FO LDED PLATE STRUCTURES IN PLASTICS

A thesis subm itted for the D egree o f D octor o f

Philosophy in the F a c u lty o f E ngineering o f the

U n iv e rs ity o f London.

by

B eza le el Solomon B enjam in,

M .S c .( E n g .)(L o n d .), B .E ., D . I . C

S tructural Plastics Research U n it,

Battersea C o lle g e o f T e ch n o lo g y,

London.

N o v e m b e r, 1 9 6 5 .
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 A B S T R A C T

This thesis is an in vestig atio n into the use o f plastics in

structures o f the fo ld ed p la te ty p e .

Plastics as a structural m a terial has first been c r it ic a lly

e v a lu a te d w ith p a rtic u la r reference to the types that may be used fo r

structural purposes. The d ifferen ces in the m ech an ical properties

b etw een these m aterials and c o n ven tio n al m aterials have been

exam ined in d e t a il. C o n ven tio n al design concepts have been

su ita b ly e n la rg e d to take these differen ces into a c c o u n t.

Folded p la te structures in plastics b u ilt up from p re fa b ric a te d

units have then been e x a m in e d . The tw o -p la te u n it enables the com plete

p re fa b ric a tio n o f a v a rie ty o f structures, p a rtic u la rly o f the composite

ty p e , and has been selected fo r fu rth er study. The existin g approach

to the analysis o f fo ld ed plates has been m od ified for a p p lic a tio n to such

structures in p la s tic s. This m o dified approach is p a rtic u la rly su itable fo r

use w ith composite fo ld ed p la te structures formed from n o n -p rism atic p la te s .

Large transverse d e fle c tio n s o f the structure can be c o n v e n ie n tly taken into

a c c o u n t. This m o d ified approach has been v e rifie d by ex p e rim e n ta l w ork

on the roof stru ctu re, the tw o -p in n e d composite fo ld ed p la te portal fram e

and a composite fo ld ed p la te b arrel v a u lt .

 Folded p la te structures in plastics can be o f single skin

o r sandwich co n stru ctio n . The properties o f expanded polystyrene and

rig id polyu reth an e foam for use as low density cores in such sandwich

construction have been d e te rm in e d .

A prototype composite folded p la te barrel v a u lt of

sandwich construction has been d evelo p ed and tested . S p ecial

a tte n tio n has been p aid to the connections betw een the fu lly p re fa b ric a te d

u n its. The costs o f the structure have been b rie fly e x a m in e d . The test

results have been analysed and the th e o re tic a l and e x p erim en tal

beh avio ur o f the structure have been com pared.

F in a l conclusions have been drawn and suggestions fo r fu rth er

research have been m a d e .

 I should lik e to ackn o w led g e my g ra titu d e to

Professor Z . S. M a k o w s k i, Head o f the D epartm ent o f C iv il

E n g in eerin g , Battersea C o lle g e o f T ech n o lo g y, for his kin d

help and g u id a n c e . His perspective v ie w o f the problem has

been in v a lu a b le .

I should also lik e to a ckn o w led g e my g ra titu d e to

the Shell C h em ical C o . L t d ., for the Shell C h em ical C o .

research scholarship, for the free supply o f m aterials and for

generous grants towards the cost o f the p ro to ty p e . A special

word o f thanks is due to M r . R. F . Salmons and D r . E . N a rra c o tt

o f the Shell C h em ical C o . for th e ir sustained interest in this w o rk .

 WORK ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION

The e n tire contents o f this thesis are the work o f the au th o r,

done a fte r being registered for the degree o f D octor o f Philosophy, in

the F a c u lty o f E ngineering o f the U n iv e rs ity o f London. Some o f the

w ork has since been acc ep te d for p u b lic a tio n as follow s:

1. The contents o f C h ap ter 1 have been w ritte n in the form

o f a paper e n title d 'An E valu atio n o f Plastics as a S tructural M a t e r i a l '.

This has been ac ce p te d for p u b lic a tio n by "The Consulting E n g in e e r" ,

London.

2. The contents o f Chapters 2 , 3 , 5 , 6 and part o f 7 , in a

condensed form w ere read as a paper in c o lla b o ra tio n w ith Professor

M akow ski a t the co nference 'Plastics in B uilding Structures' held in

London in June 1 9 6 5 . The paper was e n title d 'The A nalysis of Folded

Plate Structures in P la s tic s .' The proceedings are to be published by

Pergamon Press la te r this y e a r.

3. The contents o f A p p en d ix 1 have been w ritte n in the

form o f a paper e n title d 'Expanded Polystyrene and Rigid Polyurethane

Foam Cores in S tructural Sandwich C o n s tru c tio n '. This has been a ccep ted

for p u b lic a tio n by " C iv il Engineering and Public Works R e v ie w " , London.
 C O N T E N T S

CHAPTER PAG E

1. Plastics as a structural m a te r ia l. 7

2. Folded p la te structures in p la s tic s . 19

3. The fo ld ed p la te roof (in te rn a l u n it ). 32

4. The fold ed p la te roof (e x te rn a l u n it). 54

5. The tw o -p in n e d , fo ld ed p la te portal

fra m e . ^ 79

6. The folded p la te barrel v a u lt. 93

7. Tests on a prototype fo lded p la te

b arrel v a u l t . 126

8. Conclusions. 174

9. Suggestions for fu rth er res e a rc h . 178

A P P E N D IX 1. 183

A P P E N D IX 2 . 207

REFERENCES. 279
 7

CHAPTER 1

Plastics as a structural m a te r ia l.

1.1 In tro d u ctio n :

The use o f plastics as a structural m a terial w ill c re a te controversy for

many years to co m e. Plastics when used stru c tu ra lly have some advantages -

and some disadvantages - as,com pared to co n ven tio n al m aterials such as s te e l,

alum inium o r concrete . T h e ir disadvantages, ap a rt from high cost, lie m a in ly

in the properties o f the m a te ria l w h ich w ill be considered in g re a te r d e ta il in

1 .3 . It w ould th erefo re be a p p ro p riate to discuss b r ie fly firs t, the advantages

o f those plastics suitable for structural a p p lic a tio n s .

1 .1 .1 A dvantages o f plastics o v e r c o n v e n tio n a l m aterials:

1. Structural plastics have h igher s tre n g th /w e ig h t ratios than

most o th er en g in ee rin g m a te ria ls .

2. They are a ttra c tiv e in appearance and can contribute

su bstantially to the a rc h ite c tu ra l b eauty o f the stru ctu re. They can e a s ily

be made tra n s lu c e n t. They can also be e a s ily pigm ented to g ive desired

colours to the stru ctu re.

3. M a n y plastics have e x c e e d in g ly good corrosion resistance,

w hich is fa r superior to th at of many con ven tio n al e n g in eerin g m a te ria ls .

4. Plastics are ve ry am enable to p re fa b ric a tio n . This p ro p erty,

together w ith th e ir lig h t w e ig h t, makes them ve ry useful m aterials in systems

o f industrialised b u ild in g .
 In order to be a b le to design in p lastics, it is first necessary to

understand v e ry thoroughly the m aterial its e lf. To do so is not easy,

co m p licated by the fa c t that there are m any, many types o f plastics

used for a v a rie ty o f purposes. H o w ever for structural purposes there

are o n ly a small number o f e ffic ie n t plastics and these w ill now be

considered in g re a te r d e t a il.

1 .2 Plastics su itab le for structural ap p lic a tio n s :

Plastics can be classified b a s ic a lly into two main groups;

therm oplastic m aterials and therm osetting m a te ria ls .

Therm oplastic m a te ria ls soften on the a p p lic a tio n of h e a t.

They hence e x h ib it considerable creep under load p a rtic u la rly at

e le v a te d tem peratures. P o ly v in y lc h lo rid e (p vc) and p o ly m e th y lm e th a c ry la te

(Perspex) are exam ples o f therm oplastics that can be used for lig h t structural

a p p lic a tio n s . G e n e r a lly th ey are in sheet form and are used re in fo rc e d .

They have the advan tag e o f being e a s ily am enable to shaping or m oulding

into d iffic u lt shapes. They are isotropic and being unreinforced show very

consistent p ro p erties. Perspex domeshells b u ilt in F in lan d may be g iven as

an exam ple of the structural use to w hich these m aterials may be p u t. They

have a di a m eter o f 19 f t . 4 i n . and a h eig h t o f 6 f t . They w ere designed fo r a

snow load o f 3 0 .7 lb s /s q .ft. and a w ind load o f 2 0 .5 lb s /s q .ft. ^

Therm osetting m aterials once cured, do not soften on the a p p lic a tio n

o f h e a t. W hen rein fo rced th e y e x h ib it higher strengths and a fa r less

tendency to creep than the therm oplastics. The p o ly e s te r, e p o x id e , and

p h e n o lic resins are exam ples o f therm osetting p la s tic s . O f these, the

polyesters are by fa r the most w id e ly used. They are r e la tiv e ly cheap and

g ive good properties in rein fo rced la m in a te s . The ep oxid e resins g ive

extrem e ly good p ro p erties, but th ey are more expensive than the p o lyesters.

The p h en o lic resins g ive good properties w hich are m ain tain ed even a t high

tem peratures. They are hence p a rtic u la rly su itable for such w o rk . H o w ever

p h en o lic resins require hot cures and high la m in a tin g pressures and this

lim its th e ir a p p lic a tio n s m ain ly to the aerospace industry.

A ll these therm osetting resins cannot be used s tru c tu ra lly by themselves

and have to be rein fo rced w ith su itable reinforcem ent such as glass, c lo th ,

paper or asbestos. For high tem perature w o rk , asbestos rein fo rced p h e n o lic

lam inates are the most s u ita b le . The commonest reinforcem ent is glass. The

2
glass reinforcem ent is a v a ila b le m a in ly in three forms:

a. Chopped strand mat: This is the most im portant type o f glass

fibre rein fo rcem en t and consists o f about 2 " long fibres random ly o rie n te d .

The resulting lam in ate is hence es s e n tia lly iso tro p ic.

b. Rovings: These consist o f a d e fin ite number o f continuous,

p a r a lle l, bundled but untw isted strands o f glass. They im part v e ry high

d ire c tio n a l strengths and for this reason fin d great a p p lic a tio n as re in fo rc e ­

ments in fila m e n t wound structures such as pipes, tanks, rocket casings e t c .

 c. Cloths: These are w oven fabrics w h ich g ive e x tre m e ly

strong lam in ates. They are h ow ever e x p e n s iv e . C lo th rein fo rced lam inates

are anisotropic in th e ir p ro p erties.

In single skin construction, the rein fo rced lam inates can be used

by them selves. H ow ever for large spans it is necessary to use structural

sandwich construction in w hich the thin rein fo rced lam inates are bonded to

a low density c o re . The facings then take the bending moment and the

a x ia l forces and the core is assumed to take a ll the shear. The cores

themselves can be o f low density p lastics, and the four m ain types are

as follow s:

a. R igid p o lyu reth an e foam

b. Expanded polystyrene

c. Expanded pvc

d. Phenolic fo a m .

O f these, the rig id po lyu reth an e foam and the p h e n o lic foam are

therm osetting p lastics, the o th er two being therm oplastics. The rig id

p olyurethane foam has an ad van tag e o ver the o th er three in that it can be

foamed d ire c tly onto the lam inates w hich makes it p a rtic u la rly su itable for

insitu w o rk . Further the p o lyester lam inates can be d ir e c tly 'l a i d 1 on i t .

This cannot be done w ith expanded polystyrene as the polystyrene is

c h e m ic a lly a tta c k e d . Expanded pvc and p h en o lic foam are not a tta c k e d .

H ow ever the surface o f p h en o lic foam has to be sealed in o rder to p reven t

the p en etratio n o f la m in atin g resin into the fo am .

 The au th o r has ca rrie d out a d e ta ile d in vestig atio n into the properties

o f expanded polystyrene and rig id p o lyurethane foam w ith a v ie w to using the

m aterials as cores in structural sandwich co n stru ctio n . The results o f this

in vestig atio n are g iven in A p p en d ix 1.

1 .3 The m ech an ical b eh av io u r o f plastics:

As has been seen, the types o f plastics su itable for structural

ap p licatio n s are fa ir ly lim ite d . To be a b le to use these plastics e f fic ie n tly

how ever, it is ve ry necessary to study th e ir m echan ical b eh avio u r and to

h ig h lig h t the d ifferen ces in such b eh avio u r betw een these m aterials and the

commonly used en g in e erin g m a te ria ls . The main d ifferen ces may be listed

as under:

1. The stress/strain curves o f plastics are not u su ally lin e a r

up to y ie ld . In some cases there may be no y ie ld a t a l l .

2. The modulus o ^ la s t ic it y in tension o f plastics is not

necessarily the same as th a t in compression.

3. The modulus o f e la s tic ity o f plastics is v e ry lo w .

4. Plastics can e x h ib it anisotropic b e h a v io u r.

5. The m ech an ical b eh av io u r o f plastics is a ffe c te d by

the rate o f strain in g o f the m a t e r ia l.

6. The m ech an ical b eh av io u r o f plastics is a ffe c te d by

the tem p era tu re.

7. Plastics creep co n sid erably under load w ith tim e .

 12

8. Plastics show a red u ction in u ltim a te strengths w ith tim e

even under static lo a d in g .

9. The properties o f plastics can be a ffe c te d by enviro n m en tal

co n d itio n s.

1 0. The fire resistance o f plastics is v e ry po o r.

Each fa c to r w ill now be considered in g re a te r d e t a il.

1 .3 .1 The stress/strain curves o f plastics are not u su ally lin e a r up

to y ie ld . In some cases there may be no y ie ld a t a l l .

The im portance o f this fa c to r depends la rg e ly on the typ e o f

plastics used. For glass fib re rein fo rced plastics, the n o n -lin e a r ity up to

strains o f about 0 .3 % is small and the tangent modulus a t the o rig in may

be used as the e la s tic modulus. F u rth er, the y ie ld and the u ltim a te strengths

are so close th at th e y are u su a lly considered to be id e n t ic a l. The m a te ria l

can therefore be designed fo r its u ltim a te strength. H o w ever, due to the

absence o f p las tic flo w a t y ie ld , the m a te ria l is in cap ab le o f re lie v in g stress

co ncentrations. In therm oplastics the presence o f a y ie ld poin t and a zone o f

plastic flo w in the stress-strain curve depend on the tem perature and the rate

o f straining o f the m a te r ia l. A t lo w er tem peratures and h ig h er straining nates,

the therm oplastics show b rittle fractu re w ith absence o f y ie ld .

1 . 3 . 2 The modulus o f e la s tic ity in tension is not necessarily the same

as th at in compression.

This is true o f most p la s tic s . For glass fib re rein fo rced plastics and

the therm oplastics h o w ever, the d iffe re n c e in the two m oduli is s m a ll, and may
be n e g lected in the a n aly sis . The d iffe re n c e can h ow ever be v e ry great

for the low density core m aterials such as rig id polyu reth an e foam or

expanded p o ly styren e.

1 .3 .3 The modulus o f e la s tic ity o f plastics is ve ry lo w .

This is a v e ry im portant fa c to r to be kept in mind when designing

w ith p la stic s. Even glass fib re rein fo rced polyester has a modulus o f o n ly

about 1 x 10^ p s i. The therm oplastics have even lo w er values than this,

the one m inute fle x u ra l modulus o f Perspex a t 2 0 ° C bein g 4 .4 2 x 1(T* p si.

If these m aterials w ere hence to be used in co n ven tio n al structural forms,

the d eflectio n s w ould be so large as to seriously lim it the c a rry in g c a p a c ity

o f the stru ctu re. To offset this disadvantage th e re fo re , it is ve ry essential

to use those structural forms w hich g ive added stiffness by v irtu e o f th e ir

shape . Folded p la te s, singly and doubly curved shells, and stressed skin

3 A
space structures o ffe r the greatest p o s s ib ilitie s . ' Even the use o f such

forms can le a d , in single skin construction, to large local d e fle c tio n s as fo r

instance the d efle ctio n s o f a free e d g e . These large d e fle c tio n s considerably

co m p licate the analysis and w ill be discussed in g re a te r d e ta il in the next

c h a p te r.

1 .3 .4 Plastics can e x h ib it an isotropic b e h a v io u r.

The therm oplastics lik e pvc and Perspex show isotropy w hich

sim plifies the an a ly sis . Glass fib re rein fo rced lam in ates, rein fo rced w ith

chopped strand m at, also show isotropy. Lam inates rein fo rced w ith woven

rovings or cloths show o rthotropy the two d irections being the w arp d ire c tio n
 14

and the w e ft d ire c tio n . The properties o f the lam in ate a t a n y g iven ang le

2
betw een these two d irectio n s can then be d e te rm in e d . This pro p erty o f

reinforced plastics can be used to great ad van tag e in fila m e n t w in d in g w here

desired d ire c tio n a l strengths can be e a s ily o b ta in e d . It is c o n c e iv a b le that

the glass reinforcem ents in plastics structures such as shells, may be p la c e d

along the d irectio n s o f the p rin c ip a l stresses to g ive the most eco n o m ical use

o f the re in fo rcin g m a te ria l.

1 .3 .5 The m ech an ical b eh av io u r o f plastics is a ffe c te d by the rate

o f straining of the m a t e r ia l.

This fa c to r has a small e ffe c t on the m echan ical properties and

excep tin g for v e ry high rates o f strain (such as im p a c t), the m ech an ical

properties may be assumed to be u n a ffe c te d . This conclusion is p a rtic u la rly

re a lis tic because in c iv il e n g in ee rin g p ra c tic e , it is v e ry d iffic u lt to d e fin e

the rate o f strain w ith w hich loading is imposed on the s tru ctu re. The e x a c t

m echanical beh avio u r o f p lastics, even if f u lly known o ver a large range o f

straining rates, w ould not be v e ry u s e fu l. A t very high straining rates, the

thermoplastics tend to show b rittle fracture w ith absence o f y ie ld .

1 .3 .6 The m ech an ical b eh aviour o f plastics is a ffe c te d by the te m p e ra tu re .

To consider the effects o f tem p eratu re, a sharp d is tin c tio n has to be

made betw een the glass fib re re in fo rced plastics using the therm osetting resins

and the u n rein fo rced therm oplastics. The form er are fa r less sensitive to

tem perature than the la tte r . The general effe c ts o f tem perature are to reduce
 5
the e las tic moduli and the u ltim a te strengths o f the m a t e r ia l. As an e x a m p le ,

o o
pvc has a recommended design stress o f 800 psi a t 2 0 C . A t 5 0 C (a not

unreasonable tem perature during the summer in some parts o f the w o rld ), the

recommended design stress is 2 0 0 p s i. As a n o th e r e x a m p le ,^ the one m inute

fle x u ra l modulus fo r Perspex is governed by the eq u atio n :

E = ( 5 .2 6 - 0 .0 4 2 T ) x 105 psiw h e re ,

T = Tem perature in ° C .

A t 2 0 ° C th e re fo re , E = 4 .4 2 x 10^ psi*

At 5 0 °C " E = 3 . 1 6 x 105 p si.

A t v e ry low tem peratures, the therm oplastics show b rittle fra c tu re

and care should be exercised in th e ir use.

1 .3 .7 Plastics creep considerably under load w ith tim e .

A ll plastics creep w ith tim e and though en g in eerin g m aterials such

as concrete creep as w e ll, the creep in plastics is con siderably g re a te r in

m agnitude. It is also characterised by the fa c t that it is dependant on the

stress le ve l and the tem perature and is w h o lly re c o v e ra b le . As an exam p le o f

the creep in the therm oplastics, Perspex has a one m inute fle x u ra l modulus o f

5 o 5 ft
4 .4 2 x 10 psi a t 20 C w hich reduces to o n ly 2 . 7 x 10 psi a fte r 10000 hours.

Glass fib re reinforced lam inates also creep w ith tim e but a t a slow er rate than

the therm oplastics.

1 .3 .8 Plastics show a re d u ctio n in u ltim a te strengths w ith tim e even

under static lo a d in g .

This statem ent is a k in to saying th at some plastics e x h ib it fa tig u e

beh avio u r even under static lo a d in g . The therm oplastics show this static

fatig u e b eh avio u r to an a larm in g d e g re e . Perspex for instance, has an

u ltim a te tensile strength a fte r one hour o f lo a d in g , a t 20 C , o f 8 6 0 0 p s i.

This reduces to 5 8 0 0 psi a fte r 1000 hours a t 2 0 ° C . ^ The glass fib re

reinforced lam inates show in it ia lly a slight increase in u ltim a te strengths

w ith tim e , due to the fa c t that a c e rta in amount o f curing o f the resin

occurs in the lam inate even a fte r being put into use. A fte r curing is

co m p lete, the u ltim a te strengths show a reduction w ith tim e in much the

same w a y , but to a lesser d e g ree , as the therm oplastics.

1 .3 .9 The properties o f plastics can be a ffe c te d by en viro n m en tal

co n d itio n s.

Some p lastics, w h ilst not being a tta c k e d by acids or a lk a lis ,

are a tta c k e d by ch em ical solvents, w hich if present in a gaseous form in

the atmosphere can cause a serious d e te rio ra tio n o f the s u rfa c e . G e n e r a lly

a tab le o f the resistance o f a p a rtic u la r plastics or resin to a w id e range o f

chem icals is a v a ila b le . Such a ta b le should be used w ith c a re , as some

plastics suffer from a phenomenon c a lle d environm ental stress cra c k in g or

stress c ra z in g . The plastics when immersed unstressed in the flu id suffers no

dam age, but in a stressed co n d itio n can suffer rapid m echanical fa ilu r e .

The glass fib re rein fo rced lam inates are a tta c k e d , amongst o th er ch em icals,

even by long immersions in w a te r . It is b e lie v e d that this is caused, not

by the resin being a tta c k e d , but by the slow d e te rio ra tio n o f the bond b etw een
the resin and the glass fib re s . Exposure to strong sunlight o r u ltra v io le t

rad iatio n can also a ffe c t some p la stic s .

1 .3 .1 0 The fire resistance o f plastics is v e ry p o o r. '

This Is perhaps the most serious o b je c tio n to the use o f plastics

for structural purposes, and has even held up a more widespread use o f

plastics for n o n -stru ctu ral purposes in b u ild in g . W h ile there is no c h e a p ,

co m p letely fire resistant plastics, there are fille rs or a d d itiv e s w h ich when

added to the plastics make it fire retardant o r s e lf-e x tin g u is h in g . H o w ever

these ad d itive s tend to reduce the m ech an ical properties and the w e a th e rin g

resistance o f the plastics as w e l l . In the case o f glass fib re rein fo rced

polyester, it has been found th at the po lyester resin does not flo w , w h ils t

the glass fib re mat acts in some degree as a fire b a rrie r. Constant research

on this vex in g problem is proceeding in a ll the big ch em ical companies and

there is hope th at a co m p le te ly fire resistant, inorganic plastics may soon

be found.

1 .4 Design w ith p las tic s.

It can now be seen that design w ith plastics is not d iff ic u lt provided

certain new concepts are kept in m in d . F irstly it is very essential to know the

tem perature o f o p eratio n and the design life o f the s tru ctu re. As has been seen,

the u ltim a te strengths and the e la s tic m oduli o f the m a te ria l reduce w ith tim e

and tem p eratu re. The structure should hence be designed to have a fa c to r o f

safety (w hich may be as low as 1 .2 ) based on u ltim a te strength values th at are

lik e ly to o ccu r (at th at tem p eratu re) a t the end o f th a t life and not a t the tim e
 18

o f e re c tio n . H ow ever since the fa c to r o f safety w ill a u to m a tic a lly be

higher at the tim e o f e re c tio n , h ig h er handling and e re c tio n stresses may

be p e rm itte d . This can be o f some a d v a n ta g e .

S econdly, p a rtic u la rly in single skin constructio n, d e fle c tio n s can

be large in comparison to the thickness o f the s k in . In plastics, large

d eflectio n s are com patible w ith a p e rfe c tly safe structure w ith stresses

w e ll below the perm issible. In the author's o p in io n , large d e fle c tio n s

should be fre e ly perm itted e x cep t in situations w here th ey are lik e ly to

be p o s itiv e ly uncom fortable or lead to o v e ra ll in s ta b ility o f the stru ctu re.

Restricting the d efle c tio n s fo r an y o th er reasons can o n ly lead to uneconom ical

use o f expensive m a te ria ls . It is fe lt th at progressive a rc h ite c ts w ill not be

hesitant to use the large and v is ib le d e fle c tio n s o f free edges as parts o f

th e ir a rc h ite c tu ra l com position. It m ay even be necessary to d e fin e the

"arc h ite ctu ra l lif e " o f the structure, it being th at period o f tim e a fte r w h ich

the d e flec tio n s , due to c re e p , become so large th at th e y do not satisfy the

o rig in a l com position o f the a r c h ite c t.

B riefly it rhay be concluded th a t in order to design c o rre c tly in p lastics,

it is ve ry essentipl to have a fa r g re a te r know ledge o f both the m a te ria l being

used and the structure in question, than has h ith erto been necessary.
 CHAPTER 2

Folded p la te structures in p la s tic s .

2 .1 Introduction:

It has been shown in C h a p te r 1, th at the v e ry low modulus o f

e la s tic ity o f plastics makes them unsuitable fo r use in co n ven tio n al

structural forms such as, for instance, beam and slab co n stru ctio n .

It is hence necessary to u tilis e those structural forms such as fo ld ed

plates or shells, w hich give added stiffness by v irtu e o f th e ir shape.

Folded p lates, being composed o f fla t elem ents, are more am enable

to p re fa b ric a tio n . Also the joints are sim p ler. Shells due to th e ir

curved shape need expensive m oulds. They w ould require less

m aterial h o w ever, because as a structural form , the shell is more

e ffic ie n t than its e q u iv a le n t fo ld ed p la te . The author b e lie v e s th at

in plastics both forms w ill prosper and there is lit t le to choose betw een

them .

2 .2 Folded p la te structures:

Folded plates in general consist of two or more plates joined

together in such a manner th at the e x te rn a l loading is resolved a t the

folds into components a c tin g in the planes o f the plates form ing the

structure. These components can then be resisted v e ry e ffic ie n t ly as

they a c t in the d ire c tio n o f the greatest stiffness o f the p la te s .

 C oncrete fo ld ed p la te structures are o f three types; p ris m a tic ,

pyram idal and p ris m o id a l.

Prismatic structures are formed from re c ta n g u la r plates and are the

commonest form o f fold ed p la te stru c tu re. They are assumed to be supported

on rig id end diaphragm s. Figs. la and lb are exam ples o f prism atic roof

structures.

Pyram idal structures such as p a v ilio n roofs or hopper bottoms are

g
rather special forms o f fo ld ed p la te structures. The disadvantage o f

pyram idal structures is th a t, if used as single pyram ids, the o v e ra ll

dimensions o f the in d iv id u a l plates become excessive. This has led to a

new form o f stressed skin roof structure, in m aterials such as a lu m in iu m ,

in w hich a number o f square or hexagonal pyramids are con nected a t th e ir

apexes by a square o r tria n g u la r grid to form a stable stru ctu re.

Prismoidal structures are an in te rm ed iate form betw een prism atic

and single pyram id structures. A prism oidal structure can be d e riv e d from

a pyram idal structure by cu ttin g o ff its a p e x , w hereby a frustrum o f a

pyramid is o b ta in e d . A lte r n a tiv e ly it can be co n ceived as consisting o f

a prism atic structure whose end plates are not v e r tic a l, but in c lin e d .

2 .3 Folded p la te structures in p las tics:

Plastics as a m aterial is id e a lly suited to p re fa b ric a tio n and this

concept is o f the greatest im portance in the ch o ice o f a suitab le fo ld ed

p la te system. The e n tire structure must be cap ab le o f being s p lit up into

FIG. I

la
/v \/\
ROOF WITH TWO-PLATE INTERNAL ROOF WITH FIVE-PLATE INTERNAL
UNITS UNITS

THREE-PINNED POKTAL FRAME

TW O -PIN N ED POKTAL FRAME

BARREL VAULT DOME

 22

id e n tic a l basic units w h ich can be p re fa b ric a te d . This leads to a type o f

composite fo ld ed p la te construction w h ich is q u ite d is tin c t from the type

o f folded p la te construction discussed e a r lie r . In composite fo ld ed p la te

structures, the fo ld ed p la te a c tio n o f the plates is tie d in w ith the e la s tic

beh avio u r o f the s tru ctu re. Examples o f composite fo ld ed p la te structures

are given in Figs. 1c to I f . The distinguishing fe a tu e o f composite fo ld ed

p late construction is that if the e n tire structure is taken as a w h o le , it is

folded not o n ly la te r a lly but in the lo n g itu d in a l d ire c tio n as w e l l .

For ease o f p re fa b ric a tio n and to reduce to o lin g costs, it is v e ry

essential that the basic fo ld ed p la te u nit should consist o f o n ly two o r

three p la te s . Figs. la and lb show roof structures using the tw o -p la te and

the f iv e -p la te in tern al u n it. The tw o -p la te u n it w ill be e x tre m e ly successful

because o f the v a rie ty o f structures to w h ich it lends its e lf and because o f

the ease and s im p lic ity w ith w hich these structures can be constructed. F ig .lc

shows a th re e -p in n e d composite fold ed p la te portal frame structure using the

tw o -p la te u n it. The beam and column units have to be end and edge shaped

in order to mate w ith each o th e r. The fla t tria n g u la r panels m arked A ,

betw een the columns, may be o m itted to provide suitab le o p enings. F ig . Id

shows the tw o -p in n e d portal fra m e . F ig . le shows a corrugated b arrel v a u lt

s till using the basic tw o -p la te u n it. F ig . I f shows a composite fo ld ed p la te

dome.
 2 .4 Existing methods for the analysis o f folded p la te s :

The analysis o f prism atic fo ld ed plates in concrete has been studied

by several authors amongst whom W h itn e y e t a l^ , S im p s o n ^ , Parme^ \

12 13
Y itz h a k i , and G o ld b e rg and Leve deserve special m e n tio n . A

summary o f the methods proposed b y the first four authors shows th a t there

is v ery lit t le d iffe re n c e betw een th e m . Consider the fo ld ed p la te roof shown

in F ig . 2 , spanning lo n g itu d in a lly betw een rig id end diaphragm s.

FIG .2 T R A N S V E R S E D IREC TIO N S

OF THE INDIVIDUAL PLATES
/
/
/

TRANSVERSE ACTION DEFINED BY A

REPRE S E N TA TIV E STR IP AT THE
CENTRE

RIGID END
DIAPHRAGMS

LONGITUDINAL DIRECTION
LATERAL DIRECTION
A strip a t the centre is considered as spanning betw een o r being

continuous o ver the ridges and the v a lle y s . This defines the transverse

strip a c tio n . The strip then transfers its reactions as loads into the planes

of the p lates , w h ich span as beams in the lo n g itu d in a l d ire c tio n betw een

end diaphragm s. The beams d e fle c t under load and thus cause a s e ttle ­

ment o f the supports o f the s trip . This m odifies the transverse moments

and hence the reactions on the p la te s . It is o n ly in the m anner in w h ich

c o m p a tib ility is established b etw een the transverse strip a c tio n and the

longitudinal beam a c tio n , and in the ch o ice o f unknowns, th a t the four

methods d iffe r .

The assumption made in a ll the four methods is th a t the transverse

moments can be determ ined by analysing a rep resentative strip a t the

cen tre, these moments then being assumed to exist o ver the e n tire length

of the folded p la te . For long folded p la te s , w here the s p a n /p la te w id th

ratio is g reater than 2 , this assumption gives the correct moments o ver the

centre (where the maximum moments do occur) but gives in co rrect moments

over the supports, where the transverse moments should be z e ro . For short

folded plates where the s p a n /p la te w id th ratio is less than 2 , it is necessary

to consider a transverse p la te a c tio n w ith the e n tire p la te in b e n d in g . This

approach also determ ines the sm aller transverse moments in the lo n g itu d in a l

d ire c tio n , w hich are n e g lected by the simple a p p ro ach .

 G o ld b erg and Leve recognise the shortcomings o f the simple

methods. For prism atic fold ed p la te s , th e y rep lace the transverse strip

a ctio n by a p la te a c tio n and consider the simultaneous p la te bending

and the membrane a c tio n o f the several p la te s . E qu ilib riu m is then

established a t the joints, lead in g to 4n e q u ilib riu m eq u atio n s, w here n

is the number o f joints w ith unknown forces and d isplacem ents. The

assumption made in this method is th a t the jo in t displacem ents can be

expanded into h a lf range F o u rier series, the structure being solved fo r

each harm onic sep arately u n til the desired degree o f co nvergence is

o b ta in e d .

2 .5 The author's m odified approach to the analysis o f fo ld ed p la te

structures in plastics:

A ll the above methods are unsuitable for use w ith fo ld ed p la te

structures in plastics fo r the two reasons g iven below :

1. The methods are a p p lic a b le o n ly to prism atic folded

p late structures w ith rec ta n g u la r p la te s . They can be a p p lie d to

roofs w ith more than two p lates , but they cannot be a p p lie d to composite

folded p late structures o f the type shown in Figs. 1c to I f . They are

even s tric tly in a p p lic a b le to a roof structure o f the type shown in F i g . 3 ,

where the transverse p la te a c tio n requires the analysis o f tra p e z o id a l p la te s .

 i
26 ;

F IG .3

RIDGE

D IA P H R A G M

ELEVATION

2. A ll the existin g methods make the assumption th at the transverse

d eflectio n s o f the plates are small in comparison to the thickness o f the p la t e .

If these d eflectio n s are la rg e , as could ve ry e a s ily occur in single skin c o n ­

struction in plastics, the small d e fle c tio n theo ries, on w h ich a ll the e x is tin g

methods are based, no longer a p p ly . Large d e fle c tio n theories w h ic h require

that the stretching o f the m iddle surface be taken into a c c o u n t, must

then be a p p lie d in a ll cases in w hich the p la te is bent to a n o n -d e v e lo p a b le

surface. This leads to n o n -lin e a r equations and the problem becomes

considerably more in v o lv e d . In this case, a d d itio n a l boundary conditions

due to movable or im m ovable edges have also to be taken into a c c o u n t. If

the transverse d eflectio n s o f the p la te are v e ry much larg er than the thickness

of the p la te , the fle x u ra l rig id ity o f the p la te can be n eg le c te d and the

plate treated as a fle x ib le m em brane. H o w ever, if the d e fle c tio n s are

very large and com parable to the o v e ra ll dimensions o f the p la te , the

s im p lific a tio n in the form ula for the curvature may not hold good e ith e r and

the problem becomes even more in v o lv e d .

For fo ld ed p la te structures in p lastics, the a u th o r suggests a v e ry

general and fle x ib le approach w h ich w ill be a p p lic a b le to a n y shape or

type o f structure using the tw o -p la te u n it in both single skin o r sandwich

construction.

The e n tire structure is first split up into in tern al and e x te rn a l u n its.

The internal or e x te rn a l u n it is then analysed for a transverse p la te a c tio n

o f the in d iv id u a l plates and for an o v e ra ll lo n g itu d in a l a c tio n o f the s tru ctu re.

2 .5 .1 The transverse p la te a c tio n o f the in d iv id u a l p la tes:

The analysis o f the plates fo r transverse p la te a c tio n , under

normal lo ad in g , is c a rried out by the use o f classical p la te th e o ry . Such an

analysis considers the e n tire p la te and not just a rep resen tative s trip .

It is hence a p p lic a b le to a n y shape o f p la te . Such an approach has the

further advantage th at a large number o f e x a c t and ap p ro xim ate solutions

for plates o f various shapes, even subject to large d e fle c tio n s , are re a d ily

a v a ila b le .

In this thesis, the transverse p la te a c tio n o f folded p la te structures

w ill be determ ined on the fo llo w in g fiv e assumptions:

1. If the transverse d efle ctio n s exceed h a lf the thickness o f

the skin o r sandw ich, large d e fle c tio n theories w ill be a p p lie d . In

cases w here the d eflectio n s are less than h a lf the thickness, small

d eflec tio n theories w ill be assumed to be a p p lic a b le .

2. The boundary conditions o f the p la te w ill be determ ined by

the type o f connections betw een the u n its . This w ill be discussed in

more d e ta il in 3 .1 .

3. The re la tiv e displacem ents o f the edges o f the p la te , due

to the lo n g itu d in al deform ations o f the structure, w ill be considered as

n e g lig ib le .

4. V e ry large transverse d e fle c tio n s w ill not be considered and

the s im p lified form ula for the curvature w ill s till be assumed to be v a lid .

5. In sandwich construction, p la te theory w ill be considered to be

a p p lic a b le . H o w ever, shear w ill be assumed to be taken by the c o re , and

the shearing d eflec tio n s w ill be c a lc u la te d s e p a ra te ly . This w ill be discussed

in more d e ta il in C h a p te r 7 .
 2 . 5 . 2 The o v e ra ll lo n g itu d in a l a c tio n o f the structure:

The o v e ra ll lo n g itu d in al a c tio n o f the structure can be e a s ily

d eterm in ed . In structures such as po rtal frames or barrel v a u lts , the o v e ra ll

longitudinal a c tio n is the portal frame o r arch a c tio n . The structure may

be analysed on its neutral axis by an y o f the com m only used methods o f

structural e n g in e e rin g , w ith due a llo w a n c e fo r v a ria tio n s in cross-sectional

areas and moments o f in e rtia over the stru ctu re. These methods are g e n e ra lly

quite a d e q u a te , but to determ ine the stresses in the plates m od ificatio n s

have to be made fo r p a rtic u la r cases listed b e lo w :'

1. For short fold ed p la te roofs, w ith a sparv/plate w id th ra tio o f

less than 1 .5 , the straight lin e stress d istrib u tio n is no longer v a lid and

14
deep beam theory has to be used.

2. In folded p la te structures w here the p la te w id th /p la te thickness

ratio is f a ir ly low (as might o ccu r in sandwich co n stru ctio n ), and w here

the transverse loads and d efle ctio n s as w e ll as the compressive stresses in

the plane o f the p la te are not excessive, the e n tire w id th o f the p la te may

be considered as e ffe c tiv e in the a n alysis . But where the p la te w id th /p la te

thickness ra tio is high (as w ould o c cu r in single skin co n stru ctio n ), and

where the transverse loads and d e fle c tio n s as w e ll as the compressive

stresses in the plane o f the p la te are la rg e , the b u ckled c en tral portions o f

the plates do not co ntribute f u lly to the stiffness o f the stru ctu re. Th e

straight lin e stress d is trib u tio n , fo r a p la te subjected to bending m om ent,

shown in F ig .4 a , then passes on the compressive side, through successive

stages shown in Figs. 4b and 4 c , shedding more and more load onto the

s tiffly -jo in te d and hence straight ridges and v a lle y s . In the fin a l id ealised

state shown In F lg .4 d th e re fo re , o n ly a c e rta in reduced area may be

considered as e ffe c tiv e and u n ifo rm ly stressed. This b e h avio u r has been
15
noticed in plastics by o th er research workers as w e l l . G ilk ie and Robak

have tried to d efin e the e x a c t areas o f the plates that are e ffe c tiv e a lo n g

the edges o f square and hexagonal pyramids subjected to v e rtic a l and

horizontal loads.

b C

FIG.4

This approach also termed as the "strut a n a lo g y " transforms the structure

from one formed by continuous plates to a s k e le ta l structure w h ic h may

then be analysed as such. K e h re r^ tested a fu ll s c a le , single skin ,

glass fib re re in fo rc e d , polyester greenhouse stru ctu re. He found th a t the

central part o f his p la te , or as he terms it "the soft part o f the s h e ll" b u c k le d ,

giving him d e flectio n s th at w ere 5 0 % in excess o f the th e o re tic a l values fo r

a th re e -p in n e d a rc h . A lle n ^ has also p o in ted out th at two f la t sheets

m eeting a t a fo ld p reven t each o th e r from b u c k lin g so th at the folds

remain straight and u n b u c kle d , p ro vid in g a kin d o f space frame

skeleton to support the lo a d .

In sandwich co n stru ctio n , the o v e ra ll section may be considered

as e ffe c tiv e and the straight lin e stress distrib u tio n o f F ig .4 a is q u ite

ad e q u a te .

2 .6 Folded p la te structures considered in these thesis:

A fo ld ed p la te roof,, the tw o -p in n e d com posite, folded p la te

portal frame and a composite fo ld ed p la te barrel v a u lt w ill be considered

in d e t a il. A ll these structures are formed from the basic tw o -p la te u n it.

The structures w ill be analysed by the approach set forth in 2 . 5 and some

exp erim en tal v e r ific a tio n w ill be a tte m p te d .

3
 CHAPTER 3

The fo ld ed p la te roof (in te rn a l u n it).

3 .1 In flu e n c e o f connections;

C onsider the tw o -p la te , fo ld ed p la te roof structure shown in

F ig . l a . The analysis o f the structure may then be reduced to the

analysis o f tw o types o f units; in te rn a l units and e x te rn a l u n its . The

analysis o f the units is la rg e ly dependant on the connections used.

If the site connections betw een the units are simple b o lted connections,

the analysis may assume the presence o f continuous hinges alo n g the

edges. The in tern al units may then be considered as spanning betw een

the end diaphragm s, w ith both lo n g itu d in a l edges restrained against

horizontal m ovem ent; v e r tic a l m ovement and a n g u la r ro tatio n being

p erm itte d . The e x te rn a l units are assumed to be o u ter edge fr e e . If

site adhesive bonding is resorted to , the in tern al units may be considered

as having both edges restrained against h o rizo n ta l movement and a n g u la r

rotatio n ,,|O n ly v e r tic a l movement being p e rm itte d . The units can be used

with a p re fa b ric a te d v a lle y or w ith a p re fa b ric a te d rid g e . The form er is

advisable from a w a te r leakag e po in t o f v ie w . The analysis o f an in tern al

unit w ill now be considered in d e t a i l .

3 .2 The analysis o f an in te rn a l u n it:

3 .2 .1 Transverse p la te a c tio n :

Consider an in tern al u n it w ith p re fa b ric a te d v a lle y and w ith sim ple

 33

bolted site connections, as shown in F i g . 5 .

FIG.5

P R E F A BR I CA T E D V A L L E Y

The transverse p la te a c tio n can be determ ined by considering the

plate BCDE as fix e d alo n g the edge BE and sim ply supported along the o th er

three edges. It is loaded by a u n ifo rm ly distribu ted lo ad , w hich is the normal

component o f the e x te rn a l v e rtic a l load a c tin g on h a lf the u n it. W ith the

edge C D supported, the d e fle c tio n s are u n lik e ly to be g re a te r than h a lf the

thickness o f the p la te , and the small d e fle c tio n method o f L e v y , discussed

18
in d etail by Timoshenko and W o in o w s k y -K rie g e r w ill be used. B rie fly the

plate is analysed in tw o stages, the fin a l results bein g o b tain ed by superposition.

 is

34

Stage 1: Sim ply supported on a ll four sides.

Stage 2 : S ubjected to moments a lo n g edge BE so th a t

a O

Stage 1: The expression fo r the d e fle c tio n w

is g iven b y ,

°° 4. I o
o ^ ta n k * + Z ,
4 *ua ±
, , B —-
U) y c o *
TI D
JU «■■■ ■— M \” 2
«r C o s U o C m

o<
“f ------- 1 2 — (1 )
2 Co s k * m b b ) a . KJ
Ih
w here
q = in ten sity o f the u n ifo rm ly distribu ted normal load on the p la te ,

a = length o f the p la te ,

b = w id th o f the p la te ,
« r, a l i
* 2a. Et3
D = fle x u ra l r ig id ity = — “------- r v w h e re ,
y 7 12 ( i - V )

t = thickness o f the p la te , and

^ = Poisson‘s r a tio .

It may be noted th a t the first term in this series is the d e fle c tio n w , of a

uniform ly loaded strip p a ra lle l to the X a x is , expressed as a trig o n o m etric

series as fo llo w s ,
oo

U|. J ^ ( V - 2 a x 3+ a3x ) - i a ^ y * Sin*3? .............. (2)

24 D ' ■ ■ / . 7[ D £ jT a
hi « • ••
 35

In the case o f short fo ld ed plates w here the a /b ratio is less than

1, this strip is p a ra lle l to the shorter span o f the p la te and consequently

the convergence o f series (1) is v e ry ra p id . If how ever the a / b ra tio is

greater than 1, as in F i g . 5 , the strip is p a ra lle l to the longer span and

the convergence o f series (1 ) is v e ry s lo w . In the la tte r case it is b e tte r

to turn the axes round to the d irectio n s shown in F i g . 6 .

c)

FIG. 6

The expression for the d e fle c tio n w is then g iven b y,

w = V -L ( , . •c l.t.n U ln + j ^ 2
h *d v 2 Csst. << », a
bn* 1,3,5

► nirx
f£k---- l l L S ink2-* !* ? ) Sin (3 )
2 C o iU ^ a /

whe re,

m TiQ .
m 2b

/
 36

The transverse bendinq moments M and M can be d eterm ined from

x y

the expressions

ay*)
(4 !

M
y ■ - ( 0 + )
Referring henceforth to the d ire ctio n s o f the axes as in F i g . 5 , the

reactions on the supports, V , are d eterm ined b y ,

(5 )
= ( Q ? + 3" ? r “ ) v , . ± i

w here, the shearing fo rc e , Q y , is g iven b y ,

C
O
Qy = D 3V
1
I dxl )
and the tw istin g moment, M , is g iven b y ,
yx
d 0)
My* = - M Xy = - D ( l - V ) (7 )

Stage 2: M om ents M y are a p p lie d a lo n g the edge BE. These

moments can be expressed in the form ,

CO
• hTTx
E m s in -------
CL
(8)
t* • 1,3,5
The d e fle c tio n w 1 is then given b y,
* -2 2 . c C - rn1t;
to * - \

Cosh o( m.
a.
h i - 1,3,5-

- ^ ^ + - i - ( o ^ C A ^ S - k JSS2
^ Jm h ^ y n ,

0 *
( 9)
 37

The slope a t the edge y = b /2 due to the e x te rn a l loading in

Stage 1 is equal and opposite to the slo p e, a t the same edge due to M ^ ,

_ / w ;
o *:
\ b 1 /y

This gives the v a lu e o f Em as,

i ■o«;
^ ' M w n n ^h-v "" ^v^nnv^s^
C o • -Km v^.o
* “ Co"tk *” 2. oC>v»

This valu e o f Em when substituted in (8 ) gives the v a lu e o f the fix e d

end m om ent. The q u a n titie s M x , (V y )y = + ^ anc* ( ^ y ) y B _ b

can then be d eterm ined as in Stage 1 . The com plete transverse p la te

action is d eterm ined by co rrect superposition o f Stages 1 and 2 .

3 .2 .2 L o n g itu d in al beam a c tio n :

In order to determ in e the lo n g itu d in a l beam a c tio n o f the p la te ,

it is necessary to determ in e the loads transferred into the planes o f the p la te s ,

which then span as beams betw een diaphragm s. R eferring to F i g . 7 it is seen

that this load

FIG. 7
W consists o f three parts W , , W ^ , and w h e re ,

W j = the com ponent o f the p la te re a c tio n a t the v a lle y p er u n it length

W 2 = the a x ia l component o f the e x te rn a l load per u n it len g th ,

and = the component o f the h o rizo n ta l reactio n due to the supporting

edge o f the a d ja c e n t p la te per u n it le n g th .

Let W ‘ be the to ta l e x te rn a l v e rtic a l load on the e n tire u n it. Then fo r

transverse p la te analysis,

W 'C o iG
q 2ab

and for lo n g itu d in a l beam analysis,

w ,= c s ) y , + ! c° t 0 • • • ..................

w = VI'Sin 6
2 2a.

W„= ( t y ) CotS
3 b
V — T

The v e rtic a l d e fle c tio n o f the fo ld ed p la te u n it is o b tain ed by the resolution

of the d eflectio n s o f the in d iv id u a l beams, as shown in F i g . 8 .

 39

T h erefo re,

= 2<i , S m 6 ..................................... 0® )

It may be noted that this is a more accu rate approach th at is e a s ily

ap p licab le to in te rn a l units w ith re c ta n g u la r p la te s . For long folded p lates,

the reactions ( V v ) . b are v e ry n e a rly constant along the edges BE and C D ,

except in the im m ediate v ic in it y o f the diaphragm s. The assumption therefore

that the e n tire u n it is a beam o f " V " cross-section, leads to lo n g itu d in al

stresses and d e flec tio n s almost id e n tic a l to those from the more accu rate a p p ro a c h .

I n short folded plates h o w ever, the d istrib u tio n o f ( V y) + Jb alo n g the edges
' V* - 1

BE and C D shows more v a r ia tio n , and consequently the d iffe re n c e in results

would be more pronounced.

3 .3 Experim ental v e rific a tio n :

3 .3 .1 D e ta ils o f the m o d el:

The b eh avio u r o f an in te rn a l u n it was e x p e rim e n ta lly v e rifie d on a

model, the data for w h ich is g iven b e lo w :

M a te r ia l: Perspex ,

Plate span, a = 6 0 in .

Plate w id th , b = 1 0 .6 0 5 in .

Plate th ic k n e s s ,t = l / 8 i n .

Fold a n g le , 8 = 45°

Poisson's r a tio ,V = 0 .3 5

3 .3 .2 C h o ice o f Perspex as the m a te ria l for the model:

Folded p la te structures o f single skin construction w ould no rm ally

be b uilt in glass fib re rein fo rced p o ly e s te r. H o w ever it is d iff ic u lt to get

 40

very accu rate uniform thickness in this m a te ria l. G ilk ie and Robak , testing

hexagonal based pyramids o f glass fib re rein fo rced p o lyester, found th a t w ith

an average skin thickness o f 0 .0 7 0 in . the hand la y -u p process gave a w id e

variatio n in thickness w ith a standard d e v ia tio n o f 0 .0 0 9 5 in . w ith in a single

pyram id. This v a ria tio n made exp e rim en tal stress analysis impossible and

th eir tests were hence lim ite d to deform ation studies o f the pyram ids. K e h re r^

found the same d iffic u ltie s . W h ils t large v a ria tio n s in thickness w ould be

in e vitab le (and hence a c c e p ta b le ) in fu ll scale structures such as K ehrer's

greenhouse structure, it was fe lt th at for lab o rato ry testing th ey w ould be

u n a cc e p ta b le. It was therefore d ecid ed to use a therm oplastic m a terial such

as Perspex, w hich w ould tru ly p o rtray the ty p ic a l b eh avio u r o f p lastics, and

yet perm it close tolerances in the thickness.

3 .3 .3 Perspex v ie w e d as a structural plastics:

The analysis o f the model has been c a rrie d out keeping in mind the

ten factors listed in 1 . 3 . These ten factors w ere exam ined in d e ta il to determ ine

which had to be taken into a cco u n t and w hich could be n e g le c te d . The ten

factors, in re la tio n to Perspex, are:

1. The stress/strain curve o f Perspex is reasonably lin e a r a t low

stress lev e ls .

2. The ra tio o f the modulus o f e la s tic ity in tension to the modulus o f

elasticity in compression, a t the o rig in a t 2 0 ° C is 1 .0 6 =* 1 .0 0 .

 3. The low modulus o f e la s tic ity o f Perspex can g enerate large

transverse d e fle c tio n s . In the case o f the in tern al u n it, the d eflectio n s

are sm all, and the theory as stated in 3 . 2 can be a p p lie d . In the case

of the extern al u n it w ith a free e d g e , as w ill be seen in C h ap ter 4 ,

large transverse d efle ctio n s can o ccu r and the analysis has to take these

into a c c o u n t.

4. Perspex ex h ib its com plete isotropy.

5. The m ech an ical b eh av io u r o f Perspex is a ffe c te d by the rate

of straining o f the m a te ria l, but not to a ve ry a p p re c ia b le d e g re e . An

o -5
increase, for instance, in the strain in g rate a t 20 C from 10 per second

-4
to 10 per second, increases the u ltim a te ten sile strength o f the m aterial

from 8300 psi to 10060 p s i. This fa c to r cannot be taken into accoun t and

should be n e g le c te d .

6 ,7 . The effe c ts o f tem perature and creep on the e la s tic modulus

can be taken into a cco u n t by means o f an e m p iric a l expression as follow s: .

Ef.i " ( 5 '26 - 0 - 0 4 2 T ) x <O5 - 9 3 0 0 0 L o g (o ( t ' + '

w h ere,

_ . o —.
T = tem perature in C,

and t1 = tim e a fte r loading in hours.

Expression (17) is v a lid o n ly for t ' < 1.

 8. The static fa tig u e b eh avio u r o f Perspex under static loading

does not have to be considered in model an alysis, though it should be

considered in design w ith Perspex.

9 , 1 0 . Perspex is a ffe c te d by many chem icals^ and has poor fire

resistance. These factors h ow ever do not a ffe c t labo ratory te s tin g .

3 .3 .4 The "m em ory" o f Perspex.

Perspex exh ib its a "plasticsm em ory " . This is one a d d itio n a l

factor that has to be taken into account in lab o rato ry testin g , though

it does not have to be considered in analysis or design.

This "plastics memory" results in Perspex e x h ib itin g an

apparent e la stic modulus w hich depends on the past loading history o f

the m a te ria l. If the m a te ria l possesses a residual creep strain o f a

previous test, it shows a higher e la s tic modulus in la te r tests.

In the tests on the in tern al u n it it was no ticed that the fin a l

readings, for both strains and d e fle c tio n s , from two successive tests on

the same day agreed f a ir ly w e ll w ith in the lim its o f exp erim en tal e rro r.

But the ini tia l readings did n o t. For the in tern al u n it, o n ly the results

of the first undisturbed test are g iv e n . In a ll la te r e x p e rim e n ta tio n , on

folded p la te structures in plastics, o n ly one test was run per d a y . This

allow ed the m a te ria l a t least 22 hours to reco ver the creep w h ich had taken

place in the 1 hour o f the previous te s t.

3 .3 .5 T h e o re tic a l analysis o f the m odel:

The model was analysed by the theory as set forth in 3 . 2 .

As the a /b ratio is much g re a te r than 1, the d irections o f the axes fo r

Stage 1 o f the analysis w ere as in F i g . 6 . W ith this m o d ific a tio n it was

found quite s u fficie n t to ta ke o n ly the first three terms in the series (3 ) .

The bending moments for this stage are g ive n b y ,

oo

A m G *f, ^
= v ^ + o - v H b V 7
»1,3, 5
miry 2v M ry H it
Siin
b l-V •)
©o
My = -(!-») q b V A ^ G i k ~
b
in■ 1,3,5a* •

r . WiTTx
+ b + _ a - c . , k ^ L ) Oiun
\ b b l-V b /
whe

2 ( ° < L ^ a ''^ c<tn + 2 )

Am
m = —
TTS * * G * k c < 't

Bm =
* s * s C . i k c c \ nv

,
and J
oc . = _ —
M 2b

The reactive forces w ere d eterm ined a lo n g the long edges BE and C D (fo r the

first harmonic m =l o n ly ) and these are shown p lo tte d in F i g . 9 . The reactions

are very n early constant alo n g the edges, e x c e p t towards the diaphragm s.
 44

10

REACTIVE FORCE ALONG BE

AND CD IN STACE 1 FO R
m -1 ONLY F IG .9

LENGTH OF TH E EDGE

In Stage 2 , the directio n s o f the axes as shown in F i g . 5 w ere used.

Convergence was found to be slow and it was necessary to take a t least

6 terms ( i . e . u p til m = l l ) for reasonable results. The v a lu e of the fix in g

moment a t the centre o f the edge BE was determ ined by the use o f (1 1 )

and (8) as,

8 3 a
* + -O OI886 -f 0 0 0 5 3 5 - 0*00239

X : t ~
1

4- 0 o o U Q - o o oo 63 -t- o - 0 0 0 3 5

s - 0 00337
The previous result can be expressed in terms of b^ as,

f
This is very near to the v a lu e o f - 0 .1 2 5 q b w h ich w ould have been

obtained from a transverse strip a n aly sis .

The lo n g itu d in al analysis o f the model was c a rrie d out by assuming

the unit to be a beam o f " V " cross-section and u n ifo rm ly loaded by the

external load.. In this case, the u n it is w h o lly in bending w ith com plete

absence o f e x te rn a l lo n g itu d in a l compressive forces. The lo n g itu d in a l

stress (0 ^ ) d istrib u tio n across the plates was hence assumed to be lin e a r .

As w ill be seen in 3 . 3 . 8 , this assumption seems to be fu lly ju s tifie d .

3 .3 .6 D e ta ils o f the ex p e rim e n ta tio n :

The model was made from tw o fla t sheets o f Perspex. A ll the long

edges w ere shaped to 4 5 ° . The tw o halves w ere then joined to g eth er w ith

"Tensol 7" ce m en t. It was supported on V shaped supports ^ in . th ic k on

which were fix e d i i n . d ia m e te r m .s . rods. The rods w ere then greased.

Steel channels 7 in . x 3 j i n . x 18 lb s /f t . w ere used to prevent h o rizo n tal

movement o f the edges m arked C D and AF in F i g . 5 . The backs o f the

channels w ere co ated w ith a la y e r o f p o lyester resin to g iv e them glass­

like surfaces w h ic h w ere then greased. The model was hence p erm itted

unrestricted v e r tic a l m ovem en t. D e fle c tio n s w ere taken by means o f d ia l

gauges o f 0 .0 0 0 1 in . a c c u ra c y . The positions o f the d ia l gauges are shown

in F ig . 10 . Strains w ere measured by means o f "T in sley " paper backed

and fe lt c o v e re d , e le c tr ic resistance strain gauges (Type 16B) having a

resistance o f a p p ro x im a te ly 272 ohms and a gauge fa c to r o f 2 . 0 4 . The

positions o f the gauges on the top and bottom surfaces o f the model are

shown in F i g . l l . The lo n g itu d in a l strains and the la te ra l strains w ere

both measured l i n . o ff the centre lin e . As sym m etrical loading was

applied to the u n it, the strains measured could be treated as lo n g itu d in a l'

and lateral strains on the same lin e . The load was a p p lie d by l i n . and

2 in . w ide tile s through a l i n . th ic k , fle x ib le polyu reth an e foam b la n k e t

to hold and d istrib u te the lo a d . This form o f loading was trie d because

it was found th at the corrugated surface o f the tile sank into the fle x ib le

foam, w hich then held it f a ir ly w e ll even on in c lin e d surfaces. H ow ever

load arching did o cc u r in zones o f sagging bending moments, and surface

loading was discarded for a ll fu rth e r testing on in c lin e d surfaces. The

in itia l strain and d e fle c tio n readings w ere first ta k e n . Load was then put on

the model and the in itia l tem perature o f the test was n o te d . The fin a l s tra in f

deflection and tem perature readings w ere taken 1 hour a fte r co m p letio n o f

loading. The exp e rim en ta l readings are g iven in A p p en d ix 2 in Tables A1

and A 2 .

3 .3 .7 D eterm in atio n o f e x p e rim en tal stresses and moments:

From the measured strains, the e x p e rim e n ta l lo n g itu d in a l stresses

and transverse moments w ere c a lc u la te d in the fo llo w in g m an n er. The top

 F IG . 10

CAUCES AT BOTTOM GAUGES AT TOP

VALLEY LINE

C\J

PLATE CENTRE LINE PLATE CENTRE LINE

FIC.11
 48

and bottom, lo n g itu d in a l and la te ra l strains w ere first in d ep en d en tly

plotted on the p la te w id th as shown in F ig . 12. The strains w ere then

interpolated a t sp e cific p o in ts. A t a specimen point A , shown in F ig . 12,

Recorded top lo n g itu d in a l strain = + 4 5 5 * m icrostrains,

Recorded bottom " " = + 4 7 0 * m icrostrains,

Recorded top la te ra l " = +475 m icrostrains,

Recorded bottom " " = -8 1 8 m icrostrains.

The asterisks(*) show in te rp o la te d v a lu e s . Tensile strains are taken as

positive.

2
A c tu a l strain = Recorded strain (R) x
G . Factor

2
Rx
2 .0 4

= R x 0 .9 8 0

With the directions o f the axes as in F i g . 5 th e re fo re ,

A ctual top lo n g itu d in a l strain (€ x t) = + 4 4 6 m icrostrains,

A ctual bottom " " (£ x b) = + 461 m icrostrains,

A ctual top la te ra l " (€ y t) = + 4 6 6 m icrostrains,

A ctual bottom " (€ yt>) = -8 0 2 m icrostrains.

Now it is assumed th at a t l i n . o ff the c e n tre , the lo n g itu d in a l and la te ra l

strains are the p rin c ip a l strains. Then it can be shown th a t,

or . _ (fx t + v ) £

( , - v 1) ....—
C2 0 )

cl . =
yt ( l - v 1)
 49
RECORDED S T R A IN S IN IN T E R N A L ROOF U N IT U N D ER

U.D. LOADING AT A S E C T IO N L OFF THE C EN TR E

+ 600.

BOTTOM LA TERAL S TR A IN
+ 400

+ 200
VALLEY
LINE

PT. A
STRAINS

-200
RECORDED

TOP LATERAL STR A IN

-4 0 0

BOTTOM LONG. STRAIN

TOP LONG. S TR A IN
-600

-8 0 0

F I G . 12

-1000

PLATE W ID TH = 10-605"
 0 "x ^ and can be s im ila rly d e te rm in e d .

At T = 1 6 .5 ° C and t ' = 1, the modulus o f e la s tic ity can be got from (1 7 )

as,
E = ( 5 . 2 6 - 0 .0 4 2 x 1 6 .5 ) x 105 - 9 3 0 0 0 lo g 1Q2

= 4 . 2 9 x 105 psi

The lo n g itu d in al and la te ra l stresses a t top and bottom can then be got

as.
_ (4-46 4 - 0 -3 5 x 4 6 g ) x 4 2 9 * /o 3
° *t= — -------------------------------------------- ; ---------------- = + 2 9 8 Ps l.
106 X ( / - G-3S2 )

/T (1 44 66 6 + 0 - 33 55 Xx 4 4 6 ) X 4 * 239*X1 / 00 5 _ .
yt --------------------~ ------------- :---^ ------------- = + 304 p s i.
/O6 x (/- 0 3 5 2)

(46/ - 0-3SX 8 0 2 ) K 4 29X10

Q x h ---------------------, . £ — -------------- = + 88 p s i.
lO6 X ( / - 0 3 5 2 )
/—s
1
OQ

to
O

+ 0 - 3 5 x 4 6 1) X 4 - 2 9 X / 0 5
(J V L = ------------------------------------t ---------- ------------------ ----------------------- = -3 1 3 p s i.
10* k (I- o is 1)

The stresses determ in ed above a re the surface stresses. From these stresses,

the lo n g itu d in al and la te ra l stresses and the transverse moments can be

determined as follow s:

In the lo n g itu d in al d ire c tio n ,

rr , s + 193
<->x + a bx - + 298
_ ff*L = + 105
- a bK •. + 8 8 b* r

.2 Ok =4-386
1 3
The modulus o f the section is Z = -75772— in . / i n . w id th
o84
Therefore,

Mx = = + 0 . 2 7 3 l b . i n s . / i n . (hogging)

0 *= + 1 9 3 psi (te n s ile )

In the la te ra l d ire c tio n ,

a y = - 4 -s H -
+ ^by = + 304

rr rc , * + 3 0 8 - 5 />*i.
Oy - crt j = - 313 by , '

20y s - 9

Therefore,

M y = + 0 . 8 0 3 l b . i n s /in . (hogging)

0y = -^4.5 psi (compressive)

The exp erim en tal stresses and moments a t o th er sp e c ific points on the

plate w id th can be s im ila rly d e te rm in e d .

3 .3 .8 A nalysis o f the test results:

The th e o re tic a l and e x p e rim e n ta l lo n g itu d in a l stresses and

transverse moments, a t a section 1" o ff the centre lin e , for T = 1 6 .5 ° C ,

t 1 = 1 hour and W ' = 121 lbs are shown in F ig . 13. The th e o re tic a l and

experim ental lo n g itu d in a l d e fle c tio n s for the same case are shown in F ig . 1 4.

The experim ental sagging (n e g a tiv e ) moments seem to be reduced, e ith e r

because o f arch in g o f the load on the slab or the slight h o rizo n ta l movement

of the edge supporting v e rtic a l ch an n els, shown as 0 .0 0 1 2 in . by gauge 2 .

This la tte r m ovement causes in fa c t a settlem ent o f the support, but the a c tu a l

value of the settlem en t is so small th a t reduction in the n e g a tiv e moments due

to this cause seems u n lik e ly . Figs. 13 and 14 show that c o rre la tio n in the hoggi

(positive) moments as also in the lo n g itu d in a l stresses and d e fle c tio n s is good.
 STRESSES AND MOMENTS IN INTERNAL ROOF UNIT

UNDER U .D . L O A D I N G .

+ 500

FIG. 13

THEORETICAL

ERIM ENTAL —
IN
LB. INS. ^
ME NTS
PSI

LONG. STRESS
CTX
r M o c H jM O
STRESS
VERSE
L ON G.
TRANS

VALLEY LINE

°*4 j_ H 2 0 0

b = P L A TE W I D T H - 10-605
 53
DEFLECTIONS IN INTERNAL ROOF UN I T

U N D E R U.D. L O A D I N G .

F I G. 14

PLATE SPAN = 6 0

- 0*02
IN C H E S

-0-04
DEFLECTION

-0-06

-0-08

THEORETI CAL DEFL.

EXPERI MEN TAL DEFL.

 54

CHAPTER 4

The fo ld ed p la te roof (e x te rn a l u n it ) ,

4 .1 The case f o r a free edge:

If the in tern a l units have p re fa b ric a te d v a lle y s , the e x te rn a l u n it

reduces to a single p la te shown in F ig . 1 5 .

END DIAPHRAGM

FREE EDGE

Z
FI G. 15
END D I A P H R A G M

In concrete fold ed p la te construction, it is customary to provide an edge

beam spanning betw een the diaphragm s. This reduces the d e fle c tio n s and

stresses in the e x te rn a l u n it. In plastics fo ld ed p la te con stru ctio n , it is

advisable from a constructional po in t o f v ie w to av o id the use of edge beams.

In the hand la y -u p process, the in tern al units, com plete w ith flan g es, are

made in a / \ shaped m o u ld . The to o lin g costs are a v e ry s izab le proportion

of the total costs. If there are no edge beams, tw o e x te rn a l units can be

made by s lic in g an in te rn al u n it down the v a lle y lin e . The w id th o f the

external u n it is hence less than its th e o re tic a l w id th by h a lf the thickness

of the cu ttin g m a rg in . W ith this process o f m an u factu re, one mould

satisfies a ll u n its . This makes fo r eco n o m y. H o w ever as the stresses and

deflections w ith a free edge are la rg e r than w ith an e la s tic a lly supported

edge, it may be necessary to increase the thickness o f the u n it. This can

be done v e ry e a s ily on the same mould even in sandwich co nstruction , by

increasing the thickness o f the top and bottom lam inates and the thickness

of the c o re . F u rth er, the core den sity can be increased as w e ll if re q u ire d .

If it were possible to mass produce these units, h o w ever, the to o lin g costs

per unit w ould be p ro p o rtio n a te ly reduced and it m ight then be ad visab le

to have two m oulds. In this ch a p ter o n ly the case o f the e x te rn a l u n it w ith

a free edge wi l l be considered in d e t a il.

4 .2 The analysis o f the e x te rn a l u n it w ith a free edge:

The e x te rn a l u n it has to be analysed fo r a transverse p la te a c tio n and

a longitudinal beam a c tio n as suggested in 2 . 5 . The lo n g itu d in a l beam a c tio n

is ex a c tly the same as for the in tern al units, because the free edge o f the

external u nit is in ten s io n . The transverse p la te a c tio n is how ever much more

d iffic u lt to determ ine because the p la te is subject to large d e fle c tio n s .

4.2.1 Existing method o f analysis:

The analysis o f such a p la te can be c a rrie d out by the en ergy m ethod.

Let u, v and w be the p la te displacem ents in the X , Y and Z d irectio n s

respective ly. The to ta l strain en erg y V o f the system is g iven b y ,

V = V , + V2

where,
V , = the strain energy due to stretching as a m em brane, and

V 2 = the strain en erg y due to b e n d in g .

Then,
r
Et
V, a + ( t x £ f + A cj 1 U
( t f
J j * I''

+i + 2V
/ 2 \ d y / v d x '

-V
+

+(fe)*^x£x&M£X£x ?) 2 d xciy-(2|)

£t a!
and Vo a
2 2 4 ( f - V a) J J r ^ x 3y 4 / ' '[ a x 1 fy1

x2 dxcly *(22)
vdx3y
The integrations are ex te n d e d o v e r the e n tire surface o f the p la t e . In

applying the en erg y m ethod, it is necessary to assume suitab le expressions

for u, v and w . These expressions must satisfy a ll the boundary conditions

and w ill con tain several a rb itra ry param eters, the magnitudes o f w h ich are
 57

determ ined by the p rin c ip le o f v irtu a l displacem ents. The boundary

conditions th at have to be satisfied a re as follow s:

F ixed edge: * O f ( 'J ™ " ) * ^

X* b X • b

\ = 0
Simply supported edges:
b y 2 ) y4 - ± 4
1 “ T
.2 \2,
Free edge: in +(2-v) a W v o
— n 2 4 + V —
a* 5 1 - ° t
dx
x •o

4.2.2 The author's s e m i-e m p iric a l approach to the problem :

The above method has a serious disadvantage in th a t the

accuracy o f the results depends ve ry much on the assumed d e fle c te d

shape for u , v and w . A v e ry close assumption w ould lead to good

accuracy, but such an assumed d e fle c te d shape m ight be so v e ry

‘i.

com plicated as to increase p r o h ib itiv e ly the labour in v o lv e d .

The au th o r has a s e m i-e m p iric a l approach to the p ro b lem .

The substitution o f various d e fle c tio n shapes into V shows th at the fin a l

equation for the maximum d e fle c tio n w Q (at the centre o f the free edge)

can be w ritte n in the form ,

(23)
where,

t = thickness o f the p la te ,

q = in ten s ity o f the u n ifo rm ly distrib u ted normal loading on

the p la te ,

b = w id th o f the p la te , and
 58

A, B = constants, w hich are functions o f the a / b ra tio o f the

p la te and o f the Poisson's ra tio V .

4 .3 E xperim ental d eterm in atio n o f constants:

The constants A and B o f (2 3 ) have been determ ined e x p e rim e n ta lly

for various a /b ratios and for a Poisson's ra tio o f 0 . 3 5 . Two series o f tests

were run as follow s:

Series 1 . M a t e r ia l: Perspex

Poisson's ra tio = 0 .3 5

p la te w id th = 5 in .

p la te th?ckness= l / l 6 i n .

a / b ratios in vestig ated : 3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 .

Series 2 . M a t e r ia l: Perspex

Poisson's ra tio = 0 .3 5

p la te w id th = 1 2 in .

p la te thickness= l / 8 i n .

a / b ratios in vestig ated : 1 ,2 ,3 .

Series 1: ,

The p la te was set up on a h eavy re c ta n g u la r steel frame as shown in

Photograph 1. The sim ply supported edges w ere supported on 3 / 8 i n . d ia m e te r

m .s. ro lle rs . The fix e d edge was o b ta in ed by clam pin g the 8 in . w id e p la te

between steel fla ts , 2 in x 3 / 8 i n , to g ive a free p la te w id th o f 5 in . The load

was ap p lied by p la c in g ^ in . d ia m e te r set screws a t predeterm ined positions on

the p la te . N o load arc h in g occurred on the fla t s u rfa c e . In this series o f tests,

it was d ecided to d eterm ine o n ly the maximum d e fle c tio n w Q a t the centre o f the
PHOTOGRAPH 1

PHOTOGRAPH 2
free ed g e , one hour a fte r lo a d in g . The in itia l and fin a l tem peratures

were also n o te d . The tests for each a / b ra tio w ere c a rrie d out a t three

load intensities on three separate days. The tw o hig h er load inten sities

were used to c a lc u la te the constants A and B. W ith these values o f A

and B, the maximum d e fle c tio n w Q was c a lc u la te d a t the lowest load

inten sity. These th e o re tic a l values o f w Q have been compared w ith the

experim ental values in T ab le 1 .

■N

TABLE 1

a /b q psi E psi w_ T h e o . w Q E xp t#
o

7 0 .0 0 9 4 4 . 1 9 x 105 0 .0 6 7 in . 0 .0 6 5 in .

6 . 0 .0 0 8 5 . 4 . 1 6 x 105 0 .0 6 1 i n . 0 .0 6 8 in .

5 ■ 0 .0 0 9 4 4 . 0 8 x 105 0 .0 6 3 in . 0 .0 6 2 in .

4 0 .0 0 9 4 4 .1 6 x 105 0 .0 5 5 in . 0 .0 5 6 in .

3 0 .0 0 9 4 4 .1 1 x IQ5 0 .0 4 3 in . 0 . 0 4 9 in .

Correlation in a ll cases is go o d . The e xp e rim e n ta l readings fo r a / b =

7 ,6 ,5 ,4 and 3 are g ive n in Tables A 3 - A 7 o f A p p e n d ix 2 . The

deflection o f the free edge o f the p la te a t a / b = 7 and q = 0 .0 4 5 psi can

be c le a rly seen in Photograph 2 .

Series 2:

In the second series o f tests on the 1 2 in . w id e p la te , com plete

deflection and strain measurements w ere taken for the case when a / b = 3 .

These exp erim en tal readings are shown in Tables A 8 —r A 13 o f A p p e n d ix

 61

The d e flectio n s w ere measured by means o f cathetom eters sighting targets

on the p la t e . The positions o f these targets are shown in F ig . 1 6 . The

positions o f the e le c tr ic resistance strain gauges, a t the top and bottom

of the p la te , are shown in F ig . 17 . The gauges had a resistance o f

approxim ately 2 6 5 ohms and a gauge fa c to r o f 2 . 0 0 . In it ia l and fin a l

temperatures w ere taken as b e fo re . The exp erim en tal set-u p was as for

the first series o f tests. The main d iffe re n c e was th a t due to the gauges

and the w ires , surface loading could not be used. Load was therefore

applied from underneath by means o f small hangers loaded w ith steel

washers. The hangers w ere suspended by lengths o f string w h ich passed

through small holes in the p la te and loaded it through ^ in . square fle x ib le

polyurethane pads. The loaded p la te is shown in Photograph 3 , in w hich

the large d eflec tio n s o f the p la te are e a s ily v is ib le . The d e fle c tio n

readings for a /b = 2 and 1 are shown in Tables A 14 and A 15 o f A p p en d ix 2 .

The tests, for a ll the a/4) ratio s, w ere once ag ain c arried out a t three

load intensities on three separate days. The two higher load intensities

were used to c a lc u la te constants A and B. W ith these values o f A and B,

the maximum d e fle c tio n wQ was c a lc u la te d a t the lowest load in te n s ity .

These th e o re tic a l values o f w Q have been shown against the e x p erim en tal

values in T ab le 2 .
 PLATE CENTRE LINE
FIC . 16
FIX ED EDGE

C\J

r \j

“oo
A
6" 6" 6" 6" , 6" 6°
- '
3 6"

GAUGES AT TOP GAUGES AT BOTTOM

C\J

OvJ

O sl rvj

N~>

ro
“rsj

PLATE CENTRE LINE PLATE CENTRE LINE

FIC. 17
PHOTOGRAPH 3
 64

TABLE 2

a /b q psi E psi wQ Theo. wQ E x p t.

3 0 .0 0 6 3 4 . 2 8 x 10^ 0 . 1 0 8 in . 0 .1 1 5 in .

2 0 .0 1 1 2 4 .1 5 x l0 5 0 .1 3 2 ! n . 0 .1 3 2 in .

1 0 .0 1 1 6 4 .1 5 x l0 5 - 0 .0 2 8 in .

It can be seen th a t c o rre la tio n is, once a g a in , q u ite good.

The values o f A and B o b tain e d from the first and second series o f

tests are shown p lo tte d against t h e .a /b ra tio in F ig . 18. The values o f

A and B fo r an in fin ite ly long p la te (a /b = * * ) are shown d o tte d . These

values are the lim itin g values fo r A and B. In F ig . 18, it can be seen

that a ll the points for A and B lie on f a ir ly smooth cu rves. The values

of A and B fo r b = 1 2 in . and a /b = 3 are a lit t le lo w . This is pro b ab ly due

to the fact th at a t a / b = 3 , the p la te even in its unloaded state has an

initial d e fle c tio n due to the w e ig h t o f the w ires on the p la t e . For a / b = l

and 2 th e re fo re , the w ires w ere disconnected and strain readings w ere

discontinued. The v a lu e o f A a t a / b = l is v e ry sensitive to small

variations in w 0 . The curves in F ig . 18 should not be used for a /b < 1 . 5 .

4 .4 D eterm in atio n o f transverse moments:

To determ ine the transverse moments in the p la te , it is now necessary

to assume a d e fle c tio n surface in the Z d ir e c tio n . This d e fle c tio n surface

should satisfy a ll the boundary conditions and be expressed in the form ,

w = w0 f(x ,b )f(y ,a ) • - ................................................................................ ( 2 4 )

 65 |

00

O
Ll_

JO

l_L_
O
UJ

CO
TIT in
Ll_
o o
u.
LU
UJ

Vo
O
O o
o

o i i V ’a

OJ
O S -1

O in o in
CNJ
O in
o O o o
o
o
Z I -0

CsJ
o o o
o o o o
The d e fle c tio n surface th at rigorously satisfies a ll the boundary conditions

is the surface as determ ined by the small d e fle c tio n th e o ry . W hen expressed

in the form g iven by (2 4 ), this can be w ritte n as,

_ CO

u . Ss
K - Am +

hi » lf3,5.

■D m n (b -x)
(25)
ol a-

where, Oo

K = ^ “ Am Am C o s k | 3 m S m kp

Q ‘ mTT
m om — (26)
2

and w here,
Am = “
I ’5 m
^5

- 4 ^ V ) ( l “ V)C o s(i ^ m <f‘ 2 v C o c ^ >n " V 0 - W i i m S i n k P m - 0 ^ a)

Ttsms (3 + v )(i—>)Co*h*f>^+Q -v )*P»? + ( l + v ) 2

 67

» - Cm

(I MTTb
P rn = CL

The surface g ive n by (2 5 ) is a v e ry a c c u ra te o n e . Besides this su rface,

two other ra th e r sim pler surfaces w ere in vestig ated as w e l l . These two

simpler surfaces a re g iv e n b y the fo llo w in g expressions:

l. » . . ■ (« >

2. w

Both these surfaces satisfy the boundary conditions a t a ll edges ex c e p t

at the free e d g e . As the maximum d e fle c tio n wQ is now know n, it is

possible to c a lc u la te the d e fle c tio n curves alo n g the X axis as g iven by

(25), (27) and ( 2 8 ) . These curves, fo r the p la te w ith b = 1 2 in . and a /b = 3

and at load intensities q, = 0 .0 2 2 1 psi and q 2 = 0 .0 5 0 3 psi, are shown in

Figs. 19a and 19b re s p e c tiv e ly . The e x p e rim e n ta lly o b ta in e d d e fle c tio n

curves along the X axis have also been shown in F igs. 19a and 19b . As

may be seen, (2 5 ) and (2 8 ) y ie ld curves closest to the e x p e rim e n ta l. For

the same p la te and load in te n s ities , the d e fle c tio n curves alo n g the Y axis

(the free edge) as g iv e n by (2 5 ) and (2 8 ) have been shown, to g eth er w ith

the experim ental d e fle c tio n s , in F ig s .2 0 a and 2 0 b .

The th e o re tic a l transverse moments M x and M v can be determ ined by

the use o f ( 4 ) . From the d e fle c tio n surface g iven by (2 5 ), ------- and — —
k got as f
can be ^x2 J
 68

D EFLEC TIO N S ALONG THE X AXIS IN THE PLATE W ITH

A FR EE EDGE

F IX E D EDGE
FR E E EDGE

- 0-2

LOADING Cj, = 0 - 0 2 2 1 (k L

-0 -4
INCHES

F IX E D EDGE FREE EDGE

DEFLECTIONS

- 0-2

F IG .1 9 b
-0 -4

TH E O R E T IC A L DEFL. CUR.VE Ed. (2 7 )

» (2 8 )
» (2 5 )
EX P E K M E N T A L D E F L E C T IO N

//
PLATE W ID T H = 12
 -Q
<NJ

o
u_
EDGE

o
OsJ
FREE

o
Ll.
A
WITH

K>
PLATE

2
<
Q_
to CO
THE

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t-
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IN

CO
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AXI S

O
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LD
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Y

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O o
UJ
THE

Q
o o
o
ALONG

Q o
< UJ o
o
S

o UJ
UJ Q_
ION

a: x
E CT
DEFL

- 0-2 -0 *4 -0 -4 - 0*6

D E F L E C T IO N INCHES
 70

oo

U)0 \ W lt(b -x )

K Z .
Hi* 1,3,5 •• •

(-? ff Swkmn^ ~ - + 2Bw,(-g)CoskWI<^

+ CJ - ls r f S m k wltCb~ ^ + X L f - ^ - f Cosk. 2 2 ^
a- / n a * / a. a.

S in S * f f t? J (2 9 )
CL

oo
d j£

3ya * k - £ - - A " + A h> C“ 1' +

>W«lf 3r 5 -

5 iS f c i) s ij, w f t - 0 + c„ S „ k g - (b - - ? i
a a. a.

m a. a.
r-m i r \ 2 c • w T T ( f + y )
(30)
c n * * ' a. ...........

3 \o
From the simple d e fle c tio n surface g ive n by (2 8 ), —^ and can be got as,
dx by1
The th e o re tic a l and e x p e rim e n ta l moments a t load intensities q j and ^

are shown in F ig s. 21 and 22 re s p e c tiv e ly . These moments are alo n g a

line p a ra lle l to the X axis and l i n . o ff the cen tre (y = = lin ). The e x p e r i­

m entally measured strains a t these two load intensities are shown in F ig s .2 3

and 2 4 . T en sile strains have been shown as p o s itiv e . The ex p e rim e n ta l

moments have been d eterm ined from these strains by the method g iven in

3 .3 .7 . It can be seen th a t the moments p re d ic te d by the use o f (2 5 ) are

in good agreem ent w ith the e x p e rim e n ta l. Though this d e fle c tio n surface

is co m p licated , it was programmed ve ry e a s ily in A L G O L fo r the E llio t 5 0 3

computer o f the C o lle g e . A ll the series converge v e ry ra p id ly and it was

found s u fficie n t to tak e the first fiv e terms in the series i . e . u p til m =9.

The moments p re d ic te d by the use o f (2 8 ) disagree w ith the e x p e rim e n ta l a t

the free e d g e . This is because the boundary conditions a t the free edge have

not been m e t. H o w ever the maximum moments and the gen eral b e h a v io u r o f

the plate can be p re d ic te d w ith reasonable a c c u ra c y even w ith the use o f

this simple expression. Its use is hence to be recommended if a com puter is

unavailable o r fo r a p re lim in a ry analysis o f the p la t e .

TRANSVERSE MOMENTS AT Y d * IN THE PLATE WITH

A FREE EDGE

T H E O R E T IC A L M OM ENTS AS GOT

2 5 ) ------
E X P E R IM E N T A L M O M EN TS *©•

EDGE FREE EDGE

a.

LOADING q , = 0 -0 2 2 1 f e i

FIC . 21

b = PLATE WI DTH = 12"

 TRANSVERSE M O M E N TS AT Y =* I " IN THE PLATE W ITH

A FR E E EDGE

+ 1-6

T H E O R E T IC A L MOMENTS AS GOT FFLOM E Q .(2 8 ) —

n h H « ( 25) -----
EXP IR J M E N T A L M O M ENTS --------- «e
INS./IN.
LB.

+0-8
MOMENTS

+0*4

FREE EDGE
AND

F IX E D EDGE
TRANSVERSE

— & -

-0*4

LOADING % = 0 *0 5 0 3 f
- 0*8

FIG . 22

PLATE W ID TH - 12
 RECORDED S T R A IN S AT Y = l" IN THE PLA TE W ITH A

FR EE EDCE
+ 800

+ 600

LATERAL STR A IN
+400

BOTTOM LONG. S TR A IN
+ 200
S TR A IN S
RECORDED

TOP LONG S T R A IN
-200

LOADING Q = 0 -0 2 2 1 f * i
-4 0 0

BOTTOM LATERAL S T R A IN

-6 0 0

FIG. 25

b = PLATE W ID T H * 1 2 -0 0
 RECORDED ST RA I NS AT Y=f IN THE PLATE WI T H A

F R E E 'E D G E
4-1600

LOADING (}

•TOP LATERAL STRAIN

■ BOTTOH LONG. S T R A IN
+ 40C
o
STR A IN S
RECORDED

TOP
-4 0 0

-8 0 0

BOTTOM LATERAL S T R A IN

-1200

F IC .2 4

PL AT E W I D T H = l2-00"
4 .5 Determination of the membrane stresses:

The th e o re tic a l membrane stresses may be determ ined In much the

same w ay as the transverse moments, It Is necessary to assume d eflection

surfaces in the X and Y d ire c tio n s . The strains In the X and Y d irectio n s

18
and the shearing strains can then be w ritte n as ,

C « Sa x f d w _ y
dx 2 \ dx /

c - Sv + i ( 1 “l Y

v - . dv j . / 3w V 9w \
Y* > ~ 5 7 + 5 T + (S T A S '}
The membrane stresses a re ,

(J - (^ X + V ^y)E

. 0 - v * )

(jv - (£y + v ^ x ) E_ . .

= Y x VG

The simplest approach w ould be to assume that no displacem ents o ccu r in

the plane o f the p la te i . e . u^O and v = 0. The assumption th at v = 0 is

realistic if the sim ply supported edges o f the p la te are im m o vab le. The

assumption th a t u=0 is h ow ever u n re a lis tic , since the free edge o f the p la te

w ill alw ays move in . To keep the problem in p e rs p e c tiv e , it may be po in ted

out that the membrane stresses themselves are r e la tiv e ly s m a ll. The
exp erim en tal membrane stresses for the p la te and loadings considered

in 4 . 4 are shown In F ig s .2 5 a and 2 5 b . Tensile stresses have been

shown as p o sitiv e *
 78

MEMBRANE STRESSES AT Y= I"

IN TH E PLATE W ITH A FR EE EDGE

F IG . 2 5 a

CP* ^ s ' * '

^ /F IX E D E DCE _____v _
------------ -©■ —
cr Jd ^

___ . _ -------- — ■ FREE EDGE

LOADING Cj| - 0*0221 f» i

PS!
STRESSES

E X P E R IM E ^TAL M EM B IA N E STRE5 I S E S - - * -
MEMBRANE

/
/

Jb
s
.........

/
/
X
F IX E D EDGE
\
N

_ - ^ .
i \

i
1

/ , 0 ----- "
s'
...

s '
/
** — __ — — ' FREE EDGE
LOADING q 2 = 0 -0 5 0 3 }3si

FIG . 25 b

b - PLATE WIDTH = 12"

 CHAPTER 5

The tw o -p in n e d / fo ld ed p la te portal fram e,

5 .1 The analysis o f the portal fram e:

The tw o -p in n e d portal fram e is shown in F ig . I d . The analysis o f

the structure presents no d iffic u lty and w ill be considered o n ly v e ry

b r ie fly . The approach to th e analysis is the same as fo r the roof units,

except th a t the lo n g itu d in a l beam a c tio n is substituted by a p o rtal frame

a c tio n . The transverse p la te a c tio n can be determ ined as b e fo re , but in

this case the p la te has shaped edges (skew supports). The p la te is fix e d

on three sides and is sim ply supported, fix e d o r free on the fourth side

depending on w h e th e r the u n it is an in te rn a l or e x te rn a l u n it and on the

connections. For long fo ld ed p la te s , the analysis may be s im p lifie d by

n eg lectin g the effects o f edge shaping. The ridge and v a lle y loads as

w ell as the ta n g e n tia l com ponent o f the e x te rn a l loads are then transm itted

to the supports by po rtal frame a c tio n . The degree o f portal a c tio n a c h ie v e d

is how ever, la rg e ly dependant on the column and knee stiffe n e rs . W ith

adequate s tiffe n in g , the po rtal fram e can be an alysed on its n eutral axis

by any o f the common methods o f structural e n g in e e rin g . The in flu e n c e

coefficients method is to be recommended because o f its ease o f a p p lic a tio n

to structures w ith v a ry in g cross-sections.

5 .2 Experimental verification of portal action and the influence
o f stiffe n ers.

5 .2 .1 D e ta ils o f the m o d e l:

The ex p e rim e n tal v e r ific a tio n was c a rrie d out on a single skin

model in Perspex and p v c . The model is shown in Photograph 4 , The data

for the model is g iven below :

Beam m a te ria l: Perspex

beam ridge span = 6 0 in .

beam n .a .s p a n ,! = 5 2 .5 0 in .

thickness, t , = l/ 8 in .

fo ld a n g le , 0,, = 45°

beam p la te w id th = 1 0 .6 0 5 in .

Colum n m a te ria l: PVC (D a rv ic )

column ridge height = 3 6 in .

colum n n . a . h e i g h t , 3 2 . 2 5 i n .

thickness, ^ ~ , l / 8 in .

fo ld a n g le , 82 * ~ 45°

p la te w id th a t knee = 1 0 .6 0 5 in .

p la te w id th a t p in = 1 .5 0 0 in .

Let,

= cross-sectional a re a o f the beam u n it,

A = cross-sectional area o f the column a t a distance V a b o v e the

cr

A = cross-sectional area o f the column a t the p in ,

o

^b = momen* *n e rt*a the beam u n it,

l c r = moment o f in e rtia o f the column a t a distance V a b o v e the pi

PHOTOGRAPH 4
 I = moment o f in e rtia o f the column a t the p in .
o

Then,

Aq = 0 .3 7 5 in 2

I, = 1 2 .4 2 8 in

h J

lQ = 0 .0 3 5 in

where,

d = 7 .5 0 0 0 in .

and dQ = 1 .0 6 0 8 in .

5 .2 .2 T h e o re tic a l analysis o f the m odel:

The model was analysed fo r two loading cases as follow s:

Case 1. A v e rtic a l p o in t load W on the ridge a t the cen tre

o f the s p an .

Case 2 . A h o rizo n ta l p o in t load H a t the a p e x .

Case 1:

It can be shown th at the h o rizo n ta l re a c tio n R a t the pin is g iven b y ,

8 E ,h [a ^ 2 2 ifc +

where, E, = M odulus o f e la s tic ity for the beam m a te ria l, and

E2 = M odulus o f e la s tic ity fo r the column m a te r ia l.

One hour a fte r lo ad in g and a t the mean test tem perature o f 1 8 .7 5 ° C ,

 5,6
it m ay be assumed th a t,
5
Ej = 4 . 1 9 x 10 psi (Perspex), and

5
E2 = 5 . 5 6 x 1 0 psi (p v c ).

Expression (3 5 ) then reduces to ,

R = 0 .0 9 8 5 W

The lo n g itu d in a l stress (C^.) d istrib u tio n o v e r the plates a t a n y section may

now be r e a d ily d e te rm in e d .
)
Case 2:

~H /
U n d e r a h o riz o n ta l load H a t the a p e x , R = / 2 and the solution is

very s im p le . O f interest h o w ever, is the d e fle c tio n a t the ap ex arid this

can be d eterm ined as,

HS2 2 -3 0 3 2 ^ I
(X
4 II E2 3E,

O ne hour a fte r load in g and a t the mean test tem perature o f 1 5 ° C , it may

be assumed th a t, ’
5 6

5
E, = 4 . 3 5 x 10 psi (Perspex) ard

5
E2 = 5 . 6 4 x 10 psi (p v c ).

Expression (3 6 ) then reduces to ,

^ 0 * 0 0 3 6 H in . (w here H is in lb s .)

5 .2 .3 D e ta ils o f the e x p e rim e n ta tio n :

The model was supported on a c e n tra l steel beam 6 in . x 4 i i n . x

21 lb s /ft. To this beam w ere b o lte d 2 in . x 2 in . x i i n . a n g le s . Steel hinges

were fix e d to the upstanding legs o f these angles and the base plates o f

the columns w ere then b o lted to the hinges. As the model was unstable

out o f its own p la n e , v e r tic a l channels 7 in . x 3 i i n . x 18 lb s /f t . w ere

used to p reven t la te ra l in s ta b ility . The model o f the in tern al u n it

discussed in 3 . 3 . 1 was used as the beam u n it o f the portal fra m e . The

ends o f this u n it w ere shaped to mate w ith the pvc folded p la te column

units. The positions o f the e le c tr ic resistance strain gauges on the beam

/
u n it, 1 i n . o ff the c e n tre , a re shown in F ig . 1 1 . The d e ta ils o f these

gauges are g ive n in 3 . 3 . 6 . A d d itio n a l e le c tr ic resistance strain gauges

were fix e d on the Perspex knees and on the pvc columns and the positions

of these gauges are shown in F ig s. 2 6 and 2 7 . These gauges had an

approxim ate resistance o f 2 7 2 -2 7 3 ohms and a gauge fa c to r o f 2 . 0 9 .

The positions a t w h ich the v e r tic a l and h o rizo n ta l d e fle c tio n s w ere

measured by means o f d ia l gauges o f 0 .0 0 0 1 in . a c c u ra c y are shown in

F ig .2 8 .

5 .2 .4 The in flu e n c e o f stiffeners:

The p o rtal fram e was tested fo r three load in g cases as under:

Case 1 . A v e r tic a l p o in t lo a d , W = 1 0 3 .3 8 lbs on the ridge a t the

c e n tr e .

Case 2 . A h o riz o n ta l po in t lo ad , H = 2 1 .1 9 lbs. a t the a p e x .

Case 3 . A h o rizo n ta l p o in t lo ad , H = 3 1 .1 4 lbs. a t the a p e x .

In Stage 1, the p o rtal frame w ith o u t knee stiffeners was tested fo r load in g

Cases 1 and 2 . O n ly d e fle c tio n readings w ere ta k e n . In Stage 2 ,

 85
IPs * IQ-605

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o
Du

CO
O UJ
SO

C
h-
cd
O
CL­

UJ

<c
C\i,
O' _I
a_

Q
UJ
Q_
O o
_I
LU
>
LU
O

o
u_
 DEVELOPED ELEVA TIO N OF P O R JA L COLUMN L' W IT H P O S IT IO N S
OF GAUGES

cl-

u j
*o

DEVELOPED ELEVA TIO N OF POMAL COLUMN R WITH P O S IT IO N S

OF GAUGES
FIG . 27

BEAM S T IF F E N E R
KNEE S T IF F E N E R
4 " THICK \ J,‘ ,TB 'CK APEXES
APEX T
-N^J

NO
COLUMN STIFFENERS
' !/\& THICK

CENTRE LINE OF
THE POKTAL

COLUMN Y COLUMN R

FIG. 2 8
an l / 8 i n . th ic k Perspex knee s tiffe n e r was inserted and the tests re p e a te d .

F in a lly in Stage 3 , a l / 1 6 i n . th ic k Perspex beam s tiffe n e r was inserted and

the tests rep eated a g a in . The d e fle c tio n readings fo r loadin g Cases 1 and 2

in Stages 1 ,2 and 3 are shown in Tables A 1 6 -A 1 8 o f A p p e n d ix 2 . W ith a ll

the stiffeners now in , the p ortal fram e was tested for loading Cases 1 and 3 .

This tim e strain measurements w ere also ta k e n . The e x p erim en tal readings

for loading Cases 1 and 3 are g iv en in Tables A 1 9 -A 2 3 o f A p p e n d ix 2 .

5 .2 .5 Analysis o f the test results:

The h o riz o n ta l d e fle c tio n s a t the ap ex under a h o rizo n ta l p o in t

load H = 2 1 . 1 9 lbs. in Stages 1 ,2 and 3 a t a standard tem p erature o f 1 7 ° C ,

are shown in T a b le 3 .

T A BL E 3

H lbs Stage T em p . 5apex

2 1 .1 9 1 1 7 °C 0 . 1 5 5 2 in .

2 1 .1 9 2 1 7 °C 0 .0 8 1 7 in .

2 1 .1 9 3 1 7 °C 0 .0 8 0 9 in .

It can be seen th a t th e insertion o f the l / 8 i n . knee s tiffe n e r causes a

marked red u ctio n in the h o rizo n ta l d e fle c tio n a t the a p e x . The fu rth er

insertion o f the l / l 6 i n . beam s tiffe n e r does not reduce the d e fle c tio n

a p p re c ia b ly .

The th e o re tic a l and ex p e rim e n ta l lo n g itu d in a l stresses (0^ ) and

transverse moments (M y) a t section AA, l i n . o ff the c e n tre , due to

W = 1 0 3 .3 8 lbs. in Stage 3 , are shown in F i g . 2 9 . The th e o re tic a l

transverse moments are zero (since the load is on the rid g e ) but ow in g

to the e ffe c t o f lo c a l co n cen trated lo a d in g , small moments are gen erated

w hich d ie out ra p id ly towards the fre e e d g e . The beam d e fle c tio n s fo r

this loading in Stages 1 and 3 , are shown in F i g . 3 0 .

The th e o re tic a l and e x p e rim en tal lo n g itu d in a l stresses due to

H = 3 1 .1 4 lb s . (cwwq f) a t sections BB and BB1 ( F ig .2 9 ) are shown in F i g . 3 1 .

The lo n g itu d in a l stresses in the columns a t sections C C and C C 1 ( F ig .2 9 )

due to H = 3 1 .1 4 lbs are shown in F i g . 3 2 . The stresses in F ig s .31 and 32

have been d eterm in ed on the assumption th a t the shearing stresses a t the

sections a re small and can be n e g le c te d . C o rre la tio n betw een the th e o re tic a l

and ex p e rim e n tal results is in g en eral g o od. The d ifferen ces b etw een th eo ry

and exp erim en t in F i g . 32 are more pronounced because o f a te n d e n c y fo r the

column to tw ist as a w h o le and to b u ckle betw een stiffen ers, p a rtic u la rly

towards the p in . In F ig s .2 9 ,3 1 and 32 ten sile stresses are p o s itiv e .

L as tly, it must be m entioned th at it has not been possible to determ in e

the stress d istrib u tio n o v er the kn ees. The strain gauges w ere p rovided o n ly

at the top and proved in s u ffic ie n t fo r the d e te rm in a tio n o f the com plex knee

stresses. H o w e v e r, th e strain readings seem to in d ic a te th at the stresses a t the

apex p o in t o f the knees must be alm ost z e ro .

 STRESSES AND M OM ENTS AT S E C T IO N AA IN
PORTAL FRAME UNDER CENTRAL
P O IN T LO A D .
+ 400 + 0 -8

F IG .29

+ 30 C +0 *

TH EO R ETIC A L
EXPERIMENTAL

+ 200
fNS^lN.

lo ng. stress o;
LB.

+ I0 0 L +0*2
MOME NT

e-
TRANSVERSE

R ID C E LINE TRANSVERSE B.M

-100

AA BB

C.L.
o
COLUMN R

END E LEV A TIO N E L E V A T IO N

-4 0 0 - 0-8

b = PLATE W ID T H H 0 - 6 0 5
 R ID G E SPAN=60

N EU TR A L A XIS S P A N = 5 2 -5 0

PORTAL BEAM D E F L E C T IO N W ITH KNEE ST IF F E N E R S

S. B EA M
S.S. BEAM D E F L .
: L.O N N .A .
ON R ID G E SPAN
SPAN

PORTAL BEAM D E F L E C T IO N W IT H O U T Kh EE S T IF F E N IRS

THEORE T IC A L DEFL
E X P E R I CENTAL DEF .. — ©*

F IG . 30

BEAM D E F L E C T IO N S IN PORTAL FR A M E UNDER

C EN TR A L POINT LOAD.
 STRESSES AT SECTIONS BB AND BB' IN PORTAL FRAME
UNDER A H O R IZ O N T A L P O IN T LOAD AT THE

APEX S

FIG . 31

LONG. STRESS CT=

R ID G E ON BB

TH EO R ETIC A L
E X P E R IM E N T A L e

RIDGE LIN

LONG. STRES

T nI T b'

b « PLATE W ID T H = 10-605
 92
STRESSES AT S E C T I O N S CC AND C#C' IN PORTAL FRAME
UNDER A H O R IZ O N T A L PO INT LOAD AT TH E

F IG . 32

+ 100
LONG. STR ESS GrX J IN P 0 R T A L
LEG AWAY : ROM LO A D ,! \
ON CC ! >

RIDGE LINE

-1 0 0
PSI

E X P E R IM E N T A L — e
STRESS

+ 1001
LONG.

LONG. STRESS CTX | IN PORTAL

LE6 TO W A R D S j LOAD,ON c'c‘

~ I0 0

COLUMN PLATE W ID TH =4-69 5

 93

CHAPTER 6

The fo ld ed p la te barrel v a u lt .

6 .1 The geom etry o f the structure:

The fo ld ed p la te barrel v a u lt shown in F i g . 33 is one o f the most

interesting shapes a v a ila b le fo r the roofing o f large a re a s .

............. F I G . 33

E LEVA TIO N

ARCH RIB

PLAN
LONGITUDINAL D IR EC TIO N

It has the ad van tag e th at it can be b u ilt up from o n ly one type o f u n it,

which makes it id e a l fo r p re fa b ric a tio n and hence fo r.a m a te ria l lik e p la s tic s .
 94

The au th o r is co n fid e n t th at a structure o f this type could be b u ilt in

plastics sandw ich construction to spans o f 2 0 0 f t . Consider the rhom boidal

shaped u n it fo ld ed alo n g its longer d ia g o n a l, shown in F i g . 34 and le t the

angle o f the u n it in e le v a tio n be o

FIG . 34

— A
!

o<

E L E V A T IO N S E C T IO N ON AA

For the units to m ate, it is then necessary th at the an g le betw een the

v a lle y lines o f successive units in a d ja c e n t rows be 20C and the a n g le betw een

the v a lle y lines o f successive units in the same row be 4oC . The fo ld an g le

of the u n it, 6 , may v a ry betw een p ra c tic a l lim its o f 15° and 6 0 ° . A change

in 0 a lte rs the stiffness and the to ta l length o f the b a r r e l. A shallow an g le

such as 1 5 ° w o u ld lead to a large are a being covered by a rath er fle x ib le

barrel w ith sh allo w fo ld s . A la rg er an g le w ould cause a sm aller are a to be

covered by a s tiffe r b arrel w ith d e ep er fo ld s.

6 .2 The analysis of the barrel vault:

The b e h avio u r o f the structure can be once a g a in split up into a

transverse p la te a c tio n and a lo n g itu d in a l arch a c tio n . Each o f these

w ill now be considered in d e t a il.

6 .2 .1 Transverse p la te a c tio n o f the barrel v a u lt:

The transverse p la te a c tio n is determ ined by the analysis o f

a tria n g u la r p la te under normal lo a d in g . The tria n g u la r p la te may be

considered as fix e d alo n g a ll three edges if it is an in te rn a l p la te and if

site adhesive bonding is resorted to a lo n g the ridge lin e s . It m ay be

considered as fix e d alo n g the v a lle y lin e and sim ply supported along

the ridges if sim ple b o ltin g is used. I f the v a lle y lines too are b o lte d ,

it is necessary to insert lo n g itu d in a l ties a lo n g the length o f the barrel

v a u lt to p reven t an "a c c o rd ia n " lik e e f f e c t . The e x te rn a l p la te must be

considered as fre e alo n g the v a lle y lin e . The tria n g u la r p la te is loaded

by the com ponent o f the e x te rn a l load normal to the s u rface. For small

barrel v a u lts , th e most c r itic a l load in g fo r the transverse p la te a c tio n

can be in c id e n ta l liv e lo a d . The British Code o f P ractice (C P 3) requires

that roofs, w ith surfaces in c lin e d up to 4 5 ° shall be designed to ca rry a

superimposed load o f 2 0 0 lbs p la c e d on an are a 5 in . square. The transverse

p late a c tio n under this lo ad in g can be determ ined by the use o f a rath er

simple a p p ro x im a tio n . C onsider the tria n g u la r p la te shown in F i g . 35 and

subjected to a p o in t load a t the c e n tre .

 Y AXIS
♦
POINT LOAD CIRCLE OF IN FLU EN C E

^T R IA N G U L A R PLATE

If the p la te is long and narrow and if the po int load is a p p lie d a t the

c e n tre , the in flu e n c e o f the load does not extend into the co m ers, but

is lim ite d by a c irc le o f in flu en ce as in F i g . 3 5 . The analysis o f the

tria n g u la r p la te may then be substituted, w ith o u t much loss in a c c u ra c y ,

by the analysis o f a c irc u la r p la te loaded a t the c e n tre . The analysis

its e lf depends on w h eth e r the structure is single skin o r sandwich

con stru ctio n . In single skin co n stru ctio n, the d e fle c tio n s w ill alw ays

be large in comparison to the thickness o f the s k in . In sandwich co n ­

struction the d e fle c tio n s w i l l , in g e n e ra l, be small in comparison to

the thickness o f the sandw ich, but the large shearing deform ations o f

the core have to be taken into a c c o u n t. The analysis o f an in tern al

p late w ith fix e d edges, under a po in t load a t the centie, w ill now be

considered in d e t a il.

6 .2 .2 A nalysis o f the p la te w hen the transverse d e fle c tio n s are

sm all:

C onsider a c irc u la r p la te w ith clam ped edges and le t,

 97

a = radius o f the p la te ,

r = radius a t a n y p o in t,

c = radius o f the c ir c u la r pad a p p ly in g the lo a d , and

P = the e x te rn a l lo a d .

18
Then, w ith the edges sim ply s u p p o rted , the d e fle c tio n w 1 is g iv e n b y ,

I V ( i- v ) (a.1- ! '4)
ftt) = -L . + ir H o q - + c* i.0 0 — *“ ------------ ---------5— • (3 7 )
1 ( i 0 i6ni> 1( 1+ v ) v ’ l03 a ° U 2 ( i+ V ) &
when fs O ,

ft +V) 2 2 I c (l4-3v) r 1
r — A Ol + c r lo g , C • • • ( 38)
(v« ')V. 0 = —
IfelCD (l + V ) 4 ( i+ V )

w h ere, V = Poisson's ra tio , and

D = fle x u ra l rig id ity o f the p l a t e .

The slope a t the boundary is g iven b y ,

2 r + 2 r 4 4 ^ ^ 0<] T*
(S ')faOL I6TTD
-
(i + v) . J a-

1
r
+
2(i+v) a
2T
• •(39)
The e x te rn a l load is removed and moments M a re now a p p lie d a t the bo u n d ary.

The slope a t the boundary is then g iven b y ,

_ Ma
• • (4 0 )
dr D (l+ V )
)r T SCL

For the edges to be fu lly clam p ed , the slopes as g iven by (3 9 ) and (4 0 ) must

be equal and o p p o s ite . This determ ines the v a lu e o f M as,

(3 + v) 1 + Q z l> 1
M = + _ P £ ± ii
l6TCa (l+ v )
2 a- - 2 a - c : a (i + y ) a • •( 4 0
 98

The d e fle c tio n s due to M are g iven b y ,

U )" = M Cr * - a * ) (4 2 )
2 I)0 + v )

The total d eflection,, w h e n ffio ls hence obtained as,

(u,) = IfiitD
1 r^o
_£_ (W i + v ) (a2-r2) +2r2lo3£ +C2[to,
I
£ - ^2 ( i + v w
) a
&

X 2.
2(3+v) 2 CY| I *~v ^ y - ol
• • (4 3 )
(t+ v) a2 I v. +v /

W hen r = 0 , the to ta l d e fle c tio n can be o b ta in e d as,

0°)r *0 16113)
( ± t * l
0+ v)
a V c 2( o a £ - c^
4 (i+ v )
c l -

2 (3+ v) _ o _ c V » + ill. > a_

2
•••(4+)
(i + v ) >■ *+>; /

The bending moments in the p la te can then be determ ined from the expressions,

( d 2u> + 1 d io
\ d r * r d r ■)
• (4 5 )
dtu d 2<»
+ v>
<r d r drx
At f/ 0,

( Mr ) - ± )
v yrfo 4TT 16TT Vra a1/
- + O z o O jP f c l. /_ L

__PQ-t-v) f2(3+v) _o /-V

/67r | (l+ v ) a2
I ■+
l+v • • (4 6 )

_ P (i-v)Pc * f ± + JL\
(M ,) , = ( l + » ) log jr + (l-V )
V ^ r* a2 J
r^ o 4TT 1 6T T

P Q + » ) ( 2-te + v ) l-v
- 2 - — I + •••(4 7 )
I6 T [ (l+ v ) a 2 l+ v
At T = 0, it can be shown that,

4 r - [ s* v ) U 3 f + i - t t .

PCi-t-v) | 2(3+ v ) _ 2_ sl + —
I 67C | (l+ v ) a4 l+ V

Since the d e fle c tio n s w are small in comparison to the thickness, the

membrane stresses may be considered as n e g lig ib le .

6 .2 .3 A nalysis o f the p la te when the transverse d e fle c tio n s

are la rg e :

W hen the transverse d e fle c tio n s are la rg e , it is first assumed

that the d e fle c te d surface o f the c irc u la r p la te can be expressed in the

form,

W 3 W ° ( i " J r * '

w here, w Q = maximum d e fle c tio n a t the c e n tr e ..

.1 9
It has been shown by V o lm ir , and discussed in d e ta il by Timoshenko

18
and W o in o w s k y -K rie g e r , th at the maximum d e fle c tio n wQ can be d eterm ined

by the n o n -lin e a r e q u a tio n ,

BPaz
Et4
where A and B are constants w h ic h depend on the edge conditions and the

Poisson's ra tio o f the p la te .

 I.»
Let the membrane forces N r and be d e fin e d by a stress fu n ctio n f

such th a t,

* ■ r f.
M . < 3
* " dr*
Then it can be shown th a t,

The constants C , and C 2 are d eterm in ed by the edge c o n d itio n s. For the

p late considered there are tw o types o f edge conditions as under:

Type 1. C lam p ed edge free to m ove,

Type 2 . C lam ped edge not free to m o ve.

T ype 1:

If the edge is fre e to move th e n ,

(H r) = O
v / r = a
W ith the use o f (5 1 ) this can be re w ritte n as,

C
Further as N r ,must be fin ite in v a lu e a t r—0 it follow s th a t,
/ df\
U ) r= 0 “ ° ........................................................
The constants C f and C 2 can then be determ ined by the use o f (5 3 ) and (5 4 ) as,

^ _ 7 Et
C| " *0 a *
 101

Type 2 :

Since the edge is not free to m ove, it follow s th at the ra d ia l

displacem ent a t the boundary must be z e ro , i . e .

O O r .a = °
Therefo re,

ta n g e n tia l strain ^ « o
r * a r

and as,
f ( . i ( N t - V N r )

th erefo re,

K - v N r ) r < 4 ' 0 (5 6 )

As the membrane force at r = 0 must s till have a fin ite v a lu e it

follows th a t (5 4 ) is s till v a lid . The constants C , and C 2 m ay be

determ ined by the use o f (5 4 ) and (5 6 ) as,

(0-7v) Etuo
1 8 0 - y ) o-1
( 5 7 )

c2 = 0

The stress fu n ctio n f fo r both types o f edge conditions is c o m p le te ly

determ ined and the use o f the stress fu n ctio n leads to the d e term in atio n

18
of constants A and B o f Equation (5 0).

V o lm ir has d eterm in ed the constants A and B fo r V = 0 . 3 0 as,

Edge fre e to move: A = 0 .2 0 0 , B = 0 .2 1 7

(5 0 )
Edge not free to move: A = 0 .4 4 3 , B = 0 .2 1 7

The au th o r has determ in ed the same constants A and B fo r V= 0 .3 5 as,

 102

Edge free to move: A - 0 .1 9 4 , B = 0 .2 0 9

C59)
Edge not free to move: A = 0 .4 5 3 , B = 0 .2 0 9

The use o f (4 9 ) in (4 5) then determ ines the ra d ia l and ta n g e n tia l moments

in the p la t e . These can be w ritte n as,

0 + v ) L 3 £ - I

( 60)

( i + v ) l og - V

It can be seen th a t the use o f (6 0 ) leads to in fin ite moments a t r = 0 .

If it is assumed th a t the load P is u n ifo rm ly distribu ted o v e r a small radius

r = c , then it can then be shown th a t,

4-35 Wo + £
(Mr) ° (M t) (l + v ) L o j - f - — I
43C
(6 1 )
v r*o v z ' r . ,O CL3,
u .
The membrane forces can be d eterm ined from the stress fu n ctio n f by the

use o f ( 5 1 ).

6 .2 .4 L o n g itu d in al arch a c tio n o f the barrel v a u lt:

The units o f the barrel v a u lt form a fix e d arch as may be seen in

the e le v a tio n o f F i g . 3 3 . The cross-sectional area o f the arch is constant,

but the moment o f in e rtia is n o t. C onsider a small section o f the arch as

shown in F i g . 3 6 .
 103

DEPTH d AT

DEPTH

NOTE-' THE P O SITIVE D IR E C T IO N OF 0 MAY BE

CHOSEN A R B IT R A R IL Y .

FIG. 36
 104

The maximum d e p th , d , o f the arch rib occurs a t ,

<f>, = h o c

w h e re ,

(P = c e n tra l a n g le , and

n = ± To, 2 , 4 , 'n j

The minim um depth o f the arch r ib , occurs a t

<P0 ~ h o c

w h ere,

1 ,3 .5 , m -i]

For the s e m i-c irc u la r barrel v a u lt shown in F i g . 3 3 , m = 8 , and oC= 11 1 5 '.

A t (J>f , the arch rib has o n ly one p la te o f v e rtic a l depth d. At

how ever, the arch rib has tw o plates o f v e rtic a l depth j . The maximum

and minimum moments o f in e rtia can th erefo re be w ritte n as,

(6 2 )
I , = *d3
tn ,n .
w here,

k =
12 Sim e
The maximum and minimum moments o f in e rtia g iven by (62) can be expressed

in the re la tio n s h ip ,
n*M
K43 2
(i) 8 I + 0 C o s ta h o c

■ft3)
 105

w h e re ,

I is a maximum w hen n is e v e n , and

I is a minimum w hen n is o d d .

The analysis o f the arch can h ow ever be ca rrie d out on the assumption

that the av era g e moment o f in e rtia is co n stan t. The v a lu e —— can be

la v .
o btain ed by a p p ly in g Simpson's rule to the ra p id ly flu c tu a tin g values o f —
’tVlOLX.
and o v e r the a rc h . This g ives,
m «n.

4 m + 2 ( m -0
■ -(6 4 )
Xav. 6m
Am
<xx. I In in . I,
or,
I I
(6 5 )
la v . 3 m ax. I min .
This v a lu e , , gives the ave ra g e moment o f in e rtia o f the o v e ra ll s e c tio n .

It assumes th at the e n tire p la te w id th is e ffe c tiv e and th at no compressive

bu cklin g occurs in the cen tral p art o f the p la te s . In sandwich construction

this assumption is reaso n ab le. In single skin construction h o w ever, compressive

b u cklin g causes o n ly a reduced section towards the ridges and v a lle y s to be

e ffe c tiv e , w ith the result th at the a c tu a l averag e moment o f in e rtia o f the

20
arch section is lo w er than the v a lu e g iven by (6 5 ) . Z h id k o v hence suggests

that the structure could be analysed c o m p le te ly as a s k e le ta l stru ctu re. The

structure then consists o f three sets o f arches running along the ridges and the

V alleys and in te rc o n n ec te d a t the nodes. This assumption is p a rtic u la rly

re a lis tic i f larg e flan g es are used fo r the connectio n o f the u n its .
 106

The d iffic u lty w ith such an approach lies in d eterm ining the e x a c t oreas

w hich have to be assumed as co n cen trated alo n g the ridge and v a lle y lin e s .

15
G ilk ie and Robak have found the same d iffic u lty in th e ir w ork on plastics

pyram ids.

6 .3 E xperim ental v e r ific a tio n in single skin construction:

E xperim ental w ork has been c a rrie d out on folded p la te barrel vaults

in both single skin and sandwich co n stru ctio n . H o w ever, w ith sandwich

construction there are special problem s, such as large shearing d e fle c tio n s ,

and this e x p e rim e n ta l w ork w ill th erefo re be considered in C h a p te r 7 .

The e x p erim e n tal w ork on the single skin b arrel v a u lt w ill now be considered

in d e t a i l .

6 .3 .1 D e ta ils o f the m odel:

The data for the model is g iven belo w :

M a te r ia l: Perspex

N o . o f arch ribs: 6

Shape: S e m i-c irc u la r on the neutral axis

M a x . span o f the b arrel = 7 f t . 10 l / 8 i n .

M a x . heig h t o f the b a rre l= 3 f t . 11 l/l6 in .

n . a . span o f the barrel = 9 0 .4 9 1 8 in ,

length o f each u n it = 3 6 in .

p la te thickness.t = l/l6 in .

fo ld a n g le , S - 25

a n g le o f u n it, ©C = 11° 1 5 1

m =8
V = 0 .3 5
The plan and e le v a tio n o f the model are as shown in F i g . 3 3 . The model

is shown in Photograph 5 .

6 .3 .2 D e ta ils o f the e x p e rim en tatio n :

The model was b u ilt up out o f fla t tria n g u la r sheets o f Perspex.

Small l / 8 i n . d iam e te r e re c tio n bolts and bent clips w ere used to

te m p o ra rily join the panels to g e th e r. The w hole barrel v a u lt was thus

e rec te d w ith o u t the use o f an y g lu e . The structure was then p ro p erly

a lig n e d a fte r w h ich 'Tensol 7 ' cem ent was run into the ridges and v a lle y s

to fix the jo in ts. The model was glued to 3 / l 6 i n . th ic k Perspex p la te s ,

7 in . w id e , w h ich w ere b o lted to the backs o f 7 in . x 3 ^ in . x 1 8 lb /f t .

channels p la c e d on the flo o r. A s tiff 'handy a n g le ' bracing system was

used to p reven t an y h o rizo n tal movement o f the ch an n els. The load was

a p p lie d through small holes d rille d in the m o d e l. The d istrib u tio n o f

loading points, on the develo p ed plan o f a ty p ic a l u n it a t the crown is

shown in F ig . 3 7 .

FIG. 37
P O IN T LOADS A P P L IE D
THE MODEL

C IR C L E OF IN F L U E N C E

DEVELOPED PLAN OF U N IT AT THE CROWN

PHOTOGRAPH 5
 109

S tiff w ire hangers ca rry in g large d ia m e te r steel washers loaded the model

through small f i n . square, fle x ib le p o lyu reth an e foam pads. The v e rtic a l

d e fle c tio n s w ere measured by means o f d ia l gauges and c a th e to m e te rs . The

d ia l gauges w ere supported from a bridge w h ich straddled the stru ctu re.

W ith three o f the seven d ia l gauges used, the d e fle c tio n bridge can be

seen in Photograph 5 . The cathetom eters sighted targets on the stru ctu re.

The positions o f the d ia l gauges and the cath eto m eter targets are shown in

F ig .3 8 . The strains w ere measured by e le c tric resistance strain gauges

w ith an ap p ro xim ate resistance o f 2 6 1 -2 6 3 ohms, and a gauge fa c to r o f

2 .0 0 . The positions o f the gauges a t the top and the bottom surfaces o f the

c en tra l arch ribs are shown in F i g . 3 9 .

The model was tested for three loading cases:

2
Case 1 . A u n ifo rm ly d is trib u te d s elf load o f 0 .0 3 2 lb s /in .

This fig u re is based on the are a o f the b arrel v a u lt

on its neutral axis su rface.

Case 2 . A c e n tra l lin e load o f 3 .6 1 lb s/arch rib .

Case 3 . A lin e load o f 5 .4 3 lb s/arch rib and 1 2 .0 0 lb s/arch rib

Ot (j)5 + 2 !,
,c

In Case 3 , two loadings had to be used. A t the hig h er v a lu e o f the

lo ad , the d efle c tio n s fe ll outside the range of the d ia l gauges, and hence

the load had to be red u ce d . The strains and d e fle c tio n s w ere measured

th erefo re on independant tests. F u rth er, in order to determ in e the b eh avio u r

o f the com plete b arrel v a u lt, the load in Case 3 had to be a p p lie d
 FIG. 38 CATHETOMETER
CENTRE LINE
ALL D I M E N S I O N S GIVEN ARE TRUE LENGTHS <----- DIAL

GAUGES AT TOP CENTRE LINE

FIG. 39
ALL DIMENSIONS GIVEN ARE TRUE LENGTHS

r \j

GAUGES AT BOTTOM is *
 As b e fo re , the strains and d e fle ctio n s w ere measured a p p ro x im a te ly

one hour a fte r lo a d in g . The in itia l and fin a l tem peratures w ere also n o te d .

The strains and d e fle c tio n s for loading Cases 1 ,2 and 3 are shown in

Tables A 2 4 - 3 7 o f A p p en d ix 2 .

6 .3 .3 T h e o re tic a l analysis o f the model:

The model was analysed by the theory as set forth in 6 . 2 . 3

and 6 . 2 . 4 . The transverse p la te a c tio n in loading Cases 1 and 2 was

determ ined for the tria n g u la r plates a t the c ro w n . The load was a c tu a lly

a p p lie d a t the cen tre o f the p la te o f w id th 8 .4 7 2 4 in . The centre o f the

c irc le of in flu e n c e does not c o in c id e w ith the centre o f the p la te . The

distance betw een these tw o centres is 0 . 2 1 2 i n . This is sm all, and in the

th e o re tic a l analysis it has been assumed th at the load was a p p lie d a t the

centre o f the c ir c le . For the model th e re fo re ,

radius o f the p la te , a = 4 . 0 2 4 5 i n .

radius o f loading p ad , c = 4 i n .

For loading Case 1, the p la te was analysed for both types o f edge

conditions i . e . edge free to move and edge not free to m ove. The

d iffe re n c e in the fin a l results was how ever found to be ve ry s m a ll. In

Case 2 th e re fo re , o n ly the c o n d itio n o f edge free to move was considered.

The constants A and B given in (5 9 ) w ere used in (5 0 ) to y ie ld the v a lu e o f

 As an example, consider loading Case 1.

Then,

V e r tic a l lo ad , P 1 = 4 9 8 gms.

M e a n tem perature o f

tests, T = 2 1 .7 5 ° C .

Tim e a fte r lo a d in g , t ' = 1 hour

T h e refo re ,

P = ~ ^ -r x 0 .9 0 6 3 1 = 0 .9 9 5 lbs.
4 5 3 .6

and E = 4 . 0 7 x 10^ psi

If the edge is not free to m ove, eq u ation (5 0 ) then gives

I 6 W 0 + 1 9 5 5 too3 « 0 -5 4 -2 3

By tr ia l and erro r,

w Q = 0 .0 3 0 5 in .

If the edge is free to m ove, then eq u atio n (5 0 ) g ives,

C U 3»N /• W 0 \ 3 0 '2 O 9 X O 995 x ( 4 0 2 4 S ) Z

'3 4 U J —
o r' 3
|6 0)o -f 795 U)Q « 0-5423
By tria l and erro r,

w Q = 0 .0 3 2 3 in .
The v a lu e o f w Q when substituted in (6 0 ) and (6 1 ) yields the transverse

moments M f and M f . The membrane forces N r and N j are small but can

e a s ily be d eterm ined by the use o f (5 2 ) and (5 1 ) in th at o rd e r.

The longitudinal arch action was determined for a ll three

21
load in g cases by the use o f tables prepared by Szym czyk . If it is

assumed th a t the o v e ra ll section o f the p la te is e ffe c tiv e th e n , the moments

o f in e rtia o f an arch rib can be got as,

Im ax = ° - 5 6 5 7 !"4

Itnin = 0 .1 4 1 4 in4

I QV can then be got by the use o f (6 5 ) as,

I I

la v . " 3 0 5657 0 -1414 .

o r,

: 4
.. _l. = 0 1885 in.
O verall Section
If it is assumed th at o n ly l / 8 t h o f the p la te w id th is e ffe c tiv e a lo n g the

ridges and the v a lle y s th e n , .

^max = 0 *3 2 7 1 in

Im in = 0 .0 8 1 8 in

and a a v ) reduced section = 0 .1 0 9 1 in^

The a x ia l forces, w h ich cause p la te b u c k lin g , w ere assumed to be u n ifo rm ly

.2
d istrib u ted o v e r the p la te w id th on a cross-sectional area o f 0 .5 2 9 5 in .

6 .3 .4 A nalysis o f the test results:

The th e o re tic a l and ex p e rim e n ta l results fo r the model b arrel v a u lt

 114

are shown in Figs. 4 0 - 4 8 . F ig .4 0 shows the transverse p la te a c tio n

alo n g the Y axis o f an in tern al p la te a t the crown under the c e n tra l po in t

load o f Case 1. It can be seen th a t, from a p ra c tic a l p o in t o f v ie w , there

is lit t le d iffe re n c e in the fin a l moments and d e fle c tio n s betw een the two

edge c o n d itio n s . F ig . 41 shows the transverse p la te a c tio n o f the same

p la te alo n g the Y axis a t the h ig h er cen tral point load o f Case 2 . In

F i g . 4 1 , the th e o re tic a l curves are based on the assumption that the edge

o f the p la te is free to m o ve. In both Figs. 4 0 and 41 c o rre la tio n betw een

the th e o re tic a l and exp erim e n tal results is close, justifying the assumption

made that the in flu en c e o f a point load does not extend into the corners of

the p la te but is lim ite d by a c irc le o f in flu e n c e . The arch d e fle c tio n

diagrams fo r loading Cases 1 ,2 and 3 are shown in F ig s .4 2 - 4 4 . The

assumption th a t the o v e ra ll section is e ffe c tiv e leads to an underestim ation

o f the d e fle c tio n s . In F ig . 4 2 , the e xp erim en tal d e flectio n s are rath er larg er

than th e y should b e , because it has not been possible to a p p ly load a t a ll

those points, at both ends o f the a rc h , w h ic h lie on v e rtic a l planes passing

through the p la te s .

The arch lo n g itu d in a l stresses C x , a t various sections, for loading

Cases 1 ,2 and 3 are shown in F ig s .4 5 - 4 8 . The tria n g u la r stress d istrib u tio n

on the o v e ra ll section and the re c ta n g u la r, id ealised stress d istrib u tio n on

the reduced section have both been shown. In F ig s .4 5 - 4 8 , compressive

 TRIANGULAR PLA TE UNDER. C E N T R A L POIN T
LOADING.

---r

TH E O R E TIC A L-C LA M FREE TO MOVE - ■

NOT FREE TO MOVE

VALLEY
MOMENTS M
+ 0-10 LINE
10“
INS.*

M OMENTS Mix
rDEFLECTIONS

.-0 *10 0-2

DEFLECTION CURVE

- 0-20 0*4

C IRC LE OF IN FLU ENC E

-0*30

RIDGE LINE F I G . 40

PL A T E WJDTH = 8 * 4 7 2 4
 TR IA N G U LA R PLATE- U N D E R CENTRAL POINT
LOADING.

T H E O R E T IC A L — CLAM : REE TO MO
E X P E R I M E N T A L MON
M O M E N T S Mx
DEFL/ECTION

VALLEY
IN S ./IN .

LINE
MOMENTS

+ 0-10
LB.
t Cf *
MOMENTS
INS.*
rD EFLECTIO NS
- TRANSVERSE

MOM E N T S M

- 0*10 - 0*2

DEFLECT1

CIRCLE OF INFLUENCE

-0-30 - 0-6

RIDGE LINE
F I G . 41

PLATE WIDTH * 5*4724

DEFLECTIONS OF THE INTERNAL FOLDED PLATE A RC H
MB OF THE BARREL V AU L T UNDER SELF LOAD.

NTENSIT Y OF SELF LOAD * 0 - 0 3 ? L B S . / S Q . INCH

ARCH R|

ARCH N.A . L I N E

ARCH VALLEY LIN

THEORETICAL 5EFL. O V E R \ L L S E C T I O N ----- --

" R E D U C E D S E C T l O b -------
EXPERIMENTAL DEFLECTION O

VERTICAL DEFL. SCALE

MEAN R - 45- 2459

 DE F L EC T I ON S OF THE , INTERNAL FOLDED PL AT E ARCH RIB
OF THE BA RRE L VAULT UNDER A CENTRAL LINE LOAD.

F I G . 43

P = 3*61 L B S .

ARCH R I D GE LINE
\

ARCH N.A L IN E —
s/
h

O
/ s /SS/ /
• O <>
'P A / /
,V /a
/ jy /
//// /

/
/ 4&f /
/
/ it

- N
ARCH VALLEY L I ) IE

THEORETICS L D E F L . OV E R A L L S E C T I O N -----------------
it ■' R E D U C E D S E C T I O N -----------------
EX P E R I M E N T A L DEFLEC TI.ON O
i

it
V E F L T I C S L D E F L . SCS L E : l-.O -K )

MEAN R = 45*2459"
 DEFLECTIONS OF THE I NT ERNA L ARCH RIB OF THE BARREL VAULT Ul

AT * * " $ •

FIC .44

o
P == 5 * 4 3 -BS.
‘ ^ *N
“X
S 'jT \ NX V,
/ y y \
/ y X \
■ y ' y \
y
/ .^ s' s’
/ X X' > X
/ / / y
y O
/ /' ^ / \ M*
V*

/
// y
,
\
ARCH N.A. LINE "
/ / /
\ °
/ / / /

i—
i—
-<
ARCH

j>

m
V
/
/
/ i

if
/ // /
/

I / / X \
,' i/ / 7
...........! f i THEO f^ETICAL DE : L . O Y E R A L . S E C T I O N —
1 i If M REDUCEi ) SECTION -
1 i
1 '
E X PE R I M E N T A L DEFLECTION 1 O \
1 11 \ r
/1 i
/1 i

VERTICAL DEFL

It
MEAN R - 45*2459 MEAN R - 45
 STRESSES IN BARREL VAULT UNDER SELF LOAD.

+ 200
T
/

+ 100

\
PSI

-1 0 0

0-0
OL.

AT

\
STRESS

T H E O R E T IC /1 L LONG. STR :SS crx

OVERA LL SEC TION
LONG.

REDU CED *»
EXPERJMEN 1TAL LONG. S RESS CTX
+ 100

— JC ___

\
R ID G E
LINE
- 100
V ALLEY
V AT i=+-
6 L IN E

FIC .45

PLATE WI DTH = 8 - 4 7 2 4 "

 STRESSES IN BARREL V A U L T UNDER SELF LOAD.

200

100

AT
\
100
T H E O R E T IC AL LONG. STRESS CTX
OVEFALL S E C T IO N '
REDL CED S E C T IC N
\ EXPERJM EF TAL LONG. STRESS 0 ; O

/
/
100
+
/
/

\
VA LL E Y

100
RIDGE LIN E \ AT LINE

\
\
\
\ FIC . 4 6

PLATE WIDTH = 8 - 4 7 2 4 "

 STRESSES IN BARREL VAULT UNDER CENTRAL LINE
LOAD.

+200 _________
/

/
'
/

"valley
STRESS

/ LINE
•V,.
/
LONG.

\ ‘V o

\
\
o

AT
II

\
RIDGE L NE
\
\

T H E O R E T IC ; \L LONG. SI R E S S <JX

O V E R A L l . SEC TIO N
REDUCE! ) SECTION

E X P E R IM E N TAL LONG. STRESS CTX O

F I G . 47

PLATE W I DT H * 8 - 4 7 2 4 "
 STRESSES IN BARREL VAULT UNDER A LINE LOAD

1
/ 1
/ l
/
J

/
(
\

. ......... ± ____
*
\

o /
1
\
\ AT
\
\ T H E O R E T IC AL LONG. S I R E S S Ok
\ OVERA .L S E C T I O N
\ REDUC ED S E C T I O N
\ E X P E R I M E U A L L O N G. S T R E S S crx o

/
RIDCE L in T ~ * ^
/
/
\ 0

/
\

\
\ **
VALLEY
«*»• UNE^
G
kK

AT
u
i

\
\ FIG.4 8
\

P LATE WI DTH = 8 - 4 7 2 4 "

stresses have been shown as p o s itiv e . Lastly, it may be noted that the

membrane stresses generated by the transverse p la te a c tio n have not been

shown in these diagrams. They are sm all, but may have to be considered.

They have maximum values at the centre o f the p l a t e . The th eo retical

membrane stress (J^ at <j) = 0 , under loading Cases 1 and 2 , are shown

in F i g . 4 9 . A t the position of the gauges, shown by section G G in F i g . 4 9 ,

i
the total b n g itu d in a l stress 0 ^ + 0 ^ can be d ete rm in e d . The th eo re tic a l and

experim ental values for this total stress at <J) = 0 , under loading Cases 1 and

2 , are shown in Table 4 .

TABLE 4

Loading Case 1. Loading Case 2 . Remarks

OTx + 0 x * T h e o . - 6 psi - 4 3 psi Ox stress on

o v e ra ll sectio n.

0x+ Ox1 Theo. +4 psi - 2 2 psi O x stress on

reduced s e c t io n .

Ox + Ox1 E x p t . - 4 psi - 4 9 psi

N o te: Compressive stresses are shown as p o s itiv e .

 MEMBRANE S T R E S S (T,1 AT 0 - 0 IN THE B A R R E L VAULT

F I G . 49
RIDGE LINE
0 * STRESSES FROM FIG
+ 100

VALLEY
LINE

in
a.
-1 0 0

SELF LOAD
STRESS
MEMBRANE

RIDGE
LINE
a x STRESSES FROM FIG.
+100

-1 0 0

CENTRAL LINE LOAD VALLEY

LINE

PLATE WIDTH = 8 - 4 7 2 4
 126

CHAPTER 7

Tests on a prototype folded p la te barrel v a u l t .

7 .1 Description o f the prototype:

In order to study the b eh avio u r o f a p r a c tic a l structure, it was

decided to b u ild a fu ll scale prototype barrel v a u lt in sandwich construction.

The general arrangem ent o f the barrel v a u lt w ith centre line dimensions is

shown in F i g . 5 0 . The en tire structure can be b u ilt up from o n ly one basic

internal u n it, the d etails of w hich are shown in F i g . 5 1 . The h a lf lo n g i­

tudinal e xtern al units (marked A in F i g . 50) w ere made by slicin g an

internal unit lo n g itu d in a lly into two id e n tic a l halves. The quarter

extern al base units (marked B in F i g . 50 ) w ere made by further slicing an

extern al u n it A into two id en tic a l halves. The base flanges for these units

were then ' l a i d —up * on to the cut sections. The author's specifications

c a lle d f o r a sandwich consisting o f l / l 6 i n . th ic k glass fibre reinforced

polyester (GRP) top and bottom facin g skins bonded to a ^ i n . th ic k rigid

polyurethane foam core of a density o f 2 I b s / c u . f t . Connections were

e ffe c te d by 3 / 8 i n . diam eter m .s . bolts spaced 12in . centres connecting

GRP flanges 3 i n . d e e p . In order to have f i x i t y w ith o n ly one line o f bolts,

a recess l / l 6 i n . deep was run in each flang e as shown in F i g . 5 2 . W hen

the bolts w ere screwed t ig h t , pressure was exerted a t the top and bottom
 U N IT MKD

20-0

E V A T IO N
U N IT MKD. A

20-0

LATERAL D IR E C T IO N LONGITUDINAL DIRECTION PLAN

 D E T A IL S OF A SING LE U N IT

C
U N IT S Y M M E T R IC A L AE

h o le s @ 12 " cent
P LAC ED IN A TH
LENGTH
°*l3
O'
t
“o

E L E V A T IO N

HOLES

i
f
FOAM STOPS HERE

!'

I
CORNER TO BE C
( ' "ro|<0 LINE IS HORIZON
I CORNER TO BE C UT OFF SO T H A T WHEN THE FROM THE TH
VALLEY LINE OF THE U N IT IS IN C L IN E D AT 22°30' CUT-OFF PLANE F
I BELOW THE H O R IZ O N T A L , THE V E R T IC A L C U T -O F F PLANE
j IS FROM THE T H E O R E T IC A L APEX, AND THE
HORIZONTAL C U T -O F F PLANE PASSES THROUCH THE PLAN
apex.
 129

F I G . 52

SC A LE: FULL SIZE

RIDGES BEVELLED TO TAKE

M A S T IC FILLING

GRP FACINGS

16 DIA. HOLES FOR RIGID POLYURETHANE FOAM

DIA BOLTS AT CORE

12" CENTRES

g GROOVE FORMED BY

~ RECESS IN FLANGES CRP FLANGE

DETAIL OF BOLTED FLANGE CONNECTION

 130

edges o f the f la n g e , thus creatin g a fix e d c o n n e c tio n . 7 / l 6 i n . d ia m e te r

holes w ere provided in the units for the loading cab les; These holes were

suitably stiffened by GRP inserts. A single u nit is shown in Photographs 6

and 7 .

A t the nodes of the barrel v a u lt , a special two p ie c e cast alum inium

connector was used. This is shown in F ig s .5 3 a and 5 3 b . The connector

had the dual purpose o f forming a rigid con n ectio n a t the joint and p reventing

w a te r leakage through it as w e l l . To prevent leakage o f w a te r through the

structure from the ridge lines, it was necessary to bevel the ridges. A

mastic f i l l i n g could then be run into the ridge lines to ensure w a te r tightness.

The base connection d etails are shown in F i g . 5 4 , and also in

Photograph 8 . The base flanges were bolted to the backs o f channels 1 5 in . x

4 i n . x 37 l b s / f t . p la c e d on the floo r of the la b o rato ry. The channels were

prevented from moving by dexion an g le cross bracing as shown in F i g . 5 4 .

Erection was carried out by the author and two other men in three hours.

Photograph 9 shows e rectio n in progress. The photograph shows two men,

but in fa c t a third man is necessary to a lig n the u nit whilst the first bolts

are slipped in . The unit then more or less aligns its e lf. Erection was carried

out from both sides. Due to the v e ry low self w e ig h t of the units ( 3 0 - 3 5 lbs),

ho propping was necessary for the free c a n tile v e rs . H o w ever due to the large

d e flectio n s, it was necessary to g e n tly force the c a n tilevers ap art for the

cen tral units to be fitte d in . The completed b arrei v a u lt is shown in Photograph 10-
PHOTOGRAPH 6

PHOTOGRAPH 7
 FIG. 5 3 a 132

o ^ —
II 15-'

THREADED LENGTH

f DIA. M.S. BOLT

5 g ” LONG

_J__

i i RADIUS

•— B
PLAN
SECTION ON BB

i RADIUS

DETAIL OF THE TOP CAP OF

THE CAST ALUMINIUM CONNECTOR

AT THE NODE

SCALE: FULL SIZE

ii RADIUS SECTION ON AA
 F IG .5 3 b

SCALE-' FULL SIZE

l“
7"
16

DETAIL OF THE BOTTOM

-|ol SECTION OF THE CAST

A LUM IN IU M C O N N EC TO R

AT THE NODE.
SECTION ON CC

D1A. HOLE TO TAKE |" D IA . M .S . BOLT

OF TH E TOP CAP.

PLAN SECTION ON DD
RADIUS
um liiiTf friT**?*" ■- - - - r n

BASE D E T A IL S FIG. 54

SCALE- I =20"

DEXION

IN NER FLA NG E OF HALF U N IT \

IN N E R FLANGE OF QUARTER UN IT

1 / .
10-0
PHOTOGRAPH 9
7 .2 Cost of the prototype:

There is v e ry li t t le information a v a ila b le on the costs of a ctu al

plastics structures. A b rie f analysis o f the costs o f the prototype w il l

therefore be usefu l. Two quotations w ere receive d for the structure.

O n e came from the Reinforced Plastics D ivision o f the English E lectric

C o .L td . The oth er came from M i c k l e o v e r Transport Ltd.

The English E le c tric C o . L t d . quoted to o ling costs o f £ 3 0 0 . and

the total costs o f a ll the units as £ 5 0 0 . The units were to be as follows:

Full internal units o f F i g . 5 1 . 18 nos + 3 nos s p a re .

H a lf long itu din al units 6 nos.

H a lf base units w ith flanges 4 nos.

Q u a r t e r base units w ith flanges 4 nos.

The cost o f the basic barrel v a u lt , exclu d in g tooling costs, hence works

out to about 4 4 shillings per square foot o f plan a r e a . D e liv e r y was to

be made from Preston, Lancs.

M i c k l e o v e r Transport L td . quoted tooling costs o f £ 6 0 0 . This is

understandable because th ey wished to make the e n tire barrel v a u lt in

o n ly six sections. This made th e ir mould larger and more c o m p lic a te d .

They quoted £ 4 0 8 . as being the costs of the barrel v a u lt , w ith o ut any

spare units. The cost of the basic barrel v a u lt , e xclu d in g to olin g costs,

hence works out to about 41 shillings per square foot of plan a r e a .

D e liv e r y was from London, N . W . 1 0 .

 139

An analysis of the costs shows that allowing for the difference in

transport costs, the two quotations are rem arkably close at about

4 0 shillings per square foot o f plan a r e a . The p rice o f rigid polyurethane

foam o f a density o f 2 I b s / c u . f t . is about 12 shillings per c u . f t . The a c tu a l

m aterial cost therefore based on lam inate costs given in Scott Bader

22
Polyester Handbook , is o n ly about 10 shillings per square foot o f plan

area. This means that the costs of fab ric a tio n and the overheads of the

Companies are e x tre m e ly h ig h . It could be argued that this was an

experim en tal structure and could not be c o n v e n ie n tly mass produced by a

continuous a u to m a tic , or s em i-au to m atic process. This is tru e , but until

such processes are a v a ila b l e the economics o f folded p la te structures in

plastics w i l l w eigh h e a v ily against them .

7 .3 Fire resistance of the prototype:

N o strict fire tests have been carried out on the p ro to ty p e . H o w ever,

23
the v e ry simple cut bar test g iven by Learmonth was carried out on three

cut sections o f the sand w ich . The l i n . w id e section was held h o riz o n ta lly

and the free end heated by a bunsen burner flame j i n . high for 30 seconds.

The flame was then removed and it was noticed that the sample burned

re a d ily , producing b la c k smoke. It was also found that the bar had burned

a p p ro x im a te ly 2 i n . w ith in one minute a f t e r the flam e was rem oved. The

foam burned far more re a d ily than the fac in g lam inates. The beh avio u r o f

the entire u n it, w ith the foam t o t a ll y enclosed, w ould perhaps be a li t t l e

less a la rm in g .
 The use o f suitable fire retardants in the polyester resin and

in the rigid polyurethane foam would considerably improve the fire

resistance of the p ro to typ e.

7 .4 D e tails o f the e xp erim entatio n:

Strains were measured by means o f e le c t r ic resistance strain

gauges of approxim ate resistance o f 2 5 6 ohms and a gauge fa c to r o f

2 .3 7 . The gauges were fix e d on three units and the positions o f the

gauges on these units is shown in F ig s .5 5 , 5 6 and 5 7 . During erectio n

care was taken to see that the units w ent into predeterm ined positions

so that the lines gauged w ere a t <J)= 0 and <t> = ± J , where <|) is the
T

cen tral a n g l e . A u n it w ith gauges on the bottom surface is shown in

Photograph 11.

The loading arrangement is shown in F i g . 5 8 . The load was a p p lie d

by in d iv id u a lly w eig h ed bricks p la c e d on tim ber platform s. Each tim ber

platform was suspended by means o f four steel cables w h ich passed through

a hole in the u n it . The cables loaded the top surface o f the prototype

through 4 i n . square wooden blocks resting on 6 i n . square f le x ib le p o ly u re ­

thane foam pads. A turnbuckle w ith a hook a t one end was introduced into

each o f the four c ab les. The platforms could hence be e a s ily le v e l l e d .

Th ey could also be co m p le te ly released from the prototype if desired. The

platforms rested on a supporting system o f main and secondary steel beams

 141 i !r
(i
II
FIG. 55 ||
Ii
I

GAUGE POSITIONS AT 0 = + -? j

GAUGE 68 AT TOP GAUGE 67 AT

END OF FLANGE BOTTOM END OF
FLANGE
CENTRE LINE OF
RIDGE LINE THE UNIT
RIDGE LINE

(NJ

“1®
NT

VALLEY LINE

GAUGES AT TOP CAUGES AT BOTTOM

 142

F I G . 56

GAUGE POSITIONS AT 0 = 0

GAUGE 69 AT TOP
END OF FLANGE

CENTRE LIN E OF
THE U N IT
RIDGE LINE RIDGE LINE

✓ I
'■ I6 T
- 1(0

'cr^^S
f\J

(N J

-ICO —ICO
"5T

ro

VALLEY LINE

CAUCES AT TOP GAUGES AT BOTTOM

 143

F I G . 57

CHECK GAUGE POSITIONS AT (ft = -

C ENTRE LINE OF
THE UNIT
RIDGE LINE RIDGE LINE

-loo

VALLEY LINE

GAUGES AT TOP
PHOTOGRAPH 11
T IM B E R
PLATFORMS

U.B. 12*5** 2 5 ^

ELEVATION

I ' I
H — N

LOAD PER PLATFORM A*36iLBS B=67^LBS C=88 LB5 D- 9 5 j LBS

 146

as shown in i ig.58. The main beams were supported by four jacks, each

o f 1^ ton c a p a c it y . W hen the jacks were pumped up, a ll the load was

carried by the system o f beams. W hen the jacks were released, the

platforms hung fre e ly from the prototype and thereby loaded i t . This

arrangement made it possible to load and unload the prototype q u ic k ly

and c o n ven ien tly, as often as required. Load was app lied to the prototype

at 77 points. F i g . 58 however shows o n ly 73 platforms. The load a t A 4 ,

A 8 , G 4 and G 8 was ap plied by steel hangers and weights.

The prototype was tested for three loading cases as under:

Case 1 . An e q u ivalen t snow load of 30 lb s /s q .ft .

Case 2 . A central line load of 326 lbs/arch rib .

Case 3 . A line load of 208 lbs/arch rib at <|) = £ ~ •

To determine the complete behaviour of the barrel vault in Case 3, the

load had to be ap plied successively at 4>= + and <$) = - ~ •

The load on each platform for loading Case 1 is shown in F i g . 5 8 . The

loads along the line D for loading Case 2 were formed by adding the

corresponding platforms on line B to the original platforms on line D .

The loads along line B in loading Case 3 were formed by adding the

corresponding platforms on line A to those on line B. The loads along

line F, also in loading Case 3 , were formed by adding the corresponding

platforms on line G to those on line F . The prototype as ready for testing

is shown in Photograph 12. The loading arrangement in a ll its details is

c le a r ly v i s i b l e .
PHOTOGRAPH 12
147
 The deflections w ere measured by means of two cathetometers

sighting targets on the p ro to ty p e . The positions of these targets are

shown in F i g . 5 9 . It was found quite d if f ic u lt to measure the d eflectio ns

very a c c u r a te ly because o f poor eyesigh t, the height a t w h ich the

deflections were being ta k e n , the low headroom of the laboratory and

in terference from pipes.

The measured strains and d e fle c tio n s , at am bient temperatures and

1 hour a f te r lo ad in g , are given in Tables A 3 8 - A 6 1 o f A p p en d ix 2 .

7 .5 D e term in atio n of the sandwich constants:

To determ ine the constant for the sandwich section, one of the

spare units was cut up into several specimens 2 i n . w id e , w hich were then

tested as beams. A f t e r the tests, the top and bottom laminates w ere ripped

o f f the core and the thickness c a r e f u lly measured at 10 points alon g two set

lines as shown in F i g . 6 0 .

FIG.60

-h i 4~2 -f-3. + 4 4-5 0 “ r x j|

-H O + 9 -t-8 4 -7 4”6 ; -L

7~
/
GRP LAMINATE
ALL D IM E N S IO N S GIVEN ARE TRUE LENGTHS

CENTRE LINE

LO A D IN G POINTS MARKED THUS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -------

CATHETOMETER TARGET POINTS AT TOP OF PROTI

CATHETOMETER TARGET POINTS SUSPENDED BENEA

The measured thicknesses for the top and bottom la m in a te s a r e given

in Tables A 6 2 and A 6 3 o f A p p en d ix 2 . These tables show that the gel

coat (top) lam inate had an averag e thickness o f 0 . 1 3 4 m , w ith a v a r ia tio n

from a minimum thickness of 0 . 0 8 8 i n . to a maximum thickness of 0 . 1 7 5 i n .

The thickness specified was l / l 6 i n . The bottom lam inate had an average

thickness of 0 . 0 7 3 i n . w ith a v a ria tio n from a minimum thickness o f 0 . 0 6 3 i n .

to a maximum thickness of 0 . 0 9 2 i n . The core had a reasonably constant

thickness o f 7 / l 6 i n .

The beam tests were o f two types. 2 6 i n . long specimens w ere tested

under 4 - p o i n t loading on a span o f M i n . w ith 5 i n . overhangs. 18 in . Jong

specimens were then tested under 3 - p o in t loading on a span of 1 6 in . The

experim ental readings for these tests, at am bient temperatures and 1 hour

a f te r lo adin g , are given in Tables A 6 4 and A 6 5 of A p p en d ix 2 . From these

tests, and on the assumption t h a t the bending moment is taken by the facings

and a l l the shear is taken by the core, the constants for the sandwich can be

d etermined as,

E 6
gel coat (top) lam inate - 0 . 6 8 0 x 10 psi

bottom lam inate = 0 . 9 7 2 x 10^ psi

EI . = 23440 lb .in 2

Gc = 4 1 3 psi ~ 4 0 0 psi

v> = 0 .2 7 5 * 0 .3 0
7 .6 Theoretical analysis of the prototype:

The analysis o f the prototype was carried out by the theory as

set forth in 6 . 2 . 2 and 6 . 2 . 4 . The d eta ils o f the prototype for purposes

o f analysis are as follows:

N e u t r a l axis span o f the barrel = 2 3 0 .8 6 in .

Fold a n g le , 6 , = 25°

an g le o f the u n it , o C = 11 ° 1 5 1

m =8

For the transverse p la te a c tio n of 6 . 2 . 2 ,

radius o f the p l a t e , a = 1 0 . 2 6 6 i n .

radius of loading pad, c = 2 .0 0 in .

The loading blocks are 4 i n . square, but it is assumed that the load is

a p p lie d on a c ir c u la r area o f radius 2 i n . The transverse bending d eflectio ns

wjj can be determ ined by the use. o f (43) and ( 4 4 ) . To this must be added

the shearing d eflectio ns w s, of the c o re . This d e fle c tio n can be a p p r o x i­

m ately determ ined by considering a wedge shaped elem ent o f the core and

is g iven by,

(u>A
^ !'r+c 3
2TTGck J r
bq £ ............................................

w h ere,

G c ='modulus o f r ig id it y o f the core and ,

k = thickness o f the core .

 152

The transverse moments M r ( M y ) and Mj. ( M x ) can be got from (4 6 ),

(47) and ( 4 8 ) . The longitudinal stresses can be determ ined by considering

the arch a c tio n o f the structure. In this case, no p la te b u cklin g can o ccu r,

and the o v e ra ll section may hence be considered as e f f e c t i v e . The moments

o f in ertia o f an arch rib can be got as,

I max = 2 9 . 6 5 in4

I m i n = 7 .5 7 in 4 .

The use o f (65) then gives,

dav) n .• = 1 0 . 0 7 in4
uv- o v e ra ll section

The above moments o f in ertia take into account the flang e areas alon g the

ridge lines and are based on a transformed section having an E v a lu e of

0 . 9 7 2 x 10^ psi. The transformed cross-sectional a r e a , assumed as constant

o ver the a r c h , can be got as,

A = 4 . 1 8 1 in 2

7 .7 Assumptions on w h ich the transverse pla te analysis is based:

The a p p lic a tio n of p la te theory to sandwich construction is based on

two v e ry important assumptions, n e ith e r o f w h ich is strictly tr u e . These

assumptions are:

1. That the stresses in the thin facings are not a ffe c te d by the

compressive stresses in the c o re .

2. That the analysis o f the panel as determ ined by the p la te theory

is u n a ffected by the large shearing deform ations.

 153

The first o f these assumptions neglects the localised bending o f

the thin facings about th eir own neutral a x is . It assumes that the facings

are alw ays held a t a constant distance ap art and are in tension or

compression. In the case of cores w ith v e ry small elastic m od uli, the

facings are in fa c t plates on e lastic foundations and the compressive

deformations of the core do a ff e c t the stresses in the facin g s. In C h a p te r 9 ,

the author suggests further research into this p ro b lem w ith the help o f a

m athem atical m o d el.

The second assumption is even less v a lid than the firs t. The theory

o f pla te bending is based on the assumption that points o f the p la te lying

i n i t i a l l y on a normal to the middle plane of the p la te remain on the normal

to the middle plane o f the p la te a f t e r ben d in g . If the shearing deformations

are larg e, this assumption may not be stric tly v a l i d .

Further large shearing deformations, in the case o f panels, can a f fe c t

the load distributions as g iven by p la te th e o ry . Consider the two strips shown

in F i g . 6 1 , loaded by a v e r t ic a l point load W a t 0 .

E N LARG ED SECTION
ON A A
 154

The load W j carried by the short span and the load W 2 c arried by the

long span are given b y ,

w
w, =
1+ ( i,/ h f
( 67 )
w
Wo =
2 ' ' + ( lt/ 0 *
If the section o f both strips is a sandwich, and i f the shearing deflection s

o f the core are larg e, then the loads W , and W 2 are g iven b y,

W
W. =

( 68)

w2 =
I , ( + 12 t i \
V Nt,1 + 12. )
whe re.

Df = fle x u ra l r ig id it y o f the sandwich a nd ,

N = shearing r ig id it y o f the sandw ich.

The distribution o f the loads, and hence the moments in the strips, given

by (68) is not necessarily the same as that given by ( 6 7 ) . The exam ple g iven

a b o v e , h o w ever, is rather an extrem e case. In cases o f absolute symmetry

(such as a c ir c u la r sandwich p la te under symmetrical lo ad in g ), the maximum

transverse moments and the shearing forces in thiswrspect are u n a ffected by the

large shearing deformations o f the c o re .

 155

7 .8 Analysis of the test results :

The th e o re tic a l and experim en tal results for the loading cases

in 7 . 4 w i l l now be discussed in d e t a i l . The lon g itud inal d eflectio ns of

the internal arch rib under the a p p lie d loading in Cases 1 , 2 and 3 are shown

in F ig s .62 - 6 4 . It can be seen that the assumption that the en tire

section is e f fe c t iv e and that no p late b u ckling occurs leads to good

c orrelation b etw een the th e o re tic a l and exp erim en tal d e fle c tio n s .

The transverse deflection s o f the p la te a t <j>= 0 in loading Cases 1 and 2

are shown in Figs. 65 and 6 6 . The transverse shearing d eflection s o f

the core are very much more pronounced than the bending deflections

and should alw ays be taken into a c c o u n t.

The transverse moments M x and M y a t <)>= 0 in loading Cases 1

and 2 are shown in Figs. 6 7 - 7 0 . The M y moments can be p red icted w ith

good a c c u ra c y but the exp erim en tal M x moments are considerably higher

than the t h e o r e t ic a l. This seems to suggest that large shearing deformations

do modify the transverse p la te a c tio n o f the barrel v a u l t . The transverse

moments M x and M y at <f> = -h (which is not a loaded section) in loading

Case 2 have been shown in F ig s .71 and 7 2 . The transverse moments are

almost z e r o . This suggests that the transverse p la te a c tio n for an y of the

tria n g u la r plates can be separated from the o v e ra ll lo n gitud inal arch a c tio n

and that the re la tiv e displacements o f the edges can be n e g le c t e d .

W i t h compressive stresses taken as p o s itiv e , the lon gitud inal

DEFLECTIONS OF THE I NTERNAL FOLDED PLATE ARCH RIB OF

THE PROTOTYPE BARREL VAULT U ND ER SNOW LOAD

F IG . 62

IN T E N S IT Y OF SNOW LOAD = 30 LB S./SQ. FT.

ARCH R ID C E LINE

ARCH N. A. LINE

ARCH VALLEY L

T H E O R E T IC A L DEFL.

E X P E R IM E N T A L DLFL.

V E R T IC A L DEFL. S ALE *• 0 -5 0

MEAN R = 115* 43
DEFLECTIONS OF THE INTERNAL FOLDED PLATE ARCH RIB OF

THE PROTO TYPE BARREL VAULT UNDER A CENTRAL LINE LOAD

F I G . 63

326 LBS.

ARCH RIDG : LINE

ARCH N.A. L IN E -^

..........

r /
/

/ / / '
/ ' /
U //
f/7 f

/ \
/If
/ ARCH VALLEY LIN E
(IP
I If
I I /

7I /7

T H E O R ETICAL DEF

E X P E R MENTAL DE F L , o
1
1 '
/ i

V E R T I :A L DEFL. SCALE: l" = 0 - 5 0 "

MEAN R= 115-43"
DEFLECTIONS OF THE I NT E R NA L FOLDED PLATE ARCH RIB OF THE PROTOTYPI

UNDER A LINE LOAD AT = + --

ARCH RIDCE LINE

O-
's.

2 0 8 LBS.

ARCH N. A. LINE

ARCH VALLE'

T H E O R E T IC A L D E F L .- V E R T IC A L DEFL. SCALI

E X P E R IM E N T A L D E F L.

MEAN R = 115-43 MEAN R =

 TRANSVERSE DEFLECTIONS OF THE TRIANGULAR PLATE

AT 0=0 UND ER SNOW LOAD

F I G . 65

TH EO RETIC A L BENDING DEFL.

ii SHEARING DEFL.
n „ TOTAL D EFL. -
E X P E R IM E N T A L D E F L E C T IO N S
INS
DEFLECTIONS
TRANSVERSE

-0 -0 5

- 0-10
CIRCLE OF
IN FLU EN C E

RIDGE
-0-15 LINE

VALLEY
L IN E

PLATE WIDTH = 21-61

 TRANSVERSE DEFLECTIONS OF THE TRIANGULAR PLATE
AT 0=0 UNDER A CENTRAL LINE LOAD

F I G . 66

T H E O R E T IC A L B E N D IN G D E F L .—
» SHEARING D E F L .-
ii TOTAL D E F L .—
E X P E R IM E N T A L D E F L E C T IO N S
INS.
DEFLECTIONS
TRANSVERSE

- 0 - 10 .

-0 -2 d

-0*30

PLATE WIDTH = 21-61

 TRANSVERSE MOM ENTS M^ IN THE T R IA N G U L A R PLATE

AT 0=0 UNDER SNOW LOAD

F I G . 67

T H E O R E T IC A L 'X MOMENTS

EXPEK MENTAL M MOM ENTS -o -

INS./lN.

+ 10
LB.
M^
MOMENT
TRANSVERSE

-10

-20

CIRCLE OF
INFLUENCE
VALLEY
LINE
-3 0

RIDGE
LINE

PLATE WIDTH =21-61

 162
TRANSVERSE MOMENTS Mv IN THE T R IA N G U L A R PLATE AT

0=0 UNDER SNOW LOAD

F IG .68

THEORETI MOMENTS ------

E X P E R IM E N T A L My M O M E N T S -------

+ 20
IN S./IN .

+ 10
LB.
My
MOMENT
TRANSVERSE

-10

-20

CIRCLE OF INFLUENCE
VALLEY
LINE

RIDCE
LINE

PLATE WIDTH =21-61

 TRANSVERSE MOMENTS Mv IN THE TRIANGULAR PLATE

AT 0-0 UNDER A C ENTRAL LINE LOAD

F IC .6 9

THEOR J-TICAL M O M E N T S -------

E X P E R M EN TA L Ma; M O M E N T S - - -
INS./lN.

+ 10
LB.
MOMENT
TRANSVERSE

-10

C IR
INF .UENCE

-2 0

VALLEY
LINE
-3 0

-4C

PLATE W ID TH = 21-61
 TRANSVERSE MOMENTS Mv IN THE TRIANGULAR PLATE

AT 0 =0 UNDER A C E NT RA L LINE LOAD

F I G . 70

T H E O R E T IC A L My M O M EN TS - -

EXPER M EN TA L M< MOM ENTS —

+ 2C
INS./lN.

+ 10
LB.
Mw
MOMENT
TRANSVERSE

-10

-20

CIRC
INFL JENCE

-3 0

RIDCE VALLEY
LINE LINE

PLATE WIDTH - 21*61

 165
TRANSVERSE MOMENTS M. IN T HE TRIANGULAR

PL A TE AT 0 =+ $ UNDER A CENTRAL LINE LOAD

F I G . 71

T H E O R E T IC A L Mx M O M E N T S -----------

E X P E R IM E N T A L M-r M O M E N T S ---------
LB .IN S ./lN .
Mx
MOMENT
TRANSVERSE

C IR C L E 0 IN FLUEN C

RIDGE
LINE

VALLEY
LINE

P LA T E WIDTH —21-6
 T R A NS V E R S E MOMENT S Mv IN THE TRIANGULAR

PLATE AT ' U ND ER A CENTRAL LINE LOAD

F I G . 72

T H E O R E T IC A L My MOMENTS -

EXPEFJMENTAL M MOMENTS-
LB. I N S . / l N

+ 10
My
MOMENT
TRANSVERSE

-10

CIRCLE OF INFLUENCE

RIDGE
LINE

VALLEY
LINE

PLATE W I D T H * 21*61
 and lateral stresses 0 * x and O y a t <f) =0 and <(>- +

in loading Cases 1 and 2 are shown in F ig s .7 3 - 7 6 . The lo n g itu d in al and late

stresses G x and (J y at $ = - ~ £ « in loading Case 3 are shown in Fig . 7 7 .

W it h the a c c u ra c y that can be exp ected from a fu ll scale test o f

this n atu re, the co rrelatio n between the th e o re tic a l and experim en tal

results in a ll the figures may be considered as being reasonably good.

The experim en tal stresses and moments a t a n y point are determ ined from

the strain readings, in the lo ng itu din al and la te ra l d irectio ns, a t the

top and bottom of the sandw ich. Each strain reading depends on the

thickness o f the lam inate under the gauge and the modulus o f e la s t ic it y

and the Poisson's ratio of the lam inate a t that p o in t. These la tte r

constants E and \> themselves depend on the resin/glass fibre content

ra tio . A n y stress va lu e hence depends on a t least 10 q uantities w h ich

vary a ll o v e r the barrel v a u lt , due to v a ria tio n in the thickness and glass

fibre content of the lam in ates. Further the bond b etw een the gel coat (top)

laminate and the core is poor as can be seen in Photograph 13. Poor bond

would cause the gel coat strain gauges to show not o n ly the strains due to

the stressing o f the sandwich, but those due to the local bending of the

laminate as w e l l .

These are d if f ic u lt ie s that a r e , perhaps, un avoid ab le in fu ll scale

testing. This method o f testing cannot hence be recommended for v e r ify in g

sophisticated m athem atical theories, but it is the o n ly w a y of determ inin g

how the a c tu a l structure w i l l b ehave in p r a c t ic e .

 168
STR ESSES IN THE PR OTOT YPE BARREL VAULT UNDER SNOW
LOAD
+ 500

FIG. 73

-500

RiDCE LINE

AT
PSI

THEOF.ETICAL LONC. STR E S S O * --------------

<X-

EXPEFJMENTAL LONC. STRESS CTX — o ~

STRESS
L ONC.

+ 500

VALLEY
LINE
-500

PLATE WIDTH = 21*61

 ST R E S S E S IN THE PROTOTYPE BARREL VAULT UNDER,

SNOW LOAD

F I G . 74

+ 500
PSI
CTV

-50C
STRESS
LATERAL

E X P E R IM E N T A L TRANSVERSE
STRESS 0 \, -

+500

—o -------

-50C

VA L LE Y
LINE

PLATE WIDTH =21-61

 170 !
STRESSES IN THE PROTOTYPE BARREL VAULT UNDER i;j
A CENTRAL LINE LOAD N
+ 1000

F I G . 75

+ 500

t>—

-5 0 0

RlDCE LINE
STRESS

-1000

T H E O R E T IC A L LONG. STRESS 0 ^ ------------

L ONC.

E XP E R IM E N TA L LONG. STRESS <Tx — o —

+ 500

VALLEY
LINE

PLATE WIDTH - 21-61

 ST RE S S E S IN T HE . PROTOTYPE B A R RE L VAULT UNDER

A CENTRAL LINE LOAD

FIG. 76

+ 500

-o

CO
a.
-5 0 C
STRESS

E X P E R IM E N T A L transvers

crv -
LATERAL

stress

+ 50C

-5 0 Q

VALLEY
LINE.

PLATE W ID T H =21*61
 STRESSES IN THE PROTOTYPE BARREL VAULT UNDER.
A LINE LOAD AT 0 =+^

F IC .7 7

+ 500

—O-

-5 0 0
PSI

RIDGE LINE
OTx
STRESS

T H E O R E T IC A L LONC. STRESS CT*

LONG.

EXPER IM EN TAL LONC. STRESS a

+ 250

-Q-—

VALLEY
LINE
-2 5 0

PLATE WI DTH 21*61

 CHAPTER 8

C onclusions,

8 .1 Conclusions:

From this research into fo ld ed p la te structures in p la stics, the

fo llo w in g general conclusions may be draw n:

1. G lass fib re rein fo rc ed plastics are q u ite su itable fo r

use in fo ld ed p la te structures. T h ey may be used both in single skin

or in sandwich co n s tru ctio n . In the la tte r case, th ey can be bonded

to a low density c o re . Tests on expanded polystyrene and rig id

p olyu reth an e foam show th a t these m aterials are also q u ite su itable

for use as cores in sandwich co n stru ctio n . E ffic ie n t design is possible,

how ever, o n ly a fte r a thorough understanding o f the properties o f these

m a te ria ls . C o n v en tio n a l design concepts need to be m o d ified to in clu d e

new factors such as the life o f the stru ctu re, s ta tic fa tig u e o f the m a te ria l

and large creep d efo rm atio n s.

2. Folded p la te structures in plastics are expensive and are

not lik e ly to be c o m p e titiv e w ith co n ven tio n al b u ild in g structures unless,

a. The m a te rial co n ten t and cost are su b stan tially lo w e re d ,a n d

b. The structures are c o m p le te ly p re fa b ric a te d and can be mass

p ro d u ced .
O f the above facto rs, m a te rial cost is not w ith in the control o f

structural en g in ee rs . W ith proper ch o ice o f structural form h o w ever,

it is possible to have a v e ry high degree o f p re fa b ric a tio n . The tw o -

p la te u n it, w h ich has been d e a lt w ith in some d e ta il in this thesis,

permits the com plete p re fa b ric a tio n o f a v a rie ty o f structures and its

use is th erefo re to be strongly recom m ended.

To lo w er m a te ria l c o n te n t, it is v e ry essential th at the m a te ria l

be used as e f f ic ie n t ly as is possible. In many cases, p a rtic u la rly in

single skin co n stru ctio n , this can lead to large transverse d e fle c tio n s .

The d e fle c tio n o f a fre e edge may be q u ite v is ib le . In plastics h o w ever,

large d e fle c tio n s are co m p atib le w ith a p e rfe c tly safe s tru ctu re. The

author suggests th at large transverse d e fle c tio n s should be fre e ly p e rm itte d ,

excep t in cases w here th ey are lik e ly to be p o s itiv e ly uncom fortable o r

where th e y are lik e ly to cause o v e ra ll in s ta b ility o f the stru ctu re.

Restricting the d e fle c tio n s fo r a n y reasons, o th e r than those given a b o v e ,

can o n ly lead to uneconom ical use o f ve ry expensive m a te ria ls .

3. Folded p la te structures in plastics can be analysed v e ry

c o n v e n ie n tly and w ith good a c c u ra c y by the approach g iven in this thesis.

This consists in separating the transverse p la te a c tio n from the o v e ra ll

lo n g itu d in al a c tio n o f the stru c tu re . The transverse p la te a c tio n may then

be d eterm in ed by the use o f classical p la te th e o ry . The g reat a d v an tag e o f

this approach is that a very large number o f e x a c t and app roxim ate

solutions fo r p la te s , even subject to large d e fle c tio n s , are re a d ily

a v a ila b le . The assumption th a t the re la tiv e displacem ents o f the

p la te edges, due to the o v e ra ll lo n g itu d in a l a c tio n o f the structure,

can be n eg le c te d in the p la te analysis leads to reasonably ac c u ra te

solutions. The o v e ra ll lo n g itu d in a l a c tio n o f the structure can be

determ ined by an alysin g the structure on its neutral axis w ith due

a llo w a n c e for v a ria tio n s in the cross-sectional areas and moments

o f in e rtia o v e r the s tru c tu re . In single skin construction, p la te

b u c klin g can lead to a red u ctio n in the e ffe c tiv e stiffness o f the

stru ctu re.

The approach has been v e r ifie d by e x p erim en tal -work on the

in tern al roof u n it, the tw o -p in n e d fold ed p la te portal frame and the

folded p la te barrel v a u lt in single skin co n stru ctio n .

4. The transverse p la te a c tio n o f an e x te rn a l roof u n it .

w ith a free edge has been studied on fla t plates in Perspex and a s e m i-

em p irica l method o f analysis has been g iv e n . Constants A and B in

the n o n -lin e a r e q u a tio n ,

have been d eterm in ed for various a / b ratios a t a Poisson's ra tio o f 0 . 3 5 .

The use o f these e m p iric a l constants co n sid erab ly sim plifies the a n a ly s is .
 5. Tests on the fu ll scale prototype fo ld ed p la te b arrel

v a u lt show th a t even the b e h a vio u r o f the p ra c tic a l structure can be

p re d icted w ith reasonable a c c u ra c y by the approach suggested by the

author in this thesis. Results show th at the type o f b o lted co n n ectio n

alo n g the ridges, d e ve lo p e d fo r this structure, affords fu ll f ix it y even

w ith one lin e o f b o lts . The large flan g e areas co n cen trated alo n g the

ridge lines can be c o n v e n ie n tly taken into a c c o u n t. Large shearing

deform ations, h o w e v e r, do seem to m o dify the transverse p la te a c tio n

of the barrel v a u lt . The d iffe re n c e b etw een the th e o re tic a l and

exp erim e n ta l results, though a t times la rg e , may be considered as being

ve ry reasonable fo r a p ra c tic a l structure o f this ty p e .

 CHAPTER 9

Suggestions fo r fu rth e r research.

9 .1 M a te r ia ls research:

The problems that m erit fu rth er in v e s tig a tio n , under tem perature

and h u m id ity c o n tro lle d co n d itio n s, may be listed b rie fly as follow s:

1. Research, a t v ary in g stress le v e ls , into the creep c h a ra c ­

teristics o f glass fib re rein fo rced p o lyester lam inates in tension and o f

the core m aterials in compression and in shear. This research should

then be fo llo w e d by research into the creep o f sandwiches made from

these m a te ria ls . It is suggested th at the readings be taken a t 0 . 1 , 1,

10, 100, 1000, and 10000 hours a fte r lo a d in g . If the tim e is p lo tte d

on a lo g a rith m ic s c a le , this w o u ld g ive 5 in te rv a ls . The creep curve

/

o b tain ed m ay then be e x tra p o la te d a fu rth e r 2 in tervals to 10^ hours

(about 114 ye ars ).

2. Research, a t v ary in g stress le v e ls , into the static fa tig u e

b eh avio u r o f these m a te r ia ls . O f p a rtic u la r interest ag a in are the

b eh avio u r o f glass fib re rein fo rce d polyester lam inates in tension and

o f the core m aterials in compression and in shear. The lin e o f approach

suggested in 1. above w ould be e q u a lly su itab le fo r this research.

9 .2 Structural research:

1. Research into im proved methods o f analysis for fo ld ed p la te

structures. This research is v e ry g e n e ra l, being a p p lic a b le to o th er

m aterials such as c o n c re te . For these methods to be a p p lic a b le to

fo ld ed p la te structures in plastics how ever, it is v e ry essential th at the

methods be cap ab le o f satisfying the conditions la id down by the m a te ria l.

Large transverse d e fle c tio n s in single skin construction and large shearing

deform ations in sandwich construction are tw o such c o n d itio n s .

2. P late b u c klin g in single skin fo ld ed p la te construction needs

fu rth er in v e s tig a tio n . This could be p re v e n te d , fo r instance, by the

provision o f ribs s tiffe n in g the p la te betw een the fo ld s.

3. Fundam ental research into the b eh avio u r o f sandwich panels

w ith v e ry w eak co res. As was discussed in 7 . 7 , the facings are in fa c t

plates on e la s tic fo u n d atio n s. A m ath em atical model could be made w ith

thin steel plates held ap art by compression springs representing the c o re .

The stiffness o f the core could then be v a rie d by va ry in g the stiffness o f

the springs. The use o f such a model w o u ld perm it the easy strain gauging

o f the inside surface o f the fa c in g s .

4. Research to determ in e the e ffe c t o f large shearing deform ations

on the stress d istrib u tio n in sandwich panels o f various shapes and w ith

various edge c o n d itio n s . A good d eal o f w ork on these lines has a lre a d y

been done on sandwiches in tim b e r.

9 .3 Space research:

This is perhaps, the most e x c itin g fie ld fo r research. It concerns

the develo p m en t o f exp an d ab le structural forms fo r use w ith plastics in

o u te r sp ace. It is o n ly in space th a t the v e ry real advantages o f plastics,

such as low w e ig h t and easy fo rm a b ility , w ill o v e rrid e o th e r con sid era­

tions such as cost o r poor fire resistance.

C onsider the fo ld ed p la te structure shown in F ig .7 8 a . The structure

can be fo ld ed and compressed into a small package as shown in F ig .7 8 b .

W hen the p ackage is put into space, it is released whereupon it expands

under its own stored energy to the shape o f F ig .7 8 a . The structure is

then p e rm an en tly rig id is e d . The m aterials th a t deserve in vestig atio n

are fle x ib le p o lyu reth an e foam and honeycomb cores. These cores are

bonded to a fle x ib le ,re s in im p reg nated, plastics c lo th lam in ate w h ich

submits e a s ily to fo ld in g . W hen exp an d ed , the resin in the lam in ate is

cured by solar ra d ia tio n th ereb y rig id isin g the s tru ctu re. Some o th e r

types o f exp a n d a b le plastics structures such as a storage ta n k , a space

hangar and an in te rco n n e ctin g co rrid o r 1 0 0 ft. long betw een the research

laboratory and the ro cket m otor, are discussed in a paper by Lubin and

R o s a to .^

M ost o f this research w ork in e la s tic reco very systems and

e xp an d ab le structures is b ein g done by a e ro n a u tic a l e n g in eers. They,

w ith th e ir ad van ced know ledge o f plastics m a te ria ls , are in space m aking

inroads in to the tra d itio n a l fie ld s o f the c iv il e n g in e e r. If research by

 181

STRUCTURE
THE
OF
LENGTH
PACKAGED

<-> 2 1
z o 00
w < r~-
a:
Q □= o
5 I
aL q
c iv il engineers on the an alysis, design, m aterials o f construction and

e re c tio n o f structures in space is not fo rth co m in g , the science o f c iv il

e n g in ee rin g w ill rem ain fo re v e r earth b o u n d .

 APPENDIX 1

The use o f expanded polystyrene and rig id

p o lyu re th an e foam as cores in structural

sandw ich co n stru ctio n .

 APPENDIX 1

The use o f expanded polystyrene and rig id p o lyu reth an e

foam o» core* in structural sandwich c o n itru e H o n .

Expanded polystyrene and rig id p o lyu reth an e foam are two low

density plastics w h ic h are v e ry su itab le for use as cores in sandwich

co n stru ctio n . These m aterials have been b r ie fly discussed in 1 .2

o f this thesis. To use these m a te ria ls , h o w ever, it is v e ry essential

to know c o m p le te ly th e ir m ech an ical p ro p erties. These properties

are v e ry d if f ic u lt to o b ta in even from the raw m a te ria l m anufacturers.

The author hgs th e refo re c arrie d out a number o f tests and the results

w ill be discussed here in g re a te r d e t a il.

The m ain m ech an ical properties o f these m aterials desired to

be known by e n g in eers, can be listed as follow s:

1. U Itim a te tensile s tre n g th .

2. T ensile modulus o f e la s t ic it y .

3. Compressive strength a t y i e l d .

4. Compressive modulus o f e la s t ic it y .

5. Shear s tre n g th .

6. Shear modulus o f r ig id it y .

7. Poisson's r a tio .

The a cc u ra te and co m p lete d e te rm in a tio n o f these properties raises

considerable problems due to the nature o f the m a te ria l its e lf. U n lik e

co n ven tio n al m a te ria ls , the properties are a ffe c te d in v a ry in g degrees

a number o f factors listed on the n e xt page:

 185

1. D en sity o f the m a t e r ia l.

2. M e th o d o f fo rm a tio n .

3. Rate o f strain o f the m a te r ia l.

4. Tim e a fte r lo a d in g .

5. T e m p e ra tu re .

In these tests, o n ly v a ria tio n s in respect o f the first three facto rs, listed

a b o v e , have been c o n s id e re d . Readings w ere taken im m e d ia te ly on load ing

and a t am b ien t tem p eratu res.

The m a terials w ere o b ta in e d from the Shell C h em ical C o . The

expanded polystyrene samples w ere in densities o f 1 .1 , 1 .6 and 3 . 6 Ib s /c u .f t .

The rig id p o lyu re th a n e foam samples w ere in densities o f 2 . 2 , 3 . 0 and

4 . 6 I b s / c u .f f . In b o th cases a su itab le flam e retard en t was introduced

into the fo rm u la tio n . The tests w ere run on a "H o u n sfield " tensom eter

and in an "Instron" testing m a c h in e .

T y p ic a l lo a d -e x te n s io n curves fo r the two m aterials are shown in

F ig s .79 and 8Q .

It can be seen th a t both m aterials y ie ld continuously to fra c tu re .

The load P a t fra c tu re defines the u ltim a te ten sile strength. The tan g en t to

the curve a t o r near the o rig in defines the te n s ile modulus o f the m a te r ia l.

T yp ica l load-com pression curves are shown in F ig s .81 and 8 2 .

R igid p o lyu reth an e foam both against and across the rise shows a

d istinct y ie ld lin e C D . Expanded polystyrene shows two straig ht portions

 FRACTURE

\ POLYSTYRENE

:>

FIG. 79

E X TE N S IO N

FKACTUKE

POLYURETHANE

FIG . 8 0

EXTEN SIO N
 P O L Y U R E T H A N E - AGAINST R IS E

POLYURETHANE - ACROSS RISE

C O M P R E S S IO N

POLYSTYRENE

FIG . 8 2

10*/ COMP.
C O M P R E S S IO N
in its load compression c u rv e , AB and C D , the in tersection o f w h ich

defines the th e o re tic a l y ie ld p o in t Y o f the m a te r ia l. The compressive

strength a t y ie ld P, as d eterm ined from Y is less than the compressive

strength P' a t 10% com pression.

The v a ria tio n s o f ten sile and compressive strengths and m oduli

w ith density and rate o f strdin are shown in F ig s .8 3 - 9 0 # A look a t

these diagrams shows th at the increase in strength or m oduli o f the

m aterials varies alm ost lin e a r ly w ith the d en sity, e x c e p t in some cases

a t v e ry low o r v e ry high densities w here the curves show n o n -lin e a r

b e h a v io u r. In the case o f rig id p o lyu reth an e foam , the d ire c tio n o f

foam ing and the method o f fo rm ation are o f g reat im p o rtan ce. The

properties o f the m a te ria l v a ry co n sid erab ly w hen measured against the

rise and across i t . It w ould seem th e re fo re , th a t the size and shape o f

the mould w o u ld p la y a part in -d e fin in g the properties in various

d ire c tio n s . Expanded polystyrene does not seem to show such o rth o tro p y .

V a ry in g the rate o f strain o f the m a te ria l, as can be seen in F ig s .8 4 ,8 6 ,

88 and 90 does a lt e r the strengths and m o d u li, but the v a ria tio n is

re la tiv e ly small o v e r a large range o f strain ing rates. In c iv il e n g in e e rin g

p ra c tic e , it is v e ry d iffic u lt to d e fin e the rate o f strain o f the m a te ria l,

w hich is d ependant on the rate a t w h ich load is a p p lie d to the stru ctu re.

In the e stim atio n o f the rem ain in g properties th e re fo re , the rate o f strain

as a v a ria b le has not been co n sid ered .

 189

140

RATE OF S TR A IN

POLYURETHANE
100
PSI.
- STRENGTH

^ POLYSTYRENE
TENSILE
ULT.

IN D I V C U A L POLYURETHANE SAMPLES °
IN D IV ID U A L POLYSTYRENE SAMPLES +
MEAN VA .U E S O

FIG. 8 3

D E N S IT Y L B S . / C U . FT.
 190

POLYURETHANE 3 . 0 LBSyfc J . F T .

POLYURETHANE 2 .2 U B S /C U .F T .

P O LY S T Y R EN j

TOTAL NO. OF . S A M P L E S TESTED = 48

F IG .8 4

10x10"*
STRAIN RATE PER SEC
 191
4500
RATE OF S T R A IN 6*6 x 10 PER SEC.

35 00

POLYSTYRENE

3000
PS I .

2 500'
MOD ULUS

PO LYU RETHANE

2000 -
TENSILE

1500

FIG. 8 5

1000

500
INDIV DUAL POLYJRETHANE SAMPLES o
IN D IV IDU A L POLYSTYRENE SAMPLES +
MEAN VALUES O

DENSITY L B S ./C U . FT.

 192

POLYURETHANE 3.0 LB S j./C U .F T .

1400'
PSI.

1200
MODULUS

LBS CU.FT.
TENSILE

TO TAL NO. OF SAMPLES TESTED

FIG. 8 6

400

STRAIN RAT E PER SEC

 193

RATE OF S T R A IN = 55-5

POLYURETHANE - A G A IN ST R IS E
PS I .
YI ELD

POLYSTYRENE
AT
STRENGTH
COMPRESSIVE

POLYURETHANE - ACROSS R IS E

TOTAL NO. OF SAMPLES TESTED = 24

FIG. 8 7

DENSITY L B S ./cU . FT.

 194

FIG. 8 8
POLYURETHANE 4.6 LBS.> . / c U . F T .
PS I .

POLYS YRENE 3.6 L3S,./C U . FT.

YIELD
AT
STRENGTH

POLYURETHANE 3.0 L8S./CU.FT.

COMPRESSIVE

POLYURETHANE 2.2 CU. FT.

POLYS” YRENE 1.1 L 5 S ./C U .F T .

TOTAL NO. OF SAMPLES TE S TE D = 4 8

STRAIN RATE PER SEC

 195

1600
-4
RATE OF STRAIN 55*5 x 10 PER SEC.

1400

POLYURETHAIIE-AGAINST R S
1200
PSI.

1000
MODULUS

POLYSTYREN
800
COMPRESSIVE

POLYURETHANE ~ ACROS
600'

4oq
FIG.' 8 9

200

TOTAL MPLES TESTED = 24

DENSITY L B S ./c U . FT.

 1800
^PO LYURETHANE 4 .6 L B $ ./fc u .F T .
F IG .90

1600'

TOTAL NO. OF SAMPLES TE S TE D = 4 8

1400

1200
POLYSTYRE
PS L

1000
MODUL US

800
COMPRESSIVE

POLYURETI- ANE 3.0 LBS

600

400 POLYURETHANE 2.2 LBS. C U .F T .

POLYSTYRENE l.l L B S . / c i l . F T .

200

POLYSTYRENE

-4
60x!0

STRAIN RATE PER SEC

 The shear strength and the shear modulus w ere d eterm ined by

shearing i i n . th ic k specimens b etw een twb p a ra lle l steel plates in

the "Instron" testing m a c h in e . This method o f testing is recommended

25
by K u en zi and was d evelo p ed in the Forest Products Lab o rato ries.

T h e re la tiv e slip betw een the p lates was not measured by a d ia l g au g e,

but by the "In stro n 1' its e lf. The reading was then co rrected fo r the

small in c lin a tio n o f the p la te s . The rate o f the re la tiv e slip betweeen

the plates was kep t constant a t 0 . 2 cm y^m in. The shear strength and

the shear modulus are p lo tte d against density in F ig s .91 and 92 re s p e c tiv e ly .

The Poisson's ratio is v e ry d if f ic u lt to determ in e for these m a te ria ls .

For normal isotropic m a te ria ls , w here V varies betw een 0 and 0 . 5 ,

2 (l + v )

For the m ateria ls under consideration h o w ever, the above relatio n sh ip is

to ta lly in v a lid . It is in terestin g to exam ine the values o f V , fo r these

26
m ateria ls, g iven in the published lite r a tu r e . O 'D e ll and G raham g iv e

the v alu e o f V fo r extru d ed polystyrene foam as < 0 . 1 . The M a rin e Design

27 |
M anual gives the v a lu e o f V f o r a foamed p lastic core as 0 . 2 0 . Panshin

28
et a l use a v a lu e o f V = 0 . 3 0 when referrin g to c e llu la r plastics*.

29
O b e rd ic k gives the v a lu e o f P for fle x ib le p o lyu reth an e foam as 0 . 6 4 .

30 31
( V > 0 . 5 0 ? ) . Ferrigno and M o is e y e v in w h o le books devo ted e n tir e ly

to low den sity plastics foams do not even m ention i t .

 198

F IG .91

P O L Y S T Y R E N E --.

B.F+,
PSI
STRENGTH
S HE A R

POLYURETHANE-ACROSS RISE

BOND FAILURE

INDIVIDUAL POLYURETHANE SAMPLES

INDIVIE UAL POLYSTYRENE SAMPLES

MEAN VALUES

D E N S IT Y LB S/C U .FT.
 800

F IG .92

700,

600

POLYStYRENE
50C
PSl

400
MODUL US
SHEAR

300

P O L Y U R E T H A N E - a c r o s s r is e

200

100

INDIVIDUAL POLYURETHANE SAMPLES o

INDIV 1CUAL POLYSTYRENE SAM PLES +

MEAN VALUES O

D E N S IT Y L B S ./:U .F T .
 200

The properties of the two materials have been fu lly determined.

It must be emphasised h o w ev er, th a t the graphs g iv e n , though v e ry

useful fo r design purposes, g iv e o n ly a general idea o f the properties

o f these m a te ria ls . The samples tested came from o n ly a small batch

o f m aterials m anufactured in p a rtic u la r moulds on p a rtic u la r days.

The v a r ia tio n , w ith d iffe re n t batches o f m aterials m anufactured o v e r

a p eriod o f tim e , m ight be c o n s id erab le* A few thousand more tests

and a s ta tis tic a l approach m ight re veal th a t graphs represented by

slight curves m ay in fa c t be straig h t lines or v ic e versa. For purposes

o f design h o w e ve r, the graphs g ive n can be used w ith great a d v a n ta g e .

L astly, it may be m entioned th at the a d d itio n o f a fire retard ent

seems to have reduced the m ech an ical properties o f rig id po lyu reth an e

foam . The shear modulus o f this m a te ria l a t a d ensity o f 2 Ib s /c u .f t .

can be got from F i g . 92 as about 2 3 0 p s i. Tests on the same density

foam w ith o u t a fire retard en t g iv e a shear modulus o f about 4 0 0 p si.

The A W R E, A ld erm asto n , gives the shear modulus o f fire retardent

o 32
polyurethane foam a t 2 5 C as 2 5 0 p s i. This agrees c lo s e ly w ith the

author's v a lu e . O th e r values g iv en by the AW RE, for the compressive

strength a t y ie ld and the compressive modulus, alsocgree f a ir ly w e ll

w ith values o b ta in e d from F ig s .8 7 and 8 9 , the AWRE values b eing

about 1 5 % -2 0 % h ig h e r than the author's v a lu e s .

 201

The b e h a v io u r o f expanded polystyrene and rig id p olyu reth an e

foam when used as cores in structural sandwich construction has also

been b r ie fly s tu d ie d . Bending tests w ere run on sandwich beams under

3 -p o in t and 4 -p o in t lo a d in g . The 3 -p o in t loading tests w ere run on a

sim ply supported span o f lO in . The 4 -p o in t loading tests w ere on a span

> ■

o f lO in . w ith the tw o loads b ein g a p p lie d a t 3 in . from each e n d . In

both cases the d e fle c tio n under the load was m a in ta in e d constant a t

0 . 2 c m j/m in . The specimens w ere made by bonding l i n . and l i i n . th ic k

cores, 2 in . w id e , to l / 3 2 i n . and l / l 6 i n . th ic k , glass c lo th rein fo rced

polyester la m in a te s . The bonding ag en t was E p jk o te 815 + Epikure V 1 2 5 .

In the case o f the 3 -p o in t lo ad in g tests, fa ilu re was found in a ll cases to

be a lo ca l compressive fa ilu r e under the c e n tra l po in t lo a d . Progressive

compressive fa c in g fa ilu re then o c c u rre d . The th e o re tic a l fa c in g stresses

can be c a lc u la te d on the assumption th at a ll the bending moment is taken

by the fa c in g s . These th e o re tic a l fa c in g stresses a t fa ilu re are p lo tte d .

against the density o f the c o re , fo r l i n . and l i i n . th ic k cores, in F ig s .93

and 9 4 . In the case o f the 4 -p o in t loading tests, fa ilu re occurred a t the

low er densities in shear, but a t the highest d e n s ity , lo cal compressive

fa il ure was noted in some specim ens. The th e o re tic a l facing, stresses a t

fa il ure have been p lo tte d against the density o f the c o re , fo r l i n . and l i i n .

th ic k cores, in F ig s .95 and 9 6 .

 202

3 PO INT L OA D I N G

7000

6000

5000

POLYURE"HANE / /
POLYSTYRENE
PSI

4000
STRESS

POLYURET
POLYSTYR
3000
FACING

2000

B.F. = B O N 3 F A ILU R E

1000

F 1C . 9 3

DENSITY L B S ./C U . FT.

 203

3 POINT LOADING
7000

6 000

5000
PSI

400C
STRESS

POLYURETHANE
POLYSTYRENE —
FACI NG

3000

2000

B.F. BOND FAILURE

1000

FIG .94

DENSITY L B S . / C U . FT.
 204

4 PO IN T LOADING

6000

3a POLYURETHANE
POLYSTYRENE %
5000
PSI

4000
STRESS
FACI NG

3000 POLY J R E T H A N E
POLYSTYRENE

2000

1000

FIC.95

D ENSITY LBS./CU. FT.

 205

4- , * ' » ' ■* ' f T T , *

* I

4 POINT LO AD IN G
7000

6000 __L_

5000

32. ANE
PSI

4000
STRESS
FACI NG

3000
P O L Y U F\ E T H A N E
P0LY5T YRENE

2000

1000

FIG.96.

0 2 3 4 5 6

DENSITY L B S ./C U . FT.

 206

A study o f F ig s .9 3 - 9 6 shows th at the fa c in g stresses a t fa ilu re

v a ry alm ost lin e a r ly w ith the den sity fo r both types o f load in g s. The

values o f the fa c in g stresses a t fa ilu re are w e ll belo w the u ltim a te

strengths o f the c lo th la m in ates . From independant tests, the u ltim a te

tensile strength o f the fa c in g lam inates was determ ined as about 4 0 0 0 0 psi.

The maximum th e o re tic a l fa c in g stress a t fa ilu re is o n ly about 60 0 0 p si.

W ith th in n e r facin g s, and sm aller and denser cores, higher fa c in g -

stresses can be re a c h e d . H o w e v er, a c e rta in minimum thickness o f both

core and facings has to be m a in ta in e d fo r p ra c tic a l reasons. In c o m m e rc ia lly

m anufactured lam in ates, large v a ria tio n s in both thickness and glass fib re

content can o cc u r (p a r tic u la rly in hand la y -u p ), and in gen eral lam inates

below l / l 6 i n . should not be used. From a therm al insulation p o in t o f v ie w ,

a minimum core thickness o f i i n . to J in . is d e s ira b le .

 APPENDIX 2

E xperim ental Readings.

 208

TABLE A1

Folded plate roof (internal unit).

w' = 121 lbs

Tf- 16°C
17°C
V « 1 hour

Strain Readings 10~^

S.Gauge Initial Final Remarks

1 ‘ 15908 15413 1. Edges restrained

2 16528 16170 against horizontal
3 15545 15368 movement,
4 15677 15662
5 15902 16162
6 16130 16615
7 , 14259 13441
8 16666 16723
9 17450 17802
10 15350 14830
11 15300 15568
12 16192 16666
13 15900 16375
14 16308 16120
•15 14745 14484
 209

TABLE A2

Folded plate roof (internal unitL.

W*=: 121 lbs

T.= 16°C
Tj a* 17°C
t'a 1 hour

-4
Deflection Readings 10 inches

D.Gauge Initial Final Remarks

1 +4 +57 1. Edges restrained against

2 +62
5 +10
4 1287
5 159
6 549
7 352
8 654
+50 horizontal movement.
+56 2. Settlement of supports
1695 shown by D.Gauges 1 and 3
788 to be subtracted from
1271 apparent beam deflections
978 to get actual beam
1060 deflections*
3* D.Gauge 2 shows slight
horizontal deflection of
supporting channels*
 210

TABLE A3

Folded plate roof (external unit) b = 5". a/b a ?

t' a 1 hour

Deflection Readings cms

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point

1 64.705(0.426) 64.705(0.761) V = 1390 gms

T; = 17.5°C
Tj = 18.5°C

1 64.705(0.428) 64.705(0.768) V = 1390 gms

T{= 18°C
Tj= 18°C

1 64.705(0.448) 64.705(1.245) W = 3341 gms

Tj = 20°G
Tj» 20°C

1 64.705(0.447) 64.705(1.224) V = 3341 gms

Ti=s 13.5°C
T^ =» 18°C

1 64.705(0.437) 64.705(0.598) V = 748 gms

Ti=* 18.5°C
Tj= 18.5°C

1 64.705(0.435) 64.705(0.606) V as 748 gms

T;* 19°C
Tj« 19°C
 211

TABLE A4

Folded plate roof (external unit), b * 5". a/b « 6

t =s 1 hour

Deflection Readings cms

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point

1 64.705(0.438) 64.705(0.776) W * 1173 gms

T - » 2 0 .5 °C
T j« 2 0 .5 °C

64.705(0.437) 64.705(0.778) W = -1 1 7 3 gms

T^» 2 0 .5 °C
T |= 2 0 .5 °C

64.705(0.431) 64.705(1.182) W = 2828 gms

T^ =s 1 9.5 °C -
Tp 1 9 .5 °C

64.705(0.435) 64.705(1.185) W a 2828 I * *

T j« 1 8 .5 °C
T^» 1 9 ° c

64.705(0.429) 64.705(0.600) W « 533 gms

TL= 19°C
T^.= 20°C

64.705(0.431) 64.705(0.605) W * 533 gms

T t « 1 9 .5 °C
 212

TABLE A5

Folded rlate roof (external unit) b a 5". a/b - 5

t* a 1 hour

Deflection Readings cma

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point

i 64 .705 (0 .409 ) 64 .705 (0 .724 ) W = 961 gms

T- = 20.5°C
Tj= 21 °C

1 6 4 .705 (0 .410 ) 64 .705 (0 .726 ) W = 961 gms

Ti== 21 °C
T^= 20.5°C

1 64 .705 (0 .415 ) 64 .705 (1 .137 ) V » 2312 gms

Ti® 22.5°C
T^a 22.5°C

1 64 .705 (0 .396 ) 64 .705 (1 .130 ) V » 2312 gms

Tja 22.5°C
Tj = 22.5°C

1 64 .705 (0 .410 ) 64 .705 (0 .565 ) W a 534 gms

T-a 21.5°C
Tj« 21.5°C

1 6 4 .705 (0 .412 ) 64 .705 (0 .574 ) v a 534 gms

T;= 2 1 . 5°C
T . = 2 1 . 5°C
 213

TABLE A6

Folded plate roof (external unit), b = 5". A ■» 4

»
t = 1 hour

Deflection Readings cms

Target Pt. Initial Final Remarks

1 64.705(0.444) 64.705(0.728) W = 747 gms

T( = 21 °C
Tj= 21 °C

1 64.705(0.458) 64.705(0.713) W = 747 gms

T; = 19.5°C
T^= 19.5°C

1 64.705(0.429) 64.705(1.055) W = 1801 gms

Ti= 21 °C
Tj= 21 °C

1 64.705(0.434) 64.705(1.033) V sr 1801 gms

Ti=: 19.5°C
T^« 19.5°C

1 64.705(0.431) 64.705(0.572) W as 320 gms

Tt= 19°C
Tj= 20°C

1 64.705(0.434) 64.705(0.578) V = 320 gms

T; = 1 9 .5 ° C

T.= 1 9 .5 ° C
 214

TABLE A7

Folded plate roof (external unit), b » 5". a/b » 5

t = 1 hour

Deflection Readings cms

Target Pt. Initial ffoal Remarks

1 64.705(0.444) 64.705(0.658) W = 554 gms

T i * 2 0 . 5°C
Tt = 21 °C

1 ■ 64.705(0.445) 64.705(0.662) W « 554 gms

T{ = 21 °C
Tj as- 2 1 .5 °C

1 64.705(0.432) 64.705(0.895) W = 1285 gms

T l = 200 c
T|.= 2 0 .5°C

1 64.705(0.433) 64.705(0.889) , W s 1285 gms

T ;= 20°C
Tj = 20°C

1 64.705(0.437) 64.705(0.555) W = 318 gms

T -= 1 9 . 5°C
T^= 2 0 . 5°C

1 64.705(0.436) 64.705(0.568) W = 318 gms

T 2 1 . 5°C
= 2 1 . 5°C
 215

TABLE A8a

Folded plate roof (external unit), b » 12". a/b = 5

W » 3966 gms
Tj =» 16.5°C
T| = 17°C
t = 1 hour

Strain Readings 10“^ (lst Set a)

S.Gauge Initial Final Remarks

1 14484 15051
2 14770 15060 1, Readings of S.Gauge
3 14061 14134 11 (■*) seem to be
4 14902 14895 unreliable,
5 14786 14733
6 15638 15581
7 14884 14835
8 13483 13452
9 13992 13965
10 14680 14674
11* 13986* 13647*
12 15375 • 15126
13 14182 14146
14 13852 13848
15 14084 14081
16 14786 14778
17 15711 15702
18 14600 14650
19 14998 15119
20 16588 . 16771
 216

TABLE A8b

Folded plate roof (external unit), b g 12". a/b = 3

W = 3966 gms
T ; = 1 5 .5 ° C
Tt = 19 ° 0
t‘=* 1 hour

Strain Readings 10“^ (2nd Set b)

S.Gauge Initial Final Remarks

1 • 14455 15020
2 14758 15050
3 14084 14150
4 14934 14922
5 14930 14871
6 15761 15700
7 14978 14922
8 13574 13536 . *
9 14048 14022
10 14726 14720
11 14150 13538
12 . 15380 15127
13 14216 14174
14 13888 13875
15 14248 14220
16 14912 14888
17 15822 15800
18 14660 14700
19 15046 15155
20 16612 16785
 217

TABLE A9a

Folded plate roof (external unit), b = 12", a/b « 3

W as 3966 gms
Tj = 16.5°C
T p 17 ° 0

t* as 1 hour

Deflection Readings oms (1st Set a)

irget Initial Final Remarks

>int

1 64.275(1.767) 63.665 2.042) 1. Micrometer reading

n to be subtracted
2 " (1.724) 1.894)
tl
3 " (1.637) 1.532) from stem reading
n
4 " (1.605) 1.826) to give actual
" (1.378) »» 1.337) reading in cms.
5
6 " (0.756) 64.280 1.470)
7 65.590(1.184) 65.590 1.720)
8 " (0.347) 65.590 0.531)
 218

TABLE A9b

Folded plate roof.(external unit), b » 12". a/b = 3

W = 3966 gms
Tt= 15.5°C
Tt= 15°C
t* =3 1 hour

Deflection Readings cms (2nd Set b )

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point

1 63.665(1.068) 64.310(2.593) 1. Micrometer reading

2 " (1.031) " (2.448) to be subtracted
5 " (0.928) " (2.092) from stem reading to
4 " (0.908) " (2.370) give actual reading
5 " (0.673) " (1.891) in cms*
6 65.045(1.430) ■ 64.310(1.394)
7 65.045(0.544) 64.310(0.332)
0 65.435(0.081) 65.435(0.271)
 TABLE A10a

Folded plate roof (external unit), b « 12". a/b « 3

W = 9044 gms -
Ti= 15°C .
16°C
t' = 1 hour

Strain Readings 10*^ ( 1st Set a )

S. Gauge Initial Final Remarks

1 * 14493 15658
2 14761 15300
3 14072 14160
4 14914 14878
5 14866 . 14752
6 15710 15590
7 14919 14824
8 13520 13479
9 13988 13978
10 14695 14721
11 13925 ■ ‘ 12836
12 15375 14960
13 14225 14231
14 13878 13900
15 14179 14158
16 14857 . 14823
17 15770 15742
18 14612 14715
19 15008 ,15258
20 16571 16960
 TABLE A10b

Folded plate roof (external unit), b » 12". a/b 1

W = 9044 gms
T<« 17.5°C
T^* 18°C
t1ss 1 hour

Strain Readings 10“^ (2nd Set b)

S.Gauge Initial Final Remarks

1 14574 15708
2 14822 15322
3 14120 14172
4 14952 14888
5 14750 14662
6 15628 15515
7 14860 14771
8 13485 13440
9 13971 13956
10 14700 14715
11 13919 12835
12 15420 14990
13 14265 14260
14 13902 13903
15 14090 14075
16 14780 14755
17 15715 15690
18 14596 14695
19 15015 15250
20 16594 16962
 221

TABLE A11a

Folded plate roof (external unit), b « 12". a/b « 3

W ss 9044 gma
15° c
Tj • 16 ° 0

t* = 1 hour

Deflection Readings cms (1st Set a)

Target Initial Pinal Remarks

Point

1 64.310(1.800) 62.778(1.975)
2 " (1.750) 63.380(2.335) 1• Micrometer reading
3 " (1.629) 63.380(1.732) to be subtracted
4 " (1.628) 63.380(2.273) from stem reading to
5 " (1.381) 63.380(1.558) give actual reading
6 " (0.776) 63.380(1.194) in cms.
7 65.670(1.243) 65.670(2(288)
8 " (0.388) 65.670(0.795)
 222

TABLE A11b

Folded plate roof (external unit), b « 12H« a/b « 3

W = 9044 gms
T je 1 7 .5 °C
T^= 18°C
t' = 1 hour

Deflection Readings cms (2nd Set b)

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point

1 64.475 1.984) 62.088 1.259)

2 w 1.914) If 1.620) 1. Micrometer reading
it 1.788) If 1.013) to be subtracted
3
4 64.475 1.797) It 1.568) from stem reading
it 1.525) ft 0.837) to give actual reading
5
6 tt 0.935) 62.690 0.495) in cms.
7 »» 0.043) 65.655 2.258)
8 65.655 0.340) 65.655 0.762)
 223
TABLE A12a

Folded plate roof (external unit)« b » 12w« a/b « 3

W = 1136 gms
Tj* 17.5°C
18.5°C
t1= 1 hour

Strain Readings 10~^ (1st Set a)

S.Gauge Initial Final

1 14402 14644
2 14782 14900
3 14110 14142
4 15037 15048
5 14540 14504
6 15369 15328
7 14505 14464
8 13498 13470
9 13567 13550
10 14710 14712
11 13900 13693
12 15686 15609
13 14655 14641
14 13876 13868
13 14590 14542
16 14818 14781
17 15260 15238
18 14753 14766
19 14749 14786
20 16130 16195
 224

TABLE A12b

Folded plate roof (external unit)* b « 12*. a/b « 3

V * 1136 gms
T4' = 15°C
ss 15.5°C
t* as 1 hour

Strain Readings 10^ (2nd Sot b)

S.Gauge Initial Final Remarks

14230 14450
2 14628 14733
3 13983 14011

4 14922 14918
5 14668 14618
6 15423 15390
7 14532 14495
8 13490 13468
9 13538 13518
10 14660 14646
11 13775 13560
12 15527 15430
13 14520 14492
14 13782 13775
15 14672 14635
16 14860 14821
17 15265 15239
18 14702 14696
19 14660 14686
20 16018 16065
 225

TABLE A15a

Folded plate roof (external unit), b « 12". a/b =

W = 1136 gms
T{» 17.5°C

18,9°C

t' «b 1 hour

Deflection Readings cms (1st set a)

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point
1 64.470(2.309) 64.325(2.462)
2 " (2.162) ” (2.286) 1• Micrometer reading
3 " (1.961) " (1.969) to be subtracted
4 " (2.141) " (2.297) from stem reading
5 " (1.836) " (1.874) to give actual
6 " (1.250) 65.410(2.417) reading in cms.
7 " (0.341) 65.410(1.436)
8 65.410(0.368) 65.410(0.421)
 226

TABLE A 13b

Folded plate roof (external unit), b a 12". a/b - 5

W a 1136 gms

T{ » 1 5°C

T^a 1 5 .5 °C

t1a 1 hour

Deflection Readings cms (2nd set b)

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point

1 64.325(2.156) 64.325(2.422)
2 ' " (2.000) " (2.270) 1. Micrometer reading
3 " (1.SIS) " (1.988) to be subtracted
4 " (1.998) " (2.284) from stem reading
5 " (1.695) " (1.903) to give actual
6 " (1.087) " (1.301) reading in cms,
7 " (0.173) " (0.331)
 227
TABLE A14

Folded plate roof (external unit) . b = 12". a/b « I

t* = 1 hour

Deflection Readings cms

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point
1 65.460(2.353) 64.910(2.434) W = 2539 gms

Ti- 20.5°C'
V 20.5°C

i 64.910(1.815) 64.910(2.429) W = 2539 gms

T- = 19°C

V 20°C
1 64.910(1.844) 64.090(2.169) ¥ = 5756 gms
T •« 18.5°C

T
r 19°C

1 65.385(2.324) 64.155(2.240) ¥ = 5756 gms

Ti - 20.5°C

T
r 20.5°C

1 65.090(1.991) 65.090(2.324) ¥ * 1280 gms

#
Ti “ 20°C

V 180C
1 65.090(1.991) 65.090(2.331) ¥ * 1280 gms
Tj * 20.5°C
T j. = 20.5°C
 228

TABLE A15

Folded plate roof (external unit), b a 12". a/b a 1

t* = 1 hour

Deflection Readings cms

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point

1 66.945(2.484) 66 .650 (2 .330 ) W = 1127 pus

T; = 1 9 . 5°C
T j= 19 .5 °C

1 66.745(2.280) 66.745(2.417) W = 1127 gms

T i= 20°C
T( = 20°C

1 66.745(2.312) 66.745(2.576) ¥ = 2455 gms

T i = 1 8.5 °C
T .= 1 8 .5 °C

1 66.745(2.297) 66.745(2.567) W = 2455 gms

T , = 1 9.5 °C
1 9 .5 °C

1 66.945(2.468) 66.945(2.541) ¥ = 569 gms

T; = 20°C
T, = 20OC

1 66.945(2.474) 66.945(2.542) W = 569 gms

T ,= 1 9 .5 °C
Ti = 1 9 . 5°C
 229

TABLE A16

Two-pinned. folded plate portal frame without knee and beam stiffnera.

W = 103.3S lbs on the ridge line at the centre of the span.

T-« 16.5°C
T,= 17.5°C
t' = 1 hour

Deflection Readings 10“^ inches

D.Gauge Initial Pinal Remarks

2170 2076
2 + 71 - 87 Dial gauge
3* 0* 0* 3* was found to
4 857 1208 be not in contact
5 1140 1712 with the portal
6 308 950 frame.
7 1109 1641
8 721 1045
 230

TABLE A17

Two-pinned, folded plate portal frame with knee and beam stiffeners.

W * 103.38 lbs oil the ridge line at the centre of the span.
Ti=r 1 8 .5 °C
Tj « 19°C
t' = 1 hour

Deflection Readings 10*"^ inches

D.Gauge Initial Final Remarks

1584 1583
2 +54 - 4
3 251 216

4 746 953
5 892 1312

6 1070 1592
7 897 1302
8 831 1029
 231

TABLE A18

Two-pinned, folded plate portal frame.

H = 21.19 lbs, horizontal pull at the apex S.

t* =s 1 hour.

-4
Deflection Readings 10 inches

D.Gauge Initial Pinal Temp. Remarks

1 2143 626 Tt-= 17°C Without knee or

3 061 1657 T|. = 1 7 . 5°C beam stiffeners,

1 1651 849 T ;= 1 5°C With knee

3 050 860 Tj. = 16°C stiffener: but
without beam
stiffener.
1581 776 T; = 17°C With both knee
244 1058 Tj = 17°C and beam
stiffeners.
 232

TABLE A19

Two-pinned, folded plate portal frame with knee and beam stiffeners.

V = 103.38 lbs on the ridge line at the centre of the span.

T- = 19.5°C
18°C
*
t = 1 hour

Strain Readings 10“6

Gauge Initial Final S. Gauge Initial Final Remarks

1 .16050 16630 20 15868 15943

2 16635 17029 21 14186 14120
3 15591 15805 22 16587 16626
4 15721 15783 23 16232 16181
5 15920 15669 24 16875 16929
6 16003 15320 25 16041 16108
7 14629 14871 26 16320 16277
8 12168 12096 27 16784 16874
9 17351 17236 28 '>13520 13554
10 15494 16068 29 16270 16091
1.1 15313 15015 30 16723 16354
12 16219 15443 31 16172 16007
13 15666 15770 32 15904 16000
14 16259 16130 33 18253 18330
15 14810 14696 34 16950 16814
16 15741 15795 35 17119 16800
17 15739 15751
18 16408 16422
19 15382 15361
 233

TABLE A20

Two-pinnedt folded plate portal frame with knee and beam stiffeners*

H =r 31.14 lbs horizontal pull at the apex S.

T^= 18°C •
185C
t‘= 1 hour

Strain Readings 10- 6

•uge Initial Final S.Gauge Initial Final Remarks

1 •16049 16039 • •• 19 15349 15440 1. Gauges 19a

2 16605 16605 20 15831 15640 and 21a added
3 15556 15567 21 14132 14292 on the knee.
4 15698 15718 22 16555 16472
5 15918 15953 23 16200 16286
6 16005 16061 24 16867 16641
7 14613 14592 25 16029 16342
8 12138 12132 26 16339 16570
9 17331 17332 27 16762 16461
10 15512 15483 28 13494 13200
11 15315 15346 29 16255 16303
12 16279 16329 30 16712 17038
13 15681 15711 31 16152 16015
14 16312 16312 32 15898 • 16167
15 14848 14850 33 18251 18501
16 15709 15487 34 16930 16840
17 15685 15597 35 17104 16741
18 16358 16362 19a 15400 15539
21a 15900 15843
 234

TABLE A21

Two-pinned, folded plate portal frame with knee and beam stiffeners,

H =s 31.14 lbs horizontal pull at the apex T,

T; = 15°C
Tj = 1 5 ° 0

t'= 1 hour

Strain Readings 10- 6

tuge Initial Pinal S.Gauge Initial Final Remarks

1 16082 16088 19 15332 15253

2 16580 16583 20 15823 16105
3 15537 15540 21 14112 13984
4 15691 15700 22 16542 16804
5 15912 15922 23 16171 16169
6 15999 16011 24 16841 17125
7 14553 14555 25 15943 15715
8 12119 12117 26 16332 16271
9 17348 17343 27 16760 17015
10 15483 15496 28 13519 13718
11 15297 153H 29 16232 16109
12 16217 16235 30 16685 16298
13 15726 15696 31 16202 ' 16479
14 16292 16271 32 15870 15586
15 14772 14764 33 18201 17898
16 15680 15961 34 16950 16970
17 15659 15778 35 17151 17445
18 16326 16344 19a 15400 15295
21a 15880 15932
 235

TABLE A22

T w o -p in n e d « fo ld e d p la t e p o r t a l fram e w ith knee and beam s t i f f e n e r s .

H = 3 1 *1 4 lb s h o r iz o n t a l p u l l a t th e apex S.
T j « 18°C
T j= 18°C
t* at 1 ho u r

D e f le c t io n Readings 1 0*^ in c h es

D. Gauge In itia l F in a l Remarks

1 1578 404
2 +31 +36
3 281. 1467
4 750 757
5 922 780
6 1076 1135
7 900 842
8 821 816
 236
TABLE A25

T w o-pinn ed , fo ld e d p la t e p o r t a l fram e w ith knee and beam s t i f f e n e r s .

H ss 3 1 .1 4 lb s h o r iz o n t a l p u l l a t th e apex T ,
Tj = 15°C
T^« 15°C
t 1 = 1 hour

D e f le c t io n Readings 10~^ inches

D.Gauge In itia l F in a l Remarks

1 059 1194
2 +55 +47
3 1812 671
4 895 795
5 975 915
6 1005 975
7 9 60 987
8 855 907
 237

TABLE A24

Folded plate barrel vault,

W = 7 8 1 8 9 gms u n ifo r m ly d i s t r i b u t e d e q u iv a le n t s e l f lo a d .
T j= 2 2 °C
T^= 22°C
t ' = 1 ho ur

S t r a in Readings 10“ ^ (1 s t Set a )

Jauge In itia l F in a l S.Gauge In itia l F in a l S.Gauge In itia l F in a l

1 15912- 15692 20 16796 16588 13' 16600 16768

2 15780 15545 21 1 5690 15730 14* .15710 15635
3 16105 15648 22 15388 15123 15' 16100 15828
4 ■ 15896 16034 23 17017 16980 16' 16178 16534
5 16470 16280 24 1 7148 17018 17' 15804 15436
6 16890 16833 v 25 16334 16052 18' 15426 15338
7 15604 1 5 62 0 19' 15190 15350
8 17 100 17040 1* 16354 1 6686 20' 16900 16723
9 1 71 20 17044 2' 15956 15788 21' 15570 15275
10 16 560 16340 3' 15690 16030 22' 16140 16085
11 15509 15742 4' 15345 15568 23' 1 6566 16428
12 15564 15424 5' 1 5 06 0 14950 24' 15800 15783
13 16695 16428 6' 15607 15898 2 5' 16682 16600
14 15712 15538 7' 16626 16960 26' 15951 15852
15 15784 16186 8' 15700 15844 27/
16109 161 30
16 17087 17258 9' 15348 15566 28' 15790 15655
17 16125 16105 10' 15674 15916 2 9' 16730 16986
18 15402 15486 11' 16505 16470 30' 15785 15945
19 15642 15831 12 ' 1 6833 16930 31' 17092 17092
 238

TABLE A25

Folded p la t e b a r r e l v a u l t .

W =* 7 8 1 8 9 gms u n ifo r m ly d i s t r i b u t e d e q u iv a le n t s e l f lo a d .
T ;= 22°C
Tj = 22°C
t f = 1 hour

D e f le c t io n Readings (1 s t S e t a )

D. Gauge In itia l F in a l Remarks

D1 '2189 933 1. D.Gauge re a d in g s a re i n 10 ^

d2 2069 037 in c h u n i t s .

»3 * 2124 000 2. D.Gauges D3 and D4 reached

d4 * 2057 000 th e end o f t h e i r run d u rin g th e

e5 2152 786 1 ho u r o f th e t e s t . read

I>6 2193 843 e x a c t ly 0 0 0 when D2 read 0 6 8 .

2095 657 D4 read e x a c t ly 0 0 0 when D2

d7
read 0 5 6 .
T a rg et In itia l F in a l Remarks
Point

C1 9 8 . 260( 0 . 000) 9 8 .3 4 5 (0 .7 5 4 ) 1. M ic ro m e te r re a d in g to be

C2 1 0 1 .3 3 0 (0 .2 3 0 ) 1 0 1 .3 3 0 (0 .8 0 9 ) s u b tra c te d from stem

c3 5 9 .8 8 5 (0 .0 8 6 ) 5 9 .8 9 5 (0 .1 5 4 ) re a d in g to g iv e a c t u a l
6 5 .5 1 0 ( 0 .2 6 3 ) 6 5 .5 1 0 (0 .2 3 8 ) re a d in g i n cms.
C4
c5 2 4 .8 9 0 ( 1 .0 3 7 ) 2 4 .8 9 0 (0 .9 9 3 )

C6 2 7 .8 9 0 (1 .0 6 8 ) 2 7 .7 7 0 (0 .8 1 8 )
 239

TABLE A26

Folded plate barrel vault,

W = 78189 gms u n ifo r m ly d i s t r i b u t e d e q u iv a le n t s e l f lo a d .

T4* ss 2 1 . 5°C
T ^ = 2 1 .5 ° C
t* = 1 h our

S t r a in Readings 10"^ (2nd S e t b )

S.Gauge In itia l F in a l S.Gauge IM tia l F in a l S.Gauge In itia l F in a l

1 15920 1 5690 21 15700 15748 13' 16638 16790

2 15769 15540 22 15400 15130 14' 15722 1 5645

3 16102 15643 23 17028 16985 15' 16104- 15824

4 15898 16038 24 17170 17032 16* 16181 16548

5 16486 1 6290 25 16338 16053 17* 15819 15442

6 16890 16835 18* 15430 15339

7 15615 15630 1' 16356 16690 19* 15190 15360

8 17112 1 70 60 2* 15965 15784 20* 16900 16720

9 17125 17057 V 15698 16035 21# 15572 15273
10 16560 1 6350 41 15352 15577 221 16148 16091
11 15520 15768 5' 15070 14955 231 16569 16425
12 15576 15440 6 ' 15612 15908 24' 15805 15787

13 16722 16448 7' 16 650 16978 25* 16720 16625

14 15728 15550 8' 15704 15845 26* 15956 15865

15 15795 16210 9' 15348 15573 2 7' 16117 16148

16 17088 17259 10f 15675 15919 28' 15788 15658

17 16138 16118 11' 16505 16466 29* 1 6729 16980

18 15412 15490 12' 1 6830 16921 30* 15815 15960

19 1 5652 15852 31 • 17105 17100

20 16796 16585

•+
 240

TABLE A27

Folded p la t e b a r r e l v a u l t ,

W = 7 8 1 8 9 gms u n ifo r m ly d i s t r i b u t e d e q u iv a le n t s e l f lo a d .

T ^«21.5°0

t* = 1 h our

D e f le c t io n Readings (2nd S e tb )

D. Gauge In itia l F in a l Remarks

2026 711 1. D. Gauge re a d in g s a re in 10“ 4

d2 2083 016 in c h u n i t s .
2140- 000* 2. D . Gauge D j reached the
V
d4 2183 056 end o f i t s run d u rin g th e 1

d5 2174 772 hour o f th e t e s t . It read

^6 2195 834 e x a c t ly 0 0 0 when D2 read 0 7 5 .

d7 2116 644

T a rg e t In itia l F in a l Remarks
P o in t

ci 9 8 .3 4 5 (0 .0 6 9 ) 9 8 .4 7 0 (0 .8 6 5 ) 1. M ic ro m e te r re a d in g to
C2 101. 225( 0 . 098) 1 0 1 . 2 2 5 ( 0 .6 8 7 ) be s u b tra c te d from

c3 5 9 .8 9 5 (0 .1 0 3 ) 5 9 .9 7 5 (0 .2 3 0 ) stem re a d in g to g iv e
C4 6 5 .4 3 0 (0 .2 2 0 ) 6 5 .4 3 0 (0 .1 9 0 ) a c t u a l re a d in g i n cms.
2 7 .7 6 5 (0 .8 3 8 ) 2 7 .8 3 5 (0 .8 8 3 )
C5
C6 2 4 .9 1 5 (1 .0 7 2 ) 2 4 .9 1 5 ( 0 .9 1 5 )
•

*
 241

TABLB A28

Folded plate barrel vault.

W » 9013 gffls applied as a central line load.

T- = 19°C
T^= 19°C
t' = 1 hour

Strain Readings 10“^ (1st Set a)

Gauge Initial Final S.Gauge Initial Final S.Gauge Initial Final

1 15901 15624 21 15660 15696 16' 16700
16155
2 15740 15440 22 15345 15282 17* 15811 15431
3 16087 15560 23 16995 17000 18' 15410 ' 15287
4 15868 15905 24 17142 17136 19' 15155 15444
5 16455 16448 25 16305 16205 20' 16888 16896
6 16850 16880 21' 15520 15532
7 15567 15583 V 16330 16860 22' 16091• 16122
8 17030 17066 2' 15961 15694 23' 16530 16560
9 17072 17114 3' 15684 1>6f61 24' 15720 15770
10 16505 16422 4' 15330 15594 251 16705 16678
11 15478 15579 5' 15058 14955 26' 15926 15950
12 15519 15492 6' 15575 15570 27' 16060 16120
13 16700 16638 7' 16640 16645 28' 15744 15734
14 15711 15626 8' 15690 15714 29' 16698 16718
15 15761 16411 9' 15339 15342 30' 15811 15811
16 17056 17148 10' 15650 15688 31' 17068 17030
17 16100 16108 11; 16476 16442
18 15366 15382 12# 16763 16770
19 15595 15695 13' 16620 16630
20 16733 16650 14' 15687 15660
15' 16096 15754
 TABLE A29

Folded -plate barrel vault.

W = 9013 gms applied as a central line load,

Tj = 19«>C
19°C
t/= 1 hour

Deflection Readings (1st Set a)

-

,Gauge Jnitial Final Remarks

D1 1254 774 1. D.Gauge readings are

-4
D2 1524 576 in 10 inch units.
D3 1364 383
D4 2024 1119
D5 1887 1425
D6 2091 1576
D7 1736 1236

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point

C1 98.520(0.268) 98.610(0.775) 1. Micrometer reading to

C2 101.450(0.358) 101.450(0.598) "be subtracted from stem
C3 59.715(0.032) 59.715(0.023) reading to give actual
C4 65.200(0.058) 65.280(0.099) reading in cms.
C5 27.185(0.266) 27.150(0.219) 2. Reading on C6* seems to
C 6* 24.100(0.189) 24.200(0.225) be erroneous.
 243

TABLE A30

Folded plate barrel vault.

V = 9013 gms applied as a central line load.
T- = 18°C
T^* 18°C

t’= 1 hour
-> '

Strain Readings 10 ^ (2nd aet b )

S.Gauge Initial Final S.Gauge Initial Final S.Gauge Initial Final

1 15914 15622 20 16770 16665 14’ 15687 15651
2 15783• 15474 21 15665 15676 15’ 16100 15764
3 16110 15562 22 15342 15268 16' 16179 16706
4 15906 15930 23 16984 16980 17 . 15801 15418
5 16455 16440 24 17091 17068 18’ 15420 15290
6 16889 16906 25 16309 16196 19' 15190 15458
7 15590 15590 20 ’ 16905 16907
8 17055 17060 1* 16356 16878 21 ’ 15550 15560
9 17101 17115 2* 15958 15703 221 16113 16136
10 16530 16426 3’ 15690 16174 23' 16558 16570
11 15505 15570 4’ 15331 15604 24’ 15760 15809
12 15522 15500 5’ 15066 14967 25’ 16644 16600
13 16662 16584 6’ 15600 15592 26’ ,15960 15960
14 15720 15622 7’ 16614 16604 27’ 16100 16140
15 15792 16435 8f 15708 15722 28' 15785 15755
16 17078 17170 9’ 15350 15352 29' 16721 16732
17 16116 16104 10’ 15676 15713 30' 15767 15755
18 15389 15389 11 ’ 16500 16468 31* 17065 17018
19 15618 15692 12* 16790 16796
13* 16570 16570
 244

TABLE A31

Folded plate Barrel vault.

W = 9013 gms applied as a central line load.

Tj* 18°C
T|« 18°C
t'=s 1 hour
-)

Deflection Readings (2nd Set b)

D .Gauge Initial Final Remarks

D1 1148 644 1. D.Gauge readings are in

D2 1402 445 10”4 inch units.
D3 1237 252
D4 1895 993
D5 1768 1303
D6 1980 1454
D7 1617 1106

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point

C1 98.610(0.375) 98.565(0.744) 1. Micrometer reading to

C2 101 .510 (0 .425 ) 101.510(0.680) be subtracted from stem
C3 59.865(0.196) 59.865(0.179) reading to give actual
C4 65.280(0.162) 65.420(0.257) reading in cms.
C5 27.145(0.235) 27.285(0.367)
C6 24.185(0.247) 24.185(0.243)
 245

TABLE A32

Folded plate barrel vault.

T;= 19°C
T^= 19°C
t* = 1 hour

Deflection Readings

D.Gauge Initial Final Remarks

D1 1061 1470 * 1. D.Gauge readings are

D2 1197 1605 in 10"^ inchunits.
D3 1781 1582
D4 1811 927
D5 1814 466
D6 851 1526
D7 1775 671 .

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point

C1 98.350(0.154) 98.445(0.314) 1. Micrometer reading to

C2 101.190(0.131) 101.190(0.183) be subtracted from
C3 59.995(0.247) 59.920(0.421) stem reading to give
C4 65.260(0.083) 65.260(0.306) actual reading in cms.
C5 27.610(0.744) 27.415(0.579)
C6 24.560(0.665) 24.560(0.735)
 246

TABLE A33

Folded plate Barrel vault,

W = 13556 gms applied as a line load at 0 - 2ZL

16
18<>C
T{= 19.5°C
t‘= 1 hour

Deflection Readings

D.Gauge Initial Final Remarks

D1 1947 468 1. D.Gauge readings are in

D2 1228 442 10*“4 inch units.
D3 1807 1672
D4 232 728
D5 738 1659
D6 1068 058
D7 1251 1856

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point

C1 93 .445 (0 .237 ) 98 .590 (0 .425 ) Micrometer reading

C2 101 .495 (0 .412 ) 101.495(0.466) to be subtracted
C3 59.925(0.178) 60.010(0.057) from stem reading
C4 65.225(0.067) 65.470(0.070) to give actual reading
C5 27.415(0.560) 27.180(0.269) in cms.
C6 24.215(0.327) 24.215(0.240)
 247

TABLE A34

Folded plate barrel vault.

W = 661bs applied as a line load at 0 = +

16
T 19°C
20OC
t' = 1 hour >

Strain Readings 10“^ (1st Set a)

S .Gauge Initial Final S.Gauge Initial Final S.Gauge Initial Final

1 15897 16002 21 15675 ' 15920 15' 16090 16062

2 15752 15698 22 15382 15020 16' 16175 16132
3 16076 16075 23 16992 17082 17* 15792 15825
4 15870 15825 24 17128 17143 18' 15413 15379
5 16438 16312 25 16336 16109 19' 15175 15223
6 16872 16670 20* 16895 1688$
7 15593 15965 1* 16350 16323 21# 15620 15312
8 17059 17001 2f 15960 15996 22* 16180 16100
9 17056 16929 3’ 15698 15678 23* 16565 16562
10 16552 16727 4' 15348 15325 24' 15840 15620
11 15482 15340 5' . 15046 15082 25' 16752 16743
12 15509 15627 6' 15630 15492 26' 15938 16120
13 16670 16350 7' 16618 16635 27' 16119 16126
14 15698 15660 8' 15687 15880 28* 15792 15680
15 15765 15731 9f 15352 15302 29' 16751 16958
16 17097 17052 10' 15712 15800 30' 15860 15660
17 16120 15855 n ' 16525 . 16670 31 * 17128 16900

18 15417 15798 12' 16850 16882

19 15633 15638 13' 16685 16870
20 16802 16963 14* 15718 15668
 248

TABLE A35

Folded plate barrel vault.

W = 66 lbs applied as a line load at 0

T;= 20°C
T j «* 2 0 °C

t' = 1 hour

Strain Headings 10~^ (2nd Set b)

Gauge Initial Final S.Gauget Initial Final S .Gauge» Initial. Final

1 15896 ' 15994 21 15682 15918 16* 16174 16126

2 15750 '15700 22 15377 15010 17' 15790 15810
3 16080 16071 23 16995 17081 18' ‘15411 15368
4 15880 15829 24 17132 17142 19' 15175 15223
5 16459 16300 25 16333 16110 20' 16892 16876
6 16874 16674 21* 15598 15287
7 15600 15958 1* 16350 16318 22' 16170 16078
8 17074 16998 2' 15955 15974 231 16560 16550
9 17069 16936 3' 15692 15662 24' 15829 15600
10 16549 16733 4’ 15343 15311 25# 16735 16676
11 15482 15337 5r 15042 15071
12 15520 15630 6' 15624 15470 26' 15950 16125
13 16660 16320 7' 16614 16600 27' 16110 16111
14 15692 15650 8' 15689 15870 28' 15787 15673
15 15762 15726 9' 15346 15290 29' 16755 16975
16 17092 17044 10' 15700 15780 301 15840 15622
17 16111 15840 11' 16520 16652 31' 17119 16898
18 15419 15786 12' 16842 16865
19 15638 15629 13' 16668 16802
20 16800 16962 14' 15710 15648
15' 16087 16049
 249

TABLE A36

Folded plate barrel vault,

V = 66 lbs applied as a line load at 0 « -

T;= 20.5°C
21 ° C

t' = 1 hour

Strain Readings 10”^ (1st set a)

S.Gauge Initial Final S.Gauge Initial Final Gauge Initial Final

1 15908 15851 19 15635 15779 12* 16840 16689

2 15770 15857 20 16808 16584 13 * 16646 16489
3 16096 16070 21 15680 15503 14* 15708 15563
4 15876 15830 22 15382 15376 15’ 16095 16122
5 16450 16482 23 16998 16900 16' 16185 16172
6 16890 17085 24 17130 16962 17' 15800 15794
7 15592 15320 25 16335 16508 18' 15422 15438
8 17078 17152 19' 15183 15070
9 17070 17127 1' 16360 16333 20* 16896 16905
10 16555 16293 2' 15962 15960 211 15605 15892
11 15487 15883 3' 15702 15700 221 16169 16218
12 15520 15275 4' 15352 15325 23' 16565 16559
13 16664 16620 5' 15052 15027 24' 15835 16096
14 15711 15731 6' 15627 15751 25' 16724 16740
15 15778 15750 7' 16618 16498 26' 15946 15864
16 17090 8' 15688 15490 27 / 16258
17055 16107
17 16129 16257 9' 15348 15454 28' '15789 15760
18 15410 15136 10' 15700 15598 29' 16750 16630
11' 16519 16331 30* 15828 15920
31' 17116 17306
 250
TABLE A57

Folded plate barrel vault,

W = 66 lbs applied as a line load at 0 = -

Io
T* = 1 9°C

T j.= 19°C

t* = 1 hour >

Strain Readings 10“^ (2nd set b)

.Gauge Initial Final S .Gauge Initial Final S .Gauge Initial Final

1 15916' 15848 19 15660 15805 11' 16512 16335
2 15775 15865 20 16809 16589 12 ' 16840 16706
3 16109 16084 21 15708 15542 13' 16664 16527
4 15886 15846 22 15408 15411 14' 15721 15592
5 16466 16491 23 17008 16922 15# 16102 16139
6 16895 17087 24 17150 16981 16' 16192 16188
7 15592 15329 25 16336 16500 17' 15815 15818
8 17102 17180 18' 15430 15450
9 17091 17150 1* 16368 •' 16350 19' 15198 15084
10 16560 16300 2* 15962 15973 20 ’ 16900 16911
11 15514 15910 ' 3' 15713 15721 21' 15609 15904
12 15544 15318 4* 15368 15350 22 ' 16176 16237
13 16698 16664 5' 15062 15040 23’ 16577 16574
14 15727 15751 6' 15614 15753 24' 15820 16088
15 15792 15770 7' 16621 16517 25' 16740 16770
16 17093 17066 8' 15687 15494 26' 15950 15878
17 16140 16270 15460 27/ 16270
9' 15345 16107
18 15412 15142 10 ' 15688 15594 28' 15800 15785
29' 16733 16604
’ 30' 15829 15930
31 ' 17102 17291
 251

TABLE A38

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction.

W =* 30 lbs/sq.ft. equivalent snow load.

t' « 1 hour

Strain Readings 10 ^ (1st set a)

Gauge Initial Final S.Gauge Initial Final S.Gauge Initial Final

1 15515 15540 24 15615 15880 47 14375 14170

2 15795 15750 25 16460 16375 48 13790 13370
3 15850 15850 26 14905 14985 49 16450 16145
4 16190 16200 27 17405 17985 50 15520 15780
5 14400 14410 28 15770 15400 51 17150 16670
6 15520 15500 29 17690 17650 52 16140 16790
7 15650 15630 30 15465 15840 53 18295 17690
8 16495 16550 31 17915 17730 54 16700 17005
9 16520 16445 32 17555 17700 55 18460 18255
10 15060 14920 33 16210 16195 56 17710 16885
11 16295 16310 34 18430 18060 57 16705 16840
12 15780 15770 35 18145 18100 58 17070 16830
13 15120 14950 36 15250 15215 59 17840 17275
14 15490 15510 37 16220 15845 60 18115 18360
15 16570 16460 38 16260 16220 61 15705 15605
16 14880 14920 39 17545 17435 62 15850 15745
17 17320 17370 40 16200 15820 63 16105 16300
18 17560 17890 41 16530 16660 64 17700 17635
19 16660 16760 42 17720 17640 65 17700 17940
20 16940 16935 43 17320 16890 66 16780 17120
21 16300 16790 44 15605 15885 67 - -

22 - - 45 14270 14250 68 15290 15350

23 18030 18005 46 13770 14010 69 15580 15260
 252

TABLE A39

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction.

W = 30 lbs/sq •ft. equivalent snow load.

t' = 1 hour

Deflection Readings (1st Set a)

Target Initial Pinal Remarks

Point
1 23.850 (0.741) 22.965 1.228) 1• Micrometer reading
2 65.975 (2.071) 62.710 2.130) to be substracted
3 20.250 (1.803) 19.845 1.850) from stem reading
4* - (1.607) - 1.553) to give actual
5 63.575 (0.683) 63.420 0.428) reading in cms.
6 19.790 (0.565) 19.790 0.494)
7 60.130 (0.978) 59.745 0.487)
2. Stem reading for
8. 23.290 (1.830) 22.825 1.750)
target point 4*
9 65.090 (1.821) 64.320 1.923)
10 outside the range
67.055 (1.557) 66.480 2.307)
11 of the instrument.
’ 67.055 (1.540) 66.975 2.236)
Difference in
12 73.625 (1.994) 72.255 2.159)
micrometer readings
13 72.475 (1.760) 71.405 2.215)
14 79.290 (1.935) 77.405 1.602) gives deflection in
15 9.645 (0.968) 9.995 1.213) cms.
16 45.935 (0.472) 46.230 0.748)
17 62.070 (0.294) 61.560 0.565)

D.Gauge

18 1647 1524 3. D. Gauge readings

19 515 472 are in 10“4 inch
20 1570 1554 units.
21 1199 1165
 253

TABLE A40

Prototype» folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction.

W =» 30 lbs/sq. ft. equivalent snow load,

t* = 1 hour

Strain Readings 10 ^ (2nd Set b)

.Gauge Initial Fihal S.Gauge Initial Final S.Gauge Initial F iftal

1 15450 15495 24 15640 15910 47 14370 14165

2 15720 15700 25 16485 16390 48 13780 13365
3 15770 15795 26 14925 15020 49 16425 16135
4 16115 16145 27 17395 17990 50 15500 15760
5 14340 14370 28 15715 15375 51 17095 16635
6 15450 15455 29 17660 17625 52 16085 16725
7 15585 15585 30 15430 15805 53 18280 17685
8 16435 16510 31 17890 17715 54 16660 16985
9 16440 16390 32 17540 17685 55 18435 18245
10 14985 14870 33 16190 16180 56 17705 16890
11 16250 16265 34 18420 18060 57 16655 16795
12 15720 15730 35 18115 18090 58 17030 16800
13 15040 14895 36 15235 15205 59 17825 17275
14 15410 15450 37 16210 15850 60 18075 18325
15 16505 16415 38 16230 16205 61 15680 15580
16 14790 14855 39 17540 17430 62 15830 15730
17 17235 17305 40 16210 15820 63 16065 16265
18 17490 17850 41 16505 16635 64 17660 17600
19 16600 16730 42 17700 17630 65 17670 17905
20 16860 16675 43 17305 16890 66 16770 17100
21 16225 16745 44 15565 15860 67 - -
22 - - 45 14250 14240 68 15275 15330
23 17970 17965 46 13740 13985 69 15555 15245
 254

TABLE A41

Prototype, folded p l a t e barrel vault of.sandwich construction.

W = 30 lbs/sq.ft. equivalent snow load.

1 hour

Deflection Readings (2nd Set b)

Target Initial Fihal Remarks

Point

1 24.490 1.559) 22.985 1.498) 1. Micrometer reading to

2 64.040 2.145) 62.975 2.390) be subtracted from stem
3 20.630 2.170) 19.700 1.743) reading to give actual
4* - 2.192) - 2.146) reading in cms.
5 64.035 1.177) 64.135 1.132)
6 20.290 1.067) 20.290 0.993) 2. Stem reading for target
7 60.435 1 .300 ) 60.375 1.131) point 4* outside the
8 23.525 2.063) 22.865 1.837) range of the instrument.
9 65.485 2.211) 64.385 2.004) Difference in micrometer
10 67.925 2.376) 66.070 1.855) readings gives deflection
11 67.925 2.429) 66.070 1.310) in cms.
12 73.545 1.843) 71.665 1.538)
13 72.490 1.734) 71.665 2.454)
14 78.950 1.577) 77.980 2 .130 )
15 , 10.120 1.442) 10.220 1.425)
16 47.120 1.738) 47.180 1.657)
17 63.390 1.665) 62.635 1.632)

D.Gauge

18 1654 1528 3. D. Gauge readings are

19 506 461 in 10“^ inch units.
20 1576 1550
21 1181 1153
 255
TABLE A42

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction.

W = 30 lba/sq.ft. equivalent anow load,

*

t = 1 hour

SiXAln. 1 3,£&-S&L £.1

S.Gauge Initial Final S.Gauge Initial Final S .Gauge Initial Final

1 15340 15340 24 15650 15880 47 14390 14175

2 15620 15565 25 16490 16360 48 13800 13380
3 15675 15675 26 14935 14985 49 16455 16155
4 16010 16000 27 17420 17995 50 15520 15775
5 14225 14215 28 15760 15410 51 17135 16670
6 15340 15305 29 17685 17655 52 16115 16760
7 15480 15435 30 15445 15835 53 18300 17700
8 16335 16365 31 17910 17735 54 16690 17005
9 16340 16260 32 17570 17715 55 18460 18265
10 14875 14725 33 16215 16200 56 17725 16905
11 16130 16110 34 18440 18075 57 16690 16825
12 15610 15580 35 18150 18120 58 17065 16830
13 14930 14760 36 15270 15235 59 17850 17295
14 15310 15325 37 16240 15870 60 18105 18355
15 16385 16265 38 16255 16230 61 15700 15605
16 14700 14740 39 17555 17450 62 15850 15750
17 17135 17180 40 16215 15830 63 16105 16300
18 17400 17725 41 16550 16660 64 17695 17635
19 16495 16580 42 17725 17660 65 17695 17930
20 16760 16750 43 17330 16910 66 16785 17130
21 16130 16620 44 15595 15890 67 - -

22 - - 45 14270 14265 68 15290 15345

23 17860 17815 46 13765 14010 69 15580 15260

t
 256
TABLE A43

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction.

W as 30 lbs/sq.ft. equivalent snow load,

t* = 1 hour

Deflection Readings (3rd Set c)

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point

1* 25.130 1 .979 ) 23.535 1.791) 1. Micrometer reading to be

2 62.960 1.048) 62.225 1.683) subtracted from stem
3 19.310 0.881) 19.445 1.489) reading to give actual
4* - 1•606) - 1.578) reading in cms.
5 64.800 1.868) 64.350 1.295)
6 21.290 2 .123 ) 21.290 2.039) 2. Stem reading for target
7 61.385 2.197) 60.420 1.111) point 4* outside the
8 22.190 0.778) 22.765 1.785) range of the instrument.
9 64.600 1.378) 64.110 1.735) Difference in micrometer
10 67.225 1.722) 66.040 1.895) readings gives deflection
11 67.225 1.746) 66.040 1.347) in cms.
12 73.440 1.852) 71.025 0.984)
13 72.700 2.008) 71.025 1.845) 3. Readings on target point
14 79.610 2.240) 77.630 1.826) 1* are unreliable.
15 10.220 1.548) 10.400 1.650)
16 47.295 1.749) 46.835 1.227) 4. D.Gauge readings are in
17 63.355 1.662) 62.095 1.095) in 10“4 inch units.
5. Final reading on D.Gauge
20* disturbed.
D.Gauge Initial Final
18 1649 1533
19 492 467
20* 1568 -
21 1175 1138
 TABLE A44

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction,

W = 1657 lbs applied as a Central line load.

t 1 = 1 hour

Strain Readings 10~ (1st Set a)

S. Initial Final S. Initial Final S. Initial Final

Gauge Gauge Gauge

1 15395 15465 24 15730 16160 47 14375 14415

2 15635 15635 25 16560 16495 48 13785 13740
3 15690 15710 26 15015 15210 49 16435 16140
4 16050 16070 27 17445 18280 50 15515 15550
5 14285 14300 28 15730 15440 51 17100 1632Q
6 15390 15415 29 17680 17840 52 16110 17335
7 15530 15505 30 15435 15530 53 18260 17240
8 16370 16405 31 17900 17990 54 16675 17220
9 16370 16355 32 17550 17570 55 18435 18095
10 14905 14790 33 16195 16245 56 17680 16425
11 16185 16240 34 18435 18485 57 16660 16900
12 15665 15665 35 18140 18130 58 17030 16660
13 14950 14820 36 15260 15285 59 17810 17065
14 15350 15455 37 16230 16190 60 18080 18490
15 16440 16380 38 16240 16250 61 15670 15530
16 14705 14830 39 17540 17510 62 15825 15625
17 17160 17305 40 16210 16035 63 16070 16355
18 17430 18110 41 16505 16575 64 17660 17540
19 16550 16790 42 17705 17690 65 17670 17995
20 16790 16915 43 17305 16945 66 16785 17250
21 16175 17105 44 ' 15580 15640 67 - -
22 - - 45 14255 14420 68 15275 15420
23 17920 17970 46 13740 13790 69 15555 15260
 258

TABLE A45

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction*

W = 1657 lbs applied as a central line load,

t' = 1 hour

Deflection Readings (lst Set a)

Target
Initial Final Remarks
Point

1 45.980 (0 .932 ) 45.245 (1.425) 1. Micrometer reading

2 6 3 .720 (1.841) 62.045 (1.263) to be subtracted from
3 20.220 (1.769) 19.745 (1.467) stem reading to give
4 - (2.002) - (1.877) actual reading in cms.
5 63.705 (0.792) 64.380 (1.297) 2* D. Gauge readings are
6 20.100 20.100 (0.772) -4
(0.843) in 10 inch units.
7 60.100 (0.906) 60.830 (1.473)
8 23.440 (2.066) 22.740 (1.470)
9 64.490 (1.233) 64.100 (1.406)
10 67.170 (1.622) 65.930 (1.573)
11 67.170 (1.728) 65.930 (1.012)
12 72.430 (0.848) 71.425 (1.335)
13 72.430 (1.714) 71.425 (2.263)
14 79.105 (1.752) 77.380 (1.562)
15 • 9.460 (0.761) 10.095 (1.219)
16 45.980 (0.416) 47.275 (1.615)
17 63.040 (1.308) 62.465 (1.342)

D. Gauge Initial Final

18 1661 1560
19 503 481
20 1912 1894
21 1127 1118
 259

TABLE A46

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction,

W * 1657 lbs applied as a Central line load,

t* * 1 hour

Strain Readings 10~6 (2nd Set b)

.Gauge Initial Pinal S.Gauge Initial Final S.Gauge Initial Fina]

1 15425 15455 . 24 15775 16165 47 14375 14420

2 15650 15625 25 16600 16520 48 13790 13750
3 15710 15700 26 15075 15230 49 16450 16155
4 16070 16060 27 17465 18270 50 15520 15565
5 14310 14285 28 15770 15465 51 17110 16335
6 15420 15405 29 17690 17855 52 16145 17360
7 15570 15500 30 15455 15545 53 18245 17245
8 16385 16395 31 17920 18005 54 16680 17230
9 16400 16350 32 17555 17575 55 18420 18100
10 14950 14785 33 16195 16250 56 17670 16430
11 16215 16230 34 18450 18485 57 16675 16915
12 15700 15660 35 18150 18130 58 17045 16660
13 14980 14810 36 15270 15300 59 17820 17105
14 15375 15450 37 16245 16210 60 18090 18500
15 16480 16370 38 16245 16270 61 15665 15540
16 14720 14815 39 17550 17525 62 15825 15630
17 17165 17295 40 16220 16040 63 16075 16375
18 17440 18045 41 16520 16590 64 ’17680 17565
19 16575 16760 42 17695 17685 65 17685 18020
20 16810 16900 43 17310 16950 66 16785 17260
21 16200 17055 44 15585 15645 67 - -

22 - - 45 14265 14440 68 15290 15425

23 17945 17960 46 13755 13805 69 15780 15245
 260

TABLE A47

Prototype. folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction

W as 1657 lbs applied as a Central line load.

t =s 1 hour

Deflection Readings (2nd Set b)

Target Initial Final Remarks

Point

1 45 .710 (1 .019 ) 44.960 1.583) 1• Micrometer reading to be

2 . 63 .620 (1 .793 ) 62.820 2.130) subtracted from stem
5 20 .550 (2 .117 ) 19.595 1.380) reading to give actual
4 - (1 .614 ) - 1.500) reading in cms.
5 63.930(1.182) 64.960 1.984)
6 20.490(1.355) 20.490 1.304) 2. D.Gauge readings are in
7 60.430(1.347) 61.245 1.978) 10“4 inch units.
8 23.380(2.006) 22.505 1.283)
9 64.815(1.627) 63.910 1.308)
10 67.470(1.985) 66.050 1.768)
11 67.470(2.086) 66.050 1.260)
12 72.920(1.415) 71.105 1.140)
13 72.920(2.250) 71.105 2.023)
14 78.385(1.097) 77.700 2.055)
15 9.580(1.177) 10.250 1.650)
16 46.285(1.048) 47.050 1.670)
17 62.440(0.934) 62.800 1.949)

D. Go.oge Initial Final

18 1652 1563
19 502 483
20 1911 1900
21 1113 1101
 261

TABLE A48

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction.

V « 1657 lbs applied as a central line load,

t* « 1 hour

Strain Readings 10~^ (3rd Set c)

S. Initial Final S. Initial Final S. Initial Final

Gauge Gauge Gauge

1 15330 15355 24 15730 16105 47 14395 14430

2 15580 15560 25 16560 16460 48 13805 13765
~r 26 15020 15150
15645 .15645 49 16460 16160
4 15990 15975 27 17450 18260 50 15525 15565
5 14215 14190 28 15770 15460 51 17110 16335
6 15325 15315 29 17695 17860 52 16160 17370
7 15470 15395 30 15450 15555 53 18265 17260
8 16310 16315 31 17930 18015 54 16685 17240
9 16320 16270 32 17560 17590 55 18425 18105
10 14860 14695 33 16210 16260 56 17675 16430
11 16120 16135 34 18450 18490 57 16680 16910
12 15605 15560 35 18155 18125 58 17050 16655
13 14910 14745 36 15275 15300 59 17830 17105
14 -15300 15370 37 16250 16210 60 18100 • 18505
15 16400 16290 38 16260 16270 61 15675 15540
16 14685 14775 39 17560 17530 62 15835 15635
17 17100 17235 40 16230 16045 63 16090 16380
18 17375 18000 41 16535 16595 64 17685 17570
19 16490 16685 42 17720 17710 65 17700 18020
20 16745 16840 43 17325 16960 66 16800 17265
21 16135 17000 44 15600 15650 67 mm -

22 - - 45 14270 14435 68 15295 15435

23 17855 17870 46 , 13755 13800 69 15780 15235
 262

TABLE A49

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction .

W = 1657 lbs applied as a Central line load,

t* = 1 hour
Deflection Readings (3rd Set c)
Target Initial Final Remarks
Point

1 46.035 (1.438) 44.700 1.400) 1. Micrometer reading to be sub­

2 63.830 (2.010) 62.930 2.202) tracted from stem reading to
3 20.180 (1.746) 19.910 1.703) give actual reading in Cips.
4 - (1.732) - 1.593)
65.000 2.006) -4
5 64.725 (1.890) 2. D. Gauge readings are in 10 .
6 20.260 (1.668) 20.260 1.596) inch units.
,7 61.005 (1.888) 61.245 1.995)
8 23.270 (1.876) 22.775 1.561)
9 65.120 (1.907) 64.490 1.895)
10 67.145 (1.662) 66.495 2.251)
11 67.145 (1.762) 66.495 1.758)
12 72.695 (1.174) 72.095 2.119)
13 72.695 (2.062) 70.995 1.9U)
14 79.025 (1.789) 77.660 1.967)
15 10.700 (2.212) 10.230 1.608)
16 '46.715 (1.430) 47.265 1.813)
17 63.300 (1.757) 62,885 1.987)

D. Initial Final *
Gauge

18 1652 1561
19 502 482
20 1903 1890
21 1111 1101
 263

TABLE A50

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandyich construction,

W =1072 lbs applied as a line load at $ « + ^/4

t1 =* 1 hour

Strain Readings 10~^ (1st Set a)

S. Initial Final S. Initial Final S. Initial Final

Gauge Gauge Gauge

1 15265 15255 24 15630 15605 47 14400 14425

2 . 15540 15560 25 16485 16485 48 13820 13850
3 15610 15665 26 14935 14910 49 16465 16385
4 15935 16000 27 17405 17350 50 15535 15450
5 14155 14235 28 15760 15790 51 17135 17170
6 15270 15285 29 17700 17215 52 16175 16160
7 15400 15515 30 15475 15890 53 18280 18305
8 16265 16315 31 17915 17400 54 16690 16685
9 16270 16270 32 17575 17760 55 18435 18420
10 14805 14945 33 16210 16035 56 17695 17705
11 16060 16030 34 18435 17800 57 16695 16695
12 15540 15600 35 18135 18130 58 17065 17090
13 14865 15000 36 15270 15135 59 17845 17840
14 J 15240 15085 37 16250 15755 60 18115 18120
15 16345 16340 38 16255 16240 61 15690 15680
16 14665 14660 39 17560 17510 62 15845 15815
17 17055 17045 40 16220 16035 63 16100 16115
18 17300 17295 41 16535 16620 64 17700 17690
19 16420 ;. 16415 42 17710 17635 65 17700 17650
20 16700 16695 43 17345 17460 66 16805 16825
21 16045 16025 44 15615 16010 67 - -
22 - - 45 14285 14350 68 15305 15080
23 17790 17785 46 13770 13815 69 15790 15795
 264

TABLE A51

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction .

W = 1072 lbs applied as a line load at $ = + ^ 4

t* = 1 hour

Deflection Readings (1st Set a)

Target Initial Pinal Remarks

Point

1 45,740 (1.016) 46.780 (1.917) 1# Micrometer reading to be sub-

2 63.590 (1.763) 63*290 (l.66l) tracted from stem reading to
3 19.900 (1.503) 19.755 (1.908) g iv e a c t u a l r e a d in g i n Cms.
4 - (1.642) - (2.093)
5 64.980 (2.220) 64.335 (1.800) 2. D. Gauge readings are in K f 4
6 20.825 (1.667) 20.825 (1.694) inch units.
7 61.070 (2.048) 60.540 (1.782)
8 22.880 (1.507) 22.975 (2.200)
9 64.710 (1.539) 64.045 (1.352)
10 66.905 (1.446) 66.780 (1.510)
11 66.905 (1.559) 66.780 (1.023)
12 72.435 (0.984) 72.855 (1.277)
13 72.435 (1.820) 72.855 (2.137)
14 J 79.050 (1.824) 78.360 (1.056)
15 9.905 (1.614) 10.320 (1.825)
16 46.210 (1.098) 46.780 (1.115)
17 63.335 (2.000) 63.620 (1.674)

D. Initial Final
Gauge

18 903 902
19 502 497
20 1901 1900
21 1092 1088
 \ 265

TABLE A52

Prototypef folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction.

W » 1072 lbs applied as a line load at 0 = + ^/4

t* = 1 hour

Strain Readings 10"^ (2nd Set b)

S. Initial Pinal S. Initial Final S. Initial Final

Gauge Gauge Gauge

1 15220 15215 24 15570 15550 47 14400 14415

2 15515 15540 25 16425 16425 48 13815 13840
3 15585 15645 26 14870 14860 49 16455 16375
4 15900 15975 27 17370 17330 5Q 15525 15445
5 14105 14205 28 15750 15760 51 17125 17160
6 15225 15250 29 17675 17190 52 16145 16140
7 15340 15490 30 15475 15885 53 18295 18310
8 16220 16290 31 17905 17385 54 16675 16670
9 16230 16240 32 17580 17760 55 18435 18415
10 14740 14920 33 16220 16035 56 17710 17710
11 16015 15990 34 18430 17760 57 16685 16685
12 15485 15565 35 18135 18125 58 17065 17085
13 14830 14990 36 15260 15135 59 17850 17840
14 ^ 15220 15050 37 16230 15725 60 18105 18110
15 16310 16310 38 16265 16255 61 15685 15680
16 14660 14660 39 17555 17505 62 15845 15810
17 17040 17035 40 16215 ' 16020 63 16100 16105
i*
18 17290 17285 41 16530 16610 64 17700 17680
19 16390 16390 42 17720 17645 65 17690 17640
20 16685 16680 43 17335 17460 66 16800 16815
21 16025 16010 44 15610 16005 67 - -

21 - - 45 14285 14345 68 15305 15075

25 17760 17760 46 13760 13800 69 15785 15790
 266

TABLE A53

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction*

W = 1072 lbs applied as a line load at 0 + /i

i
t m 1 hour

Deflection Readings (2nd Set b)

Target
_ . ^ ' Initial Pinal Remarks
Point

1 46.520 (1.812) 46.325 (1.514) 1. Micrometer reading

2 64.335 (2.389) 63.310 (1.576) to be subtracted
3 19.680 (1.237) 19.615 (1.717) from stem reading
4 - (1.604) - (2.058) to give actual reading
5 64.420 (1.698) 63.755 (1.265) in cms.
6 20.950 (1.790) 20.950 (1.815) 2. D. Gauge readings
—A
7 60•860 (1.868) 59.925 (1.135) are in 10 inch
8 22.710 (1.293) 22.450 (1.628) units.
9 64.335 (1.113) 64.735 (1.967) -
10 67.580 (2.069) 67.105 (1.805)
11 67.580 (2.159) 67.105 (1.214)
n
12 72.810 (1.220) 73.170 (1.510)
13 72.810 (2.086) # 73.170 (2.426) *
14 79.310 (2.002) 79.370 (2.009)
15 10.120 (1.783) 10.820 (2.227)
16 47.485 (2.286) 46.325 (0.663)
17 63.270 (2.005) 63.020 (1.077)
U%
D
la u g e

18 910 905
19 503 4 >6
20 1902 189c>
21 1084 1080
 267

TABLE A54

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction .

V =s 1072 lbs applied as a line load at ft =

t/- = 1 hour

Strain Readings 10~^ (3rd Set c)

S. Initial Pinal S. Initial Pinal S. Initial Pinal

Gauge Gauge Gauge

1 15230 15255 24 15570 15580 47 14390 14390

2 15510 15555 25 16425 16475 48 13805 13805
3 15580 •15660 26 14870 14905 49 16455 16380
4 15900 16010 27 17360 17335 50 15525 15455
5 14110 14235 28 15755 15770 51 17140 17170
6 15225 15280 29 17675 17180 52 16145 16135
7 15335 15520 30 15480 15885 53 18295 18310
8 16215 16320 31 17900 17380 54 16670 16670
9 16225 16260 32 17575 17755 55 18435 18415
10 14735 149^5 33 16215 16025 56 17715 17715
11 16020 16030 34 18425 17750 57 16685 16685
12 15485 15595 35 18135 18125 58 17065 17085
13 14815 14995 36 15255 15130 59 17850 17840
14 ^ 15220 15085 37 16230 15715 60 18105 18110
15 16305 16340 38 16265 16260 " 61 15685 15675
16 14655 14660 39 17550 17505 62 15840 15805
17 17040 17050 40 16210 16015 63 16095 16105
18 17290 17305 41 16520 16605 64 17695 17680
19 16390 16415 42 17710 17625 65 17680 17630
20 16675 16690 43 17335 17455 66 16800 16815
21 16030 16030 44 15605 16005 67 - -

22 - - 45 14285 14330 68 15310 15075

23 17755 17785 46 13760 13815 69 15795 15790
 268

TABLE A55

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction*

j

W = 1072 lbs applied as a line load at 0 =* %

t « 1 hour

Deflection Reading (3rd Set c)

Target
Initial Final Remarks
Point

1 46.230 (1.488) 46.410 (1.644) 1. Micrometer reading to

2 63.095 (1.209) 63.670 (1.981) be subtracted from
3 19.275 (0.808) 19.650 (1.740) stem reading to give
4 - (1.617) - (2.070) actual reading in pms.
5 64.480 (1.689) 63.945 (1.400) 2. D. Gauge readings
—A
6 20.745 (1.649) 20.745 (1.633) are in 10 inch units
7 60.770 (1.780) 60.445 (1.698)
3 22.590 (1.173) 22.490 (1.672)
9 64.045 (0.800) 64.525 (1.745)
10 65.920 (0.463) 67.510 (2.221)
11 65.920 (0.457) 67.510 (1.632)
* 12 72.740 (1.098) 73.565 (1.907)
13 72.740 (2.005) 72.915 (2.137)
14 79*365 (2.018) 79.280 (1.900)
-
15. 9.870 (1.464) 10.370 (1.737)
16 46.720 (1.453) 47.095 (1.400)
17 63.005 (1.596) 63.715 (1.795)
T)
U 9

Gauge

18 912 903
19 504 497
20 1896 1892
21 1069 1062
 269

TABLE A56

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction.

= 1072 lbs applied as a line load at 0 = - V 4

= 1 hour

Strain Readings 10 ^ ( 1st Set a)

s. s. S.
Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final
iuge Gauge Gauge

1 15390 15410 24 15790 15760 47 14375 . 13980

2 15605 15585 25 16610 16610 48 13795 13230
3 15665 15670 26 15070 15080 49 16455 16620
4 16035 16040 27 17450 17420 50 15510 15935
5 14270 14255 28 15770 15765 51 17115 17140
6 15380 15375 29 17670 17730 52 16110 16125
7 15520 15505 30 15460 15560 53 18280 18305
8 16350 16360 31 17905 17935 54 16660 16670

9 16350 16355 32 17560 17610 55 18415 18455

10 14880 148^0 33 16195 16205 56 17705 17715
11 16185 16710 34 18420 18420 57 16660 16670
12 15660 15656 35 18140 18150 58 17050 17040

13 14920 14855 36 15250 15290 - 59 17835 17835

14 15345 15430 37 16235 16245 60 18085 18100

15 16445 16445 33 16255 16250 61 15660 15665

16 14685 14685 39 17545 17520 62 15320 15800
17115 17125 40 16215 16180 63 16065 160 90
18 17390 17385 41 16520 ■ 16510 64 17675 17675
19 16535 16535 42 17695 17670 65 17660 17625
20 16765 16765 43 17320 17230 66 16780 16820
21 16145 16130 44 15580 15500 67 - -

22 - - 45 14240 13820 68 15295 15390

23 17905 17900 46 13750 14040 69 15780 15810

 270

TABLE A57

P ro to ty p e , fo ld e d p la te b a r r e l v a u lt o f sandwich c o n s t r u c t io n ,

W = 1072 lb8 applied as a line load at $ = -

t* =s 1 hour

Deflection Readings (lst Set a)

Target
Initial Final Remarks
Point

1 46.375 (1.586) 46.485 (1 .725 ) ’1. Micrometer reading

2 63.790 (1.840) 64.025 (1 .869 ) to be subtracted
3 19.775 (1.303) 20.370 (1 .486 ) from stem reading
4 - (1.601) - (1 .255 ) to give actual
VO

0
tO
to
CO

5 (0.540) 64.595 (1 .549 ) reading in cms.

6 20.970 (1.821) 20.970 (1.763) 2. Target point 15*
7 59.850 (0.749) 60.760 (1.420) not visible.
8 22.580 (1.154) 23.375 (1.546) 3. D.Gauge readings
-4
9 64.935 (1.660) 65.660 (1.979) are in 10 inch
10 67.015 (1.475) 6 6 .7 9 0 (0.966) units.
11 67.015 (1.565) 6 6 .7 9 0 (1.789)
12 72.835 (1.191) 72.990 (1.341)
5 13 72.835 (2.101) 72.990 (2.193)
14 79.280 (1.924) 79.490 (2.083)
✓
15* - - -

16 46.375 (1 .072 ) 46.485 (1.699) • •

17 63.380 (1 .835 ) 62.415 (1.337)

D.
Gauge

18 915 842
19 . 502 500
20 1897 1894
21 1062 1047
 271

TABLE A58

P r o to ty p e « fo ld e d p la te b a r r e l v a u lt o f sandw ich c o n s t r u c tio n .

W = 1072 lbs applied as a line load at JZf » -

t'= 1 hour

Strain Readings 10 ^ (2nd Set b)

s. s. ' s.
Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final
Gauge Gauge Gauge

1 15330 15340 24 15750 15715 47 14380 13965

2 15565 15530 25 16565 16565 48 13810 13230
3 15630 15625 26 15035 15035 49 16475 16635
4 15980 15980 27 17440 17410 50 15520 15945
5 14205 14185 28 15780 15780 51 17140 17160
6 15325 15305 29 17690 17750 52 16130 16140
7 15450 15420 30 15475 15580 53 18295 18315
8 16295 16300 31 17920 17955 54 16670 16680
9 16300 16300 32 17575 17620 55 18425 18465
10 14830 14765 33 16200 16220 56 17715 17720
11 16125 16140 34 18425 18435 57 16675 16680
12 15595 15580 35 18140 18160 58 17065 17050
13 14875 14800 36 15265 15300 59 17850 17840
14 15295 15375 37 16250 16255 60 18100 18115
15 16595 16380 38 16270 16260 61 15670 15670
16 14665 14655 39 17560 17530 62 15825 15800
17 17080 17080 40 16220 16190 63 16080 16105
t

18 17355 17340 41 16535 16520 64 17685 17685

19 16485 16475 42 17695 17675 65 17670 . 17630
20 16725 16715 43 17325 17240 66 16790 16825
21 16110 16085 44 15595 15505 67 - -
22 - - 45 14245 13820 68 15315 15400
23 17850 17830 46 13780 14065 69 15795 15820
& 'S fj

272

TABLE A59

P ro to ty p e , fo ld e d p la t e b a r r e l v a u lt o f sandw ich c o n a t r u c t io n «
W = 1072 lbs applied as a line load at 0 « - 2*
4
t’= 1 hour

Deflection Readings (2nd Set b)

Targe t
Initial Final Remarks
Point

1 46.495 (1.865) 46.635 (1.983) 1• Micrometer reading

2 63.530 (1.557) 63.725 (1.552) to be subtracted
3 19.980 (1.508) 20.350 (1.447) from stem reading
4 - (1.597) - (1.232) to give actual reading
5 64.585 (1.816) 64.945 (1.958) in cms.
6 21.180 (2.007) 21.180 (2.030) 2. Target point 15* not
7 60.845 (1.742) 61.200 (1.836) visible.
8 22.905 (1.470) 23.220 (1.331) 3. D. Gauge readings
65.300 (1.563) -4
9 64.855 (1.584) are in 10 inch
10 66.980 (1.375) 67.375 (1.507) units
11 66.980 (1.496) 67.375 (2.342)
12 72.845 (1.229) 73.220 (1.573)
13 72.845 (2.088) 73.220 (2.448)
14 79.490 (2.103) 79.120 (1.724)
15* - - - -

16 47.480 (2.163) 46.635 (1.882)

17 63.640 (2.117) 62.895 (1.791)

D.
Gauge
18 914 843
19 502 505
20 1891 1886
21 1060 1050
 273

TABLE A60

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction*

W = 1072 lbs applied as a line load at $ =

t* s= 1 hour
c
Strain Readings 10 (3rd. Set c)

s. (
Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final
Gauge Gauge Gauge

1 15295 15335 24 15740 1571?“ 47 14375 . 13960

2 15535 15520 25 16560 16570 48 13815 13225
5 15605 15610 26 15020 15040 49 16470 16620
4 15950 15970 27 17440 17405 50 15520 15935
5 14100 14100 28 15775 15760 51 17130 17140
6 15290 15295 29 17600 17735 52 16120 16125
7 15425 15420 30 15455 15555 53 18300 18305
8 16270 16295 31 • 17910 17940 54 16665 16660
9 16275 16290 32 17565 • 17605 55 18425 18450
10 14005 14760 33 16195 16205 56 17715 17710
11 16090 16150 34 18425 18430 57 16665 16660
12 15570 15575 35 18135 18140 58 17060 17035
14855 14795 36 15250 15290 59 17850 17030
13 c
14 ^ ' 15265 15365 37 16240 16250 60 18090 18100
15 16570 16380 38 16260 16250 61 15670 15660

16 14640 14650 39 17550 17520 62 15825 15790

17 17055 17070 40 16225 16185 63 16075 16005
18 17335 17330 41 16520 16505 64 17680 17670
-si*
CM

16455 16470 17695 17670 65 17670 17620

V

20 16700 16705 43 17320 17225 66 16790 16810

21 16085 16075 44 15585 15490 67 - -

- - 45 14230 13805 68 15305 15385

’
2?
f i 17820 17825 46 13765 14045 69 15790 15800
 274

TABLE A61

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction.

W = 1072 lbs applied as a line load at

t' = 1 hour

Deflection Readings (3rd Set c)

Target
Initial Final Remarks
Point

■; 1 46.560 1.845) 46.650 1 .945 ) 1. Micrometer reading

2 63.790 1.830) 63.135 '0 .994 ) to be subtracted
3 20.120 1.630) 20.010 1.087) from stem reading
4 - 1.595). - 1.225) to give actual
5 64.580 1.802) 65..030 2.015) reading in cms.
6 21.360 2.230) 21.360 2.213) 2. Target point 15*
7 60.895 1.810) 61.270 1.943) not visible
8 23.140 1.700) 22.960 1.079) 3. D.Gauge readings
-4
9 64.975 1.675) 64.760 1 .040 ) are in 10 inch
10 67.100 1.516) 67.395 1.508) units.
11 67.100 1.678) 67.395 2 .320 )
12 72.790 1.155) 74.120 2.493)
1$ 72.790 2.000) 72.930 2.162)
14 79.120 1.732) 79.850 2.469)
15* - -
16 47.295 1.992) 46.450 1.739)
17 63.430 1.390) 63.000 1.926)

D«
-
Gauge

18 917 ' 845

19 502 502
20 1890 1886
21 ■1058 1048
 275

TABLE A62

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction.

Thickness of top laminate(inches)

Point Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3 Specimen 4

1 0.117 0.121 0.156 0.132

2 0.119 0.130 0.175 0.137
3 0.101 0.170 0.129 0.132
4 0.118 0.150 0.125 0.141
5 0.117 0.148 0.095 0.130
6 "0.123 0.156 0.124 0.141
7 0.130 0.145 0.088 0.152
8 0.120 0.167 0.157 0.145
9 0.121 0.123 0.130 0.142
10 0.115 0.138 0.160 0.127
 276

TABLE A63

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of Sandwich construction*

Thickness of bottom laminate (inches)

Point Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3 Specimen

1 0.065 0.068 0.073 0.080

2 0.073 0.072 0.073 0.077
3 0.081 0.085 0.078 0.066
4 0.077 0.069 0.063. 0.072
5 0.068 0.081 0.075 0.065
6 0.069 0.092 0.080 0.066
7 0.063 0.074 0.075 0.065
8 0.066 0.084 0.080 0.070
9 0.074 0.067 0.069 0.070
10 '0.080 0.067 0.070 0.083
 277

TABLE A64

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction*

W = 6 lbs on cantilever overhangs of 5M

t* * 1 hour

4-Point loading beam tests (L=14n)

D. Gauge S.Gauge S.Gauge Remarks

Reading 1 2

Initial Set a 959 15375 15640 l.D. Gauge readings are

Final Set a 1265 15280 16015 in 10—4 inch units.

Initial Set b 969 15380 15650 2.Strain readings are

Final Set b 1266 15275 16015 in 10 units

Initial Set c 1260 15385 15580 5.Set a and Set b

Final Set c 1588 15480 15230 readings are for Gel
Coat laminate at top.
Initial Set d 1266 15390 15590
Final Set d 1591 15490 15240 4.Set c and Set d
readings are for Gel
coat laminate at
bottom.
 278

TABLE A65

Prototype, folded plate barrel vault of sandwich construction*

W = 4 lbs at the centre of the span,

t#= 1 hour

3-Point loading beam tests (L=16”)

D*Gauge Reading Remarks

Initial Set a 1849 1* D. Gauge readings are irj

Final Set a 1340 10 ^ inch units.

Initial Set b 1809 2. Set a and Set b

Final Set b 1310 readings are for Gel
coat laminate at top.
 279

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