Fig. 1 the least payback period under UScent/ L-dieseL
prevailing local diesel prices (19.25 US cent/l) is three Fig. 1. Payback period of SWH system under prevailing
years, i.e. the system will not even recoup its initial capital local diesel prices (19.25 US cent/l) and system prices
investment. (437 USD/unit).

671
672 Technical Note

40,

~ 251

~ 2o,

,5!
P- IO

o I I I
J F M A M J J A S O N O
Months
Mox. Amman o Max. Aqaba x Max. Irbid
+ Min. Amman • MIn. Aqul~ o MIn. Irbid
Fig. 2. Average monthly max. and min. temperature for Amman, Aqaba and Irbid (1984).

is recommended, i.e. once a material fails, further con- Field inspection in these different climatic zones produced
sideration is terminated [1, 2]. the following observations :

Material-environment interaction --Outgassing, moisture absorption, degradation and

Materials used in SWHs are exposed to natural weath-
ering. It is important to predict if such materials would stand
the test of time. The higher the severity of the climate, the
more attention should be given to materials selection, as the
latter have to withstand large thermal gradients.
Figure 2 shows three distinct climates in Jordan. Aqaba
has a hot dry climate, whereas Amman and Irbid have much
milder climatic conditions during summer but are colder in
winter.
Figure 3 shows more differences in the climatic conditions ;
Aqaba has a rather low relative humidity, as compared to
Amman and Irbid, all year round. Also, precipitation, wind
regime, fog and dust formation, pollutants in air should be
considered in studying the material-environment inter-
actions. Again, in Jordan precipitation varies significantly.
vapours expelled by organic binders. In the presence of chlor-
ide residues in the insulation material, excessive galvanic
corrosion of the solar collector was observed.
--Fading and outgassing of absorber paint.
--Curvature of outside frames, notably wooden frames. This
allowed moisture condensation, dust accumulation and fun-
gal growth in areas with high humidity (exceeding 75%)
within the collector housing. Dust is in fact an active chemical
and pollutant carrier further aggravating deterioration of
the collectors. In areas characterized by dusty environments
severity of corrosion was in parallel to quantity of dust
infiltrated [1].
- - T o clarify this point further the thermal performance of
some materials used in manufacturing SWHs are given in
Figs 4--6. Figure 4 shows the thermal expansion of several

150 ~- x
,,op /\
,~o~ /\
8 ,2o~ /\
,,ok
,oo ~
/\
/ \

r,. J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
Months
0 RH Amman n RH A(Iobo + RH Irbid
o Pr Amman q, Pr Aqobo x Pr Irbid

Fig. 3. Average monthly relative humidity and precipitation for Amman, Aqaba and lrbid (1984).
 Technical Note 673

25 It can be concluded that even though AI heats up slowly

(high specific heat) and is highly conductive to heat, still it
has a high linear thermal expansion coetf~cient. However, the
'~ 20 glazing material, i.e. glass, is different in that even though it
has high specific heat it has a low linear thermal conductivity
6P and low thermal expansion coefficient.
In areas with noticeable diurnal temperatures like Aqaba,
further aggravated if accompanied with varying degrees of
cloudiness, A1 and glass undergo repeated thermal cycling.
The differential in response to these cycles leads to the
breakage of glazing material. It is important to allow for
,o such thermal cycling in designing SWH systems. It is very
I I I I unfortunate that glass breaks in some SWH systems in less
Fibr~t¢~ Cu Fe C~ats than one to two years, resulting in the system not even
M~eriots recouping the energy invested in its manufacturing.
Fig. 4. Thermal expansion coefficient of some materials used
in manufacturing SWHs at 100°C. - - I n Aqaha, even though the existing fertilizer complex ejects
SO2 in the atmosphere, corrosion due to acid rain is not
observed. Humidity in Aqaba is well below the critical
humidity (80%) required to hydrate SO2 to SO2nH20 with
n = 5-7[4].
I --The harsher the climate the greater the rate of corrosion
350' is if two dissimilar metals were used, notably in a humid area
with cold night temperatures.
--Where galvanized steel was used in the manufacturing of
250 collectors, occasional reaction with atmospheric pollutants
•-> ~ ! produced more soluble zinc salts such as zinc chloride and
"6
so the protective zinc oxide layer was washed away.
150
These are the major observations recorded. The realization
.6 Io¢ of the importance of establishing material--climate relation-
ships should mature towards the selection of SWH
p- components. Current practices of manufacturing SWH,
0
At Fibre~l~O~ CU Fe GLass
ignoring the location where the system is installed, are un-
acceptable. Where the solar intensity is higher, material
Materiets degradation is faster and only through careful selection
Fig. 5. Thermal conductivity coeffcient of some materials of materials will this contradiction be solved.
used in manufacturing SWHs.
Material-fluid interaction
materials used in manufacturing SWHs. It can be seen that Material-fluid interaction in SWH is manifested in differ-
aluminum has a much higher linear thermal expansion than ent ways. In this paper only material-water interaction is
glass. Data are taken from [3] : 24 vs 9 ( × 10-6C) for AI and considered, for illustration. Water analysis for samples taken
glass, respectively. from Amman, Irbid and Aqaba are given in Table 1.
Similarly, thermal conductivity of A1 is much greater than Such compositions play a dominant role in defining
that of glass: 220 vs 1.04 (W m C) respectively. See Fig. 5. material-fluid interaction as below :
In contrast AI and glass have almost similar specific heats, --The corrosion rate of AI metal is highly dependent on pH.
0.896 vs 0.77 (kJ kgC). See Fig. 6. The optimum pH for AI is 6.5. Aluminum being amphoteric,
0.9

0.8--
,
~ 0.7

~ 0-6
0.5

0.4
0.3
o.2~ ,I
Flbregl.ass
I
Cu
t
Fe
t
GLoss
MateriaLs
Fig. 6. Specific heat of some materials used in manufacturing SWHs.
674 Technical Note

Table 1. Water analysis for different locations in Jordan

Locations/Parameter Mg 2+ Ca 2+ CI- SO/- HCO3 NO~ PH TDS Water type

Aqaba 7.5 38 37.2 22.5 117.8 abs. 6.8 210 Soft

Amman 30 83 1.4 abs. abs. 34.8 7.4 485 Hard
A1-Zarqa 13 19 0.0 abs. abs. 10.2 7.9 352 Soft
Irbid 34 124 1.6 1.78 7.14 0.3 7.2 516 Hard

is corroded in strong acidic or alkaline water. For Cu the
optimal pH is 7.0. As the pH drops the corrosion rate
increases, because of the increased solubility of the protective
oxides in such medium. Iron resistance to corrosion increases
as the pH is raised. This shows that water quality plays a
major role in the selection of materials [1].
--Chlorides, and to a lesser extent sulphates, corroded A1
and steel in the form of pitting.
- - T h e calcium salts were responsible for the formation of a
hard scale; the Mg salt decomposition products produced
corrosive acids. This is mostly observed in Irbid where the
water is hard (Ca 2÷ exceeding 50 ppm).
- - C u pipes are smooth enough to prevent scales from attach-
ing to them ; nodes of precipitated salts were observed when
water rich in Mg and Ca ions were used. These nodes restric-
ted water flow and rendered the system useless. Oxygen-
deficiency occurs when scales form, causing the surface
underneath to be anodic in nature and so initiated galvanic
corrosion.
--Crystal habit modifiers, when present, changed the nature
of the protective oxide films. Scaly, nodular and porous films
are changed into uniform translucent films when correct
modifiers are added to water [1, 2].
--Blockage of seals by solid matter precipitation.
Fluid, environment-material interaction
Once a material passes the previous evaluation it is necess-
ary to study the combined effects of material-fluid-environ-
ment interaction to ensure that no synergistic factors are
involved in initiating corrosion.
Field inspection revealed the following observations :
--Fungal growth was observed when the solar radiation kept
the water in solar collector between 40-50°C.
--Bursting of pipes was observed when ambient temperature
fell below zero and the SWH was not equipped with a water
drainage system.
--With decreasing ambient temperature, scale formation
was observed in materials with rough inner surface, further
aggravating corrosion of pipes.
--Galvanized pipes, when used with water having a pH value
of less than 7.2 or hardness of less than 210 ppm of CaCO3
* This paper is based in part on the paper entitled "A
reasoned approach to the selection of materials in SWHs"
which was presented at the Third Internal Arab Seminar on
Solar Energy, which was held in Baghdad, 21-24 February
1988.
corroded rapidly as no scaly protective film for the zinc
coating was allowed to form. In Jordan the CaCO3 hardly
reaches the critical value of 210 ppm. See Table 1.
- - R a t e of breakage of glass was higher in Aqaba than in
Amman and lrbid. Thermal stresses are responsible for this
observation.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
There is one type of anodic reaction as shown in the
equation,
M--,M"+ +ne .
There are five different possibilities for consuming elec-
trons in cathodic reactions that accompany the anodic reac-
tion. These are electroplating, hydrogen generation, water
decomposition, hydroxyl formation and water formation.
Which reaction predominates depends upon the electrolytic
environment, e.g. temperature and concentration [I, 3, 4].*
Water quality, as well as environment quality, undergo
important changes in their composition. This process exposes
the materials used in manufacturing SWHs to constantly
changing corrosion environments. A changeover of the
mechanism of corrosion of materials is thus experienced with
the possibility that a particular site may alternate from being
anodic in one environment to cathodic in the new environ-
ment. Enhanced rate of corrosion of materials is thus
observed. In selection of materials such possibilities should
be explored and delt with.
REFERENCES
1. A. Anani and F. Abu-Allan, A reasoned approach to the
study of efficiency of solar water collectors in Jordan.
Presented at the 4th Arab Energy Conference held in Iraq
(February 1988).
2. A. Anani, F. Abu-Allan and S. Kiwan, A three pronged
approach to the study of efficiency of solar water col-
lectors in Jordan. Sol. Wind Technol. 5, 379 (1988).
3. J. R. Duncan, Corrosion in the Atmosphere, K F A S Proc.
series, Volume 2. Pergamon Press, Oxford (1984).
4. I. H. Van Vluck, Elements o f Materials Science and
Engineering. Addison-Wesley, Amsterdam (1960).
5. A. Everett, Materials. B. T. Batsford Limited, London
(1970).