Dairy Nutrition Management 0749-0720/91 $0.00 + .

20

Nutrition and Reproduction

in Dairy Cows

James D. Ferguson, VMD, MS *

Relationships between nutrition and reproduction in the dairy cow have

been extensively reviewed (Table 1).5,19,34,41,47,50,67 The reader is referred to
recent papers dealing with energy, 5 protein,19 and minerals and vitamins. 34,44
Nutritional effects on fertility in dairy herds may be caused by specific defi-
ciencies or toxicities,34,44,50,67 conditioned deficiencies,27,40,50,67 nutritional fac-
tors associated with increased risk of periparturient disorders,9,10,14,15,26 or im-
proper feed preparation and feeding management (see Table 1).40 Conditioned
deficiencies include excessive body condition at calving and effects on overall
health. 25,26,35-38,51,53 Nutritional problems may occur in the nonlactating (grow-
ing and dry) or lactating cow diet. Herd work-up for reproductive failure
requires a systematic analysis of reproductive records. Nutritional etiology is
suggested by diagnostic ruleouts of more likely causes. Proximate analysis of
feeds and ration evaluation, although essential toward making a diagnosis, are
insufficient to diagnose a herd problem alone. The practitioner must integrate
herd performance with appropriate diagnostic tests on feed samples and tissue
specimens to identify a nutritional cause of reproductive failure in dairy herds.
The focus of this article is to outline processes to assess nutritional effects on
herd fertility.
Nutritionally associated problems may be primary or secondary. Primary
problems may occur due to an absolute deficiency or excess of a particular
nutrient, such as selenium. 49 Conditional deficiencies may occur secondary to
improper ration processing and supplementation, dietary interactions between
nutrients, concurrent disease processes that may impair absorption or increase
excretion of a nutrient, drug interactions, genetic disorders, or inadequate feed
consumption due to overcrowding or environmental stresses. Deficiencies (or
excesses) of nutrients may impair immune function or predispose to peripartur-
ient disease, which may then result in reduced fertility. Thus, a diagnosis of a
nutritional problem cannot be made on diet analysis alone or on summary
statistics of herd reproductive performance; feed management and other
causes of reproductive failure must be ruled out before nutrition is considered,
unless presenting signs are pathognomonic, such as goiter in calves.

*Assistant Professor, Center for Animal Health and Productivity, University of Pennsyl-
vania School of Veterinary Medicine, New Bolton Center, Kennett Square,
Pennsylvania

Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice-Vol. 7, No.2, July 1991 483
484 JAMES D. FERGUSON

Table 1. Nutrient Deficiencies' and Excesses' Effects on

Reproductive Performance
DEFICIENCIES EXCESSES

Abortion, stillbirth, weak Energy CP

calves34,5o,52,67 Iodine Selenium
Manganese Calcium
Copper Phosphorus
Vitamins A,D,E
Anestrus, decreased estrus Energy CP Fluoride
expression5.34,39.5o,52,67 Iodine Manganese
Cobalt Iodine
Vitamin A
Copper?
Low conception, early embryonic Energy CP DIP
death5,7,17,18,19,31,67 Manganese
Increase in periparturient
disease (milk fever,
retained placenta,
dystocia, delayed
involution)9,10,14,15,22,23,26,67
Selenium Energy
Vitamin E Excess body reserves
Vitamin A Calcium
Vitamin D Phosphorus
Magnesium Protein
Phosphorus
Copper
Iodine
Deficiency associated with Energy CP
general debilitation and Anemia (Fe, Cu, Co)
poor Phosphorus
reproduction34,37 ,45,53,67,70 Iodine Selenium
Calcium
Vitamin D
Immune function 33,34,68 Zinc
Copper
Selenium
Vitamin A, E

Nutrients that have been identified that modify fertility in cattle include
protein,3,7,17-19 minerals (Ca, P, Mg, Mn, Cu, Se, I, CO),33,34,40,50,67 vitamins (A,
D, E),34,49,52 and total caloric intake. 5,13,35,36,45,46,70 Zinc deficiency has detri-
mental effects on male reproductive function, but effects on female reproduc-
tive performance in cattle are not clearly documented. 34,40 Nutrient deficits
and excesses may be directly antagonistic or indirectly antagonistic to repro-
ductive function through alterations in energy balance or increased risk of
other disease processes that reduce reproductive performance. 5,9,10,14,15,19,34

OVERVIEW OF THE PROBLEM

Reproductive efficiency may be influenced by cow management, environ-

ment, and bull factors.11 All aspects of the reproductive management program
NUTRITION AND REPRODUCTION IN DAIRY COWS 485
in a dairy herd are subject to environmental, managerial, and biologic insults.
Biologic insults may include specific or nonspecific infectious or noninfectious
processes. 9 - 15,19,22-24,28-38,43-46,55-63,70 Nutrition is just one of many factors that
can potentially influence herd fertility. Thus, a systematic analysis of herd
records is necessary to define the problem and identify potential etiology(ies).
Neglect in establishing a systematic approach to a herd problem will result in
inappropriate diagnostic tests, spurious conclusions, worthless treatments, and
frustration. Often nutrition is blamed for herd problems in a haphazard fashion,
without a thorough analysis of herd records.
Reproductive efficiency in a dairy herd may be estimated by monitoring
four indices (goals): (1) age at first calving (24 months, 1200 lb); (2) calving
interval (11 to 13 months >80% of cows that were first inseminated eventually
become pregnant and over 85% of cows calving receive an insemination); (3)
culling (25 to 35% of cows calving/year, <20% of culls for reproduction); and
(4) pregnancy wastage (abortions and perinatal mortality <15% of pregnant
cows). Reproductive failure is manifested as deviation from goals. These indices
are highly correlated to each other. Change in performance in one index will
influence performance in other indices. Thus, interpretation of the etiology of
herd problems from these summary herd indices alone is impossible. They
provide useful monitoring information but are not in themselves diagnostic and
are too retrospective in nature to serve as indices of control.
Dairy herds undergoing no expansion in cow numbers exist as a steady
state. Cow departure and entry is in balance. As heifers enter the milking
string, mature cows are displaced from the herd. The rate at which heifers
enter the herd is a function of age at first calving and number reared. The
number of heifers needed as replacements is a function of calving interval,
cows culled, abortions, and perinatal mortality. Voluntary culling for produc-
tive purposes is only possible if heifer entry into the herd exceeds forced
replacement, which allows a residue of cows to leave the herd for productive
reasons. When the system deviates from steady state, either cows must be
purchased to maintain herd size, undesirable cows must be retained in the
herd, or herd size must decrease. Controlling points that determine herd
steady state are age at first breeding and days in milk at first breeding after
calving. The rate at which pregnancy occurs from initiation of breeding and
total number of pregnant animals determines herd turnover and establishes
average age of the herd. Since cows lactate over 300 days, a wide margin of
leeway exists in which culling may be delayed to allow heifer replacement to
balance cow exit. However, long delays in culling will decrease herd produc-
tive efficiency, as will excessive forced replacement.
These relationships are important to keep in mind when evaluating repro-
ductive problems in dairy herds, because changes in heifers reared, abortions,
conception failure, and forced replacement influence animals retained in the
herd, which affects how reproductive failure may be perceived. For example,
in a herd where pregnant cows are culled or there exists high perinatal losses,
cows are retained in the herd that normally would be culled for other reasons.
Reproductive failure in this herd may present as increased services per concep-
tion, if problem breeders are part of the group of cows retained in the herd,
when in actuality the problem is in perinatal losses. Services per conception
increase due to the increase in problem breeders in the herd which could not
be culled for infertility due to high losses from the replacement herd. Only if
cows were purchased could problem cows be culled. Treating the herd as a
conception failure herd will not solve the problem. A systematic evaluation of
reproductive records allows patterns to be identified to determine factors
involved in reproductive failure. A historical perspective of herd performance
provides a frame of reference to define current problems.
486 JAMES D. FERGUSON

DEFINING THE PROBLEM-HERD WORK-UP

Reproductive performance follows predictable patterns in a herd. Age at

first calving and calving interval (CI) are determined by the voluntary wait
period (VWP, age or days in milk at initiation of breeding), heat detection rate
(HDR), conception rate (CR), and pregnancy maintenance to term.ll Cows and
heifers become pregnant from the VWP as a function of HDR and CR; Preg-
nancy rate (PR) represents the proportion of cows that become pregnant over a
time interval corresponding to one estrous cycle. PR is equal to HDR X CR
(Table 2). Nutritional factors that influence HDR or CR contribute equally to
increased age at first calving and CI.
Following calving, initiation of reproductive function involves an orches-
tration of physical, endocrine, and histologic events that consummate in uter-
ine repair, ovulation, and resumption of estrous cycles. 4- 6,21,30,32,35,36,59,60,62
Similar events occur at puberty,41,47 except in lieu of uterine repair, develop-
ment and growth of reproductive organs take place. Initiation of estrous cycles
does not confer fertility in virgin heifers or postpartum COWS. 47 ,52,62 Estrous
expression and probability of conception improve with each successive estrous
cycle through the second to third estrous interval. 41,52,62 Age at puberty and
days in milk at first ovulation following calving influence when fertility will be
optimum relative to the VWP. The percentage of cows pregnant within a
60-day period from the VWP is determined by HDR and CR. Heifer growth
rates and periparturient events in cows will influence the percentage of heifers
and cows ready to breed by the VWP.
The minimum data base for a systematic analysis of reproductive problems
in dairy herds includes cow identification, age, lactation, date fresh, dates
inseminated, pregnancy status, date culled and reason (if appropriate), and
health history. Breeding information should include identification of insemina-
tor and sire and any treatments given. Herd records should be collected for at

Table 2. Influence of Pregnancy Rate on Herd Reproductive Performance

HDR 0.5 0.5 0.7
CR 0.5 0.7 0.5
PR 0.25 0.35 0.35
Cows (n) 100 100 100
Cycle 1 (VWP-21 days)
Bred 50 50 70
Pregnant 25 35 35
Cycle 2 (22-42 days)
Bred 38 33 46
Pregnant 19 23 23
Cycle 3 (43-63 days)
Bred 28 21 29
Pregnant 14 15 15
Cycle 4 (64-84 days)
Bred 21 13 19
Pregnant 11 9 9
Cycle 5 (85 -105 days)
Bred 16 9 13
Pregnant 8 6 6
Total pregnant
Cows 77 88 88
Total inseminations 153 126 177
Services/conception 1.99 1.43 2.01
NUTRITION AND REPRODUCTION IN DAIRY Cows 487
least a I-year period and preferably over a 2-year period to establish the scope
and duration of the problem. Herd work-ups should include analysis of HDR
for first and repeat services, heat detection accuracy, CR by service number
and parity groups in the herd, and incidence of abortions, cows dried off that do
not calve, periparturient diseases, metabolic problems, lameness, anestrus, and
cystic ovarian disease. Cows should be scored on body condition (scale 1 to 5; 1
emaciated, 2 thin, 3 average, 4 fat, 5 obese 69). Body condition scores should be
summarized to establish mean condition score for each group and distribution
of scores within each group. Small herds (fewer than 100 cows) present a
particular challenge in a diagnostic work-up, as cow numbers are small, which
means the variability in normal reproductive measures, such as CR, is greater
than in larger herds (Table 3).
Pregnancy wastage, low conception and heat detection rates, increased age
at first calving, and increased forced replacement for reproductive failure
define problem areas. Nutritional problems associated with infertility in dairy
herds are suggested when problems appear in a high percentage of cows that
have no overt pathologic condition, such as metritis. Moderate nutritional
deficits associated with condition loss and periparturient disease may have
strong interactions with time postpartum. Both CR and HDR will improve
greatly with postpartum interval. Not all cows in the herd may be affected.
More severe nutritional insults may result in severe problems with little im-
provement with time postpartum and a high percentage of the herd affected.
However, errors of insemination and environmental insults will also be asso-
ciated with reproductive failure in a high percentage of cows in the herd with
no overt pathology. Thus, patterns of conception failure and heat detection
may be suggestive of nutritional causes but not exclusive for nutritional causes.
Culling, abortion, and perinatal mortality (incidence and reason) may be
calculated from farm records. Culling should occur in 25 to 35% of animals that
calve each year. Thirty percent or greater of culls should be for production.
Fewer than 20% of culls should be for reproductive failure. Abortions should
occur in fewer than 2 to 5% of pregnant cows per year, and perinatal losses
should be below 5 to 10% of calvings.
Age at first calving should be analyzed as a distribution «20, 20 to 22, 23
to 25, 26 to 28, 29 to 31, >31 months of age at first calving). Weight can be
estimated from heart girth diameters if scales are not available. Rate of gain can
be calculated by regressing weight on age in days across groups of heifers.
Heifers falling below standards for various age groups are easily identified.
Weight at calving should be greater than 500 kg and a body condition score of
3.0 to 3.5 in heifers at 24 months of age. Dystocia incidence in heifers should
be less than 5 to 10%. Breeding programs in heifers should ensure that 80% of
heifers calve within 30 days of 24 months (23 to 25 months).

Table 3. Influence of Herd Size on Variation in Measures of Heat Detection

and Conception (95% Confidence Limits) *
MEAN HDR OR CR

HERD SIZE 0.4 0.5 0.6

50 0.26-0.54 0.36-0.64 0.46-0.74
100 0.30-0.49 0.40-0.60 0.50-0.70
500 0.36-0.44 0.46-0.54 0.56-0.64
1000 0.37 -0.43 0.47 -0.53 0.57-0.63
*95% CL = Mean +/-1.96*(p*q/n) AO.5; p = mean HDR or CR; q = I-p.
488 JAMES D. FERGUSON

Heat detection can be assessed by analyzing patterns of first insemination

and interval between subsequent inseminations. The VWP establishes a stan-
dard for first insemination. Inseminations are categorized prior to the VWP and
in sequential 20-day windows following the VWP (Table 4). HDR for each
20-day window is calculated as the cows inseminated divided by the cows
available to the inseminated. HDR within each sequential 20-day window
indicates whether time postpartum influences estrous detection. Additionally,
analysis by parity groups and season of calving will indicate any age and
seasonal effects. Cows not yet inseminated should also be categorized by time
period postpartum to identify whether a higher residue of cows are not yet
inseminated than expected based on the formula, 1-HDR. If there are, this may
indicate a group of problem cows associated with anestrous or feet and leg
problems. Prostaglandin injections will increase HDR within the time period
postpartum that the injections are used to manage estrous detection. Preferen-
tial management decisions (delay in first lactation cows) will be evident.
Time interval between successive inseminations is stratified into categories
based on days between inseminations (Table 5). Intervals correspond to heat
detection errors «10 days), abnormal estrous intervals (10 to 17, 25 to 35
days), regular estrous intervals (18 to 24 and 36 to 48 days), and long intervals
(>48 days). HDR, accuracy, and early embryonic mortality (EED) will influ-
ence the distribution of breeding intervals. Herd problems may be defined as
repeat breeding (>69% of intervals occurring between 18 and 24 days and 36
to 48 days as a percent of intervals fewer than 49 days) or irregular (>30% of
breeding intervals occurring <10 days, 10 to 1 7 days, and 25 to 35 days as a
percent of intervals fewer than 49 days).
Conception rate (number of pregnant cows/number inseminated at each
insemination) is analyzed by service number and parity groups (Table 6).
First-service CR is analyzed for each window used in the prebreeding HDR
analysis for time effects on conception. First-service CR can be further ana-
lyzed in groups of cows by season of calving and season of breeding (see Table
6). In small herds it may be necessary to aggregate the analysis into CR for all
breedings within a season to increase statistical power.
Rarely does poor reproductive performance involve all cows within a herd.

Table 4. Analysis of Prebreeding Heat Detection Rate for a Herd with a

Voluntary Waiting Period of 50 Days
Distribution of first inseminations:
days <50 50-70 71-90 91-110 >110
number 5 ~ ~ 21 r7
5/100 = .05
22/95 = .23
35/73 =.48
21/38 = .55

First lactation: .29 .58 .55

Second lactation: .27 .52 .50
Third+ lactation: .27 .58 .64
Overall weighted
average = 33.4
Cows not inseminated days in milk:
<50 50-70 71-90 91-110 >110
29 ----r2 --6- 3 -4-
Number expected based on (I-HDR)
19 3 1 2
NUTRITION AND REPRODUCTION IN DAIRY Cows 489
Table 5. Analysis of Postbreeding Heat Detection: Distribution of
Interbreeding Intervals (as a Percent of Total)
DAYS

<10 10-17 18-24 25-35 36-48 >48

100% HDR o 5-10 65-70 10-15 7-10 5-7
Goals <5 s5 ~40 s15 s15 s18
Patterns in a
typical herd with
50% HDR and
90% accuracy
5 5 30 15 20 25
Example herd (CR data in Table 6)
N 7 6 33 23 26 27
% 5 4 27 19 21 22
%<49 7 6 35 24 27
Ratio (18-24)/(36-48) = 1.28 HDR = 44.8%
Abnormal = 7 + 6 + 24 = 37%
Conclusions: Low efficiency-consistent with prebreeding HDR
Breeding on secondary signs-7% «10 days)
Heat detection errors - 4 % of breedings
Early embryonic mortality-10% of breedings
Abbreviations: HDR = Heat detection rate; HDR = 40 + 20 (In ([(18-24)/(36-
48)]) (estimate); Abnormal = «10) + (10-17) + (25-35) s30% (estimate).

Quite often cows in a problem herd may be segregated into fertile and subfer-
tile populations. 1l ,23,24 In most herds fertile cows constitute 75 to 83% of the
inseminated animals (cows pregnant with three or fewer services, open cows
with three or fewer services). Characterization of each population for age,
season of calving, season of breeding, incidence of periparturient diseases,
production level, uterine treatments, body condition change, etcetera, can
help define whether problems are related to cow, management, environment,
or bull - inseminator factors. Patterns of reproductive failure in the herd can
indicate what further diagnostic work should be done to identify the most
significant causal factor. Conclusions that nutritional insults may be a cause of
infertility are realized by process of elimination of other more likely causes,
such as metritis, heat detection errors, and poor insemination technique. Final
diagnosis may rely on appropriate laboratory tests or response to specific
nutrient intervention. However, it should be recognized that often problems
resolve due to the herd work-up and not due to intervention, because the
investigation itself reviews sound reproductive management practices, which
influences farm operations.

PROBLEM AREAS

Problem areas are identified in Table 7. Signalment indicates deviation

from herd goals for specific reproductive parameters. Goals represent a stan-
dard of performance that the majority of cows in a herd should achieve.
Rule outs present potential nutritional and other probable causes, which also
need to be assessed as part of the herd work-up.
Heifer Age at First Calving
The majority of heifers should calve between 23 and 25 months of age and
at over 500 kg (1200 Ib).41,47,49,5o Heifers are usually very fertile; CR, are
490 JAMES D. FERGUSON

Table 6. Analysis of Conception Rate

Service number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pregnant cows 31 17 16 13 6 1 3 1 88
Unconfirmed 5 1 3 2 1 12
First service Pregnant cows 31/88 = 35%
All cows 31/100 = 31 %
Second service Pregnant cows 17/57 = 30%
All cows 17/64 = 26%
Third service Pregnant cows 16/40 = 40%
All cows 16/46 = 35%
Fourth service Pregnant cows 13/24 = 54%
All cows 13/27 = 48%
Percent fertile cows = 64/94 = 68%
First service = 31/70 = 44%
Second service = 17/34 = 50%
First service by days in milk 50-70 71-90 91-110 110+
Bred 22 35 21 17
Pregnant 4 10 9 10
% 18 29 43 59
Season of calving
Calved Pregnant First service CR (%)
Jan-Feb 13 13 23
Mar-May 23 19 17
Jun-Aug 23 19 17
Sep-Nov 30 26 30
Dec 11 11 100
Season of breeding N inseminated First service CR (%)
Mar-May 16 9
Jun-Aug 25 19
Sep-Nov 20 8*
Dec-Feb 22 50
Mar-May 17 64
*Changed ration to include distillers dried grains to reduce DIP in the diet and
increase UIP.

over 60%. If HDR is greater than 60%, PR will equal 36%, and over 80% of
heifers will become pregnant within 60 days from the VWP. If the VWP is 14
months, 80% of heifers will be pregnant by the end of 16 months. Calving will
occur between 23 and 25 months.
If heifer age and size at first calving deviate from goals, the heifer program
can be assessed from growth curves for a sample of heifers. Curves can then be
broken out by pen, which will quickly establish which age group is affected by
poor growth and whether poor growth is a cause of increased age at first
calving. Holstein and other large breed heifers should grow at a minimum gain
of 0.77 kgjd (1.7 Ibjd).49 This will result in a gain of 282 kgjyear (620 lb), and
Holstein heifers will reach puberty by 8 to 10 months of age (250 to 274 kg of
body weight; Jersey cattle attain puberty at 182 to 204 kg).52 Holstein heifers
will reach breeding size (363 kg or 800 lb body weight) by 14 months of age,
the target VWP. Acceptable calving size (545 kg) can be attained with only 0.5
kgjd of gain (1.1 lbjd) over the next year. Thus if growth is good in the first
year of life, it would be difficult to fall below 500 kg at first calving. These
relationships indicate how critical growth rates are in the first year of life if age
at first calving is to be achieved.
Generalized underfeeding of energy and protein result in poor heifer
growth rates. 41 ,47 Energy should not be overfed, as overconditioned heifers
NUTRITION AND REPRODUCTION IN DAIRY Cows 491
Table 7. Problem Areas in Dairy Herds and Possible Diagnostic Rule Outs
RULEOUTS

SIGNALMENT GOALS Nutritional Other

>30% of heifers 14-15 months age Poor growth rates Poor management
first calve over at breeding (<0.7 kg/d) Morbidity
25 months of age Multiple etiologies Internal parasites
Dystocia at first Size/age at first Heifers too Sire selection
calving >5-10% calving (>500 fat/small Age> 28 months
kg, >20 months Growth rate after Age < 20 months
BC 3-3.5) breeding
BC > 3.5
First ovulation 82% ovulate by 43 Energy deficit Metritis
>29 days days postpartum CP deficit Parity
(SD = 14) (>40% CL by 30 Manganese deficit PP disease
d >72% CL by Anemia (Co, Fe, Low dry matter
40 d) Cu) intake
Iodine deficit
Vitamin A deficit
Uterine >70% of cows Calcium deficit Parity
involution > 30 normal by 30 d Vitamin D deficit Twins
d in over 30% of postpartum PP disease
cows Metritis
Metabolic
disorders
Dystocia
Uterine infusion
Estrus detection >60% efficient Iodine deficit Poor management
failure >85% accurate Anemia Environment
HDR<70% Manganese deficit Feet/leg problems
Accuracy <85%
Conception failure 1st >35% BC loss «=-1 Errors in estrus
2nd >40% score) detection
3rd >45% Excess DIP Poor semen
Copper? handling
Selenium? PP disease
Manganese deficit Metritis
CP deficit Specific infectious
disease
Environment
heat/cold
Bull fertility
Early embryonic <7% Cows No nutritional Normal loss
death pregnant cows cause shown Infectious specific
>7% losses lose pregnancy (BVD, IBR,
following <20% of breeding vibriosis,
pregnancy exam intervals 25 -35 ureaplasma,
days hemophilus,
acholeplasma,
nonspecific,
(metritis)
Palpator error
deficiencies:
Abortions >2% in <2% Vitamin A Sporadic
pregnant animals Iodine Infectious
Severe Genetic
malnutrition Congenital defects

Continued
492 JAMES D. FERGUSON

Table 7. Problem Areas in Dairy Herds and Possible Diagnostic Rule Outs
continued.
RULEOUTS

SIGNALMENT GOALS Nutritional Other

Vitamin D Physical
Phosphorous Twinning
Cobalt Allergies
Toxic plants and
chemicals in feed
Calves born dead <5% Iodine Fetal/maternal
>5%-10% Vitamin A disproportion
calves born Manganese Dystocia
dead and die Vitamin D Infectious
within 24 Phosphorous Twinning
hours Cobalt
Selenium
Vitamin E
Weak calves <5% Selenium Inadequate
(perinatal losses) Iodine colostrum
deaths in first 3 Vitamin A Infectious
weeks >5% Vitamin D Dystocia
Phosphorous Poor management
Cobalt Twinning
Vitamin E
Abbreviations: CL = corpus luteum; percent represents the proportion of cows
palpated at 30 and 40 days postpartum that should have a CL on one or both ovaries.
Eighty-two percent of cows should have ovulated by 42 days postpartum; DIP = rumen
degradable intake protein; BC = body condition; PP = peri parturient disease; HDR =
heart detection rate; BVD = bovine virus diarrhea; IBR = infectious broncho rhi-
nopneumonitis.

have lower milk yield, more dystocia, and reduced days in herd. 52 This is a
problem often encountered on high corn silage diets, particularly if inadequate
protein is in the diet. Body score and measures of wither height should be made
along with weight. Body condition should be maintained as a 3 to 3.5. 69
Postpartum Cow
In lactating cows reproductive failure may be manifest as delayed uterine
involution, anestrus, conception failure, heat detection failure, pregnancy
wastage, and increased reproductive pathology (retained placenta, cystic ovar-
ian disease, etcetera). These problems may be influenced by multiple factors in
addition to nutritional deficits or excesses. Although these problems are ob-
served primarily in the lactating cow, nutrient imbalances in the dry period
may predispose to problems after calving.
Pregnancy carried to term initiates lactation. Following calving, cows enter
a period of body tissue depletion, as feed energy intake is insufficient to
support milk energy output. By 4 to 12 weeks postcalving, the majority of cows
should complete the depletion phase of lactation and enter a period of reple-
tion, which should continue until dry-off. 2 Uterine involution and first ovula-
tion occur during the period of depletion. By the VWP a majority of cows
should be in repletion. The rate and extent of depletion will influence first
ovulation, luteal function, and conception. 5 ,6,12,13,35-38,66 The time repletion
begins and the rate at which it occurs will also influence conception. 12,13,31,70
NUTRITION AND REPRODUCTION IN DAIRY Cows 493
Following calving, the uterus is immense and the ovaries are inactive. 52
During the period of tissue depletion, the uterus decreases in size and under-
goes repair and regeneration, and ovarian activity begins. The earlier in post-
partum these events are completed, the earlier breeding may commence. Uter-
ine involution involves physical, endocrine, and histologic processes. 52 Physical
processes may be monitored by palpation per rectum. Endocrinologic events
may be estimated from palpation of ovarian structures, however, milk pro-
gesterone testing may provide a more sensitive indicator of endocrine func-
tion. Initiation of ovulation does not seem to influence physical involution of
the uterus,52 but it may effect clearance of postpartum microbial contaminants.
Delays in physical involution will be associated with delays in first
ovulation. 21 ,52
Physical involution of the uterus can be assessed on rectal palpation. Histo-
logic repair lags physical change by 10 to 20 days.52 However, in the field
rectal palpation provides a reliable indicator of uterine repair. The majority of
cows (>70%) in a herd will have a normal size cervix and uterine horns by 30 to
35 days postpartum. 21 ,32,52 Factors that delay involution include twinning, in-
creasing parity, dystocia, retained placenta, milk fever, metritis, and fatty liver.
Nutritional factors that delay involution are deficiencies of selenium, copper,
iodine, calcium, cobalt, and vitamins A, D, and E.34,50
Direct effects of nutritional deficiencies on uterine involution are unlikely.
More commonly, nutritional effects on uterine involution are likely to be
associated with factors that increase milk fever and retained placenta. Excess
calcium and phosphorus, and deficiency of magnesium, selenium, and vitamin
E in the dry cow ration are the most likely nutrient problems influencing
involution in dairy herds in the Northeast. Degree of body fatness and condi-
tion change over the dry period may also influence incidence of periparturient
disorders and thus influence involution. 9,10,14,15,26 Selenium should be included
in the diet; however, to adequately maintain blood concentration, selenium
supplementation in deficient areas may require injection and dietary addition
during the dry period. 68
Higher yields of milk have been weakly associated with increases in days to
first ovulation. 6,59,60 More consistently, time to first ovulation has been asso-
ciated with energy balance. From point of lowest energy deficit, cows will
ovulate 14 days later. 6,7 Lowest energy deficit occurs by the second week
postpartum, so most cows should first ovulate by 30 days postpartum. Reports
in the literature suggest first ovulation occurs around 29 days with a standard
deviation of 14 days.6,7,12,21,32,56 Thus, 40% of cows should have a palpable
corpus luteum by 30 days postpartum and 70% by 40 days. The proportion of
cows with an active corpus luteum by 40 days can serve as an indicator of first
ovulation.
Cows with excessive weight loss and severe negative energy balance will
have irregular estrous periods35 - 37 and longer time to first ovulation31 ,35-37 and
first breeding. 30 ,35-37 It does not appear estrous expression is impaired by
negative energy balance,42,65 but higher yields of milk may delay estrous ex-
pression with cycle number postpartum. 30 First ovulation should not be signifi-
cantly different in high-producing cows in a herd, unless these cows are under-
going excessive rates of depletion.
Body tissue mobilization and negative energy balance have been corre-
lated with increased serum NEFA concentration. 37 ,53 Recently work from Hun-
gary correlated plasma NEFA concentration and the time postpartum that it
was elevated with ovarian and reproductive function. 37 Sixty multiparous cows
that had no clinical signs of postpartum complications, were used to correlate
plasma metabolites over the first 10 weeks postpartum with reproductive func-
494 JAMES D. FERGUSON

tion. Milk samples were collected twice a week to monitor progesterone.

Plasma elevation of NEFA for more than 1 week postpartum was associated
with longer days to first ovulation, irregular estrous cycles (as determined by
changes in milk progesterone concentration), and cessation of cyclic activity.
Number of pregnant animals was lower in cows with longer periods of NEFA
elevation. Rate and extent of negative energy balance influenced reproductive
function. These data imply that the duration in addition to depth of negative
energy balance can influence resumption and control of ovarian cycling.

Conception
The effects of many nutrient deficits on conception are largely mediated
through changes in energy balance. 50,67 Excess rumen-degradable protein 18 and
a deficit of manganese 50,67 may depress conception directly, but other nutrient
deficiencies appear to decrease conception via poor dry matter intake and
increased negative energy balance. Mechanisms of conception failure caused
by energy restriction are not clear, but changes in ovarian and pituitary func-
tion are observed in cows and heifers during energy restriction. 1,5,39,42,54,65,66
Hormonal and metabolic changes associated with negative energy balance that
may influence conception have not been clearly identified, but serum proges-
terone,21 luteinizing hormone,39 insulin, 5 glucose, 54 and nonesterified fatty
acids37 appear to be important.
Many studies have attempted to describe conception failure in dairy cows
with normal puerperal periods. Weight change,13,31,45,46,70 early insemination
postpartum,4,22,56,62,63 season of breeding,28,61 body condition,26,35-38,51 anes-
trous,23,24 alteration in serum progesterone in the cycle prior to breeding,21
ovulation delay or failure,52 and production l l ,16,29,43,57,59 have been implicated
as factors reducing CR in normal dairy cattle. Increasingly, producers question
if increased milk production is associated with repeat breeding.
Some researchers have found a negative relationship between milk yield
and fertility;1l,12,16,29,43,57,59 others have not observed this association. 55,57
Schindler et al55 found no effect of milk yield on fertility when cows were
inseminated at planned breeding intervals. Faust et al 16 and Hansen et al 29
found milk yield to be antagonistic for fertility primarily in first lactation
animals. Huscenicza et a}35-36 reported that milk yield was negatively asso-
ciated with fertility only in heifers and cows that were underfed or had exces-
sive condition loss.
Data for first insemination for 531, 5429, and 140,886 cows are presented
in Table 8. Small changes in CR occur over time postpartum. Most investigators
have reported time postpartum interactions with first service, usually CR in-
creasing with increasing days.4,22,62,63 Little improvement in first service rate is
apparent until after 140 days in milk (see Table 7) (Ferguson, Ferguson, and
Smith, unpublished observation). CR changed little with service number, in
agreement with Gwazdauskas et al 28 but not Foote. 22 Absolute milk yield had
little effect on conception at first service. An increase of 4.5 kg (10 Ib) of milk
at insemination was associated with a small absolute decline of about 2 to 3% in
conception rate. Increases of 450 kg, 305 projected milk yield were associated
with a 1 % and 1.7% decline in conception rate at first service. These changes
are small and unmeasurable within a herd. This agrees with observations that
milk yield has only minor associations with fertility. High milk production
should not reduce fertility unless a physiologic influence on hypothalmo-pitui-
tary-ovarian function occurs. Evidence suggests this may happen when intake
of energy-yielding nutrients lags far behind production requirements.
NUTRITION AND REPRODUCTION IN DAIRY COWS 495
Table 8. Patterns of Conception by Days in Milk for First Service, Service
Number, and Milk Production
CONCEPTION RATE (%)
Data 1 Data 2 Data 3
10 herds (n) NBC* (n) NEDHlAt (n)
ITEM n =531 n =5461 n = 140,886
Days in milk at first insemination
<40 100 32.2 <60 37.8
41-60 46.6 33.3
61-80 48.4 37.9 61-100 39.3
81-100 46.9 38.2
101-120 37.3 37.2 101-140 45
121-140 41.4 40.0
>140 46.7 47.3 >140 58.2
Service number
1 46.3 37.5
2 44.8 42.3
3 45.1 44.2
4+ 51.4 48.8
Milk yield
Test day closest to breeding
+4.5 kg -3 -2
Projected 305
+4545 kg -17 -10
<5901 kg 47.3 48.5
5900-6800 kg 43.1 45.1
6801-7730 kg 39.1 41
7731-8640 kg 38.1 38.6
>8640 kg 30.4 38.5
3X versus 2X -7
*Northeast Dairy Herd Improvement Association Records, 1987.
From Ferguson JD, Smith TR, unpublished observations, 1987.

In general, cows cannot consume adequate energy-yielding nutrients to

meet demands of milk production in early lactation. 2,5,6,49 Consequently, most
cows lose body condition in early lactation, given that they are in a negative
energy balance. Energy balance (EB) is defined as the difference in net energy
consumed minus the net energy required for maintenance and production
(EB = Nel [consumed] - Nel [required]).5 Condition loss correlates positively
with increased negative EB and increased plasma concentrations of NEFA.30,37
EB usually reaches the lowest absolute value during the second week after
calving and then begins to recover. 2,5,7,48
High-producing and multiparous cows experience deeper nadirs and take
longer days postpartum to regain zero or positive energy balance than lower
producing and younger cOWS. 2,30,48 However, there is great variation in nega-
tive energy balance among animals of similar producing ability and between
parities. 2,48 Thus production alone does not give an adequate measure of nega-
tive energy balance. 2,5
CR usually improves with time postpartum. 4,22,62,63 CR is adversely af-
fected by uterine infections and periparturient problems. 9- 11 ,14,15,21,23,24,28,56
Thus cows inseminated early postpartum may have reduced CR due to poor
uterine environment. Incidence of periparturient disease will influence CR
496 JAMES D. FERGUSON

within a herd at early stages postcalving. With time, metritis should clear and
CR should return to normal. Increases in total cumulative energy balance
(CNEB) may delay return to normal reproductive function independently of
metritis. 17 However, nutritional insults may act synergistically to further re-
duce CR and delay improvement with time postpartum.
Schindler et al55 found conception was higher at all time periods postpar-
tum in animals that reached zero energy balance earlier. Period of insemination
influenced the effect of energy balance on first service CR. 55 The more nega-
tive energy balance, the lower first service CR in animals inseminated 60 to 90
days postpartum as compared with 35 to 59 or 120 to 150 days postpartum.
These data suggest energy balance and not milk yield influences concep-
tion. Earlier return to positive balance and less CNEB are associated with
higher CR in cows inseminated at similar time periods postpartum. Factors on
farms that increase CNEB are potential factors that may reduce CR. Early
breeding may be associated with low CR independent of degree of negative
energy balance. Fertility should improve with time postpartum, if early inter-
val CRs are low. However, if negative energy balance is severe, fertility will not
improve with time postpartum and repeat breeding will increase in the herd.
It is impossible to measure energy balance under field conditions. Body
weight has been used as a measure of change in energy balance. However,
changes in weight in lactating dairy cows are confounded by increases in gut
fill, dry matter intake, and shifts in body water as lipid is mobilized to support
milk production. 25 •48 A plot of live weight change against condition change
shows the extreme variation present in live weight change (Fig. 1). Because of

Live weight change

and body score change
125

100

75
Q)
C>
c 50
co
..c:
()
25
E
C>
'co 0
~ 4-
Q)
.~ -25
....J

-50 +

-75
-100
-2 -1 o 2

Body score change

Figure 1. Plot of weekly live weight change against body condition change for 40
Holstein cows (r2 = 0.25).
NUTRITION AND REPRODUCTION IN DAIRY Cows 497
shifts in body water with fat mobilization, cows losing body condition are
gaining live weight and correlations between live weight and body condition
change are poor. 2,25 A more sensitive indicator of energy balance than weight
change is body condition change. Body condition change is highly correlated
with adipose tissue mobilization and with CNEB.13,20,25,48
Differences between milk energy output and energy intake from feed
closely parallel changes in body condition and change in body condition re-
flects CNEB (Fig. 2). Maximum condition loss correlates with CNEB.20 One
condition loss is equal to 56 kg of fat loss (I23Ib, 88 to I56lb 95% confidence
limit) and 400 Mcal CNEB (315 to 479 Mcal 95% confidence limit).2o
Difference in body condition score at calving and body condition score at
first breeding is a good predictor of conception at first service (Table 9). Cows
with a loss of one body score had conception rates significantly lower than cows
with zero condition loss or condition gain at first breeding.
Monitoring body condition and body condition change throughout lacta-
tion and the dry period is a useful management tool to assess antagonism
between nutrition, milk yield, and fertility. 25,26,67 Body condition monitoring
should be a routine management practice.
On average, a typical herd should lose -0.5 condition units by 30 days
postpartum (see Fig. 2). Condition change should not exceed one condition
score in a majority of cows in the herd. In an unpublished data set from 10
herds and 531 cows, condition change was equal to or exceeded one condition
score in only 13.1 % of the cows between calving and first breeding. Condition
change by 30 days postpartum measures CNEB and can indicate problems with
nutrient intake and feed management. Factors associated with increased condi-
tion loss are associated with feed intake restriction and not milk production per
se. 25 Fat cows eat less than thin cows and lose more body condition. 25 ,53 Cows
should calve at a 3 to 3.5 to avoid fat cow problems and excessive condition
loss.26
Nutritional strategies to increase milk yield should be assessed relative to
change in body condition if reproductive efficiency is to be maintained in the
herd. To maintain fertility, CNEB (body condition loss) should be less than
-350 Mcal (>50% CR). This represents about two thirds of one unit body
condition loss.
Ruminant animals have two protein synthesizing systems-rumen mi-
crobes and ruminant tissues. 49 Ruminant microbes require N in the form of
ammonia, peptides, and amino acids. Ruminant tissues require amino acids,
which may be supplied by rumen-undegraded protein sources or microbial
crude protein. Milk production and fertility of dairy cows are influenced by the
efficiency of dietary supply of protein for rumen and ruminant require-
ments. 3,7,18,19 If dietary protein exceeds the rumen requirement for degraded
intake protein, fertility is depressed. 7,18,19 Age of cow, energy density of the
ration, and intake of undegraded protein appear to modify the effects of in-
creasing degraded intake protein on fertility. Mechanisms of reduced concep-
tion with increases in DIP appear to be related to decreased fertilization and
reduced embryo quality (Table 10).3 These data suggest that fertilization fail-
ure and reduced embryo quality occurs at a higher rate in older cows fed diets
high in degraded intake protein (DIP).
In previous work involving a herd fertility problem, we had observed that
cows with elevations in serum urea nitrogen (SUN) were subfertile (cows with
SUN> 20 mg/dL had CR under 25%).18 To further investigate the relationship
between SUN and fertility we used cows in eight herds consuming one of three
diets (Table 11). Cows within each of four herds were matched based on age,
498 JAMES D. FERGUSON

Milk(kg) vs DMI(kg) Intake vs output in milk

50

45

40

35
(f) -l
Q)
E Z
ro 30
C, ca
(.)
.2 ~
~ 25

20

15

10
4 8 12 16 20 4 8 12 16 20
Week postpartum Week postpartum
~Milk -e-Intake ~ Milk --e- Intake

Live weight change Body condition change

30 1,00 ~------------.,

25 0,75
20
ca
.0 0,50
w Q)
"0 15 C>
C
C
ro ~ 0,25
Q) 10 (.)
C>
c: c:
ro .,g 0,00 '"*'~----""""'-------1
.£:
(.)
5 :cc
1: o
C> 0 (.) -0,25
>-
~ "0
o
-5 CD -0,50

-10
-0,75
-15
4 8 12 16 20 12~1-.I-1......
- 1,00 L...L-""I"""",I4.....a.....J1-I...8.............................. 6""1""",,,1-....20......
Week postpartum
Week postpartum
-6- wt --e- eb
Figure 2. Relationship between energy intake and energy output in milk and body
condition change-40 multiparous Holstein cows.

season of calving, and mature equivalent milk yield, and randomly assigned to
diet 1 or 2. Cows in the other four herds were matched in the same fashion and
randomly assigned to diet 2 or 3. Diets were offered from calving to 150 DIM.
Cows were blood sampled for SUN analysis every 2 weeks.
Only cows inseminated during the breeding period were included in the
NUTRITION AND REPRODUCTION IN DAIRY COWS 499
Table 9. Influence of Condition Change from Calving to
First Insemination on Conception (N = 531) *
CONDITION CONCEPTION RATE (95%
CHANGE CONFIDENCE LIMIT)

+1 61. 7 (53.9,68.9)
o 50 (57.9,42.1)
-1 38.3 (31.1,46.1)
*bl = -0.4753 (sem = 0.1626)
1
CR = : y = - .4753 (body cond change). (sem = .1626.)
l+e-y

fertility analysis. From the eight herds, a total of 206 cows were inseminated
during the defined breeding period.
The pattern of SUN by period postpartum for the two groups of four herds
is shown in Figure 3. Herds consuming the 21 % CP diet had the highest SUN.
SUN concentration was higher in cows from herds consuming diet 2 matched
with diet 3 than in cows from herds matched with diet 1 (14.7 mg/dL versus
11.2 mg/dL, P < 0.05). This suggests that some stealing of feed may have
occurred between cows on the separate diets. However, cows within a herd
consuming diet 2 always had lower SUN concentrations than cows consuming
diet 1 or 3. There was no effect of lactation number on mean SUN or in serum
SUN over time postpartum.
Week of lactation Significantly influenced SUN concentration from calving
to week 7 and then had no influence on SUN values. SUN was stable for each
cow from week 7 to week 21 postpartum. Mean SUN between week 7 to week

Table 10. Embryo Yield from Cows Consuming Diets 1, 2, and 3

when Superovulated
DIET 1 2 3
Cows 19 19 12
Failure * 7 It 4§
Total ova 164 167 91
Fertilized ova 104 124t 85
Transferable ova 85 105t 76
Cows 2nd lactation 7 7 o
Failure * 2 1
Cows 4th and greater 11 11 12
Failure * 5 ot 411
*Failure means no transferable ova obtained on collection
tP < 0.1 diet 1 vs diet 2
tP < 0.05 diet 1 vs diet 2
§P < 0.08 diet 2 vs diet 3
lIP < 0.085 diet 2 vs diet 3
Data from Blanchard T, Ferguson J, Love L, et al: Effect of dietary crude-protein
type on fertilization and embryo quality in dairy cattle. Am J Vet Res 51:905, 1990; and
unpublished data, diet 3.
500 JAMES D. FERGUSON

Table 11. Diets Used to Study the Effect of Varying Protein Degradability
and Concentration on Fertility in Dairy Cows
INGREDIENTS (%DM) DIET 1 DIET 2 DIET 3
Corn silage 34.7 34.7 34.7
Legume haylage/hay 11. 11. 11.
Ground ear corn 29.2 24.8 20.
Raw soybeans 13.8 6.9 14.2
Soybean meal (48%) 8.1 6.3 18.2
Distillers dried grain 0 13.7 0
Minerals/vitamins 3.2 2.6 2.1
Calculated Ration Composition *
Crude protein 16.5 16.4 21.6
DIPIP 71 63 71
UIPIP 29 37 29
NEL (Mcal/kg) 1.66 1.66 1.66
Ether extract 5.8 5.8 5.8
DIPIP = rumen degraded intake protein as a percentage of crude protein;
UIPIP = undegraded intake protein as a percentage of crude protein.
*Calculations based on proximate analysis of individual feed ingredients and
amounts formulated to be offered to high-producing cows based on NRC recommenda-
tions (1978, 1985).
Data from Ferguson J, Blanchard T, Chalupa W, unpublished data.

21 of lactation for each cow was used to examine the relationship between SUN
and CR by logistic regression.
Conception rate to all services declined as SUN increased (see Fig. 3). We
did not find any interaction between age, level of milk yield, and diet in
influencing SUN and CR. Cows with elevated SUN are more likely to be repeat
breeders.
To assess efficacy of protein feeding within a herd, sample a proportion of
cows for SUN from 50 to 150 days postpartum. If a significant proportion of
cows have SUN over 20 mg/ dL, then protein supply in the ration may be
associated with reduced CR. This relationship will be influenced by the overall
fertility in the herd. High and low fertility herds will experience less association
between SUN and CR than herds of average fertility.
Diets should be formulated to minimize CNEB. Rations should be balanced
for rumen degradable and undegradable intake protein. Fat supplementation
may help mitigate CNEB. In addition to dietary composition, maximum dry
matter intake is important to minimize CNEB and maintain fertility.

DIETARY ASSESSMENT

All ration ingredients, forages, grains, and mineral supplements need to be

identified and amounts fed, time fed, and sequence of feeding characterized.
This may involve weighing scoops and shovels and calibrating mixer wagon
load cells. Bunk space per cow should be measured (2 feet or more per cow).
Diets should be analyzed relative to each production group, early, middle, and
late lactation, nonlactating, and heifer groups. Amounts fed relative to number
of cattle within the group and amount of weighback, if any, removed from the
group daily should be verified.
 NUTRITION AND REPRODUCTION IN DAIRY COWS 501
Blood urea nitrogen All services
Influence of CP and DIP All days and diets

25 55

20 50
I >.
u
C
I <t:l
c
........... ~-+- ...... Ol
45
::J ~
~ \
+-+ .. a.
Ol
E ~-t'" " '0
Z -+ ... "'4" ~
::::> :0 40
m <t:l
.0
0
a:
5 35

30 ~------~----~--------
2 4 6 8 10 10 15 20 25

A Period B BUN(mg/100 mL)

-e-1 -+- 2A -+- 2B -A- 3

CR to all services
by SUN concentration
60

55

Q)

~ 50
c
0
a
Q)
u
c 45
0
0

40

35
<10 10-20 >20

C Group BUN
Figure 3. A, Serum urea nitrogen (SUN) by weeks postpartum for diets 1, 2, 3 (see
Table 6). B, Conception rate for first service, second service, and all services for cows
with SUN<lO mg/dL, SUN 10-20 mg/dL, and SUN >20 mg/dL. C, Logistic regression
analysis of SUN vs CR (N = 208 cows).
502 JAMES D. FERGUSON

Feed samples of forages, grains, and protein supplements should be col-

lected for proximate analysis. Tags on bags of supplements can serve as esti-
mates of mineral content. However, it may be necessary to sample supplements
for analysis. If food-borne toxins are suspected as the cause of a problem, feed
samples must be analyzed to confirm the diagnosis. Good sampling methods
should be utilized to ensure adequate representation. Nutritional problems
cannot be assessed by forage and feed analysis alone due to the variation in
laboratory analysis, even with representative samples. Further corroborative
work is necessary, which may involve necropsy and tissue specimens.
Table 12 presents an analysis of 24 aliquots of a basket of haylage sent to
four laboratories in three paired replicates. The coefficient of variation of
nutrients tested in the haylage ranged from 5.3 to 20%. For almost all nu-
trients, the range of nutrient concentrations in the samples spanned values that
would be considered poor or deficient to excellent or sufficient. Thus, it would
be impossible to make a decision of nutrient deficiency or excess based on
proximate analysis of one feed sample. Repeated samples may be necessary to
adequately describe nutrient value of feed ingredients.
After feeds are sampled, amounts fed of all supplements and feed ingre-
dients are used to evaluate the diet relative to physiologic status. Analysis of
total mixed rations may aid in estimating the quality of mixing and feed prepa-
ration performed on the farm. Again, repeated samples may be necessary to
adequately describe the nutrient content of the ration. Acceptable dietary
concentrations and maximum tolerable concentrations are presented in Table
13. Dietary factors may predispose to nutrient deficiencies and these should be
considered in the analysis (Table 14).

TISSUE SAMPLES AND CORROBORATING CLINICAL SIGNS

Deficits in nutrient supply may be confirmed for some dietary components

based on clinical laboratory tests (Table 15). An adequate number of cows in

Table 12. Variation in Proximate Analysis of Haylage Sent to Four

Laboratories as Paired Samples in Three Replicates*
NUTRIENT MEAN cv (%) RANGE

Nutrient concentration (%)

Dry matter 3l.9 5.3 27.9-35.7
Crude protein 17.8 8.8 13.5-2l.4
Acid detergent fiber 39.1 6.5 32.8-43.4
Calcium l.06 12.1 0.85-1.40
Phosphorous .32 1l.7 0.19-0.41
Magnesium .4 18 0.26-0.55
Potassium 3.3 21 2.2-4.4
Nutrient concentration (ppm)
Zinc 30 12 26-38
Copper 10 22 7-16
Manganese 57 11 49-76
Iron 489 29 274-899
*Six samples/laboratory (Galligan, DT, personal communication 1991).
NUTRITION AND REPRODUCTION IN DAIRY Cows 503
Table 13. Dietary Concentrations and Maximum Tolerable Concentrations in
Dairy Rations
LACTATION
NUTRIENT MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATION Late Early Dry CONCENTRATION

Dry matter concentration (%)

ADF >21 18-19 >21 ?
NDF >32 28-32 >32 ?
Calcium 0.43 0.77 0.39 2
Phosphorous 0.28 0.48 0.24 1
Magnesium 0.20 0.25 0.16 0.5
Potassium 0.90 1.00 0.65 3
Sulfer 0.20 0.25 0.16 0.4
Dry matter concentration (ppm)
Iron 50 50 50 1000
Cobalt 0.1 0.1 0.1 10
Copper 10 10 10 100
Manganese 40 40 40 1000
Zinc 40 40 40 500
Iodine 0.6 0.6 0.6 50
Selenium 0.3 0.3 0.3 2
Molybdenum 10
Dry matter concentration (IV/kg)
Vitamin A 3200 4000 4000 66,000
Vitamin D 1000 1000 1200 10,000
Vitamin E 15 15 15 2000
Ratios
Cu/Mo 2-4 2-4 2-4 5/1-10/1
<2/1
Abbreviations: ADF = acid detergent fiber; NDF = neutral detergent fiber.
From National Research Council: Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, rev ed 6.
Washington, DC, National Academy of Science, 1988.

Table 14. Predisposing Dietary Conditions to Nutrient Deficiencies or Excesses

DEFICIENCY TOXICITY FACTOR IN DIET

Iodine Brassica sp. (action-increase I to 1 ppm)

Vitamin E Acid-treated feeds
Copper Fe, Zn, Mo, Se, sulfates (0.4% max)
Cd, phytate
Zinc Fe, phytate
Selenium Lipids, sulfur amino acids
Cu, As, Cd
Selenium Selenium accumulator plants
Oversupplementation
Fluorine Smelters - industrial contamination
Copper Accidental; low Mo
Lead Accidental; motor oil, batteries
Estrogenic
substances Molds; subterranean clover
504 JAMES D. FERGUSON

Table 15. Tissue Samples Which are Reliable to Confirm a Nutrient Deficiency
DEFICIENCY TISSUE TEST CONCENTRATION

Cobalt Blood/urine Methylmalonate >4.6-15 umolfL (sheep)

Normal «4.6 umolfL)
Serum Co severe def. <200-300 ug/L (sheep)
Copper Plasma/serum Cu <0.5 ug/mL
Normal (0.5-1.5 ug/mL)
Liver Cu normal (20 -150 ug/g)
Plasma Ferritin Low
Prolonged deficiency
RBC CuZn superoxide dismutase low in prolonged
deficiency <0.5 mg/g hemoglobin
Manganese Blood/serum Mn normal (18-19 ug/dL)
Selenium Plasma/serum Se normal (0.8-0.12 ug/mL)
Zinc Plasma Zn <0.4 ug/mL
Normal (0.5-1.5 ug/mL)
(Do not use whole blood - 10X higher concentration
Note: plasma Zn will decrease in infection)
Iodine Serum I <40 ug/L
Bulk milk I <20 ug/L
Vitamin A Plasma Vitamin A <25 ug/dL
Phosphorous Serum P <4 mg/dL
Excess degraded Plasma Urea nitrogen >20 mg/dL
intake protein Ration analysis
From references 34, 40, 44, 64.

herd needs to be sampled, a minimum of 10 to 20 cows. Deficiencies or

excesses should be evident in a majority of cows to be diagnostic. One or two
animals out of 10 to 20 tested would be expected to have low or elevated
plasma or blood concentrations of the components listed in Table 15. Small
sample sizes (less than five to seven cows) should be interpreted cautiously.
Hair samples are not diagnostic of mineral deficiencies. 8

CONCLUSION

Diagnosis of nutritional effects on fertility relies on integrating the pattern

of infertility with ration analysis, appropriate clinical tests, body condition
change, palpation findings of uterine and ovarian structures, and clinical signs
associated with the suspected inciting cause. Most problems in dairy herds are
associated with mismanagement of macronutrients, energy, and protein. Poor
quality feeds, poor feed preparation, poor feed delivery, and poor feedbunk
management predispose to increased energy deficits and reduced reproductive
efficiency. Periparturient diseases are related to dry cow nutrition and manage-
ment problems and can have a major impact on herd reproductive perform-
ance. Inappropriate diagnostic work-ups will result in spurious conclusions and
misleading associations.

REFERENCES

1. Apgar J, Aspros D, Hixon JE, et al: Effect of restricted feed intake on the sensitivity
of the bovine corpus luteum to LH in vitro. J Anim Sci 41:1120, 1975
NUTRITION AND REPRODUCTION IN DAIRY Cows 505
2. Berglaund B, Danell B: Live weight changes, feed consumption, milk yield and
energy balance in dairy cattle during the first period of lactation. Acta Agric Scand
37:495, 1987
3. Blanchard T, Ferguson I, Love L, et al: Effect of dietary crude-protein type on
fertilization and embryo quality in dairy cattle. Am I Vet Res 51:905, 1990
4. Britt IH: Early postpartum breeding in dairy cows. I Dairy Sci 58:266, 1975
5. Butler WH, Smith RD: Interrelationships between energy balance and postpartum
reproductive function in dairy cattle. I Dairy Sci 72:767, 1989
6. Butler RW, Everett RW, Coppock CE: The relationship between energy balance,
milk production, and ovulation in postpartum Holstein cows. I Anim Sci 53:742,
1981
7. Canfield RW, Sniffen CI, Butler WH: Effects of excess degradable protein on post-
partum reproduction and energy balance in dairy cattle. I Dairy Sci 73:2342,
1990
8. Combs DK: Hair analysis as an indicator of mineral status of livestock. I Anim Sci
65:1753, 1987
9. Curtis CR, Erb HN, Sniffen CI, et al: Path analysis of dry period nutrition, postpar-
tum metabolic and reproductive disorders, and mastitis in Holstein cows. I Dairy
Sci 68:2347, 1985
10. Curtis CR, Erb HN, Sniffen CI, et al: Epidemiology of parturient paresis: Predispos-
ing factors with emphasis on dry cows' feeding and management. I Dairy Sci
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James D. Ferguson, VMD, MS

University of Pennsylvania
School of Veterinary Medicine
New Bolton Center
382 West Street Road
Kennett Square, PA 19348