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Energy
EnergyProcedia 126
Procedia 00(201709) 123–130
(2017) 000–000
nd
72 Conference of the Italian Thermal Machines Engineering Association, ATI2017, 6-8
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
September 2017, Lecce, Italy
72nd Conference of the Italian Thermal Machines Engineering Association, ATI2017, 6-8
September 2017, Lecce, Italy
Energy analysis of swimming pools for sports activities: cost
Energyeffective
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I. Andrića,b,c*, A. Pinaa, P. Ferrãoa, J. Fournierb., B. Lacarrièrec, O. Le Correc
Abstract
a
IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
b
Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France
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improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations.

© 2017 The Authors.

* Corresponding author.Published by Elsevier fax:
Tel.: +39-0637725624; Ltd.+0-000-000-0000 .
Peer-review under responsibility of the
E-mail address: f.zuccari@unimarconi.it Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and
Cooling.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39-0637725624; fax: +0-000-000-0000 .
1876-6102 © 2017 The
E-mail address: Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
f.zuccari@unimarconi.it
Keywords: Heat
Peer-review demand;
under Forecast; Climate
responsibility change committee of the 72nd Conference of the Italian Thermal Machines Engineering
of the scientific
Association.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 72nd Conference of the Italian Thermal Machines Engineering
Association.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 72nd Conference of the Italian Thermal Machines Engineering Association
10.1016/j.egypro.2017.08.131
124 Orecchini F et al. / Energy Procedia 126 (201709) 123–130

© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific
2
committee of the 72nd Conference of the Italian Thermal Machines Engineering
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000
Association
Keywords: Energy efficiency, sports facilities, energy vectors, swimming pools

Nomenclature

COP Coefficient Of Performance of heating pump

cw Specific heat water (J/kg K)
DHW Domestic Hot Water
DM Italian Ministerial Decree
P Global efficiency of the pump
g Gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
HEC High-Efficiency Cogeneration
Hp Head of the pump (m)
Iabs Solar radiation absorbed on the pool (W)
𝑚𝑚̇��,� Evaporation flow rate of water (m3/s)
𝑚𝑚̇�,� Replacement flow rate of water (m3/s)
PP Electrical power absorbed by the pump (W)
qcond Heat loss by conduction (W)
qconv Heat loss by convection (W)
qev Heat loss by evaporation (W)
qirr Heat loss by irradiation (W)
Qp Volumetric flow rate of the pump (m3/s)
qr,w Thermal power for heating replacement water (W)
qs,l Heating power supplied to compensate for heat losses (W)
qtot,w Total heating power supplied (W)
w Water density (1,000 kg/m3)
Tn Water supply network Temperature (K)
TP Water Pool temperature (K)
Vtot Total volume of water

1. Introduction

In general, sports facilities are energy-consuming [1] as they normally have large volumes to be heated and
illuminated, high need for hot water, as well as other specific energy-consuming requirements; for this reason, they
have a great potential for energy-efficiency actions. For this reason, there are some improvements in terms of efficiency
actions that, in general, fit into all sports facilities (or, more generally, all the most energy-consuming utilities) such
as the adoption of high efficiency (condensing) boilers, led lighting, installation of solar panels, cogeneration plants,
etc. As regards sports facilities in particular, specific energy requirements may vary considerably depending on the
sports discipline the venue is used for (gyms, swimming pools, soccer fields, etc), architectural and dimensional
characteristics and intended use (school facilities, neighbourhood facilities, plants with or without state, etc.). Among
the various types of sports facilities, swimming pools have a high potential for energy efficiency actions. In fact,
swimming pools, in addition to the energy needs common to all types of sports facilities (room heating, Domestic Hot
Water - DHW, lighting, etc.), also have particular requirements such as heating, filtration and water replacement.

2. Mass and energy balance to heat swimming pools

As regards Fig. 1 it is possible to define a mass and energy balance of a pool; for the heating of swimming pools,
mass balances have an impact on energy balances since the replacement water must be heated from the water network
temperature (about 12 ° C) to the pool usage temperature (averagely 28 ° C ).
 Orecchini F et al. / Energy Procedia 126 (201709) 123–130 125
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 3

Fig. 1. Mass and energy balance for the heating of swimming pools.

Mass and energy balances determine the consumption of drinking water and the energy needed to keep the amount
of water and temperature inside the pool constant.

2.1. Energy needs to heat swimming pools

As regards Fig.1, the energy needs are the electricity for water filtration pumping and heat to compensate heat
losses (evaporation, conduction and convection) and to heat the water replaced. The electric power absorbed by the
recirculation pump is:

HP  QP  w  g
PP = (1)
P
The volumetric flow rate must be calculated in such a way as to ensure a recirculation time of the total volume of
water (given by the sum of the pool water volume and the conventional volume of the compensating tank) less than
or equal to that shown in Table 3 of UNI10637: 2015 [2, 3] for various swimming pool types as shown in Table 1.
The same rules for the various types of pools define the characteristics of filters and, consequently, their load losses
on which the pump head is calculated (increasing filter load losses by 10 to 15% to take account of losses load in the
pipes). The pump efficiency is defined based on its characteristics-related curve.

Table 1. Maximum recirculation time values for swimming pools for swimmers and swimming training (UNI10637: 2015).
Pool deep (mm) Maximum recirculation time (h)
Up to 1,200 3
Over 1,200 4

For example, a typical swimming school pool (short course) has a length of 25 m, a width of 12.5 m and an average
depth of 1.8 m. The total water volume, considering the volume of the compensation tank (UNI10637: 2015), is 607.5
m3, so the Qp flow rate is 202.5 m3/h. The pump head (HP) is defined by the characteristics of the filters and it is about
12 m; with this data, from (1) an absorbed electric power of about 11 kW is obtained. As regards to Fig. 1, the thermal
balance of the pool is expressed by the following equation:

dTp
q s,l  I abs  qev  qirr  qconv  qcond   w  cw Vtot (2)
dt
The absorbed solar radiation is calculated by multiplying the incident solar radiation by the water absorption
coefficient (0.85). For heating swimming pools the temperature is kept constant, so from (2) it is:

q s,l  qev  qirr  qconv  qcond  I abs (3)

In addition to the thermal power required to compensate the losses given by (3) one should consider the one to heat
the replacement water given by:
126 Orecchini F et al. / Energy Procedia 126 (201709) 123–130
4 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

q r,w  cw  m r , w TP  Tn  (4)

The total heat to be provided to maintain the constant pool water temperature is
q tot,w  q s,l  q r,w (5)
For the calculation of the heating losses by evaporation, irradiation, convection and conduction reference was made
to the available technical literature [4 - 10].
Replacement water flow is calculated based on consumption for evaporation, minimum daily water replacement
provided by UNI10637 [2, 3] and full water replacement (once a year).
Water evaporation flow is calculated from the evaporation coefficient obtained by dividing the heat transfer
coefficient for evaporation by the water latent heat of vaporization. The minimum daily water replacement provided
by UNI 10637: 2015 [2, 3] for swimming pools with a high daily number of users are expressed as a percentage of
the total water volume to be replacement daily; the replacement flow rate will be equal to the sum of the amount of
water to evaporate and of the amount needed to reintegrate the minimum daily water replacement. The same legislation
provides for the full replacement of water at least once a year. Considering the operating conditions imposed by
UNI10637: 2015, pool water temperature 28°C, air temperature 27°C, relative humidity 70%, for a short course the
total heat to be provided to maintain the pool water temperature (qtot,W) is about 75 kW.

3. Energy efficiency actions

For energy consumption due to the operation of swimming pools in sports facilities, possible energy efficiency
actions can be of two types:
 Reduction of heat needs: Reduction of losses; Recovery of heat from expelled water
 Production of energy vectors with high efficiency systems or using renewable sources: Heat production for
water heating; Production of electricity for recirculation and water filtration
 Simultaneous production of electricity and useful heat: Cogeneration plants.

3.1. Reduction of heat needs

The actions to reduce heating losses concern only those that occur from water surface, as those from walls and the
bottom (conduction) are completely negligible. For this purpose, by applying the algorithm developed at swimming
pools in swimming schools in Italy, the following results are obtained. The use of thermal swimming pool cover
during night-time (hours of non-use) can reduce heat losses by up to 50%, by reducing about 12% of total heat needs.
According to UNI standards, the daily amount of expelled water is approximately 5% of total volume; the recovery
of the heat therein contained entails considerable energy savings. Such heat (expelled water) can be used to heat the
replacement water (Fig. 1) by means of heat exchangers or water / water heat pumps.
In case heat exchangers are used, the expelled water (hot) is sent to the exchanger which, through a cross-flow with
cold water (replacement water), provides heat to the latter. Given the low temperatures of the hot fluid (expelled
water), the installation of these recovery systems requires special arrangements such as a good calibration of the inlet
water flow rates to the heating exchanger to have no high speeds to optimize the heat exchange. With a good sizing,
it is possible to recover up to 60% of heat by reducing about 50% of total heat needs.
In case water/water heat pumps are used for heat recovery, expelled water and replacement water are heat sources
from the pump with very high COPs due to operating temperatures. By means of this system, the entire heat can be
virtually recovered, reducing the total heat need to almost 80% with an increase in electricity demand of about 30%.
The use of water/water heat pumps with respect to the heat exchanger allows greater savings against higher initial
costs.

3.2. Production of energy vectors with high efficiency systems or by means of renewable sources

Due to the low pool water temperatures, the air / water heat pumps for these applications have very high COPs,
especially during periods of high outdoor temperature (the COP is about 5 with outside temperatures around 15 ° C).
 Orecchini F et al. / Energy Procedia 126 (201709) 123–130 127
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 5

Normally, compared to a condensing boiler system, an air / water heat pump system is convenient to outdoor
temperatures up to 0 ° C (up to about 2 ° C). In case of external temperatures close to 0 ° C, it is necessary to use a
source heat exchanger defrosting system that absorbs energy (from 5% to 13% of the total thermal energy produced
by the heat pump).
Geothermal heat pumps (water / ground water or water / soil) have significantly higher average COPs (around 5.5)
than water / air, as the groundwater (or the soil) temperature remains practically constant for all year. So you have
more savings against higher initial costs.
The low temperatures required allow the use of non-glazed solar collectors that have far lower costs than the
standard panels, and have high operating performance at these operating temperatures. The feasibility of these systems
is subject to the availability of usable surfaces, and producibility depends on the site.
The recirculation pump electric power consumption , virtually constant, allows the use of integrated photovoltaic
systems with peak power just above the power absorbed by the recirculation pump (which requires an area of about
one third of the pool surface) with a self-consumption of energy produced of virtually 100% (without storage), with
clear economic benefits and from the point of view of overall efficiency [12].
The continuous and simultaneous heat and electricity demand in pools (with a thermal and electric power ratio of
around 4) creates the technical-economic conditions ideal for the installation of cogeneration plants operating in
compliance with the requirements of the DM of September 5 2011 - High-Efficiency Cogeneration (HEC).

4. EnerPool algorithm description

For the calculation of pool energy needs, an ad hoc algorithm (named EnerPool) was developed based on current
regulations, validated with literature data [2, 3]. Fig. 2 shows the calculation scheme.

Fig. 2. EnerPool algorithm scheme.

The input data of EnerPool are the following:

 Pool data: size, type of use (swimming school, competitive activities, etc ...), operating conditions (indoor,
outdoor, periods of use, ...) and location.
 Norms: Swimming pool regulations [2, 3] for the definition of operating conditions for swimming pools (water
temperature, temperature and humidity above bathtub for indoor swimming pools, water supply, etc.) and
technical regulations - UNI10349 [13] for the calculation of environmental parameters for outdoor pools (air
temperature, humidity, average air speed, irradiation, etc.). For outdoor pools, daily irradiation profiles are
calculated from Liu-Jordan equations by monthly average solar radiation data available in UNI10349 [13] and
daily temperature profiles are calculated by the average monthly temperature from UNI10349 [13] based on a
calculation method proposed by Schibuola and Romagnoni [14].
 Current energy solutions: modes for heat and electricity supply, presence of solutions to reduce energy
demand.
EnerPool output data (results) are energy needs (heat and electricity), energy vector consumption (electricity and
natural gas) and relevant non-renewable primary energy consumption calculated by the primary energy conversion
factor of the energy vectors used as required by UNI TS 11300 [12], besides the CO2 emissions calculated on the basis
of the National Standard Parameters Table of the Coefficients Used for the Inventory of CO2 Emissions in the National
Inventory UNFCCC from the ISPRA Report [16].
128 Orecchini F et al. / Energy Procedia 126 (201709) 123–130
6 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

5. Energy consumption and potential energy savings analysis

From FIN data (partial data from an ongoing CONI census), there are 1,399 swimming schools in Italy (of which
626 federal swimming schools). The data provided by FIN specifically concerns size, type of use (swimming school,
agonistic activities, etc ...), operating conditions (indoor, outdoor, periods of use, ...) and location. To date there is no
official data on the number and type of swimming pools in each swimming school. On the basis of the partial data
available, it was presently possible to conduct an analysis of 534 swimming schools for a total of 855 swimming pools.
The main types of swimming pools for swimming schools are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Swimming pool types for swimming schools.
Swimming pool surface (m2) Minimum deep (m) Sport activities
25.0012.50 1.20 Swimming, rescue swimmer.
25.0012.50 1.50 Swimming, synchronized swimming, water polo, rescue swimmer.
25.0016.50 1.35 Swimming, rescue swimmer.
25.0016.50 1.80 Swimming, synchronized swimming, water polo, rescue swimmer.
25.0025.00 1.35 Swimming, rescue swimmer.
25.0025.00 1.80 Synchronized swimming, water polo.
34.8321.00 2.00 Swimming, synchronized swimming, water polo, rescue swimmer.
50.0021.00 2.00 Swimming, synchronized swimming, water polo, rescue swimmer.
51.5025.00 2.00 Swimming, synchronized swimming, water polo, rescue swimmer.
53.5025.00 2.00 Swimming, synchronized swimming, water polo, rescue swimmer.

Such estimate concerns the energy savings achieved through the reduction of energy needs and not through the
production of energy carriers with high efficiency systems or by using renewable sources.
This is due to the fact that energy needs reduction interventions:
- Are always feasible: the use of the thermal swimming pool covers require no particular conditions, and the
installation of heat exchanger or heat pumps inside the hydraulic system installed according to the regulations in force
(presence of compensation tanks and of technical filtering rooms easily accessible and inspected) can be carried out
without any special problems for all swimming pools in sports facilities. On the contrary, the possibility of installing
solar plants (photovoltaic or thermal) depends on the availability of adequate surfaces that should be checked on a
case by case basis; furthermore, the correct sizing of a cogeneration plant can not disregard the other energy needs of
sports facilities (in addition to the swimming pool ones) such as the heating rooms (at temperatures higher than the
ones for domestic use), the production of domestic hot water, and the electricity for lighting and power purposes.
- Have low investment costs and a low payback period: installing the thermal swimming pool covers and heat
exchangers for a standard pools costs about 20,000 €, that is about 40% of the annual energy bill charged for the pool
only (much less considering the overall energy bill); with water / water heat pumps, the initial cost rises to over 25,000
€, (about 55% of the annual energy bill considering the pool only). The payback period is in any case lower than two
years. Conversely, the installation of a cogeneration plant has higher investment costs (millions of euros) and a higher
payback period.
- Are not alternative ones: energy needs reduction interventions are in no way alternative to those of energy-
vector production through high efficiency systems or by using renewable sources. On the contrary they must be the
first step in a proper energy diagnosis procedure [17, 18].

6. Analysis of results

The adoption of the algorithm to the 855 swimming pools in Italian swimming schools shows that, on average, the
heat energy needs of indoor pools without reduction of energy needs are about 5 times higher than the electricity ones.
The average distribution of heat energy needs is shown in Fig. 3; about 38% of this heat is due to the heating of water
 Orecchini F et al. / Energy Procedia 126 (201709) 123–130 129
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 7

replacements; the remaining 62% is represented by evaporation (60%) and convection (2%) losses, while conduction
is negligible.

Fig. 3. Average distribution of the heat energy needs of indoor pools.

In the case of outdoors pools, evaporation losses are significantly increased; irradiation is important (no indoor
pools) and the contribution of solar radiation and environmental conditions (such as the location of the swimming
pool) is of particular importance. The results of the analysis on lower energy demand show that the use of the thermal
swimming poll covers reduces heat losses by more than 50%, by reducing about 31% of total heat needs. The heat
exchangers allow to recover about 60% of the heat content of the expelled water, reducing total heat requirements by
25%; the water / water heat pumps can completely recover the heat of the expelled water by reducing total heat
requirements by 38%, with the electricity needs increased by less than 20%.
The overall results of potential non-renewable primary energy savings and CO2 avoided emissions with actions
analyzed at swimming schools in Italy are shown in Table 3, which shows the results for the following cases:
A. No reduction of needs
B. Use of thermal swimming pool cover during non-use hours
C. Heat recovery of expelled water with heat exchangers
D. Heat recovery of expelled water with water / water heat pumps
E. Use of the thermal swimming pool cover during non-use hours and heat recovery of expelled water with
heat exchangers
F. Use of the thermal swimming pool cover during non-use hours and heat recovery of expelled water with
water / water heat pumps

Table 3. Consumption and emissions in the cases analyzed.

Energy Natural gas Electricity Non-renewable CO2 Non-renewable
CO2 emission avoided
efficiency consumption consumption primary energy emission primary energy saving
(ton)
intervention (m3) (kWh) consumption (tep) (t) (tep)
A 79.451.673 133.289.982 92.118 202.513 - -
B 54.920.912 133.289.982 70.577 154.489 21.541 48.024
C 59.390.775 133.289.982 74.502 163.240 17.616 39.273
D 49.416.492 158.705.626 70.004 152.670 22.114 49.843
E 34.860.014 133.289.982 52.961 115.216 39.157 87.297
F 24.885.731 158.705.626 48.463 104.646 43.655 97.867

7. Conclusions

As described in the results analysis, needs reduction show that a non-renewable primary energy saving can range
between about 19% and 47%. It is also important to underline how at present, in Italy, the water used in plants is
drinking water taken from the water supply network, for a total consumption of almost 16 million m3/year. It should
be noted that the processed data only refer to a part of the total number of swimming school facilities existing in the
130 Orecchini F et al. / Energy Procedia 126 (201709) 123–130
8 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

national territory whose census is ongoing. The analysis carried out, as explained in the present paper, also intended
to ne made in conservative conditions, that is only focused on the analysis of the energy consumption of swimming
pools. This means, therefore, that there is a further margin of energy-efficiency actions, significantly greater,
correlated to possible actions on the structures that house the polls and, therefore, on other energy needs (room heating,
DHW, illumination, ...) which on average are, in case of heat, similar to pools, ones and for electricity the value can
easily be doubled. The study carried out under a research agreement with FIN led the authors to a critical analysis of
the reasons that, in consideration of the high energy savings potential in managing swimming pools do not correspond
to the figures above. This critical analysis led the authors to identify as the main barrier to the execution of the
interventions analysed the lack of a technical office able to assess the potential of actions for swimming pool managers
(not federal centres) and, as another criticism, that directly linked to ESCo, which, being a trading company, sees low
margins related to "small" interventions in small plants. In federal centres, in fact, where there is a technical office
and the facilities are large, the actions, though not so many, are made.

Acknowledgements

This work was carried out under a FIN-UniMARCONI research agreement. The authors wish to thank the FIN, in
particular the sector of swimming facilities for profitable collaboration.

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