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Corrosion Protection: Long Carbon Europe Sections and Merchant Bars
Corrosion Protection: Long Carbon Europe Sections and Merchant Bars
Corrosion protection
of rolled steel sections using hot-dip galvanization
Foreword 3
3. Hot-dip galvanizing 10
9. Duplex systems 35
References 39
Your partners 43
1
Düren Car Park, Germany
When it comes to choosing materials, steel, Large numbers of steel structures, some l Zinc baths have sufficient capacity and
because of its exceptional physical and of them a hundred years old, which have are large enough to allow widespread
mechanical characteristics, is the most popular benefited from the combination of a suitable hot-dip galvanization of steel structures
amongst designers. It can be used to rapidly corrosion protection treatment and regular involving large components.
build economical, durable, and safe structures. maintenance, show impressively the potential
The steel used to make hot-rolled sections, of steel. However, these types of structures, l Combining the hot-dip galvanization
which can themselves be indefinitely recycled, requiring high maintenance costs, are no longer technique with adapted paint systems for
is made from recycled scrap. It is particularly acceptable today. zinc coatings - so called duplex systems
suitable for machining and shaping. However, it – renders maintenance unnecessary with,
tends to react with agents in the atmosphere New requirements govern the design of the in most cases, the corrosion protection
to form stable thermodynamic bonds – ferrous steel structures of the twenty-first century: not requiring any attention for the
oxides and/or salts. entire service life of the structure.
l Environmental protection policies enforced
The ability of steel to revert to its natural or at both the national and international level l Corrosion protection is becoming
original state is called corrosion. have lead to a considerable reduction in the an integral part of the fabrication
amount of corrosive load in the atmosphere process for steel structures.
In layman’s terms: steel rusts! over the last twenty years. This has
resulted in a noticeable drop in the average
The primary quality of steel i.e. its ability to corrosion rate of steel and zinc as well as
retain its physical and mechanical strength, or improved resistance of coating systems.
in the case of a steel structure, its load bearing
capacity, is generally long-lasting and is only l The design of steel structures is substantially
compromised when corrosion reduces its cross improved through the effectiveness of
section to such a degree that safety is adversely welding procedures and the vast range of
affected. rolled sections available thus contributing
positively to ensure that corrosion protection
The service life of a structure depends on systems have long service lives. Maintenance
the rate of reaction between the steel and its and renovation costs continue to fall because
environment. These reactions depend on the the amount of exposed surface area has
nature and concentration of the corrosive agents been greatly reduced and ease of access
present. improved. The ability of new coatings to
resist the stresses in their surroundings
Corrosion protection of structures must has been increased considerably. New
therefore be considered as intervening in this inexpensive coating methods are employed in
process in order to prevent the reaction or fabrication shops and on construction sites.
greatly reduce the rate.
3
Erco high rack warehouse, Lüdenscheid, Germany
Architects Schneider + Schumacher
1. Risk of corrosion and protection period
1. Risk of corrosion Over the last few years, the complex influence EN ISO 12944 characterises atmospheric
of atmospheric polluters on the corrosion rate of conditions in the form of corrosivity categories
The risk of corrosion of steel structures unprotected structural steel and zinc has been based on figures of the loss of mass or thickness
emanates from the surrounding atmospheric analysed as part of several European research per unit surface area of steel or zinc during the
conditions. programmes [1]. first year of exposure to different atmospheric
conditions (Table 1).
The nature and extent of any corrosion is linked The result of this work has led to the drafting
to the amount of time that metal surfaces are of the standard ISO 9223 “Corrosion of metals Examples of characteristic ambient conditions
exposed to moisture and to the amount of air and alloys – Corrosivity of atmospheres – help to assign the appropriate corrosivity
pollution. Classification”. The basic information containing category to the structures and facilitate
the classifications for the corrosivity of the determination of the required corrosion
The exposure time to moisture, which is the atmospheres and the corrosion rates of plain protection, by emphasising the protection
amount of time that the relative humidity of the carbon steel, zinc, copper, and aluminium, period.
air is > 80% at an ambient temperature of >0°C, determined as a function of the corrosive load,
is the main determinant as regards atmospheric is sufficiently accurate to allow the protection Apart from unusual circumstances, this method
corrosion and corrosion rate of metals. period of paints and zinc coatings to be allows a sufficiently reliable assessment to be
calculated in a practical fashion. made of the corrosive load for the majority of
The absence of moisture considerably slows steel structures.
down the corrosion rate of steel and zinc even in This standard was also used as the basis for
the presence of high concentrations of gaseous the classification of the corrosivity of ambient
(SO2, NOx etc) or solid polluters (dust containing atmospheric conditions in EN ISO 12994-2.
aggressive particles).
5
Architects Helmut Jahn - Photo K. Idelberger
The levels of airborne SO2 are measured at numerous locations in Europe.
European research has also allowed the relationship between the corrosion
rate of zinc, the levels of airborne SO2 and the wetting time / amount of
rainfall, to be analysed [2].
2,5
1,5
0,5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
2. Protection period We have to once again state that the protection period determined in
accordance with the method above is only valid for the corrosive loads
The protection period of coatings is defined in EN ISO 12944-1 as the considered at the macroclimatic level.
expected service life up until the moment where the system needs
attention for the first time. Special microclimatic features and higher loads particular to the structure,
such as an accumulation of dust with a prolonged exposure to moisture
EN ISO 14713 defines the “protection period up until attention is first can considerably reduce the protection period.
needed” of zinc coatings as being the time between the application of the
first coating and the moment when it first needs maintenance in order to It is now possible, as a result of the clear definition of ambient atmospheric
ensure the protection of the base material. conditions - corrosivity categories - and access to measurements used as
the basis for calculating the protection period, to properly design suitable
The protection period is a vital factor when selecting and defining corrosion protection systems in accordance with EN ISO 12944-5 and
corrosion protection systems. This technical concept helps the owner of EN ISO 1461.
the structure to specify his maintenance schedule.
0 C5
7
2. Corrosion protection methods
When considering the corrosion protection of Due to their broad range of application Optimal corrosion protection is achieved
steel structures, a distinction is made between possibilities and their efficiency, the following by combining active and passive corrosion
active and passive measures. methods dominate the corrosion protection of protection methods, based on the appropriate
steel structures: detailing prior to the application of the passive
Active corrosion protection aims at preventing corrosion protection.
corrosion or reducing the rate of the corrosion coatings based on liquid or powder coatings
l
9
3. Hot-dip galvanizing
1. Method This high level of surface preparation – level Be The speed of the iron-zinc reaction depends on
according to EN ISO 12944-4 – is achieved by the galvanizing parameters and the chemical
Hot-dip galvanization is the application of zinc first conditioning the material to be galvanized composition of the steel, particularly its silicon
or iron/zinc alloy coatings by immersing the in acid or alkali degreasing baths, then pickling and phosphorus content. “Reactive steels”
prepared steel in molten zinc. in diluted hydrochloric acid, followed by fluxing. build up thick layers of iron-zinc alloys and the
When the part to be galvanized is immersed in residual heat in the galvanized material can even
A distinction must be made between: the zinc bath (between 440° and 460°C), the transform the pure zinc coat into a coat of iron-
flux, which is usually a mixture of zinc chloride zinc alloy.
the continuous method (for sheets, wire
l and ammonium chloride, protects the metallic
rod, etc.), surface and improves its wettability as regards This reaction can be interrupted or slowed down
the molten zinc. considerably by an immediate quenching of the
the discontinuous method (for sections,
l galvanized part in a water bath.
structural elements, and small parts). Zinc is the main component of the zinc bath,
and the total amount of additional elements Figure 3 schematically represents the principle of
Only the discontinuous method in accordance (with the exception of iron and tin) shall not the discontinuous galvanization process.
with EN ISO 1461 may be used for steel exceed the sum of 1.5%.
structures.
The cleansed and fluxed part can be dried prior
It is essential for hot-dip galvanizing, namely to galvanization in an oven at temperatures
the iron-zinc reaction, that the steel surface to between 80° and 100°C.
be galvanized shall be metallically clean, i.e. free
from grease, rust and scale. During immersion in the zinc bath, layers of
iron-zinc alloys build up on the surface of the
steel element which are generally covered with
a coat of pure zinc upon removal from the bath.
Degreasing bath Rinsing bath Pickling bath Rinsing bath Flux bath Drying oven Zinc bath Water bath
11
3. Hot-dip galvanizing
2. The iron-zinc reaction Similar appearances can also be caused by local Galvanizers have very few means at their
thermal stresses at the surface of the steel, disposal for influencing the quality of the zinc
Nowadays, the usual structural steels are as happens during oxygen-cutting or flame coating, which depends mainly on the chemical
basically all suitable for hot-dip galvanizing. straightening. Here, the cause is probably due to composition of the steel.
localised changes of the chemical composition in
However, they possess individual characteristics the heat affected zone close to the surface as a Theoretically, it is possible to influence the
which influence the result of the galvanizing result of the oxidation of the so-called reactive thickness of the zinc coat by controlling the
process. elements in the steel (i.e. Si, P), which loose thus immersion time, the chemical composition
their influence on the iron-zinc reaction. and the melting temperature of the zinc
Hot-dip galvanizing is a reaction between the bath. As shown in Figure 4, there is however
surface of steel and molten zinc which results in The variation in the galvanization behaviour of no consistent relationship between these
a zinc coating whose thickness and appearance welds vs. adjacent steel surfaces is the result of parameters
are basically determined by the chemical differences in the chemical composition of the
composition of the steel and the galvanization welding consumables and the base material. The The thickness of the zinc coat increases
parameters (zinc bath temperature, immersion zinc coating on grinded surfaces of welds may with temperature up to a Si + P content of
time). The surface condition of the steel element also be thicker or have a different appearance approximately 0.12%. Beyond this point, the
may also influence the result of galvanization. with regard to adjacent areas. relationship is reversed up to a Si + P content of
± 0.27%; in case of Sebisty steels, the thickness
The behaviour of steels during galvanization can Generally, blast-cleaned surfaces, i.e. sand or of the zinc coat decreases with an increase in
be divided into four groups on the basis of their shot blasted prior to galvanization, react faster the bath temperature. It then increases again
Si and P contents (Table 2). on contact with molten zinc, resulting in thicker with an increase in the melting temperature of
zinc layers when compared to steel surfaces that the zinc from a Si + P content of approximately
The steels of the ArcelorMittal long products are are simply pickled. 0.27% and more.
of the “Sebisty” type and have typically a silicon
content of between 0.15% and 0.25%, and a Unevenness and imperfections in the steel
phosphorous content of less than 0.040%. surface deriving from rolling, straightening and
other processes are usually not smoothed out
There are overlaps between the groups, by the zinc coating, in most cases, they are even
influenced by the temperature of the zinc bath. visually amplified.
The iron-zinc reaction also depends on the
topography of the steel’s surface, especially
Table 2 Classification of the galvanization behaviour of structural steels according to their silicon and phosphorus
when using steels in the transition range contents.
between the ones with a low Si and P content
and the ones from the Sandelin group,. This may Group silicon + phosphorous [%] Zinc coating
result in local or widespread variations in the
thickness and appearance of the zinc coat. 1 Steel with low Silvery bright, zinc spangles, thin
< 0.03
Si + P content coat
Grey, sometimes granular, very
2 Sandelin steels 0.03 ÷ < 0.13
thick coat
0.13 ÷ < 0.28 Silvery bright to pale grey, coat of
3 Sebisty steels
average thickness coat
4 Steel with high
≥ 0.28 Pale grey, very thick coat
Si + P content
3. Hot-dip galvanizing
This is the reason why EN ISO 1461 indicates in the temperature of the zinc bath for medium bath. It is essential that these aspects are
only minimum values for the local and average and long term periods. discussed with the galvanizer.
thickness of the coat (Table 3) and does not
provide any upper limits. In case special requirements are laid down for It is possible to actively affect the iron-zinc
the thickness or the appearance of the zinc reaction, i.e. eliminate, or at least reduce the
In practise, the galvanizer needs to know coat (e.g. a silvery bright zinc coating requested effect from the chemical composition of the
the chemical composition of the material to for architectural purposes) in addition to the steel on the result of the galvanization process,
be galvanized in order to be able to adjust quality requirements according to EN ISO 1461, by adding small amounts of Sn, Ni, Bi, and Al to
the immersion time and the temperature. it is important that particular care is given to the molten zinc. Resulting consequences will be
For technical and cost effectiveness reasons the choice of homogenous materials, design, discussed in the chapters 4 to 8.
however, the galvanizer only considers variations fabrication and to the composition of the zinc-
Figure 4 Relationship between the thickness of the zinc coating, the Si + P content and the melting temperature of
the zinc tempera ture for an immersion time of 10 minutes [4].
500
400
300
200
10 minutes at 440 ˚C
10 minutes at 450 ˚C
100
10 minutes at 460 ˚C
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45
Si + P content (%)
Table 3 Thickness of zinc coatings as a function of the thickness of the material according to EN ISO 1461
13
3. Hot-dip galvanizing
3. Adhesion capacity of zinc coatings The modified test method used for organic
coatings i.e. “Tear off test to assess adhesion
In accordance with EN ISO 1461, adhesion capability in accordance with EN ISO 26624”
between the zinc coating and the substrate does [5] allows the adhesion of zinc coatings to be
not normally need to be tested, because zinc determined with statistical reliability up to
coatings have adequate adherence for resisting 45 MPa.
mechanical impacts during normal handling
operations and use without spalling or flaking These characteristic adhesion values indicate
off. the tensile strength or uplift resistance of
zinc coatings, which, in conjunction with the
If adhesion needs to be checked, e.g. in the case (adhesive or cohesive) failure patterns, enable
of parts exposed to high mechanical stresses, the assessment of their adhesion capacity.
impact or notch tests may be performed.
With the exception of Sebisty steels, measured
However, there is no European standard for the average values for the adhesion of zinc coatings
testing of adhesion. in accordance with EN ISO 1461 are generally
greater than 20 MPa. The values for Sebisty
The methods routinely employed, such as steels vary from 10 to 18 MPa.
the cross-hatch test, ASTM hammer test
(ASTM A 123) and the impact tests in Appropriate tests have confirmed the indication
accordance with DIN 50978, are restricted to a given in EN ISO 1461 stating that undamaged
maximum coat thickness of approximately 150 zinc coatings have sufficient adhesion [6].
µm, and provide only qualitative information.
Moreover, these methods mainly assess the
ductility and sensitivity to scaling of zinc
coatings rather than their adhesion capability.
4. Repair of damaged zinc coatings The repair of imperfections using thermal zinc Before applying a repair coat, the affected
spraying (with or without subsequent sealing) surface must be cleaned and, if necessary,
In accordance with EN ISO 1461, the is admittedly the most expensive and onerous descaled. A high quality surface preparation can
imperfections in zinc coatings may not exceed repair method, but it does offer a protection be obtained by manually grinding to a surface
0.5% of the total surface of the building period comparable to that of the original intact condition of PMa or by blasting to a surface
component. A single defect may not exceed zinc coating. Its technical feasibility must be condition of Sa 2½ or (EN ISO 12944-4). The
10 cm2 and must to be repaired in accordance checked in advance, particularly with regard requirements relating to surface roughness must
with requirements. to the accessibility of the surfaces to be be considered when selecting the repair method.
repaired. Also, the higher costs must be agreed
The internal surfaces of inaccessible hollow beforehand. The coat thickness of the repaired area shall be
structures are exempted from this requirement, at least 30 µm greater than the required local
because it is difficult or impossible to inspect and Repair using zinc-rich paint is effective as thickness of the zinc coating as given in Table 3.
because of poor access for repair purposes. well, but its quality very much depends on the
preparation of the surface, the suitability of According to this standard, defects in the zinc
The standard considers three repair methods: the paint itself, the correct application and the coating resulting from the interventions by third
thickness of the coating. parties during fabrication or erection must be
l Thermal spraying with zinc repaired in the same way. Zinc coatings have
l Use of zinc-rich paint The soldering repair technique with zinc alloy a better resistance against mechanical loads
l Solder with a zinc-alloy stick is relatively expensive and the result obtained than organic paints. It is however technically
is usually unsatisfactory. In particular soldering impossible to completely avoid damages or a
The repair techniques are not ranked in any with tin, which is difficult to melt, gives poor reduction of coat thickness in the areas where
particular order. results. This method is therefore disappearing handling gear is applied, even if all necessary
from the market. precautions are taken.
Unless otherwise stipulated, the repair method is
at the galvanizer’s discretion. The particular characteristics of the repair Defects with a surface area of more than
method with respect to the application 10 cm2 may also result from modifications made
The galvanizer shall advise the building owner of subsequent coats must be taken into to the galvanized structure or from mechanical
or end-user of the repair method that has consideration. “Compatibility” between the loads generated during erection. If the defect
been used. Appropriate zinc powder-based repair coating and subsequent coats must can be repaired without compromising the
systems are mainly used. Single component be guaranteed. For powder coatings, stoving effectiveness of the corrosion protection e.g.
polyurethane/zinc powder-based primers are temperatures up to 200°C have to be by thermal spraying with zinc, there is usually
recommended, provided their suitability has considered. no need for the structure to be dismantled and
been certified by the manufacturer. This repair regalvanized. Here, an equitable solution should
method is practical, effective if implemented be sought between the contracting parties.
correctly, and reasonably priced.
15
Chamber of Commerce, Luxembourg
17
4. Charasteristics of hot-dip galvanizing of steel structures
3. Liquid metal-induced Tensile stresses in the steel can no longer be Today, there is a general believe that the
embrittlement (LME) transferred if: potential risk of crack formation due to LME
is substantially influenced by the chemical
Preconditions for LME to arise are: the deformation capacity (ductility)
l composition of the zinc bath, in particular the
is impaired, see also Figure 6, contents of lead (Pb), tin (Sn) and bismuth (Bi).
sufficient static or dynamic tensile,
l Typical requirements on the maximum content
bending or torsional stresses (load the resistance against crack
l of these 3 elements are given in chapter 8.
induced/ residual stresses) propagation is reduced.
19
5. Requirements for materials
1. Chemical composition
Stress [N/mm2]
800
750
450
S 235
300
150
0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36
Elongation [%]
The stress-strain diagram, obtained from this Hardness is another criterion used to assess
tensile test, shows that substantial deformation strength. The hardness value is used, for
S355 460° C / Zinc bath
occurs beyond the yield stress before rupture example, for checking the uniformity of the
occurs. This means that fracture of building strength of semi-finished products, and can
components is an indication that a large amount be used for the approximate non-destructive
of deformation has taken place. This ductility determination of the tensile strength. Elongation
has a major influence on the assessment of
stress resistance, on the choice of the calculation The advantages of steel grades with high
method and statical system, as well as the elongation have already been mentioned.
application of the safety coefficients in steel
structures. In order to avoid brittle fracture, steel In addition to total elongation A, uniform
needs to be sufficiently ductile. elongation Ag, and reduction of area Z, the notch Figure 7 Typical yield stress - temperature diagram for
various steels
impact energy Kv is an important criterion when
The plastic deformation also reduces stress assessing the toughness of a steel.
concentrations at notches or where residual Yield stress [N/mm2]
stresses are present. For example, residual The toughness values may not be used as such
500
stresses (from welding or rolling processes) arefor structural design purposes, they rather HISTAR 460/S 460
either completely or partially disregarded when enable a qualitative comparison of various steels
designing steel structures. with regard to their toughness. Combined with 400
HISTAR 355/S 355
material may also be used for “plastic design”, determined, they enable an assessment of the S 235
which means that elongation of the steel beyond risk of brittle fracture occurring in certain stress 200
its yield stress is allowed. conditions (i.e. plane, three-dimensional or
residual stresses, loads), at certain temperatures 100
or in particular loading modes (slow or fast).
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Temperature [˚C]
21
5. Requirements for materials
Obviously, welded building parts may be Developments in structural steels are aimed at
particularly affected by brittle fracture. increasing their yield strength and weldability
while keeping or even improving their toughness.
23
6. Requirements of structures suitable
for hot-dip galvanizing
2.2 Vent holes, run-off openings, The sizes of the run-off openings and vent holes Figure 9 shows examples of vent holes,
ventilation openings depend on the quantity of zinc that must flow Figure 10 examples of run-off openings. In the
through. The immersion velocity is an important case of sections up to 300 mm high, l1 must be
In order to ensure that the surface is correctly parameter for reducing the risk potential of ≥ 20 mm, in the case of sections over 300 mm
pre-treated and high quality galvanization steel constructions with regard to LME. Further high, l1 must be ≥ 30 mm. In order to achieve
is achieved, building components must be details will be discussed in chapter 8. It has the ideal immersion velocity for LME-critical
designed in such a way that the pre-treatment been experimentally determined that the steel constructions, it is necessary to coordinate
liquids and especially the molten zinc are in susceptibility to LME decreases with an increase the design of the vent holes with the fabricator
contact with all the surfaces, and that they can in immersion velocity. An ideal immersion and the galvanizer.
freely run off when the part is removed from velocity would be approximately 5 m/min [11].
the bath. The run-off openings for the connection of
girders, base plates, corners of portal frames,
Figure 9 Examples of vent holes
Air pockets and air inclusions lead to uncoated etc. must have a diameter between 10 mm and
areas; constructional measures must therefore approx. 35 mm. Examples can be found in
be employed to prevent their formation. Figure 10.
l1 l1
l1
D
D
D
6. Requirements of structures suitable for hot-dip galvanizing
2.3 Safety issues associated Table 4 Recommended maximum sizes of overlapping surfaces
with the process
Maximum overlapping surfaces Measures
At the temperature of molten zinc (440 –
460°C) the moisture contained in air pockets Up to 100 cm2 (for product thicknesses < 12mm) Seal weld circumference
(hollow parts, overlapping areas closed by
welds) generates pressurized water vapour Up to 400 cm2 (for product thicknesses ≥ 12mm) Seal weld circumference
creating an explosion risk. Liquids from the pre-
treatment process can also seep into overlapping
surfaces if these are not perfectly sealed, and
evaporate explosively when immersed in the
zinc bath.
27
6. Requirements of structures suitable for hot-dip galvanizing
2.4 Information on detailing Potential problems during hot-dip galvanization l The ratio of plate thicknesses welded directly
suitable for galvanization of steel components may be solved by together should not exceed a factor of 2.5.
implementation of the following constructional With increasing thicknesses of the steel
The design and detailing of steel building and technological measures: parts and for elements with a high degree of
components must satisfy the basic principles welding, the ratio should even be smaller.
for the design of structures requiring corrosion l Already at the planning stage, the fabricator
protection, and in particular, of hot-dip must try to minimise residual stresses l The use of highly restrained building
galvanization. This is the only way in which generated during fabrication, particularly from components susceptible of generating
adequate corrosion protection comprising welding. Here, appropriate welding procedures internal stresses during the galvanizing
satisfactory thickness of zinc layers can be are helpful. With increasing thicknesses of process should be avoided.
ensured, along with the elimination of the building components, the risk of three-
potential risk of structural deformation, cracks or dimensional stresses, faster cooling rates l The actual characteristics and the
any other damage to the building components. and hence the risk of cracking increases. chemical composition of the material to
Consultation with the galvanizer must be sought be galvanized must be identified prior
as early as possible in the design process for l Strict compliance with requirements as to galvanization. The galvanizer must be
galvanized steel components. regards the design of structures intended advised about the nature of the steels
for hot-dip galvanization, especially when used for the sections to be galvanized.
using high strength steels with a low notch
toughness. The amount of vent holes and l Multiple immersions must be avoided.
drainage holes must be minimised. Also,
inappropriate fabrication will increase the The following table shows a selection of
risk of cracking. It is recommended to structural details which have to be considered
seek agreement with the galvanizer. as critical with regard to LME during hot-dip
galvanization.
Welding of “half end plates” induces a concentration of residual stresses in the area indicated.
1 Recommendation: arrange the end plate over the full height of the section or use a bolted
connection.
Welding of the plate induces a concentration of residual stresses in the area indicated.
2
Recommendation: perform stress relief annealing in the areas indicated, and/or round off.
Welding induces concentrations of residual stresses at the four corners of the hollow section.
3
Recommendation: perform stress relief annealing in the areas indicated.
6. Requirements of structures suitable for hot-dip galvanizing
Welding induces concentrations of residual stresses at the four corners of the connection plate.
4
Recommendation: perform stress relief annealing in the areas indicated.
The differences in stiffness between the section, the thick base plate, and welds induce
6 concentrations of residual stresses.
Recommendation: perform stress relief annealing in the area of the welds .
The differences in stiffness between the section and the endplate and welds induce concen-
trations of residual straining. Hardening at the edges of the bolt holes may also occur.
7
Recommendations: perform stress relief annealing in the area of the welds, carefully
drill bolt holes.
The differences in stiffness between the section and the endplate and welds induce
8 residual stresses.
Recommendation: perform stress relief annealing in the area of the welds.
The welding of stiffeners between the flanges of the section induces residual stresses.
9
Recommendation: perform stress relief annealing in the area of the welds.
The system is internally highly restrained. The inevitable differences in temperature to which
10 building components are heated lead to high residual stresses.
Recommendation: bolt the diagonals to the chords after galvanization.
Inappropriate execution of the rounded areas may result in hardening and the creation
11 of notches.
Recommendation: round-off carefully, perform stress relief annealing in the fabricated areas.
Inappropriate execution of openings may result in hardening and the creation of notches.
12
Recommendation: round-off carefully, perform stress relief annealing in the fabricated area.
29
Shopping Center “4 temps”, Paris, France
1. Residual stresses in into account the dimensions of the building removing notches or restricting their presence
l
building components component and the application temperature especially in thin building parts of welded
(see prEN 1993-1-10). With components that constructions and areas subject to changes
Cracks from hot-dip galvanizing of steel are to be hot-dip galvanized, special care must in microstructure from cold forming, welding,
constructions are often generated in places with be taken to minimise residual stresses. This is oxygen cutting, drilling, punching, etc.
high residual stresses (tensile stresses), notches usually achieved using constructional measures,
and/or hardness increases due to fabrication in order to avoid any subsequent stress relieving
processes such as before galvanizing. 2. Surface condition of
rolled long products
welding
l Fabrication also allows to prevent high residual
oxygen cutting
l stresses and hardness increases by Unless otherwise specified in the order,
grinding
l the surfaces of hot rolled sections for hot-
drilling
l using multi-layer fillet welds, which
l dip galvanization shall normally conform
punching
l could be welded in a single run with the to the basic requirements of EN 10163-
cold forming (ageing)
l current state of welding techniques 3:1991, class C, subsection 1.
straightening
l
31
Rheda Wiederbrück Car Park, Germany
As seen in paragraph 4.3, the presence of a The temperature gradient can be reduced by keeping the temperature of the zinc bath as
l
corrosive acting liquid metal in contact with a low as possible to minimise the temperature
solid metal prone to liquid metal embrittlement optimizing the chemical composition
l difference between the building part and the
is the precondition for crack formation in steels of the zinc bath, especially with zinc bath.
due to LME. This prerequisite is inevitably respect to Sn, Pb and Bi,
given for hot-dip galvanizing (liquid metal = Recent research results define a new sate-
zinc bath, solid metal = steel), as this is the l increasing the immersion velocity of-the-art. Nowadays, it can be assumed
only way that the zinc coat can be produced. (approx. 5 m/min) that contents of tin up to 0.1% and/or
bismuth up to 0.1% do not detrimentally
Similar to the requirements for the steel increasing the dipping angle
l influence LME. Herewith, the content
production, for the structural design and for the of lead should be limited to 0.8%.
fabrication of steel structures (in particular for increasing the salt concentration
l
minimising residual stresses), specific measures in the flux (approx 500 g/l) It must however be noted here that both
have to be taken in the hot-dip galvanizing the classical zinc bath and the one modified
process to keep the risk of hydrogen-induced adjusting the drying temperature after
l as described above can be LME-critical,
cracking and LME as low as possible. fluxing to 100°C, to ensure a high especially if the LME-critical requirements for
temperature of the building components the quality of material, design and fabrication
Extensive investigations [9, 12, 13] have prior to dipping in the zinc bath (see paragraphs 5 to 7) are not met.
shown that during hot-dip galvanizing, the
temperature gradient resulting from the
immersion of structural elements into the
zinc bath and its time-related variation during
dipping is an important process parameter in
view of LME. Here, the risk potential for LME
is small for a low temperature gradient [14].
33
Bavarian Model Housing Estate, Ingolstadt, Germany
9. Duplex systems
Many architects use hot-dip galvanized steel The choice of suitable coating materials is of jet pressure at the nozzle: 2.5 ÷ 3.0 bars
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structures because of their aesthetic qualities. particular importance. Only coating systems with
proven compatibility with batch galvanization jet angle : <30° (take the geometry of
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In addition, the use of liquid or powder paints on in accordance with EN ISO 1461 shall be used. the building component into account)
top of the zinc coat, the well-known “duplex-
system”, has become very popular over the last The requirements for surface preparation / Detailed information on duplex systems
few years. pre-treatment depend on the nature of the involving liquid and powder coatings
coating material. can be found in reference [16].
Duplex systems have advantages when the
following aspects are important: Zinc surfaces designed to be powder-coated
must be sweeped, phosphated or chromated
l long protection period immediately prior to coating.
Duplex systems have a service life 1.2 to 1.5
times higher than the combined protection In the case of liquid paints, current technology
periods of the hot-dip galvanization and paint only requires the surface of the zinc coat
coats (synergy effect). to be sweeped when large amounts of zinc
corrosion products (white rust) on the surface
large choice of colours
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compromise adhesion, or in function of the
corrosion exposure categories as per the
need for signalling / identification /
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specifications of the coat manufacturer.
camouflage
The purpose of sweep blasting is simply to clean
no or reduced release of zinc into the
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and rough the surface of the coats. Sweeping
environment exerts great mechanical stress on zinc coatings
and may, if poorly executed, damage them
At least the first coat of the paint system (i.e. cause cracks, flaking).
should be applied in the workshop, if possible
immediately after hot-dip galvanization thereby The optimal parameters for sweeping are [15]:
rendering expensive surface preparation
on the construction site unnecessary. abrasive: non-metallic slags, aluminous
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Shopping Center “4 temps”, Paris, France
37
Bouillon Car Park, Luxembourg
39
References
l EN ISO 12944-1-8 : 1998
Corrosion protection of steel structures by
protective paint systems
l DIN 267, PART 10
Mechanical assembly components -
Technical delivery conditions –
Galvanized parts
l EN 10025 : 2004
Hot rolled products from structural steels
l EN 1993-1-10
Design of steel structures – Selection of
materials
l DASt Guideline 009
Selection of steel grades for welded steel
structures
Notes
Technical
advisory
& Finishing
cambering
initiatives anywhere in the world.
l
l curving www.constructalia.com
l straightening
To facilitate the design of your projects, we also l cold sawing to exact length
offer software and technical documentation that l welding and fitting of studs
you can consult or download from our website: l shot and sand blasting
l surface treatment
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