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Energy Procedia
Energy Procedia 00
120(2017)
(2017)000–000
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INFUB - 11th European Conference on Industrial Furnaces and Boilers, INFUB-11
INFUB - 11th European Conference on Industrial Furnaces and Boilers, INFUB-11
Burners in the steel industry: utilization of by-product combustion
Burners in the steel industry: utilization of by-product combustion
gases
The 15thinInternational
reheating furnaces on and annealing
Heating andlines
gases in reheatingSymposium furnaces District
and annealing Cooling
lines
Assessing the feasibility Sébastien
of using Caillat*the heat demand-outdoor
Sébastien Caillat*
temperature function foravenue
Fives Stein, 108-112, a long-term district
de la Liberté, 94700 heatFrance
Maisons-Alfort, demand forecast
Fives Stein, 108-112, avenue de la Liberté, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France

Abstract I. Andrića,b,c*, A. Pinaa, P. Ferrãoa, J. Fournierb., B. Lacarrièrec, O. Le Correc

Abstract
The asteel
IN+ Center
industry for Innovation,
demandsTechnology and Policy
large quantities ofResearch - Instituto
raw material andSuperior
energyTécnico, Av. Rovisco
to produce ironPais
and1, steel.
1049-001 Lisbon,
During thePortugal
overall
b
The steelparts
process, industry of thedemands Veolia
generated large Recherche
quantities
by-products & Innovation,
of raw
are 291 Avenue
material
combustible andDreyfous
energy
gases, Daniel,
which to can78520
produce Limay,
iron France
be valorized andinsteel. During
different the overall
equipment of
c
process,
integrated parts Département
steel ofmills. Systèmes
the generated
After Énergétiques
by-products
a description ofetthe
Environnement
are by-product
combustible - IMT Atlantique,
gases,
combustiblewhich 4 rue
can
gases:Alfred Kastler,
be valorized
coke oven gas44300 Nantes,blast
in(COG),
differentFrance
equipment
furnace gas of
integrated
(BFG) and steelbasic mills.
oxygen After a description
furnace gas (BOFG), of the by-product
a focus is givencombustible gases: coke
on the constraints oven
of their gas (COG),
usage, blast furnace
in particular gas
due to the
(BFG) and basic
constantly oxygen
fluctuating furnace gasand
composition (BOFG),
physicala focus is given on Examples
characteristics. the constraints of their
of usages usage,
in two steelinmills
particular
energydue to the
intensive
constantly fluctuating
equipment composition
are given: reheating and physical
furnaces comprising characteristics.
dozens of several ExamplesMWofburners
usages and
in two steel mills
annealing linesenergy
equipped intensive
with
Abstract
equipment
hundreds ofare given:under
burners reheating
200 kW furnaces
powercomprising
output. dozens of several MW burners and annealing lines equipped with
hundreds of burners under 200 kW power output.
District heating networks are commonly addressed in the literature as one of the most effective solutions for decreasing the
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
©greenhouse gas emissions
2017 The Authors. frombytheElsevier
Published building sector. These systems require high investments which are returned through the heat
Ltd.
© 2017 The Authors.
Peer-review Published by
under responsibility
responsibility ofElsevier Ltd. committee of INFUB-11.
the organizing
organizing
Peer-review
sales. Due underto the changed climate of theconditions and committee
building of renovation
INFUB-11 policies, heat demand in the future could decrease,
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of INFUB-11.
prolonging the investment return period.
Keywords: Burners, reheating furnaces, annealing lines, COG, BFG, BOFG.
The mainBurners,
Keywords: scope of reheating
this paper furnaces,
is to assessannealing
the feasibility
lines,ofCOG,
using the BOFG.
BFG, heat demand – outdoor temperature function for heat demand
forecast. The district of Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of 665
buildings that vary in both construction period and typology. Three weather scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district
1. Introduction
1.renovation
Introductionscenarios were developed (shallow, intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were
compared with results from a dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors.
The Different operations
results showed are needed
that when only weather to produce
change isiron and steel
considered, the[1]. These
margin stepscould
of error are be
intensive
acceptable in for
rawsomematerial and
applications
(theDifferent
energy, and
error operations
in generate
annual arewas
important
demand needed tothan
quantity
lower produce
of20% foriron
by-products, and including
all weather steel [1]. combustible
scenariosThese steps gases
considered). are intensive
such after
However, inintroducing
as coke raw material
oven gas, and
blast
renovation
energy,
furnace
scenarios,and generate
gastheand errorbasic important
valueoxygen
increased quantity
furnace
up to gas of
59.5% by-products,
[2].(depending
In integrated including
on the steel combustible
mills,andequipment
weather gases such
renovationproviders as coke oven
and plant owners
scenarios combination gas, blast
put
considered).
furnace
many
The value gasofand
efforts to
slopebasic
valorizeoxygen
this yield
coefficient furnace
increased gas
of energy [2].in In
on average integrated
different
within parts
the steel mills,
of the
range of equipment
process.
3.8% up toThe providers
8%main and
thatplant
motivations
per decade, are owners
energy to
corresponds put
andthe
many efforts
decrease in theto valorize
number of this yield
heating of
hours energy
of in
22-139h different
during parts
the of
heating the process.
season The
(depending
operational cost savings, but also to lower the environmental footprint of iron and steel production. Here we will main
on motivations
the combination are energy
of weather and
and
operational
renovation
focus cost
on thescenarios savings,
utilization ofbut
considered). also
by-productOntothelower
other the
gazes hand,
as environmental
fuelfunction
in two intercept
energyfootprint of iron
increased
intensive and steelThe
for 7.8-12.7%
components. production.
per decade Here weison
(depending
first component will
the
the
focus
coupled the utilization
on scenarios). of by-product
The values suggestedgazes couldasbefuel usedin totwo energy
modify theintensive components.
function parameters for The first component
the scenarios considered,is the
and
improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations.

© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

* Corresponding
Peer-review underauthor. Tel.: +33 145
responsibility of18
the65Scientific
29, Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and
* Corresponding
E-mail address:
Cooling. author. Tel.: +33 145 18 65 29,
sebastien.caillat@fivesgroup.com
E-mail address: sebastien.caillat@fivesgroup.com
1876-6102
Keywords:©Heat
2017demand;
The Authors. Published
Forecast; bychange
Climate Elsevier Ltd.
1876-6102 ©under
Peer-review 2017 responsibility
The Authors. ofPublished by Elsevier
the organizing Ltd. of INFUB-11.
committee
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of INFUB-11.

1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of INFUB-11
10.1016/j.egypro.2017.07.152
 Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 120 (2017) 20–27 21
2 Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

reheating furnace, where hundreds of tons per hour of steel products (slabs, billets and blooms) are heated up to
1250 °C. The second component is the annealing line, where strips from coils follow different temperature paths,
from ambient temperature up to 950 °C. The by-product fuels characteristics will impose specific constrains to the
furnaces and burners operation and control.

2. Overview of the steel making process

An overview of the steelmaking process in an integrated steelwork is summarized Fig. 1. In short, from iron ore,
limestone and other elements, using energy from coal or natural gas, blast furnace is used to produce iron and
subsequently steel after lowering the carbon excess in the basic oxygen furnace. Then, through the continuous
casting, several items can be generated and transformed, immediately or later: slabs are transformed into either
plates or hot-rolled / cold-rolled strips (coils), billets into hot-rolled bars, rods or tube rounds, and boom into
structural shapes or rails.

Fig. 1. Overview of the steelmaking process (source: World Steel Association [1]).

Different process inputs are needed for the iron and steel production, and subsequent waste materials are
generated all along the route, as represented in Fig. 2. Among the by-products, important quantities of combustible
gases are available: Coke oven gas (COG) from the metallurgical coke production, Blast furnace gas (BFG) from the
blast furnace, and Basic Oxygen Furnace Gas (BOFG) when the liquid iron is refined in a basic oxygen furnace,
where decarburization of the iron leads to steel [3].
These fuels constitute the basis of the energy system in integrated steelworks. The quality (composition, calorific
value and cleanliness) and volume of the different gases may vary significantly, e.g. a typical blast furnace produces
around 1320 to 2210 Nm 3 of BFG per ton of pig iron, and these factors have an impact on where the fuels can be
exploited. When possible, most of the energy demand is satisfied by these gases; the remaining part must be
balanced with purchased energy, such as electrical power and Natural Gas (NG). A high share of steelwork (e.g. in
Brazil, India or China) are not using NG, in certain cases fuel oil is used as backup fuel. In other cases (e.g. in the
USA) coke can be imported on-site, therefore COG will not be locally available. When available, NG will preferably
22 Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 120 (2017) 20–27
Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 3

be used on annealing lines (e.g. in Europe) rather than reheating furnaces. The primary task of energy management
in the steel industry is the efficient distribution and use of the process gases and purchased fuels [2].

Process inputs Process waste materials

Coke Oven Gas

Coal Dust, CO, H2S, tar, phenol, ammonia, SOx,
NOx, cyanide, BOD, SS, PAH, BTX

Fluxes, ore fines, coke fines, flue dust, Flue gases, dust, CO, HCl, SOx, NOx,
waste material sulphides, fluorides, heavy metal, PAH,
PCCD/F, PCB

Pellets, iron ore, sinter, coke, limestone, Blast Furnace Gas

slag Flue gases, sludge, phenol dust, NOx,
sulphides, cyanides, H2S, slag

Mg, CaC, Ca2O, carrier gas, hot metal Flue dust, fume, slag

Fume, slag

Oxygen, hot metal, scrap, lime, fluorspar, Basic Oxygen Furnace Gas
coke Sludge, basic slag, fine dust (high iron
content), CO, Zn, fume

Fume, H2, CO2, CO, Mn, Zn, fluorides, slag

Liquid steel, alloys

Liquid steel, alloys and powders Scale, slag, scrap, oil

Steel and oils SOx, NOx, scale, oil, fume, emulsion

Fig. 2. Overview of the process routes of an integrated steelworks (adapted from [2] and [4]).

3. Combustible by-products

Typical compositions of recoverable by-product gases from the iron and steel production are given in Table 1. It
must be noted that the characteristics will constantly fluctuate, depending on the generation step and on the raw
material properties (e.g. coal composition). In consequence, when using such gases, very accurate settings of
burners, for example very low excess air, may need extra equipment, such as gas composition analyzers and gas
mixing stations, rather than just calibrated orifice plate and pressure control system. One of the biggest challenges
for optimum utilization of the by-product combustible gases is to cope with the constant variations of compositions
and physical characteristics. Each burner can be adjusted individually, but the more convenient is to adjust the
combustible characteristics for the entire furnace, using for example gas-mixing stations (with up to four gases mix).
Several strategies exist on the parameters to control: either to keep the heating value constant, the Wobbe index
(heating value divided by square route of specific gravity) or the combustion air requirement index (air
demand/divided by square route of specific gravity) to keep a constant air excess.
Available pressure for these gases can be under 100 mbar, so great care must be taken concerning pressure losses
in the different apparatuses.
 Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 120 (2017) 20–27 23
4 Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

Coke Oven Gas is generated during the iron ore and coal coking (carburization); it contains high concentrations
of hydrogen and methane. The Net Calorific Value of COG is around half lower than that of natural gas. This is due
to the high concentration of hydrogen in COG, which results in a relatively low density and a high net Wobbe index.
One of the biggest consumers is the coke plant itself, where up to 50 % is used as the coke plant fuel [5]. COG is
generally cleaned before being used as fuel. The cleaning includes the removal of dust, tar, naphthalene, light oil,
sulfurous compounds and the cracking of ammonia to hydrogen. Since it has a relatively high calorific value, it can
be used alone or mixed with other gases in blast furnace stoves, coke ovens, reheating furnaces of the hot strip mills
but also in annealing lines or power plants.
Blast Furnace Gas contains usually around 19 - 27 % of carbon monoxide and 1 - 8 % hydrogen, and high
quantity of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. It can be relatively clean. The low heating value is typically between 2.6
and 4.0 MJ/Nm3, i.e. around a tenth of the natural gas, and the adiabatic flame temperature is too low to heat product
above 1200 °C. Therefore, it is either used in low-temperature processes such as hot blast stoves or under firing coke
oven, or often enriched with COG or natural gas before being used as a fuel, called mixed gas (MG) [6], [7]. It is
also generally used with preheated air.
Basic Oxygen Furnace Gas is generated by the partial oxidation of the carbon in the liquid iron to carbon
monoxide. Basic oxygen the furnace is operated as a batch, the CO concentration released is not constant during this
process. At the start and at the end of the process, the CO concentration is very low, in these periods the gas is flared.
In the period where the carbon monoxide concentration in the gas is sufficiently high (i.e. > 30 %), the gas is
collected in a gasholder and can be valorized [8]. BOFG lower heating value is around ¼ of the natural gas, is is
usually saturated with water vapor.

Table 1. Typical gas composition and characteristics in steel mills [2], [5], [6], [8].
Element/Parameter Unit COG BFG BOFG
H2 % vol. 36.1 - 61.7 1-8 2 - 10
CO % vol. 3.4 - 5.8 19 - 27 55 - 80
CH4 % vol. 15.7 - 27 - -
CxHy % vol. 1.4 - 2.4 - -
CO2 % vol. 1 - 5.4 16 - 26 10 - 18
N2 + Ar % vol. 1.5 - 6 44 - 58 8 - 26
Low Heating Value MJ/Nm3 9 - 19 2.6 - 4.0 7.1 - 10.1
Density kg/Nm3 0.45 - 0.65 ~1.3 1.32 - 1.38
Specific air demand Nm3/Nm3 4.2 - 4.9 0.5 - 0.8 1.34 - 1.90
Adiabatic flame temperature °C ~2000 ~1400 ~2000

The collected by-product gases are generally water saturated and contain impurities, with variable concentrations
depending on the productions sites. Examples of values are given in Table 2; dust, tar and naphthalene may fool the
piping and the equipment and should be removed first. Depending on the burner control, i.e. on/off or proportional
mode, too dirty gases may cause malfunction on valves sealing, thus degrade the furnace performances. Sulphur
compounds and ammonia may cause corrosion and SOx emissions, detailed examples of cleaning system can be
found in reference [2].

Table 2. Example of impurities concentrations found in COG (source Fives Stein and [2]).
Element Unit COG
Ammonia (NH3) mg/Nm³ 50 - 100
Cyanide (HCN) g/Nm³ 0,3- 1,5
BTX (benzene, toluene, & xylene isomer) g/Nm³ 1 - 10
Naphthalene (C10H8) mg/Nm³ 200 - 500
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) mg/Nm³ 20 - 700
Organic sulphur mg/Nm³ Up to 150
Sulphur total mg/Nm³ 100 - 800
Tar mg/Nm³ 20 - 31
 Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 5

24 Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 120 (2017) 20–27

4. Examples of utilities

In integrated steelworks, the by-product gases can be used in different parts such as coking plant, blast furnace,
power station, hot strip mill, reheating furnace or annealing lines. The last two examples are illustrated and discussed
below.

4.1. Reheating furnaces

After the continuous casting (see Fig. 1), the metal is split into slabs, billets or booms, which must be reheated in
reheating furnaces up to 1250 °C before milling. An example of recent furnace, with digital control and lateral
burners is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Example of reheating furnace for slabs, with lateral burners.

Several types of reheating furnace geometry and burner arrangement have been used during the past decades; a
quick summary is given Table 3. Comprising several dozens of burners, the total power output can be around 50
MW. In recent furnaces, the trend is to lengthen the preheating zone for better thermal efficiency. In this zone
without burners, the hot combustion gases are used to preheat the products, and then the residual waste gases energy
is used to preheat the combustion air.
Inside reheating furnaces, the atmosphere is in air excess, to reach complete combustion but also to avoid sticky
scale on the heated products. In some cases, such as high carbon content steel, the atmosphere can be set with a very
low air excess in certain zones, in order to compensate for unwanted air inlets. This will reduce steel decarburizing
and control scale formation in zones above 900 °C. The cooler sections have a slightly higher air excess.
Preheating of the combustion air, typically around 450 °C and up to 600 °C, is commonly used. Regenerative
burners, (self)recuperative burners, or oxygen enrichment can be pertinent, in particular for low heating value
combustible gases. The reader may refer to J. Newby presentation at previous Infub-10 conference for detailed
explanations on regenerative burners [9].
Depending on the burner location and on the required temperature profile of the product, the flame produced by
the burner will have different shapes: frontal burners will produce long and narrow flames, roof burner will create
short wide flames (e.g. Fig. 4), lateral burners will create short, long or modulated flames (e.g. Fig. 5). The power
output of each burner is usually around a few MW. Latest technologies allow to obtain NOx emissions as low as
120 mg/Nm³ @ 3 % O 2 for natural gas [10], and 200 mg/Nm³ @ 3 % O 2 for COG.
 Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 120 (2017) 20–27 25
6 Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

Table 3. Overview of different types of reheating furnaces on the market during the last decades, product enters left hand side.

Years Max length Description Schematic view

Pusher furnace,
1970s ~35 m
frontal burners

Walking beam furnace,

1975-80 ~40 m frontal, lateral and roof
burners

Walking beam furnace,

1985-90 50/55 m
frontal and roof burners

Walking beam furnace,

1990-98 50/55 m
lateral and roof burners

Since Walking beam furnace,

~60 m
1995 lateral burners

Fig. 4. Examples of roof burner principle for reheating furnaces (left), view inside the furnace (right).

AdvanTek® Modulating Wide Flame (MWF)

Fig. 5. Examples of lateral burners for reheating furnaces in short mode (left), long mode (middle), view inside a furnace (right).

4.2. Annealing lines

Annealing lines are used to heat and cool down metal strips from coils, following a specific temperature pattern,
up to 950 °C, under controlled atmosphere (typically 5 to 30 % H 2 in N2). An example of vertical annealing line is
presented in Fig. 6. Part of the heating is made on the pre-heating furnace (4) where the strip is also cleaned, usually
in reducing atmosphere; therefore, natural gas is generally preferred in this section for a better fine control. Another
part of the heating is needed in the radiant tube furnace (5, RTF). Electric heating can be used but usually the costs
are lower with fossil fuels or by-products. To avoid the combustion gases contact with the load, an indirect method
of heating is used: burners in radiant tubes.
 Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 7
26 Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 120 (2017) 20–27

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Fig. 6. Schematic view of a hot dip galvanizing line, metal strip goes from the left to the right side ( 1: Pay-off reels, 2: Degreasing, 3: Entry looper,
4: Pre-heating furnace, 5: Radiant tube heating furnace, 6: Slow cooling, 7: Flash Cooling ®, 8: Overaging, 9: Induction reheating, 10: Zinc bath, 11: After-pot cooling,
12: Looper, 13: Skin-Pass mill, 14: Tension leveler, 15: Post-treatment, 16: Exit looper, 17: Inspection, 18: Tension reel ).

A RTF contains several hundreds of radiant tubes in different materials (NiCr cast, welded Inconel...), shapes (I,
U, W, P, double P, e.g. Fig. 7) and diameters (between 6” and 10”, but 7” or 8” are preferred). The tubes and burners
characteristics will be chosen according to the temperatures needed for the strip (typically around 900 – 1000 °C), to
the atmosphere to be used, and to the strip width (usually less than 2 m) but also according to owners or
manufacturers preferences. A typical metallic radiant tube will have an heating rate around 25 kW/m², composite
material such as silicon carbide can withstand up to 68 kW/m² [11].
Each radiant tube is equipped with a burner using NG, COG or MG, with a power output less than 200 kW.
Maximum transfer between the generated hot gases, the radiant tube and the strip is an important quality criterion.
The lower the exit flue gas temperature, the higher the efficiency. To do so, different internal or external air heating
technologies exist, like plugin recuperator, (self)recuperative and (auto)regenerative burners, more details can be
found in ref. [9], [11] and [12]. In new lines, recirculating radiant tubes (with internal or external flue gas
recirculation) are preferred to non-recirculating ones.
Good temperature uniformity is an important criterion for radiant tube lifetime. The maximum temperature
withstand by the tube material, under the imposed mechanical load, thermal stress and creep stress must also be
taken into account [13]. The lifetime will depend on the tube geometry, type of burner, fuel and operating
conditions. Hot gases recirculation allows to lower the temperature gradients, along with different types of burners:
non-premixed, partially premixed, with staged air or staged gas, or diluted combustion. The dilution allows to obtain
a longer flame, and therefore to diminish the hot points on the radiant tubes. The flame dilution, or mild combustion
[14], contribute to lower NOx emissions. Recent technologies allow obtaining NOx emissions under 100 mg/Nm³
@ 3 % O2 for natural gas or COG. Regenerative system will allow better tube temperature homogeneity, but higher
NOx emissions.
The burner choice will depend on system design factors. For example, in order to protect the controlled
atmosphere in the furnace, pull or push-pull systems will be preferred, to maintain an inferior pressure in the radiant
tube than in the furnace. In case of tube crack, atmosphere will be aspired in the tube; the combustion gas will not
contaminate the furnace. Forced-draft systems, i.e. burner supplied with pressure air and fuel allows a better fine-
tuning of the burners, but implies more piping for each radiant tube than natural draft, or suction systems.

Exhaust

Air

Gas

Fig. 7. Examples of W-shape radiant tubes (left), single ended (middle, Fives North American), and double-P shape (right) [15].
 Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 120 (2017) 20–27 27
8 Sébastien Caillat / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

5. Conclusions

In integrated steel mills, by-product combustible gases from different parts of the process (coke oven, blast
furnace and basic oxygen blast furnace) are exploited, pure or mixed with others fuels, saving energy and reducing
environmental footprint. Examples of application in reheating furnace and annealing lines with radiant tube burners,
were shown. Some by-product combustible gases contain several types of impurities that must be cleaned to avoid
damaging and clogging of pipes, burners and other equipment. This valorization is less straightforward than
commercial fuels utilization, due to the constant variations of gases compositions and characteristics. Special
strategies are needed to allow good performances, but no major obstacles prohibit the usage of by-product
combustibles of steelworks.

References

[1] World Steel Association, “Overview of the steelmaking process.” 2013.

[2] R. Remus, M. A. A. Monsonet, S. Roudier, and L. D. Sancho, Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for Iron and Steel
Production, Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU. Publications Office of the European Union, 2013, p. 621.
[3] P. Roberts, “What are typical fuel gases used in integrated iron and steelworks?,” IFRF Online Combustion Handbook, ISSN 1607-
9116, no. 100, 2003.
[4] UK Environment Agency, IPC Guidance Note Series 2 (S2), Metal Industry Sector, S2 2.01: Iron and Steel Making Processes. The
Stationery Office, 1999, p. 72.
[5] P. Hoppesteyn and J. van der Bemt, “What are the combustion, flue gas properties and the applications of Coke Oven Gas?,” IFRF
Online Combustion Handbook, ISSN 1607-9116, no. 239, 240, 241, 2003.
[6] P. Hoppesteyn and J. van der Bemt, “What are the combustion, flue gas properties and the applications of Blast Furnace Gas
(BFG)?,” IFRF Online Combustion Handbook, ISSN 1607-9116, no. 242, 243, 244, 2003.
[7] E. Worrell, P. Blinde, M. Neelis, E. Blomen, and E. R. Masanet, “Energy Efficiency Improvement and Cost Saving Opportunities for
the U.S. Iron and Steel Industry: An Energy Star ® Guide for Energy and Plant Managers,” Berkeley Lab, 2010.
[8] P. Hoppesteyn and J. van der Bemt, “How is Basic Oxygen Furnace Gas (BOFG) produced?,” IFRF Online Combustion Handbook,
ISSN 1607-9116, no. 219, 2003.
[9] J. N. Newby, “Regenerative burners - past, present and future,” in 10th European Conference on Industrial Furnaces and Boilers,
INFUB-10, 7-10 April, Porto, Portugal, 2015.
[10] P. Giraud, S. Lemaire, P. Sedmak, D. Delaunay, K. Mati, and S. Caillat, “AdvanTek ® burners enhance performance of reheating
furnaces,” in 10th European Conference on Industrial Furnaces and Boilers, INFUB-10, 7-10 April, Porto, Portugal, 2015.
[11] C. E. Jr. Baukal, Industrial Burners Handbook. CRC Press, 2003.
[12] M. Flamme, A. Milani, J. Wunning, W. Blasiak, W. Yang, D. Szewczyk, J. Sudo, and S. Mochida, “Industrial Combustion Testing,
Chap. 24: Radiant Tube Burners,” CRC Press, 2010, pp. 487–504.
[13] S. Caillat and C. Pasquinet, “Radiant tubes lifetime prediction in steel processing lines using fluid–structure interaction
modelling,” in 11th European Conference on Industrial Furnaces and Boilers, INFUB-11, 18-21 April, Albufeira, Portugal, 2017.
[14] J. A. Wünning and J. G. Wünning, “Flameless oxidation to reduce thermal-NO formation,” Progress in Energy and Combustion
Science, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 81–94, 1997.
[15] C. E. Jr. Baukal, Industrial Combustion Testing. CRC Press, 2011.