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INFUB - 11th European Conference on Industrial Furnaces and Boilers, INFUB-11

INFUB - 11th European Conference on Industrial Furnaces and Boilers, INFUB-11
Lime Shaft Kilns
Lime Shaft Kilns
The 15th International Symposium on District
* Heating and Cooling
Hannes Piringer*
Hannes Piringer
Assessing the Maerz
feasibility of using the heat demand-outdoor
Ofenbau AG, Richard Wagner-Strasse 28, 8027 Zurich
Maerz Ofenbau AG, Richard Wagner-Strasse 28, 8027 Zurich
temperature function for a long-term district heat demand forecast
a,b,c a a b c c
Abstract I. Andrić *, A. Pina , P. Ferrão , J. Fournier ., B. Lacarrière , O. Le Corre
Abstract
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explains otherareas
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further and explains
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still required in
Abstract
lime kilns.
order to meetIt also shows new
the growing innovative
demands of the ideas
market. and explains in which areas further research and development is still required in
order to meet the growing demands of the market.
District heating networks are commonly addressed in the literature as one of the most effective solutions for decreasing the
©greenhouse
2017 The Authors. Published
gas emissions frombyby Elsevier
theElsevier
building Ltd.
sector. These systems require high investments which are returned through the heat
© 2017 The Authors. Published Ltd.
© 2017 The under
Peer-review Authors. Published by
responsibility of Elsevier
the Ltd. committee of INFUB-11.
organizing
Peer-review
sales. Due underto theresponsibility
changed climate of theconditions
organizingand committee
building of renovation
INFUB-11 policies, heat demand in the future could decrease,
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of INFUB-11.
prolonging the investment return period.
Keywords: Lime kiln, shaft kiln; PFR lime kiln; HPS lime kiln; mixed feed kiln; annular shaft kiln; rotary kiln; calcining process; DEM
The main scope of this paper is to assess the feasibility of using the heat demand – outdoor temperature function for heat demand
Keywords:
simulation; Lime kiln, shaft kiln;
CFD simulation; PFR lime
emissions from kiln; HPS
shaft lime kiln; mixed feed kiln; annular shaft kiln; rotary kiln; calcining process; DEM
kilns
forecast. The district of Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of 665
simulation; CFD simulation; emissions from shaft kilns
buildings that vary in both construction period and typology. Three weather scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district
renovation scenarios were developed (shallow, intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were
1. Introduction
compared with results from a dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors.
1. Introduction
The results showed that when only weather change is considered, the margin of error could be acceptable for some applications
Although
(the error in calcination
annual demand of limestone
was lower and than dolomite
20% for allisweather
basically a veryconsidered).
scenarios simple process
However, and calcination
after introducingofrenovation
Although
scenarios, calcination
limestone haserror
the been valueofincreased
known limestone and
for thousands
up to dolomite
59.5% of is basically
years,
(depending continued a very
on the weather simple
development
and process
renovationof lime and
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scenarios calcination of
is still necessary
combination considered).
limestone
inThe
ordervalue has
toofcomplybeen
slope known
with modern
coefficient for thousands
day requirements.
increased on averageof years,
withincontinued
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3.8% up to 8% ofper
lime kilns that
decade, is still necessary
corresponds to the
indecrease
order to in comply
the number withof modern
heating hours day of requirements.
22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and
_________
renovation scenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the
_________
coupled scenarios). The values suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and
improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations.
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +41 44 287 27 26,
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +41 44 287 27 26,
© 2017address:
E-mail The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
hannes.piringer@maerz.com
E-mail address:
Peer-review hannes.piringer@maerz.com
under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and
Cooling.
1876-6102
Keywords:©Heat
2017demand;
The Authors. Published
Forecast; Climatebychange
Elsevier Ltd.
1876-6102
Peer-review©under
2017responsibility
The Authors. of
Published by Elsevier
the organizing Ltd. of INFUB-11.
committee
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of INFUB-11.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of INFUB-11
10.1016/j.egypro.2017.07.156
2 Hannes Piriner/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000
76 Hannes Piringer / Energy Procedia 120 (2017) 75–95
The idea of this paper is to illustrate the following topics:

 impact of market requirements on lime burning technology
 importance of lime shaft kilns in comparison with other lime kiln types
 modern lime shaft kilns
 technical challenges and the need for research
This paper does not claim to be comprehensive, some parts are not based on scientific work but on
experience, and some data is based on estimations only. The paper demonstrates the perception of the
author, who has been responsible for the design and development of lime shaft kilns for many years.
2. World-wide use of lime in the main market segments
Lime and dolomitic lime (dolime) is used in many different market segments. Figure 1 shows the world-
wide use of lime in the main market segments. These quantities as well as the product requirements are
the basis for the design of new lime kilns.
Figure 1: World-wide use of lime in the main market segments in millions of tons per year, (Source: USGS 2013 Minerals Yearbook)
Approximately 50% of the overall lime production is used for the iron and steel industry and therefore the
growth of the lime market is significantly influenced by the steel industry. Today, the market growth is low
or stagnating. However, as the lime industry is an old historically grown industry all different types of lime
kilns are used to produce quicklime. Many of these existing lime kilns do not meet the present product
and / or emission requirements. Usually the thermal efficiency of older kiln types is also not good enough.
These are important reasons why the industry still needs more modern lime kilns.
HannesHannes Piringer
Piringer/ Energy/ Procedia
Energy Procedia 120000–000
00 (2017) (2017) 75–95 377
3. Product categories
The annual world-wide lime production amounts to approximately 350 million tons. Figure 2 shows an
estimated split into three main product categories.
88% is needed with a high degree of calcination and high reactivity.
8% is produced in the soda ash and sugar industries with a lower degree of calcination but still moderate
reactivity to produce milk of lime. In these industries the carbon dioxide from the kiln off-gases is also
used in the downstream process.
4% is needed with a high degree of calcination and low reactivity for the building industry to produce sand
lime bricks and aerated concrete.
Figure 2: World lime production by product category in millions of tons per year
The required degree of calcination is specified as residual CO 2 (percentage of mass) in the product. In
other words, how much of the calcium carbonate has not been transformed into calcium oxide according
to the following chemical equation: CaCO3 + heat @ T>820°C  CaO + CO2.
The lime reactivity in this context describes the property of the product how fast it reacts with water. The
reactivity is commonly determined by means of a slaking test according to EN 459-2.
Figure 3 shows SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) analyses from limestone samples processed in a
laboratory furnace at 1’050, 1’450 and 1’850°C with the target temperature having been maintained
constant for 2 hours. The SEM-analyses demonstrate the influence of the burning temperature. The
sample burnt at 1’050 C shows particles with a very porous structure typical for soft burnt, high reactive
lime. When looking at the sample burnt at 1’450 C larger crystals can be detected. This indicates the
presence of mass transport on the surface and re-crystallisation. The sample burnt at 1’850°C shows the
morphology of hard burnt, low reactive lime. Most of the crystals are sintered, effecting that the porosity
and also the specific surface areas are low.
Figure 3: SEM analyses of lime samples burnt at 1’050, 1’450 and 1’850°C (from left to right)
Figure 4 shows the reactivity (slaking curve according to EN 459-2) of these quicklime samples
depending on the burning temperature. Prolonging the burning time at the target temperature would
further (but not significantly) reduce the reactivity of the product.
Figure 4: Reactivity of quicklime depending on the burning temperature
The iron and steel industry needs lime with high reactivity and low sulphur content. This has a significant
impact on the selection of the fuel and, in case low sulphur fuel is not available, the selection of the kiln
type.
The soda ash and the sugar industry need a high concentration of carbon dioxide in the kiln off-gases.
For this reason, only mixed-feed single shaft kilns using lump coke as fuel can be used up to date.
Figure 5 shows the main product categories as well as the most important specification parameters of
quicklime. It also shows the commonly used lime kiln types depending on the product category. The
number of kilns shown in this table is a rough estimation only.
Hannes Hannes Piringer
Piringer/ Energy/Procedia
Energy Procedia 120
00 (2017) (2017) 75–95
000–000 579
Figure 5: Summary and overview of product categories
Assuming an average kiln capacity of 400 tons per day the total number of kilns for product category #1 is
roughly 2’000. The same estimation with a kiln capacity of 200 tons per day results in 400 kilns for
product category #2 and in 200 kilns for product category #3.
The potential to install new modern PFR lime shaft kilns for product category #1 at low or stagnating
market growth is still substantial because today the number of modern PFR lime shaft kilns is less than
800. This means that there are still high quantities of lime being produced with outdated kiln models. As
an example, China produces 230 million tons of lime per year with more than 100 million tons thereof still
being produced by small enterprises using very old fashioned mixed feed kilns. As an example figure 6
illustrates such a typical mixed-feed kiln.
Figure 6: Outdated lime shaft kiln and typical working conditions in China’s numerous small lime factories
The situation for product category #2 is different because today the only reliable lime kiln technology to
produce kiln off-gases with more than 40 vol% CO2 content is the mixed-feed shaft kiln technology. Figure
7 shows the functional principle of this kiln type.
Figure 7: Functional principle of the mixed-feed lime kiln
For product category #3 the potential for the installation of modern HPS lime kilns is significant because
currently most of the hard burnt lime is still produced in mixed-feed kilns. These kilns are limited to
metallurgical coke or anthracite and the emissions exceed the present regulatory limits.
4. Heat consumption of different lime kiln types
Calcination of limestone and dolomite is an energy intensive endothermal process. Until today the thermal
energy in lime kilns is provided by combustion of fuels. Depending on the availability of the fuels the cost
of thermal energy varies between 20% and 50% of the production cost. In most cases the lime must be
pure and the contamination coming from the raw material and the fuel has to be limited. For this reason
the use of alternative fuels is highly restricted. Considering these facts the heat consumption of lime kilns
is an important factor.
Figure 8 demonstrates the advantages of shaft kilns in comparison to rotary kilns.
Hannes Piringer
Hannes Piringer/ / Energy Procedia
Energy Procedia 00 (2017)120 (2017) 75–95
000–000 7 81
Figure 8: Heat consumption of different lime kiln types
Although the heat consumption of mixed-feed kilns is relatively low, this technology has become outdated
because of the following disadvantages:
 operating such a kiln at a high degree of calcination leads to low reactive lime
 emissions exceed the present regulatory limits
 fuel selection is limited to metallurgical coke and anthracite with a content of less than 2%
volatiles
Figure 9 compares typical heat balances for different lime kiln types. The mixed-feed kiln is not included
in this comparison because this type of kiln needs to be replaced for the above mentioned reasons. Only
the soda ash industry still has no alternative because of the high concentration of carbon dioxide
(CO2 > 40 vol%) and the low concentration of oxygen (O2 < 2.5 vol%), which is required in the kiln off-
gases.
Figure 9: Typical heat balance of different lime kiln types
Defining the thermal efficiency as the ratio of the energy required for the calcination and the thermal
energy released by the fuel, the thermal efficiency of the different lime kilns is as follows:
 parallel flow regenerative kiln (PFR kiln) ≈ 87%
 annular shaft kiln with recuperator (ASK with Reku) ≈ 77%
 high performance shaft kiln (HPS kiln) ≈ 65%
 short rotary kiln with preheater (PH rotary kiln) ≈ 52%
 long rotary kiln without preheater (Rotary kiln) ≈ 40%
Although rotary kilns can produce excellent lime with a very high degree of calcination and a wide range
of reactivity, this technology is increasingly being replaced by PFR kilns because of their much higher
thermal efficiency. Firing alternative fuels in rotary kilns is a possibility. However; as most of the time the
product cannot be contaminated, the use of alternative fuels is highly restricted.
During the last decade only a very limited number of annular shaft kilns were built for the following
reasons:
 lower thermal efficiency compared to PFR lime kilns
 complicated and therefore expensive refractory lining
 more limitations regarding the selection of fuels compared to PFR lime kilns
 possible blockages of the recuperator if the raw material contains alkaline
5. Modern lime shaft kilns
5.1 General note
The PFR lime kiln has established itself worldwide for the product category #1 because of the
aforementioned reasons. There are still some restrictions on the use of this kiln type: for instance, cannot
be used for the processing of very small limestone grain sizes (<10 mm) or for the production of low
sulphur lime with high sulphur fuels.
The HPS lime kiln is becoming increasingly important for the production of product category #3 since the
mixed-feed kilns are restricted to metallurgical coke and anthracite as fuels and their emissions exceed
Hannes Piringer / Energy Procedia 120 (2017) 75–95 83
Hannes Piringer/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 9
the present regulatory limits. An alternative would be the use of rotary kilns; but their operating costs and
in most cases also their production capacities are too high.
For the above mentioned reasons and due to the fact that sufficient literature for other lime burning
technologies is available the following sections of this lecture are restricted to modern lime shaft kilns.
5.2 PFR lime kilns
5.2.1 History
This type of lime shaft kiln was developed at the beginning of the 1960-ies in a lime factory in Wopfing
/ Austria. The patent was transferred in 1965 to Maerz Ofenbau AG in Zurich / Switzerland which then
further developed the kiln process and the kiln design.
5.2.2 Operating principle
Due to the conditions of parallel flow of the kiln charge and the combustion gases in the burning shaft
the parallel flow regenerative kiln (PFR kiln) is perfectly suitable for the production of soft burnt, high
reactive lime. In addition, with regenerative preheating of the combustion air, the burning process
provides for the lowest heat consumption of all modern lime shaft kilns. The differently coloured lines in
the temperature profile (right part of figure 10) show the material as well as the air and the gas
temperatures along the kiln profile.
Figure 10: Operating principle and temperature profile of the PFR lime kiln
The kiln charge, which is well screened limestone or dolomite, has a typical grain size of 50 to 100 mm
but can also be smaller - 15 to 50 mm - or even larger - 60 to 150 mm. The kiln shafts are completely
filled with the material to be processed and the kiln charge passes the lime kiln at a speed of
approximately one meter per hour. The air and combustion gases flow through the void space which is
approximately 40% of the volume.
Figure 10 shows the functional principle of the PFR kiln and illustrates the two phases of the gas flow.
Lime is discharged continuously at the bottom end of the kiln shafts. Fuel is only fed into one of the two
shafts (burning shaft) respectively. In figure 10 the fuel arrives in shaft 1, the burning shaft, whilst shaft 2
operates as a non-burning or regenerative shaft. The fuel is fed in via a large number of burner lances
which are installed vertically in the material bed of the preheating zone. The bottom end of the burner
lances marks the end of the preheating zone and the start of the burning zone. Fuel is fed by these
burner lances and evenly distributed across the cross-section of the kiln shaft. The fuel self-ignites
together with the preheated combustion air fed in parallel flow through the material bed at the hot kiln
charge.
Figure 10 on the right side shows a typical temperature profile with the green line showing the
temperature of the kiln charge, the blue line in the preheating zone showing the combustion air
temperature, the blue line in the cooling zone showing the cooling air temperature and the red line
showing the temperature of the combustion gases. As the fuel is fed at the upper end of the burning zone,
where the kiln charge is only preheated but not calcined and the calcination process absorbs the largest
part of the heat released from the fuel, the typical average temperature in the burning zone is
approximately 950°C which is about 150°C higher than the theoretical calcination temperature of the kiln
charge.
The kiln works cyclically, usually with 90 to 130 cycles per day. The burning phase is characterised by the
parallel flow of combustion gases and material in the burning shaft. The regenerative phase is
characterised by the counter flow of hot gases in the non-burning shaft. The combustion gases flow via
gas channels from the burning into the non-burning shaft, where they perfectly transfer their heat to the
kiln charge. Here, the preheating zone of the kiln is used as a recuperator with the kiln charge as heat
accumulator. This type of recuperator is insensitive to dust-laden or corrosive gases and at the same time
offers excellent heat transfer characteristics.
Preheating of combustion air takes place in the preheating zone of the burning shaft when the
combustion air passes the material bed in the preheating zone which was preheated by the kiln off-gases
during the previous operating cycle. The preheating of the combustion air makes the thermal efficiency of
the kiln practically independent from the excess air factor. In its turn, this then facilitates the setting of the
specific heat input to produce the required lime quality. A higher combustion air excess produces a
shorter flame, a lower air excess leads to a longer flame. The flame length is one of the key factors in
producing a product with uniform quality and in controlling the reactivity within certain limits.
5.2.3 Limitations of the PFR technology
The main application of PFR lime kilns is the production of high reactive, soft burnt lime.
As the calcination process (CaCO3 + heat @ T>820°C  CaO + CO2) consumes a large amount of heat
and most of the energy from fuel combustion is released at the upper end of the burning zone, the
process temperatures in PFR lime kilns are relatively low (refer to Figure 10). For standard PFR lime kilns
the volume of the burning zone is designed in such a way that the material can be fully calcined at an
average burning temperature of 950 to 1’050°C. Based on these boundary conditions the retention time of
the kiln charge in the burning zone is usually about 8 hours. These or similar process conditions are
commonly used in PFR lime kilns with excellent results for high reactive lime.
Almost all trials to produce lime with lower reactivity in PFR kilns proved to be unsuccessful. Theoretically
it would be possible to increase the burning temperature by simply increasing the heat input and it would
also be possible to increase the burning temperature in the upper part of the burning zone by increasing
the excess air. However, almost all trials ended with melding of the kiln charge. Melding of the kiln charge
means that the particles, which are normally loose, stick together where they have direct contact. The
melding of the kiln charge is caused by sintering which occurs at the surfaces between particles with
direct contact. Surface sintering between particles takes place in addition to sintering of individual
particles above the calcination temperature. Melding of the kiln charge makes it impossible to operate the
kiln. Until today this phenomenon has not been adequately researched and it can only be assumed that -
if the temperature is increased above the temperature required for complete calcination - the long
retention time in the burning zone of PFR lime kilns causes melding of the kiln charge. As the properties
of the raw materials vary in a wide range, in some rare cases melding of the kiln charge can also occur at
otherwise normal operating conditions.
The PFR lime kiln is ideally suitable for the production of high reactive lime. Only in extremely rare cases,
where surface sintering between individual particles of the kiln charge does not occur, this type of kiln can
also be used to produce low reactive, hard burned lime. It must be assumed that the potential of surface
sintering between individual particles depends on one or more material properties and higher process
temperatures certainly intensify this problem. Taking all these facts and experience into consideration, it
becomes clear that a uniform heat distribution over the cross section of the kiln shafts and an appropriate
temperature profile are preconditions for producing good lime quality in a PFR lime kiln.
Due to the fact that the cooling air is not used for combustion in this kiln process the concentration of CO 2
in the kiln off-gases is between 20% and 23% and the concentration of oxygen is between 7% and 11%.
These values are not suitable for the soda ash and the sugar industry, which need higher concentration of
CO2 in the off-gases to be used in their downstream processes.
As calcium oxide is ideally suitable to absorb sulphur dioxide all lime kilns with low off-gas temperatures
absorb almost all the sulphur dioxide from the fuel combustion. Due to the high thermal efficiency, the
PFR lime kiln operates with the lowest off-gas temperatures of all lime kiln types. As a result almost all
the sulphur contained in the fuel is transferred to the product and a small part to the bag house filter dust.
For the production of low sulphur lime which is needed for the steel industry not only the sulphur content
in the raw material but also the sulphur content in the fuel must be taken into account. Integrated iron and
steel works operate their own lime kilns in captive plants. These lime kilns are often fired with coke oven
gas, converter gas or mixed gas and these gases contain almost no sulphur. If coal is used as fuel, the
sulphur intake can be reduced by adding natural gas.
Although the PFR lime kiln is currently the most important and most established lime kiln type, it is still
important to continue with research work in order to extend its application possibilities.
The following list is a summary of the topics which still need to be researched in more detail:
 more flexibility regarding the product reactivity
 higher concentration of CO2 and lower concentration of O2 in the kiln off-gases
 production of low sulphur lime with high sulphur fuel
5.3 HPS lime kilns
5.3.1 History
In the late 1970-ies a high temperature sintering shaft kiln for the production of basic and non-basic
refractory products was developed. Based on this design and in response to market requirements the
HPS kiln (High Performance Shaft kiln) for the calcination and partial sintering of limestone and dolomite
was developed. In this development the main features of the sintering kiln and the experience gained in
many years of operating practice were incorporated.
5.3.2 Operating principle
Due to the counter-current flow of the kiln charge and the combustion gases the HPS kiln is perfectly
suitable for the production of hard burnt, low reactive lime. The radially arranged and horizontally
adjustable liquid cooled burners, which are positioned at the lower end of the burning zone, enable a
uniform heat distribution over the cross section of the kiln shaft. Releasing energy from the fuel
combustion at the lower end of the burning zone, where the kiln charge is already completely calcined,
allows very high burning temperatures which are required to partially sinter the product in order to reduce
its reactivity.
The raw material to be calcined is charged at the top of the kiln. It is then preheated by the combustion
gases in counter-current before reaching the burning zone. In the burning zone the material is calcined
and - depending on the product specification - more or less sintered by means of fuel introduced together
with primary combustion air through the radially arranged burners. Cooling air is introduced at the
discharge of the kiln to cool the product in a counter-current manner. The heated cooling air travels
upwards to the burning zone and is used there as secondary combustion air. The exhaust gases are
directed from the top of the kiln to a dust cleaning system.
The differently coloured lines in the temperature profile (right part of figure 11) show the flow of the
material (dotted blue line), and the air as well as the gas temperatures (red line) along the kiln profile.
As with the PFR kiln, the kiln charge consists of crushed and screened limestone or dolomite. The grain
sizes are typically 40 to 80 mm or smaller. The kiln shafts are also completely filled with the material to be
processed but the kiln charge passes the lime kiln at a higher speed - typically two meters per hour.
Figure 11: Operating principle and temperature profile of the HPS lime kiln
5.3.3 Limitations of the HPS kiln
The main application of the HPS lime kiln is the production of low reactive, hard burnt lime. According
to section 5.2.3 a PFR lime kiln is generally not suitable for the production of hard burnt lime and vice
versa a HPS lime kiln is not the ideal kiln for the production of high reactive, soft burnt lime.
Releasing the combustion energy at the lower end of the burning zone - where the kiln charge is already
completely calcined - leads to high burning temperatures. This is ideal for the production of low reactive
lime. Reducing the heat input would certainly lower the burning temperatures and this would increase the
reactivity of the product, but at the same time the heat distribution over the cross section of the kiln shaft
becomes more challenging. As a result the product in the centre of the kiln shaft would not be completely
calcined anymore.
The soda ash and the sugar industries require a reactive lime, a high concentration of CO 2 and a low
concentration of O2 in the kiln off-gases. Up to date the HPS kiln is usually operated with excess air
factors higher than 1.15 resulting in CO2 and O2 concentrations which are not suitable for the soda ash
industry.
The following list summarises the topics which should be investigated:
 increasing the HPS kiln’s thermal efficiency
 more flexibility regarding reactivity
 reducing the excess air to achieve a higher concentration of CO 2 in the kiln off-gases
6. Research and development in lime shaft kiln design
Research and development in lime shaft kiln design have a long history and many different economical
and technical aspects have to be considered.
6.1 Requirements related to the calcining process
In order to achieve a uniform product quality the retention time of each particle in the different kiln
zones, particularly in the burning zone, must be the same. The geometry of the kiln shafts as well as the
design of the discharge mechanism must be balanced to guarantee an equal retention time for all
particles.
Figure 12 shows an acrylic glass model to examine the material movement inside the shafts of a circular
PFR kiln. At the lower end of the kiln model flat discharge tables are moved bidirectionally to extract the
material from the kiln shaft. Two white coloured material layers are used to visualise the downwards
travelling speed of the particles. The third picture from the left in Figure 12 shows the white layers at the
end of the burning zone. The white layers there are still almost horizontal which means the retention time
of each particle in the preheating and burning zone is almost the same.
Figure 12: Acrylic glass model to examine the material flow in a circular PFR lime kiln
Today computer models are also available; the discrete element method (DEM) provides the possibility of
carrying out such simulations. However, as the number of particles inside a lime shaft kiln is very high,
these simulations are extremely time consuming.
Figure 13 shows an example of a DEM simulation of a PFR lime kiln with a direct cross-over channel.
Similar to the acrylic glass model examination, differently coloured layers are used at the beginning of the
simulation. The extraction of the material at the lower end is simulated by flat horizontally arranged
discharge tables which are moved bidirectionally. Such a DEM simulation can be carried out with
differently shaped particles. The first picture from the left in Figure 13 shows the beginning of the
simulation with the red layer at the top of the preheating zone. The third picture from the left shows the
red layer at the end of the burning zone. Here the retention time of the different particles in the preheating
and burning zones was also found to be nearly the same.
The examination of the material flow using such models is necessary to design a suitable geometry for
the shafts as well as for the discharge mechanism for a lime shaft kiln.
Figure 13: Example of a DEM simulation for a PFR lime kiln with direct cross-over channel
A uniform particle distribution inside the kiln shafts is another important key factor because the air and hot
gas distribution as well as the heat distribution inside the kiln charge are strongly determined by the
particle distribution. Based on these facts the charging systems of shaft kilns have to be carefully
designed to avoid any particle size segregation. Figure 14 shows an example of a rotary hopper charging
system which was examined by means of a DEM simulation as well.
Figure 14: Example of a rotary hopper charging system
For kiln shafts with a large cross section area a uniform distribution of grain sizes may not be sufficient. In
order to optimise the gas flow and the heat distribution it may become necessary to charge different grain
sizes to the outside and to the centre of the shaft. Due to the different pressure drops in the centre
compared to the circumference the gas flow inside the kiln shaft can be controlled.
Today, air and gas flow through the void space of the kiln charge as well as heat transfer can be
simulated by computerised fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations. Figure 15 shows an example of a CFD
calculation for the burning zone of a circular HPS shaft kiln.
Figure 15: Example of CFD calculation, horizontal section of a circular burning zone
Thanks to new simulation methods developed by Prof. Viktor Scherer (Ruhr-Universität Bochum /
Germany) DEM and CFD simulations can now be combined and the complicated processes inside lime
shaft kilns can be examined with higher precision.
This comprehensive simulation method opens new opportunities to better design lime kiln technology.
As an example a lime shaft kiln which combines the advantages of both the PFR and the HPS lime kiln
could be of significant interest for various applications.

Figure 16 shows a combined DEM-CFD calculation of such a hybrid lime shaft kiln.
The upper part comprising two kiln shafts with their preheating and calcination zones would work in the
same way as the classic PFR kiln.
Due to the limitations given by the refractory lining the middle part with the connecting gas channel needs
to be operated at a moderate temperature of less than 1’100°C just like a classic PFR lime kiln. For this
reason the heat input via the vertical main burner lances would need to be adjusted to achieve a
calcination degree of approximately 90% only at the lower end of the calcination zone.
The part of the kiln underneath the connecting gas channel of the two shafts is longer compared to a
normal PFR lime kiln and comprises a sinter zone and a cooling zone.
The sinter zone is fired with radially arranged and horizontally adjustable liquid cooled burners just like a
HPS lime kiln. As these burners are located at the lower end of the sinter zone, where the kiln charge is
already completely calcined, very high temperatures can be achieved and the reactivity of the product can
be reduced to the desired value.
In such an arrangement the rest of the calcination process takes place just above the sinter zone within a
safe distance from the connecting channel. The energy for this final calcination is provided by the hot
gases coming from the sinter zone. Due to the strongly endothermic calcination process these gases are
cooled down to a temperature of less than 1100°C and therefore may safely pass through the connecting
channel without damaging the refractory lining.
The flexibility of this kiln is interesting because it can operate either like a classic PFR lime kiln, without
using the burners in the sinter zone to produce high reactive soft burnt lime, or as described above to
produce medium to hard burnt lime with lower reactivity but with the excellent thermal efficiency of a PFR
lime kiln.
Figure 16: Combined DEM-CFD simulation of a hybrid lime shaft kiln (patent pending)
Energy Procedia 120
00 (2017) (2017) 75–95
000–000 1791
6.2 Influences related to material property
Many different raw material properties influence the burning process in a lime kiln. Figure 17 contains
an overview of the important properties varying by raw material, their suitable range and their impact on
the burning process as well as their impact on the product quality.
The physical and chemical properties of the raw materials are different in deposits around the world.
Normally the design of a lime shaft kiln is based on high quality limestone having a high content of CaCO3
and a high mechanical stability. In order to guarantee the required kiln performance and the lime quality,
the raw material is always carefully analysed and - depending on this examination - the lime kiln design
has to be appropriately customised.
In order to facilitate the design and the customising of lime shaft kilns and in order to better understand
phenomena like surface sintering, further research work is still required as there is still an unanswered
key question: “What material properties cause surface sintering according to section 5.2.3 and what
counter-measures can be applied to avoid this phenomenon?”
Figure 17: Overview of variable raw material properties

6.3 Influences related to fuel property
Figure 18 contains an overview of the fuels used in modern lime shaft kilns as well as their special
characteristics. In order to utilise solid fuels they have to be milled before they can be pneumatically
injected through the vertical burner lances of the PFR lime kiln or through the horizontal burners of the
HPS lime kiln. For a defined ignition underneath the burner lances of a PFR lime kiln, the volatile matter
content of solid fuels should be more than 8%.
Figure 18: Overview of the fuels used in modern lime shaft kilns
Many different fuel properties influence the burning process. The following list is a summary of the topics
which still need to be investigated in more detail:
 use of coal with high swelling index
 burning behaviour of solid fuels in the material bed of shaft kilns
 influence of fuel ashes on surface sintering and melding of the kiln charge
6.4 Optimised shaft kiln design
PFR and HPS kilns operate with positive pressures up to 50 kPa and in some regions high seismic
loads have to be taken into consideration. Today it is common practice to use 3D design tools and finite
element method (FEM) calculations to optimise the design of lime shaft kilns. This is important in order to
save material and manufacturing costs. Figure 19 shows an example of a FEM calculation for a circular
PFR lime kiln.
Figure 19: Example of a FEM calculation for a round PFR lime kiln
7. Emissions from modern lime shaft kilns
Under the directive 2010/75/EU the member states of the EU are obliged to establish national laws
considering the limits according to BAT 2013/163/EU.
Figure 20 shows the typical emissions from PFR lime kilns in comparison to BAT 2013/163/EU.
Further details, especially regarding NO x and primary measures to reduce NO x emissions from PFR lime
kilns, were published in “ZKG International 11/2015: Hannes Piringer, Key factors to minimise emissions
from parallel flow regenerative lime kilns”.
94
20 HannesHannes
Piriner/Piringer
Energy /Procedia
Energy Procedia
00 (2017)120 (2017) 75–95
000–000
Figure 20: Emissions from PFR lime kilns
Figure 21 shows the CO2 emissions from PFR lime kilns. The process related CO 2 from the limestone is
much higher compared to the part from the fuel combustion.
Figure 21: CO2 emissions from PFR lime kilns
For wood firing the CO2 from the fuel does not have to be considered because wood can be classified as
a renewable energy source.
Energy Procedia 120
00 (2017) (2017) 75–95
000–000 2195
8. Closing words
The main challenges for the future remain the optimum use of limited resources. Particularly the
consumption of fossil fuels must be reduced to meet the goal of worldwide climate protection.
Further improvement of lime burning technology is still required and fundamental knowledge and know-
how in many different disciplines has to be extended. Exchange of know-how and experience is
necessary and scientists and engineers should be motivated to continue with research and development.

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INFUB - 11th European Conference on Industrial Furnaces and Boilers, INFUB-11

1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

The idea of this paper is to illustrate the following topics:

2. World-wide use of lime in the main market segments

Figure 4: Reactivity of quicklime depending on the burning temperature

Figure 5: Summary and overview of product categories

Figure 7: Functional principle of the mixed-feed lime kiln

4. Heat consumption of different lime kiln types

Figure 8: Heat consumption of different lime kiln types

Figure 9: Typical heat balance of different lime kiln types

5.1 General note

5.2 PFR lime kilns

5.2.2 Operating principle

5.2.3 Limitations of the PFR technology

5.3 HPS lime kilns

5.3.2 Operating principle

5.3.3 Limitations of the HPS kiln

6. Research and development in lime shaft kiln design

6.1 Requirements related to the calcining process

Figure 14: Example of a rotary hopper charging system

could be of significant interest for various applications.

6.2 Influences related to material property

Figure 17: Overview of variable raw material properties

6.3 Influences related to fuel property

6.4 Optimised shaft kiln design

7. Emissions from modern lime shaft kilns

Figure 20: Emissions from PFR lime kilns

Figure 21: CO2 emissions from PFR lime kilns

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