Paoay National High School

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT

Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Modern scientific research on bamboo has a history of more than 150 years.

Most research works on management and utilization of bamboo has been focused in

Southeast Asia, especially the three major bamboo bioresource available countries ie.

China, Japan and India (Sharma et al., 2008). The comprehensive utilization of

bamboo was extensively observed in China, Japan and Korea, where the industries

related to bamboo carbon and bamboo distillate has reached large scale levels. In

India the main focus of utilization of the abundant bamboo resource especially in

natural forests has been for pulp. Not much research has been reported on bamboo

utilization in developed countries such as Europe and USA since these countries lack

the bamboo resource and the corresponding bamboo industry (Nadgauda et

al.,1993).Both American and African continents have substantially lower bamboo

species richness compared to Asia. The highest species richness in Africa could be

found in Madagascar and Brazil has the greatest bamboo diversity in Latin America

(Londono, 2001).

Bamboo is a group of monocotyledonous, fast growing, perennial, tall

arborescent grass that taxonomically belong to the subfamily of Bambusoideae under

Gramineae Family (Chapman, 1996 & 1997). Bamboo can thrive in hot, humid

rainforests and can grow well in cold temperature as low as -200C. It also can survive

in regions of high precipitation ranging from 80-130 cm annual rainfall (Goyal et al.,

2012). Bamboo is known to be one of the fastest growing grass in the world, with a
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
growth rate ranging from 30 to 100 cm per day in growing season. It can grow to a

height of 36 m with a diameter of 1–30 cm. A culm can reach its full height in about

two to three months. As a major non-wood forest product and wood substitute,

bamboo is of increasing interest to ecologists owing to its rapid growth and

correspondingly high potential for mitigating climate change. If well-managed,

bamboo plantations can conserve soil and water, and improve soil fertility and local

climate as well (Troya et al., 2014). The objective of this review is to assess the value

of bamboo shoots as a potential new age health food and identify species having

prospects for promoting commercial plantation in the light of available scientific

results. The review also examines input management approaches to realize this

seemingly under exploited potential of bamboo. Hence, an updated review of

available literature pertaining to the objectives of the study and other relevant

information pertinent to bamboo shoots are presented in this chapter.

Bamboo has been used in the production of paper since many years. As fibre

properties are critical in the production of high quality paper and many species have

long and strong fibers, bamboo is the best fitting raw material for paper production.

Haun et. al. (1966) found that bamboo fibers have approximately the same length as

hardwood fibers. The fibers of bamboo, with the high aspect ratios, strong and

flexible, and not stiff and brittle are of great interest. For example, it was found that

the Bambusa vulgaris had an average fibre length of 2.28 mm, and an aspect ratio of

240 : 1 which are significant in comparison to wood.

The lignification of the bamboo culm get completed within one growing

season, therefore, for paper and pulp applications, bamboo is normally harvested at a
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
very young age. For structural applications, older bamboos (3 to 5 years) are normally

harvested [T D Dagilis, 1999]

The bamboos are a cluster of giant, fast growing, and perennial grasses which

are classified separately from trees. Botanically, bamboo is classified in the family

Gramineae, the subfamily Bambusoideae, and the tribe Bambusae. In their natural

habitat, bamboo plants grow from either seeds or rhizomes. There are around 92

genera of bamboo divided into over 5000 species and each bamboo species have

different characteristics and properties [Bamboo exotic species catalogue, 2005].

Bamboo plants grow from seeds or rhizomes in their natural habitat but the

artificial cultivation of bamboo from rhizome system is common in all tropical

countries of the world [JJA Janssen, 2000]. The sprout also, called as shoot comes out

with size almost same as final diameter. The shoot diameter goes on reducing towards

tip and it comes out of the soil like a telescope. Amazingly, bamboo attains its full

height within three to four months. The highest growth of bamboo recorded is 900mm

within 24 hours in China. McClure (1966) has described the bamboo rhizome as a

segmented (with nodes), complex subterranean system.

Bamboo is considered to be one of the fastest growing, highest yielding

renewable natural resource. It is estimated that worldwide there are over 1200 species

under 87 genera of bamboo, with a natural distribution across a broad range of

environments (humid tropical, subtropical and temperate region) (Ram et al., 2010;

Hogarth and Belcher, 2013). The major bamboo producing countries in Asia are China
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
and India accounting to approximately 70% of the bamboo in Asia. The American

continent which includes South America, Central America and North America, has a

high biodiversity of bamboos with approximately 400-500 species; among them about

300 species in 20 genera are woody bamboos. Though Africa has barely about 40

species, rather poor in bamboo flora with only a few native species, it has large areas

of natural bamboo forests of Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and other African countries

(Lobovikov et al., 2007; Ha, 2010; Yang and Hui, 2010). Due to its vast territory, and

diverse climate, China has the richest bamboo resources in the world with

approximately 590 species falling under 39 genera (Yue, 2012) and hence often

referred to as the "Kingdom of Bamboo" (Song et al., 2011).

Worldwide, bamboo with over 1200 species occur in natural forests, semi-

exploited stands, and intensive plantations, covering an area of more than 14 million

ha (Dransfield and Widjaja, 1995; Fu and Banik, 1995). Eighty percent of the species

and area are confined to South and Southeast Asia and mostly in China, India, and

Myanmar. Of these, over 30% is covered by the world’s single most important and

largely exploited bamboo species, Phyllostachys pubescens, commonly known as

Moso bamboo (Li and Xu, 1997). India is the second largest producer of bamboo in

the world next only to China and also has a very high diversity of bamboos with 136

species in about 18 genera (Sharma et al., 2008, Gulabrao et al., 2012). In India,

bamboo is cultivated in about 8.96 million hectares of land, including forest land,

homesteads and private plantations, which account for nearly half the total area under

bamboo cultivation in Asia. The areas particularly rich in bamboo are the

Northeastern states, the Western Ghats, Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Andaman
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
Nicobar Islands. The important genera are Arundinaria, Bambusa, Cephalostachyum,

Dendrocalamus, Dinochloa, Gigantochloa, Melocanna, Ochlandra, Oxytenanthera,

Phyllostachys, Pseudostachyum, etc (Jeeva et al., 2009; Pandey and Ojha, 2013).

North-east India contributes more than 66% of total bamboos resources available in

India (Sarmah et al., 2000). About 16 edible bamboo species are reported in Northeast

India (Singha et al., 2008) and some of the important edible bamboo species are

Arundinaria callosa, Bambusa nutans, Bambusa pallida, Bambusa polymorpha,

Bambusa tulda, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Dendrocalamus giganteus,

Dendrocalamus brandisii, Melocanna baccifera, Melocanna bambusoides,

Dendrocalamus hookeri, Dendrocalamus sikkimensis, Dendrocalamus strictus, and

Phyllostachys manni. The Western Ghats extending from Maharashtra up to Kerala is

endowed with some important genera of bamboo, including different species and

subspecies like Bambusa arundinaceae, Dendrocalamus strictus, Pseudoxytenanthera

ritcheyi, P.stocksii (D.stocksii), Ochlandra spp. (Uma Shaanker et al., 2004; Kiruba

and Jeeva, 2010; Jeeva and Sheeja, 2013).

Bamboo has become an important trade commodity globally providing direct

or indirect livelihood support to about 2.5 billion people (INBAR, 1999). The

international trade in bamboo ranges between 5 to 10 billion USD. More than 2

million tons of bamboo shoots are consumed annually (Kleinhenz et al., 2000) with

approximately 1.3 million tonnes produced in China alone (Shi et al., 1997). Most of

the bamboo traded internationally is exported from China ranging from 75% to 95%

of total bamboo traded in the world (Parker, 2005). Total trade in bamboo products

was estimated at around 4.5 billion USD /year (Sastry, 1998). The range of uses of
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
bamboo for mankind is remarkable, with an estimated annual use of 12 kg of bamboo

products per capita in Asia (Recht and Wetterwald, 1988; Sastry, 1998). Besides some

minor uses such as leaves for medical purposes (Zhang, 1997), fresh edible shoots,

and culms for timber or as a raw material for pulping are the major products from

bamboo. Bamboo exploited for timber is much greater, e.g., it was 3 million

tonnes/year in India (Subramanian, 1995), and possibly more than 20 million

tonnes/year in China, and most likely about 30 million tonnes/year worldwide. Apart

from its application as raw material for various immediate uses to humans, bamboo

also serves multiple ecologic functions such as soil and water conservation, and

erosion control (Fu and Banik, 1995). Bamboo has great potential for rapid biomass

production (Pearson et al., 1994), thus acting as a significant net sink for global CO2

(Jones et al., 1992). The annual production of bamboo in India was estimated at 4.6

million tonnes of which about 1.9 million tonnes was used by the pulp industry. Total

number of culms at the national level has been estimated to be about 23,297 million

out of which 79% are green, 16% are dry and 5% are decayed (FSI, 2011). The value

of international bamboo market was estimated to be around 10 billion USD (Borah et

al., 2006).

The total revenue from bamboo shoots was about 1.2 billion USD while other

bamboo based products accounts for around 3 billion USD (Anon, 2003). Bamboo

shoot is consumed worldwide and annual world bamboo consumption was estimated

to be over 2 million tonnes (Yang et al., 2008).In international markets, China earns

6,500 million INR every year from export of edible bamboo shoots, with import by

USA at around 44,000 tonnes accounting for 14.5% of the total world import
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
(Lobovikov, 2003). Every year, it was estimated that USA imports 30,000 tonnes of

canned bamboo shoots from Taiwan, Thailand and China for domestic consumption as

food items (Daphne, 1996). Dendrocalamus asper, Dendrocalamus lactiferous and

Bambusa oldhami are the most important edible species in Thailand (Fu et al., 1987)

and Taiwan (Tai, 1985), respectively. The import of shoots in Australia was estimated

about 8,000 tonnes per annum (Cahill, 1999). Consumption of shoots in Taiwan was

estimated at about 80,000 tonnes of bamboo shoots annually valued at 2,500 million

INR, covering 30,000 ha under cultivation of bamboo shoots, producing total

380,000 tonnes of bamboo shoots per year (Tai, 1985). In Japan, the reported annual

consumption of bamboo shoots was 3 kg per person in 2008, as compared to 1.2 kg

per person in 1950s (Yang et al., 2008). In 2005, yearly over 2 million tonnes of

edible bamboo shoots were reported to be consumed around the world, mostly in

Asian countries (Vaiphei, 2005). India is the second richest country for bamboo

production. About 26.2 tonnes, 435 tonnes and 426.8 tonnes of bamboo shoots were

reported to be harvested in Sikkim, Meghalaya and Mizoram, respectively (Bhatt et

al., 2003). About 78 species of indigenous and exotic varieties of bamboo are grown

in North Eastern India (Tamang and Tamang, 2009). The annual average consumption

of bamboo shoots in the north eastern states of India was estimated to be 1979 tonnes,

2188 tonnes, 442 tonnes, 433 tonnes, 442 tonnes and 201 tonnes in Arunachal

Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura, respectively

(Sarangthem & Singh, 2003a). India’s size of domestic bamboo economy was

estimated at 2,000 million INR. The market potential of bamboo in India was

estimated at 450 million INR, which was expected to increase to 26,000 million INR
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
by 2015, thus enabling five million families of artisans and farmers, crossing the

poverty line (Farooquee et al., 2007).

Bamboo is not only an ideal economic investment with multifarious uses but

also has enormous potential for alleviating many environmental and social problems.

Increasing rates of deforestation and demand for wood and need for sustainable

bioresource makes the search for alternative natural resources more important (Zhou

et al., 2005). Bamboo is one of the most valuable natural resource due to its utilization

value, wide distribution, availability, rapid growth, easy handling and desirable

properties. Also known as ‘Green gold’, bamboo is comparatively cheap and

commonly used in the daily life of local communities in South-east Asia for a wide

range of purposes. The people of Asia, Africa and South America are largely

dependent on it for their house construction and agricultural implement. Bamboo has

more than 1500 documented uses (Rai and Chauhan, 1998) and around 5000 listed

uses. (http://www.bambootech.org/tslink.asp?

subsubid=71&subid=16&sname=mission&lid=2 29). Bamboo is becoming popular

as an excellent substitute for wood in paper industries, domestic commodities, cottage

industries, board and charcoal (Lobovikov et al., 2007).

Bamboo is highly suited to diversified agricultural systems, constituting one of

several livelihood resources for farmers. Sustainable bamboo plantations provide

direct employment for many rural unskilled people in areas where opportunities for

economic development are low. Yet for a multitude of reasons, the market for bamboo

within India is still in its beginning. The lacunae between agronomists, financiers and
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
potential end users have resulted in the slow commercialization of bamboo (INBAR,

1999).

A new emerging young culm is edible and is known as bamboo shoot or

juvenile shoot. It is actually a culm that emerges from the ground in full diameter and

contains nodes and inter nodes in a vertically miniaturized form. The young shoots are

tightly clasped with overlapping sheaths that have to be removed to extract the edible

part. New culms or juvenile shoots in bamboos usually emerge with the beginning of

the monsoon season and are harvested for edible purposes (NMBA, 2004). Bamboo

shoots have been eaten as a vegetable for thousands of years in many Asian countries

and are becoming more and more popular due to their immense health benefits

(Nirmala et al., 2011).

China has a long tradition of cultivating, processing and preserving bamboo

shoots as food (Xiao and Yang, 2001). As early as in 1951, production and use of fine

quality edible bamboo shoots in eastern China and Japan was reported (Porterfield,

1951). Most bamboo species produce edible shoots but less than 100 species out of

1200 recorded are grown or utilized for their shoots (Midmore, 1998; Collins and

Keilar, 2005). Fresh shoots have a crispy crunchy texture and a unique taste. Bamboo

shoots are eaten as vegetable mostly in South-East and East Asian countries. Bamboo

shoots are now processed into many kinds of food, including fresh shoots, dry shoots,

and canned shoots, that are sold around the world. Some new products, such as

bamboo candy, bamboo chutney, bamboo canned juice, bamboo beer are also

available. Bamboo vinegar is also used as biofertilizer, bioinsecticide and as medicine

for stomach disorders (Song et al., 2011). Fresh bamboo shoots are delicious and

healthy (Lobovikov et al., 2007). They are brittle, tender, pollution free, low in fat,
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
high in edible fiber and rich in mineral elements. China has the largest bamboo

industry producing approximately 1.3 million metric tonnes of fresh bamboo.

Worldwide, more than 2 million tonnes of bamboo shoots are consumed annually of

which about 1.3 million tonnes are produced in China alone (Kleinhenz et al., 2000).

The nutritional value of edible shoots of different bamboo species has been

worked out by several researchers (Giri and Janmejoy, 1992; Shi and Yang, 1992;

Tripathi, 1998; Chen et al., 1999; Sharma et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2005; Kumbhare and

Bhargava, 2007; Nirmala et al., 2007, 2008). Bamboo shoots are low in calories, high

in dietary fiber, and rich in various nutrients. The main nutrients in bamboo shoots are

protein, carbohydrates, amino acids, minerals, fat, sugar, and fiber. The shoots have a

good composition of minerals, consisting mainly of potassium (K), calcium (Ca),

manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and lower

amounts of phosphorus (P), and selenium (Si) (Shi and Yang, 1992; Nirmala et al.,

2007). Juvenile shoots are a good source of thiamine, niacin, vitamin A, vitamin B6,

and vitamin E (Visuphaka, 1985; Xia, 1989; Shi and Yang, 1992; Zhang and Liu,

2001) and rich source of dietary fiber (Nirmala et al., 2009). Sucrose is the most

abundant sugar in bamboo shoot. Bamboo shoots also contain high proportion of

linoleic acid. The major fatty acid in bamboo shoots is palmitic acid; glutamic acid

and lysine are the most abundant amino acids in bamboo shoots (Soo-Jung and Sung-

Ja, 1993). Bhargava et al., (1996) have reported that bamboo shoot contains

appreciable quantities of vitamin C, carbohydrates and protein.

However, bamboo shoots of many species also contain lethal concentration of

cyanogenic glucosides, which on endogenic hydrolysis, yield hydrocyanic acid.

 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
Cooking destroys the enzymes responsible for the endogenic hydrolysis largely.

Another constituent of bamboo shoot, known as homogentistic acid is responsible for

the disagreeable, pungent taste, characteristics of bamboo shoots (Ferreira et al.,

1991).

Nirmala et al., 2011 reported that bamboo shoots are rich in protein containing

between 1.49 and 4.04 g (average 2.65 g) per 100 g of fresh bamboo shoots. In a

study conducted on 14 bamboo species, the protein content in the juvenile shoots

ranged from 2.31 to 3.72 g/100 g fresh weight with the highest being in D. hamiltonii

followed by B. bambos. Similar values were also reported by other workers

(Sundriyal and Sundriyal, 2001; Bhatt et al., 2005b). Shoots contain 17 amino acids, 8

of which, serine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, phenyalanine, lysine, and histidine

are essential aminoacids (Qiu, 1992). A comparitive analysis by Nirmala et al., 2011

between two bamboo species (B.tulda and D.hamiltonii) and 15 common vegetables

shows that both the bamboo species are rich in proteins and also the protein content is

much higher than some of the common vegetables like Brassica oleracea var.capitata

(Cabbage); Solanum melongena (Brinjal). The recommended dietary allowance for

protein is 0.8 g/kg of body weight for adults. In general, 1 g protein provides 4.2 kcal

of energy to the body. If the diet does not contain sufficient amounts of carbohydrate

and fat, then dietary protein may be broken down to provide energy (RDA, 2009).

Since bamboo shoots have an average protein content of 2.65 g/100 g fresh weight,

consuming the shoots will supply a generous amount of protein to the body.
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
Dietary fiber includes cellulose and lignin, hemicelluloses, pectins, gums, and

other polysaccharides and oligoscacharides associated with plants (Chawla and Patil,

2010) and has been associated with a number of health benefits, such as bowel

protection, increasing the time taken for the body’s waste to be moved out of the

body, reduced exposure of the body to carcinogens in food and fluids, and an increase

in the amount of butyrate, the preferred energy source for cells called colonocytes. An

increase in dietary fiber reduces the blood pressure (Anderson and Strong, 1983).

According to George et al., (1982), dietary fiber is useful in the management of

hypertension and obesity through its effect on energy density of food and the extent of

interference with the nutrients of bioavailability. The recommended level of fiber for

adults is 25 to 30 g a day, in combination with at least 2 liters of fluid to ensure

thorough digestion. Extracts rich in dietary fiber obtained from plants could be used

as functional ingredients as they improve not only digestive health, but weight

management, cardiovascular health, and general wellness. The role of fiber in

preventing CVDs has been well documented (Viuda-Martos et al.,2010).

Bamboo shoots are a rich source of dietary fiber (Nirmala et al., 2009) having

high amounts of fiber, ranging from 2.23 to 4.20 g/100 g fresh weight of shoot in

some bamboo species. As a dietary fiber source, the shoots have beneficial effects on

lipid profile and bowel function. Studies conducted by Park and Jhon (2009) have

reported the beneficial effects of consuming a high-fiber diet containing bamboo

shoots in lowering blood cholesterol levels and improving bowel functions in healthy

young women. Park and Jhon (2009) recruited 8 women with an average age of 22

years and an average bodymass index (BMI) of 20.2, and randomly assigned them to
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
receive a dietary fiberfree diet (control), a diet containing 25 g of cellulose, or a diet

containing 360 g of bamboo shoots. Each dietary intervention lasted 6 days and the

women underwent each segment. At the end of the study, the bamboo shoot-rich diet

was associated with a 15.7 and 11.8 mg/dL reduction in total cholesterol levels as

compared to the control and cellulose diets, respectively. Moreover, LDL cholesterol

was reduced by 16.1 mg/dL following the bamboo shoot diet compared to the control

diet, but there were no differences between the bamboo group and the cellulose group.

High-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels were unchanged by the bamboo

diet but increased by 7.2 mg/dL following consumption of the cellulose diet.

Following the bamboo shoot diet, the average number of bowel movements was 6.2

per day, compared to 4.3 and 5.6 in the control and cellulose groups, respectively.

These results suggested that consumption of bamboo shoots, which contained high

levels of dietary fiber, might help in preventing or delaying the onset of chronic

diseases. Chen et al., (1985) reported a high content of hemicelluloses in 10 bamboo

species that exists in the form of polyxylose. When hydrolyzed, polyxylose forms

xylose that is hydrogenated to produce xylitol, a product extensively used in the food

and chemical industries. Xylose is characterized by a special flavor and can relieve

cough. Bamboo shoots are reported to have anticancer, antibacterial, and antiviral

activity due to the presence of lignans, which is an important component of fiber (Shi

and Yang, 1992; Akao et al., 2004). Lignans are important components found in

cereals and other cruciferous vegetables. Although fiber itself is invisible in food

products, it is becoming one of the most appreciated ingredients in today’s diet. In

2007, consumers ranked fiber number 5 among the top 10 functional foods (Sloan,

2008).
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================

Several studies have systematically tested the benefits of nutrient application

during different times of the year on bamboo productivity; however, no single, most

important stage was identified. Nutrient application earlier in the season, i.e., shortly

before and during the shoot season, was found to be most appropriate time of fertilizer

application for Phyllostachys nidularia in China and Phyllostachys pubescens in

Korea (Shen et al.,1993; Jeong et al.,1995). Hong (1994) concluded that nutrient

demand of Phyllostachys pubescens cultivated in China is greatest during periods of

rapid growth, i.e., of shoots and rhizomes. Many researchers have noted the generally

positive effects of greater availability of water on bamboo production and how lack of

water limits its productivity. Lin (1995) reported that irrigation promotes shoot and

culm growth when rainfall is insufficient in Dendrocalamopsis oldhamii. Koyama and

Uchimura (1995) highlighted the high water requirement for culm elongation in

Phyllostachys bambusoides, and Huang et al., (1993) showed that in locations with

little available soil moisture, biomass accumulation is largely partitioned below

ground in P.pubescens in China. It is known that wet summers increase shoot

production of sympodial bamboo (Pearson et al.,1994), and that bamboo is not a

suitable commercial species for areas where sufficient water is usually not available

(Siddiqui, 1994). Introduction of irrigation could, therefore, improve production of

bamboo products in areas without adequate amount and distribution of rainfall.

However, only very few studies have attempted to quantify water usage of

bamboo under field conditions or to systematically test irrigation rates. Kleinhenz and

Midmore (2000) estimated the maximal annual water dissipation rate of bamboo to be
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
about 3,300 mm rainfall equivalent. Midmore et al., (1998) reported that successful

cultivation of P. pubescens in semiarid parts of Australia depends primarily on

frequent but non-excessive additions of water through precipitation and irrigation

(>2,000 mm per year). Not only general demand for high water availability but also

availability of water during specific growth stages may affect bamboo productivity.

The detrimental effects of drought but positive effects of irrigation during the shoot

and culm growth phase for species commonly cultivated in China were outlined by

Chu and Xu (1988), Li and Zhang (1987), and Lin (1995). Fu and Banik (1995)

reported that irrigation was required for intensively managed shoot stands after 10

days without rainfall during the shoot season for P.pubescens. Midmore et al., (1998)

stressed the need to pay attention to water supply just before and during shoot

production for the species cultivated exclusively for shoot production in Australia.

In natural bamboo forests and in stands under low-input conditions, the

nutrientsupplying capacity of soils is usually the most important soil property

governing bamboo growth and yield (Chen et al.,1996). Soil physical factors, such as

slope of land, texture, bulk density, moisture-holding capacity, and temperature,

however, are among the nonchemical properties of soil which influence bamboo

productivity. In contrast to other soil physical and chemical properties, nutrient

availability can be managed comparably easily through fertilization. It is generally

agreed that fertilization can have dramatic impacts on bamboo productivity under

“poor” site conditions and under minimal management.

 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
Biomass is the total quantity of organic matter per unit area present in an

ecosystem at a given time and may relate to a particular species or community as a

whole. It is expressed on the basis of oven dry weight. Such biomass studies are

important to know the biological productivity and at times to understand the economic

productivity also. The relative allocation of biomass to various above ground parts is a

decisive factor that reflects the success of an organism in an environment (Gadgil and

Solbrig, 1972). Aboveground biomass production in bamboo has two components:

growth of newly emerging culms and biomass increase in older culms. The culm

biomass and relative allocation of various fractions to total biomass varied markedly

among the species. Total biomass in an area depends on stocking level. Therefore the

standing stock is one of the important measure for site productivity, overstocking

and/or understocking may retard the growth and development of the bamboo (Shi et

al.,1993). With regard to the percentage contribution of biomass components of the

above ground biomass the plantation age was observed to be an important factor. The

percentage contribution of leaf (7% to 1 %) in B.bambos, in Tamil Nadu, India, was

found to decrease with increasing age (Shanmughavel et al.,1997). Kigomo and

Kamiri(1987) also found that the relative contribution of various components to the

standing biomass of Oxytenanthera abyssinica, grown in Kenya, was in the order :

bamboo culm> Bamboo branch> bamboo leaves.

Plastic, from the time of their origin have become an indispensable part of our

life and in modern society. Synthetic plastics are extensively used in packaging of

products like food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, detergents and many products

manufactured from plastics are a boon to public health, e g. disposable syringes and
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
intravenous bags (Halden, 2010). This utilization is still expanding at a high rate of

12% per annum (Sabir, 2004) and has replaced paper and other cellulose-based

products for packaging because of their better physical and chemical properties viz.

strength, lightness, resistance to microorganisms (Shah et al., 2008) and favorable

mechanical/thermal properties, stability and durability (Rivard et al., 1995). With

time, stability and durability of plastics have been improved continuously, hence this

group of materials is now considered as a synonym for the materials being resistant to

many environmental influences (Joel, 1995). Plastic is inert i.e. resistant to

biodegradation, durable, hygienic, lightweight, cheap, and malleable (Mohee and

Unmar, 2007). It has been proven that polyolefins especially low density polyethylene

(LDPE), are resistant against degradation and microorganism attacks (Mahmood and

Reza, 2004).

These are manmade long chain polymeric molecules (Scott, 1999). The basic

materials used for making plastics are extracted from oil, coal and natural gas that

comprise inorganic and organic raw materials, such as carbon, silicon, hydrogen,

nitrogen, oxygen and chloride (Seymour, 1989). Petroleum-based synthetic polymers

are introduced in the ecosystem as industrial waste products that generate several

problems e.g. visual pollution, blockage of gutters and drains, livestock deaths and

threat to aquatic life (Shimao, 2001).

Production of plastic has increased from 0.5 million tonnes in 1950 to 260

million tonnes in 2007. This increase in usage, especially disposable items of

packaging, makes up 37% of all the plastic produced (Plastic Europe, 2008).

Packaging utility is the biggest field where polythene and its kind material are used. It
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
is estimated that 41% of plastics are used in packaging, and that almost half of that

volume is used to pack food products (O'Brine and Thompson, 2010). Low density

polyethylene is the most applied polyolefin in packaging, horticulture and agricultural

utilizations (Bastioli et al., 1991).

As population is increasing so the consumption of synthetic plastic is

increasing, only in a span of one year (1996-95) shipments from the Canadian Plastic

Industry increased by 10.6% (Charron, 2001). In Australia about 1 million tones of

plastic materials are produced each year and a further 587,000 tonnes are imported

(Australian Academy of Science, 2002). In European countries on an average 100kg

of plastic is used per person each year (Mulder, 1998.) The bags, with a typical

thickness of 16 microns and weight of 7-8 gm are provided free of charge in Israeli

stores and supermarkets (Ayalon et al., 2009). In Mauritius, plastic wastes constitute

around 8% by weight (or 100 tonnes) of the total solid waste generated daily. The

amount of plastic carry-bags disposed at the landfill is approximately 1000 tonnes

annually, while the local plastic industries generate around 250–300 million plastic

carry bags per annum (Mohee and Unmar, 2007). In Israel, 2 billion HDPE carrier

bags are manufactured every year. The total amount of these bags is 30,000 tons/year.

At the end of 2007, there were 2,007,300 households in Israel. It means that the

consumption in Israel per household is 1000 bags /yr, 2.7 bags per day. Every person

in Israel uses an average of 300 bags /yr, similar to other countries such as Ireland,

where before introduction of the levy, a yearly average was of 330 bags per person

(Ayalon et al., 2009). The estimated figure of plastic waste generation across the

Pakistan was 1.32 million tons per annum (Sabir, 2004). The plastic industry in
 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
Pakistan was reported to be growing at an average annual growth rate of 15% (Shah et

al., 2008).

Plastic grocery bags have been a part of daily life in developed countries since

their introduction in 1977 and in more recent years, their use has spread to many

developing countries as well (Williamson, 2003). Countless numbers of bags filling

landfills and spilling over every surface of the Earth (Chauhan, 2003; Thiel et al.,

2003). This prevalence results in several critical environmental and social impacts

associated with their use and immediate disposal. Plastic bags are also problematic in

terms of the loss of agricultural potential and impacts on tourism, in addition to the

high cost of cleanup that falls to local and national governments. In these regions,

plastic bags are found everywhere, from remote tourist destinations to city streets

where they can clog drain pipes, contributing to massive flooding that has already cost

thousands of lives. In 2005, city Mumbai, India experienced massive monsoon

flooding, resulting in at least 1,000 deaths, with additional people suffering injuries

(The Asian News, 2005). City officials blamed the destructive floods on plastic bags

that clogged gutters and drains, preventing the rainwater from leaving the city through

underground systems. Similar flooding happened in 1988 and 1998 in Bangladesh that

led to the banning of plastic bags in 2002 (World Watch, 2004). By clogging sewer

pipes, plastic grocery bags also create stagnant water that produces the ideal habitat

for mosquitoes and other parasites that have the potential to spread a large number of

diseases, such as encephalitis and dengue fever, but most notably malaria (Edwards,

2000; World Watch, 2004).

 Paoay National High School
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Academic Track
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS
=============================================================
Chemical Composition and Natural Durability

The selection of bamboo species for various applications is not only related to

physical and mechanical properties but also to the chemical composition. (Tomalang

et. al) in their study found that the main constituents of bamboo culms are

holocellulose (60-70%), pentosans (20-25%), hemicellulose and lignin (each

amounted to about 20-30%) and minor constituents like resins, tannins, waxes and

inorganic salts. The proximate chemical compositions of bamboo are similar to those

of hardwoods, except for the higher alkaline extract, ash and silica contents. The

carbohydrate content of bamboo plays an important role in its durability and service

life. Durability of bamboo against mold, fungal and bores attack is strongly associated

with the chemical composition. In producing material such as cement-bonded

particleboard, chemical content (starch and sugar) will retard the absorption rate of

H2O+ ion on the cement mineral surfaces and will slow down the setting reaction. The study by

(Chew et al.) found out that bambusa vulgaris contains glucose 2.37%, fructose 2.07% and sucrose

0.5%. The total sugar before and after soaking was 4.94% and 0.28%respectively. This study showed

that by the technique of soaking the sugar content could be reduced below 0.5%, a permitted level for

the production of cement-bonded particleboard. This paper explained that a bamboo

sample that containedmore than 0.6% total sugar will produce low quality cement-

bondedparticleboard, unless treated.