LEARNING, MEMORY, THINKING & PROBLEM-SOLVING

LEARNING

Elements

1. Learning is a complex process.

2. The presence of learning process can be deduced often by a change in behavior.
3. The change in behavior has to be more or less permanent & enduring.
4. Practice or exercise (experience) brings about the change in behavior.

KINDS

I. Habituation- simplest kind of learning. Associative learning- the next level of learning wherein we
form new association between a stimulus and a response (S-R theory).
a. Classical Conditioning- involves transfer of response from one stimulus to another stimulus
through repeated pairings.
Parameters
i. Acquisition
ii. Reinforcement
iii. Extinction
iv. Spontaneous recovery
v. Generalization
vi. Discrimination
vii. Higher order conditioning
b. Operant/instrumental conditioning-the learner is allowed to discover how his behavioral
response affects the environment and vice versa.
Phenomena of Interest
i. Shaping
ii. Extinction
iii. Stimulus generalization
iv. Discrimination learning
v. Partial reinforcement
vi. Secondary reinforcement

II. Social learning/Modeling Learning- known as vicarious learning or modeling because a model is
being imitated.
Steps in the process of modeling
a. Attention
b. Retention
c. Motoric reproduction
d. Reinforcement

III. Skill Learning- the proficiency & competency in a certain kind of performance. Involves verbal,
reading and writing. Other are mechanical and athletic.
Stages in learning a skill
a. Cognition
b. Fixation
c. Automation

IV. Verbal Learning – kind of learning distinctly human. Involves the use of words either as stimuli or
responses. Some forms of linguistic abilities like speaking, reading, writing and reciting.
Kinds of Verbal learning
a. Serial-anticipation
b. Free Recall- involves the organization of the verbal materials like groupings of vegetables
and fruits.
c. Paired-Associate- this kind of learning involves establishing a relationship between the 2
elements, where 1 element serves as a stimulus to the other which is the response.
V. Cognitive Learning- a process that we cannot observe and see is taking place. Like perceiving of
current happenings, recalling previous experiences, thinking, reasoning, evaluating and abstracting.

LAWS OF LEARNING

MEMORY

 Memory makes learning possible and without learning there is nothing to remember.
Methods to measure Memory
1. Recall –process of reproducing past learning/experience without any clue.
2. Recognition- denotes the ability to identify learned items that are familiar
3. Redintegration-involves the recollection of past learning/experience with the presence of
cues.
4. Relearning- reviewing previous learning

Basic Steps

1. Perception
2. Encoding/Acquisition
3. Storage
4. Retrieval

Theories of Memory

1. Short-Term Memory
2. Long-Term Memory
a. Semantic
b. Procedural
c. Episodic

Exceptional Forms of Memories

1. Memorists – individual with exceptional memory

2. Eidetikers – individuals who possess eidetic imagery power
3. Memory disorder - memory breaks down
a. Anterograde amnesia-inability to form new permanent memories
b. Retrograde amnesia-inability to reproduce & recall pieces of info learned prior to
amnesia.
c. Psychogenic amnesia- memory disorder brought by emotionally disturbing events

FORGETTING – failure to retain what was previously learned.

Theories of Forgetting
1. Interference
a. Proactive interference
b. Retroactive interference
2. Decay
3. Retrieval-based
4. Storage-based
5. Motivated
THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

 Thinking is a kind of covert behavior. A sequence of symbolic processes to implicitly manipulate

ideas or objects that are physically absent to the senses.

Kinds of thinking

A. Realistic thinking- one where you direct your thinking towards problem solving & decision making.
Two types
a. Close-system-guided by rules and conventions toward the solution of the problem
b. Adventurous thinking- can devise own tools toward the solution of the problem
Three process involved
1. Deductive- drawing out conclusion from all available facts
2. Inductive- when you try to formulate & test some hypotheses as well as to go beyond
3. Evaluative/critical-employed when you judge the suitability & soundness or appropriateness
of an idea or a product based on certain norms
B. Autistic Thinking- one where you engage in thinking just for pleasure of it like in the case of
daydreaming & wishful thinking

PROBLEM SOLVING

 Activity aimed to removed the barrier between your need and your goal.
o Methods
 Trial and Error Method
 Production
 Algorithm
 Means-End Analysis
 Working Background
 Insight
o Steps in problem solving
 Define the problem
 Formulate the hypotheses
 Testing and evaluating
 Problem solution generation
 Conclusion/generalization