Biology-

Cells-
 Unicellular organisms consist of just a single cell, like bacteria
 Multicellular organisms consist of many cells- like human

Eukaryotes-

A eukaryote is an organism consisting of one or more cells that contain DNA in a

membrane-bound nucleus, separate from the cytoplasm. All eukaryotic cells contain
many specialized membrane-bound organelles!

Nucleus- Location of DNA, ‘Brain’ of the cell

Cytoplasm- a jelly like material where cell processes and reactions happen

Cell membrane- Partially permeable membrane/barrio

Mitochondria- the site of energy release by respiration

Ribosome- the site of protein synthesis

Vacuole- A fluid-filled sack found in plant cells and some bacteria. Many functions,
including storing waste products, maintaining water and pH balance, regulating the
turgor pressure.

Cell Wall- a rigid barrier coat that protects and supports the cell

Chloroplast- the site of photosynthesis in plant cells. Embedded in disk-like

structures called thylakoids, which are arranged into stacks. Contains chlorophyll to
absorb sunlight

Most cells are specialized as each type of cell has a specific structure and function.
Different cells activate different genes so they only produce the proteins they need.
However, all cells have certain common features called organelles. In animals, the
first cells to develop are stem cells, which go on to become all the specialized cells
we have. Stem cells can replicate many times, and they have the potential to become
different types of cell. Multipotency means that there’s a limit to what stem cells.
Embryonic Stem Cells come from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst. These cells
are pluripotent as they can differentiate into any kind of cell. Differentiated cells
have a limit to the number of times they can divide (Hayflick limit), which eventually
causes old age. However, the only two exceptions are Stem Cells and Cancer Cells.

Red blood cell- Transports oxygen through the body. Contain a red pigment called
haemoglobin which binds to the oxygen. Concave disk shape to increase surface area
to volume ratio.
White Blood Cell- Help immune system recognize and destroy pathogens. Some
can change shape to engulf them, and others produce antibodies to ‘tag’ pathogens
for destruction.

Nerve Cells- Transmit electrical signals through the body. The cell body has
branched endings to connect to other nerve cells

Goblet Cells- Found in gastrotestinal and respiratory tracts, where they produce
mucus to lubricate and protect.

Sperm Cell- Male reproductive cells that fertilize egg cells. They have a long flexible
tail allowing them to swim to the egg

Muscle Cell- Make up all skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle fibres. They contract
when they receive an electrical impulse, therefore contracting.

Guard Cell- Controlled by osmosis. It’s the movement of gases through the stoma

Palisade Cell- They contain a lot of chloroplasts so therefore most of the chlorophyll

Unlike animals, plant cells regain the ability to differentiate and specialize. These cells
are found in tissues called meristems.

A Prokaryote is any organism whose DNA suspends freely in cytoplasm. The word
means ‘before the nucleus’. They come in two groups; bacteria, and archaea.

Flagella and Pilli- Flagella are long, helical tubes extending out of the cell to provide
locomotion. They are powered by protein motors and can propel bacteria very far.
Many bacteria also have Pilli, which are hollow protein structures used during
bacterial conjugation (the transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to
another)

Plasmids- small continuous loop of DNA. Plasmids are replicated independently of a

bacterium’s gonophore. Commonly used in genetic engineering to make copies of
genes or large quantities of proteins or hormones.

Magnification- the process of enlarging something in appearance. A calculated

number quantifies this enlargement also called ‘magnification’. Magnification =
Observed size of the image / Actual size (M=O/A)

Aseptic technique- This is a way of working that minimises contamination by

microbes, which relies on careful handling pf the equipment and killing any microbes
that may be present.

Individual microbes are hard to see without a microscope, however, if provided with
enough Food, Warmth & Oxygen, they will rapidly divide to form a colony, which
is clearly visible. Once a colony is formed, you can mease the cross sectional area
using the formulae A = ∏r2.

Chromosomes, genes, and DNA- In all living things, characteristics are passed on in
the chromosomes that they inherit from their parents. They are long strands of
genetic information located in the nucleus. Most body cells contain chromosome sin
matching pairs called homologous chromosomes. Each pair contain a
chromosome from each parent.

Most body cells contain 46 chromosomes, which is 23 pairs! All cells contain many
different genes. Genes are the units of inheritance. Chromosomes and their genes
are made from DNA. DNA is in a double helix shape, which is like a ladder twisted
into a spiral. The sides of the ladder are held together by combinations of 2
chemicals, called Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G). In DNA, A
always joins to T, and C to G.

Cell division- If cells didn’t divide, Organisms would only ever exist as single cells,
and old and damaged cells wouldn’t be replaced. Organisms wouldn’t be able to
reproduce. When cells divide, its essential that genes are copied into the new cells.
Genes are the basic unit of inheritance and are responsible for the characteristics of
an organism. Genes are located on chromosomes, each of which is made from a very
long, thin, tightly coiled molecule of DNA.

The type of cell division in plants and animals is called mitosis. In mitosis, a parent
cell divides into two identical daughter cells. Once they’ve duplicated, mitosis takes
place. This is a continuous process but can be divided into several parts:

1. The nucleus is surrounded by a membrane called a nuclear envelope

2. Each chromosome duplicates to consist of two chromatids
3. The chromatids condense-they become shorter, thicker, and more visible.
They are joined at the centromere. The nuclear envelope disappears.
4. Tiny spindle fibres spread out from each end of the cell and attach to the
centromere if each chromosome. The spindle arranges each chromosome in
the centre of the cell.
5. The spindle fibres contract pulling the two chromatids apart.
6. A new, nuclear envelope forms around each new set of chromosomes and the
cell itself starts to divide
7. The cell finishes dividing in two and the chromosomes become longer and
thinner. Both cells are identical, and the process repeats.

Diffusion-

During diffusion, molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of

low concentration. They are said to move down a concentration gradient.
Diffusion is a passive process, meaning no energy is needed. Molecules diffuse until
they are evenly spaced and equilibrium is reached. The rate of diffusion depends on
several factors, such as the distance the particle must travel, the temperature, and the
difference in concentration.

An effective exchange surface has; a large surface area, a thin membrane, an efficient
blood supply and a means of moving gas in and out. Diffusion is the main way in
which substances move over short distances in organisms. Some examples are
breathing and substance transport in the bloodstream. Alveoli have several adaptions
that help to make gas exchange very efficient; they are very thin, they are covered
with a network of fine capillaries, they are moist (encouraging gas molecules to easily
dissolve), they have a large combined surface area.

The concentration of dissolved food is higher in the small intestine than in the blood
entering the villus. This means that the dissolved food molecules diffuse from the
small intestine into the blood, moving from higher to lower concentration.

Surface area to volume ratio-

The surface area to volume ratio of an object is the relationship between the two
measurements. All organisms need certain things to survive. Cells need; Oxygen,
Water, removal of waste, temperature regulation, water regulation.

Single celled organisms have little problem as their cellular material isn’t far from the
outside environment. As organisms gain cells, the distance from the outside to the
middle increases. Eventually, you get to a point where cells can’t survive in the centre
of the group, do you get a hollow ball of cells. Hollow balls are fragile, so organisms
instead from tubes. As organisms get bigger, their surface area increases at a
different rate to their volume, so that the surface area: volume gets smaller, the
bigger the organism get.

Organisms with a large SA: V lose body heat very quickly. Organisms with a small SA:
V tend to regain heat and find it difficult to cool down.

Osmosis-

The movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low

concentration through a semi-permeable membrane, until it reaches an equilibrium.
The concentration of water in a solution depends on the number of solutes dissolved
in it. Sometimes cells are surrounded by solutions with salt solutions and so different
water concentrations. This will cause cells to either loose or gain water. When cells
gain water (hypotonic) eventually this cell will burst and die. When cells loose water
(hypertonic) eventually this cell will shrivel and die.
Active Transport- Active transport is the movement of substances against a
concentration gradient and/ or across a cell membrane. This process uses energy.
Rate of active transport depends on the role of respiration (positive correlation).

Why is it important?

Animals- allows the absorption of dilute minerals into the plants against a
concentration gradient.

Plants- Allows that absorption of glucose (essential for respiration within nervous
tissue) into the blood from the kidneys and ileum against a concentration gradient.

Sea Life- High concentration of salt into sea water

NO RESPIRATION = NO ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Osmosis & Diffusion depend on a concentration gradient in the right direction to

work. Substances are moved against a gradient by active transport which uses
energy produced by respiration.

Glucose (C6H12O6) can be used in respiration, to store food, and to survive!

Photosynthesis = 6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Cellular organisation-

Organism- a living thing that can respond to stimuli, is capable of reproduction,

growth and development, and maintenance of homeostasis as a stable whole. It is
made of organs systems working together. E.g. Human, mouse, oak tree, seaweed.

Organ system- A group of organs which work together to perform a specific

function, e.g. Circulatory system, nervous system, plant transport system…

Organ- A group of tissues which perform a specific function, e.g. heart, brain, kidney..

Tissue- Groups of the same type of cell. They are grouped together to perform a
specific function. E.g. Epithelium, nervous tissue, connective tissue

Cell- The smallest units of life. Some are specialised for jobs. E.g. Muscle cell, guard
cell, sperm cell

Molecule- They are made of atoms. They have different chemical and physical
properties from the atoms which make them. E.g. DNA, Water, Fat, Protein..

Atom- The smallest unit of an element which still shows its characteristics. E.g.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

Digestive System-
 Information about each organ in book-
14/12/16-04/01/17

Chemical and mechanical digestion-

5 05/01/17

Enzymes- 09/01/17

Factors affecting enzymes- 19/01/17

Enzymes-

Carbohydrase digestion-

Starch molecules are broken down by

amylase made in the mouth (or pancreas)
into Maltose. Then, maltase from the
pancreas breaks up the maltose into
glucose units.

Protease digestion- Proteins are broken down by trypsin from the pancreas into
peptides. Then peptidase, produced by the pancreas, breaks down the peptides into
individual amino acids.

Lipid digestion- Bile from the liver mixes with fats and oils to make an emulsion.
Lipase from the pancreas then breaks down the fats into fatty acids and glycerol
which can be absorbed.

Bile can emulsify fats, neutralize stomach acid, and get rid of toxins & poisons! In our
stomach we have Hydrochloric acid, to help enzymes work efficiently.

The heart and circulatory system- 08/02/17

Blood vessels- 16/02/17

Blood- 09/03/17

Heart disease- 15/03/17

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