The Correctional Staff Burnout Literature: Criminal Justice Studies

Criminal Justice Studies
A Critical Journal of Crime, Law and Society
ISSN: 1478-601X (Print) 1478-6028 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gjup20
The correctional staff burnout literature
Eric G. Lambert, Nancy L. Hogan, Marie L. Griffin & Thomas Kelley
To cite this article: Eric G. Lambert, Nancy L. Hogan, Marie L. Griffin & Thomas Kelley (2015)
The correctional staff burnout literature, Criminal Justice Studies, 28:4, 397-443
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2015.1065830
Published online: 21 Jul 2015.
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Criminal Justice Studies, 2015
Vol. 28, No. 4, 397–443, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2015.1065830
The correctional staff burnout literature

Eric G. Lamberta*, Nancy L. Hoganb, Marie L. Griffinc and Thomas Kelleyd
a
Department of Legal Studies, The University of Mississippi, Odom Hall 202,
P.O. Box 1848, University, MS 38677, USA; bSchool of Criminal Justice, Ferris State
University, 525 Bishop Hall, Big Rapids, MI 49307, USA; cSchool of Criminology and
Criminal Justice, Arizona State University, 411 North Central Avenue, Suite 600, Phoenix,
AZ 85004, USA; dDepartment of Criminal Justice, Wayne State University, 3255 Faculty
Administration Building, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
(Received 22 March 2015; accepted 22 June 2015)
Correctional staff job burnout is costly to all involved. As such, it has generated a
growing body of research. This study reviewed 53 empirical studies of correc-
tional staff burnout and two review articles published between 1981 and 2014.
The majority of studies focused on staff working in a variety of institutional posi-
tions, fewer studies focused exclusively on the subgroup of correctional officers,
and even fewer focused on a different subgroup. The majority of studies also
involved staff at US government-run adult prisons. Most but not all studies uti-
lized Maslach’s Burnout Inventory. Research on the antecedents of job burnout
among correctional staff is more common than research on the possible conse-
quences or outcomes of job burnout. Interestingly, despite the empirical emphasis
on antecedents of burnout, there has been almost no research on effective inter-
ventions designed to deal with correctional staff burnout. Based on this narrative
review, significant gaps remain in the research on correctional staff burnout.
Keywords: correctional staff; job burnout; work environment; prison
Corrections is an integral part of the criminal justice system. In the US alone, more
than thirty billion dollars are spent annually to house over 1.4 million prisoners in
more than 1200 prisons, which collectively employ over 400,000 people (Maguire,
2014). Correctional staff are the driving force of these facilities. Staff are the heart
and soul of any correctional organization, because they are responsible for the myr-
iad daily tasks and duties that keep a facility running smoothly (Lambert & Hogan,
2009). Staff are a not only valuable resource, they are an expensive one. The
operation of correctional institutions is labor intensive, and personnel accounts for
over 70% of the costs of operating a typical correctional facility (Camp & Lambert,
2006). In addition to the effects that staff have on the correctional institution in
which they work, the work environment of their institution can have significant
effects on its staff.
Institutional corrections is a unique occupation. The first goal of a correctional
facility should be to provide a safe, secure, and humane environment. While this
goal appears relatively straightforward, reaching it can place strain and pressure on
*Corresponding author. Email: eglamber@olemiss.edu

This study was presented at the 2013 meeting of the American Society of Criminology, and
this initial presentation included Shannon Barton-Bellessa, Brett Garland, and Bitna Kim.
© 2015 Taylor & Francis

398 E.G. Lambert et al.
the people working inside the institution. Shortages of resources and staff impact
the institution’s ability to accomplish these goals. Most correctional facilities are
not state-of-the-art, pleasant workplaces, and working in a difficult environment can
wear on employees over time (Lambert, Altheimer, & Hogan, 2010). Unlike many
organizations, correctional facilities require staffing 24 h a day, every day of the
year. Often staff can be required to work mandatory overtime and on holidays,
which can interfere with family or other social obligations and cause conflict for
staff (Lambert & Hogan, 2010). Furthermore, correctional role behaviors, such as
enforcer of rules, necessary for working in corrections, is not always conducive for
non-work roles, which can lead to strain for staff (Lambert, Hogan, Camp, &
Ventura, 2006). Working in institutional corrections also means doing ‘people
work,’ which, in itself, can be trying (Armstrong & Griffin, 2004). Moreover, cor-
rectional staff need to work with inmates, a group of individuals being held against
their will, who, at times, can be uncooperative, manipulative, and even violent
(Griffin, Hogan, Lambert, Tucker-Gail, & Baker, 2010). Armstrong and Griffin
(2004) contended that ‘few other organizations are charged with the central task of
supervising and securing an unwilling and potentially violent population’ (p. 577).
These and other challenges faced by correctional staff place a burden on them,
which, over time, can become overwhelming, resulting in job burnout (Carlson,
Anson, & Thomas, 2003; Whitehead, 1989). Keinan and Malach-Pines (2007)
found that correctional employees reported much higher levels of burnout than the
general population; indeed, they found that correctional employees reported higher
levels of burnout than police officers. Burnout is a losing proposition for all parties.
It has numerous negative effects for employees, their families, friends, coworkers,
inmates, the correctional facility, and society in general (Finney, Stergiopoulos,
Hensel, Bonato, & Dewa, 2013; Griffin et al., 2010; Neveu, 2007; Schaufeli &
Peeters, 2000).
In an era where rising costs, shrinking budgets, and personnel shortages are
common, ensuring that correctional staff do not suffer burnout is increasingly
important (Lambert & Hogan, 2009). Scholars have responded by studying job
burnout among correctional staff. While there has been an increase in research
looking at correctional staff job burnout, the overall message of this body of
empirical literature is unclear. Without clear information, it is difficult to implement
effective interventions. Due to the growing number of correctional staff burnout
studies, a systematic review of published articles on correctional staff burnout is
necessary to provide an overview of what has been studied and what has been
found. It is important to take stock of the work that has already been done, any
and all methodological issues that have arisen, and what issues remain to be
explored. This information will provide both scholars and correctional administra-
tors with a summary of what is known, the limitations of past studies, and recom-
mendations for future empirical research in the area. A qualitative review is
valuable for summarizing salient findings and limitations in a succinct manner,
while also providing a framework for future research. A qualitative review also
allows readers to gauge for themselves the current state of knowledge and possible
future research directions. This review is narrative rather that meta-analytic. We feel
that that the study of burnout among correctional staff is at an early stage and
needs further development before a rigorous and reliable quantitative meta-analysis
is ready to be conducted. A meta-analysis uses aggregate-level data to estimate
effect sizes, along with variance estimates of the effect sizes. While effect sizes are
Criminal Justice Studies 399
important, we feel that they do not present a complete picture of the current state
of research on burnout among correctional staff, such as issues and limitations of
past studies. Another reason for conducting a narrative review is that we do not feel
past studies have always used consistent measures, particularly in how burnout is
measured, to meet the homogeneity assumption of meta-analysis. Meta-analytic
research is important, and we hope this review will spur meta-analytic studies in
the future, as the number of additional burnout studies using consistent measures
grows.
Defining job burnout

While some people equate job stress and burnout, they are not interchangeable terms
but empirically distinct concepts (Griffin et al., 2010; Keinan & Malach-Pines,
2007; Maslach & Jackson, 1981; Schaufeli & Peeters, 2000; Whitehead, 1989). Job
stress is the psychological feeling of anxiety, tension, and strain from the job (Van
Voorhis, Cullen, Link, & Wolfe, 1991). Job burnout, on the other hand, refers to
withdrawing emotionally, psychologically, and socially from the job, and generally
results after prolonged exposure to stress, including job stress, and/or the removal or
denial of necessary or valued workplace resources (Cherniss, 1980a, 1980b;
Maslach, 1982; Maslach & Jackson, 1984). Furthermore, job stress tends to occur
more quickly than job burnout, which takes time to develop (Schaufeli & Peeters,
2000; Whitehead, 1989). Moreover, while exposure to job stress can lead to burnout,
this is not always the case (Griffin et al., 2010). Nevertheless, research has shown
that job stress is often positively correlated with correctional staff burnout (Garner,
Knight, & Simpson, 2007; Griffin et al., 2010; Keinan & Malach-Pines, 2007;
Whitehead, 1989; Whitehead & Lindquist, 1986). It is important to note that it is
continued (long-term) high levels of uncontrollable stress that is connected with job
burnout. Short term exposure to minor levels of job stress is generally not linked to
job burnout (Maslach, 1982).
During the initial stages of the development of the burnout concept, different
views and definitions were proposed. The first was by Freudenberger (1974), who
is credited with coining the term job burnout, which he defined as the circumstance
wherein a person becomes psychologically worn out and exhausted due to exces-
sive work demands. Later, Freudenberger (1980) refined his definition to refer to
when a worker was ‘in a state of fatigue or frustration’ (p. 13). Pines and Kafry
(1978) contended that burnout was tedium where the employee felt distress and dis-
content from the job resulting in emotional and physical depletion. Kahn (1978)
described burnout as a syndrome of negative attitudes towards others and self,
which then causes negative psychological and physical symptoms, such as exhaus-
tion and medical problems. Cherniss (1980a, 1908b) proposed that burnout was a
causal process consisting of three stages. The first stage was an imbalance of work
demands, forces, and resources, which in turn resulted in an emotional and psycho-
logical strain for the employee. The second stage occurred when the consequences
of the emotional and psychological strain resulted in the employee treating clients
and other employees in a detached, impersonal, and even callous manner. In the
third stage, the employee felt ineffective at work, which resulted in the person with-
drawing from work and others, and becoming disengaged and cynical. Cherniss
(1980a) argued that job burnout is complete ‘when the workers defensively cope
with the job by psychologically detaching themselves from the job and becoming
apathetic, cynical, and rigid’ (p. 21). At the same time, other scholars were
approaching burnout from different perspectives.
At the same time as the above views and definitions were being proposed,
Maslach et al. proposed their views and definition of burnout, and, in the end, their
view of burnout has been widely accepted. Specifically, Maslach (1978), often seen
as a pioneering expert in the area of burnout, originally theorized that burnout
occurred when employees experienced ‘the gradual loss of caring about the people
they work with. Over time, they find that they simply cannot sustain the kind of
personal care and commitment required in the personal encounters that are the
essence of their job’ (p. 56). Several years later, Maslach and Jackson (1981)
defined burnout as ‘a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism that occurs
frequently among individuals who do “people work” of some kind’ (p. 99). They
postulated that burnout had three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonaliza-
tion, and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment (Maslach & Jackson, 1981,
1984). Emotional exhaustion refers to feelings of being emotional drained and fati-
gued from work. Depersonalization is when an employee develops a cynical atti-
tude towards others and their motivations, and treats others in an impersonal and
callous manner. The sense of reduced accomplishment refers to the perception of
not being productive when working with other human beings, as well as having lit-
tle, if any, meaningful impact on others at work (i.e. feeling ineffective at work)
(Maslach, 2003; Maslach & Jackson, 1981, 1984; Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter,
2001). The three dimensions of burnout can occur in concert with one another or
may exist separately (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993; Maslach, 2003; Maslach &
Jackson, 1981). Further, Maslach and Jackson (1981, 1984) theorized that work-
place factors were the primary cause of job burnout. Maslach (2003) contended that
burnout was the ‘chronic strain that resulted from an incongruence, or misfit,
between the worker and the job’ (p. 198).
The various views and definitions of job burnout share two primary commonali-
ties. The first relates to process. Factors lead to a psychological strain for a person,
creating feelings of being drained from work, leading to the treatment of others at
work as objects, and a feeling that one is not effective at work. The second com-
monality is that workplace factors and not personal characteristics trigger burnout
(Maslach et al., 2001). Maslach (2003) pointed out that
Among the general public, the conventional wisdom about burnout is that the problem
lies within the person. Some argue that the person who burns out is trying too hard
and doing too much, whereas others believe that the weak and incompetent burn out;
however, research results have not supported the argument that burnout is related to a
person’s disposition. (p. 191)
Today, the general view of job burnout is that proposed by Maslach and Jackson
(1981) wherein burnout possesses three related but distinct dimensions – emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and feeling of reduced accomplishment.
Method for current review

The time frame for this review of published studies of correctional staff job burnout
was from January 1981 to December 2014. This review is based on published cor-
rectional staff burnout studies found in a search of various databases, specifically
Criminal Justice Abstracts, Criminal Justice Periodicals Index, Google Scholar,
National Criminal Justice Reference Service, National Institute of Corrections,

Psychological Abstracts, Social Services Abstracts, Social Work Abstracts, and
Sociological Abstracts. In addition, the authors located articles based on references
cited in other articles. A total 55 published works were located, of which 53 were
studies and two were reviews. The authors recognize that there may be other cor-
rectional staff burnout studies published. The list of the 55 published works are
presented in Table 1, which includes the name(s) of the authors, year of publica-
tion, the type of staff studied, the measure of burnout used, and the major findings.
The publication details of the two review articles are provided at the end of the
table. In 2000, Schaufeli and Peeters, reviewed 14 correctional staff burnout studies
from 1981 to 1997. In 2013, Finney et al. reviewed eight studies that focused on
job stress and burnout among correctional officers, but only one of these studies
focused on burnout. In the review provided here, 20 studies published between
1981 and 1997 are presented, as are 33 studies and two reviews that were pub-
lished between 1998 and 2014. Based on the limited number of studies reviewed in
the past and given that there have been only two reviews, there is a need to provide
an updated and more comprehensive assessment of correctional staff burnout stud-
ies. Scholars and correctional administrators require timely information regarding
‘what we know’ about staff burnout, as well as identify existing gaps in the litera-
ture. As such, the authors provided a systematic examination of the 53 empirical
studies and two reviews.
Please note that number(s) in parenthesis in the below text refer to the citation
number assigned to the article in Table 1. Additionally, sometimes the number of
cases (n) in two seemingly dichotomous categories may sum to more than 53
because one or more studies include both sets of categories (e.g. both prison and
jail staff or two groups of correctional staff such as correctional officers and
treatment counselors).
How job burnout was measured

Most, but not all, of the reviewed studies adopted a definition of burnout proposed
by Maslach and Jackson (1981). Before the work of Maslach and colleagues
became more commonplace in the literature, three early studies (1, 2, 9) adopted a
definition of burnout and a measurement of tedium proposed by Pines and Kafry
(1978). Many of the reviewed studies (n = 22) rely on the Maslach Burnout Inven-
tory (MBI) (3–5, 7, 8, 10–11, 15, 19, 21–23, 26, 29, 32, 34, 42–43, 46–47, 49).
Two of these studies used the French version of the MBI (29, 47). Of the studies
using the MBI, all measured the three burnout dimensions. One study (3) measured
all three burnout dimensions, but created a composite measure of burnout by com-
bining the responses to the burnout dimensions of emotional exhaustion and deper-
sonalization. The MBI has two possible response options of frequency and
intensity. A few (n = 4) of the studies (3–4, 8, 10) used both response options. Of
the studies that used only one response option, most (n = 13) selected the frequency
option (5, 7, 11, 19, 22–23, 26, 29, 32, 34, 42, 46, 47, 49). Two studies reported
using only the intensity option (21, 43). One study (15) did not report which
response option was selected for the administered MBI. One article (46) reported
using a modified/abbreviated MBI (i.e. 19 of the 22 items were used). Two studies
(6, 24) used a total exhaustion scale, which measures the emotional exhaustion of
burnout. Wright and Saylor (1991) reported measuring job stress and efficiency in
Table 1. Review of published correctional staff burnout studies and review articles.
402
Studies on correctional staff/officer job burnout

Study #/Author Sample Measure of burnout Major findings
1. Shamir and Staff at four Israeli prisons Used Pines, Aronson, and Kafry (1980) There were no significant differences by
Drory (1981) measure of tedium – three scales of ethnic group on the tedium measure.
physical exhaustion, emotional Satisfaction with supervision and
exhaustion, and negative attitudes toward satisfaction with promotion were found
self and others – combined to form a to be negatively related to the tedium
composite burnout measure measure. NS for burnout measure:
satisfaction with work, satisfaction with
coworkers, and satisfaction with pay
2. Shamir and Staff at four Israeli prisons Used Pines et al. (1980) measure of Role overload had positive association
Drory (1982) tedium – three scales of physical with the burnout measure, and
exhaustion, emotional exhaustion, and management support and societal support
negative attitudes toward self and others had negative associations. It should be
noted only the change in R-squared was
reported rather than the regression
coefficients for the variables used in the
study. NS: role ambiguity, role conflict,
E.G. Lambert et al.
work-family conflict, job autonomy, peer

support, skill variety, and job feedback
3. Dignam, Barrera, COs at a US prison Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three Role ambiguity, workload, and negative
and West (1986) dimensions both in terms of frequency inmate contact all had significant positive
and intensity. Created one measure using associations with burnout measure.
emotional frequency, emotional intensity, Workload and positive inmate contact
frequency depersonalization, and both had significant positive associations
intensity depersonalization. This measure with personal accomplishment measure.
was labeled burnout. Second measure It was found that workplace social
was a combination of frequency and support, while not having a positive
intensity of personal accomplishment, direct effect on the burnout measure, had
and was labeled as personal an indirect effect by reducing role
accomplishment ambiguity. NS on combined burnout
measure: tenure, workplace social
support, and positive inmate contact. NS
for sense of accomplishment: tenure,
workplace social support, role ambiguity,
and negative inmate contact
4. Lindquist and Sample of COs across one US state Maslach Burnout Inventory – three Found that the most likely to be reported
Whitehead (1986) correctional agency (#? prisons) dimensions. Used both the frequency in the order as follows: personal
scores and the intensity scores accomplishment (frequency), personal
accomplishment (intensity), emotional
exhaustion (frequency), emotional
exhaustion (intensity), depersonalization
(frequency), and depersonalization
(intensity). Those not planning a career
in corrections reported higher levels of
emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization. COs with less than
two years of tenure reported higher
depersonalization. Marital status, tenure,
extrinsic stressors (unclear how it was
measured), organizational stressor
(unclear how it was measured), social
support, and role overload had positive
associations with emotional exhaustion,
while age and role conflict had negative

associations with emotional exhaustion.
For depersonalization, age, amount
weekly time spent on paperwork, input
into decision-making, and role conflict
had inverse associations, and tenure and
social support both had positive
associations. Age, inmate contact, and
amount weekly time spent on paperwork
all had positive associations with
personal accomplishment, while
(Continued)
403
Table 1. (Continued).
404

perceptions of resource adequacy had a
negative association. NS for emotional
exhaustion: inmate contact, amount of
paperwork, resource adequacy, input into
decision-making, number of stressors,
contact stressor, and extrinsic satisfier.
NS for depersonalization: marital status,
inmate contact, resource adequacy,
number of stressors, extrinsic stressor,
contact stressor, organizational stressor,
role overload, and extrinsic satisfier. NS
for sense of accomplishment: marital
status, tenure, input into decision-
making, role conflict, social support,
number of stressors, extrinsic stressor,
contact stressor, organizational stressor,
role overload, and extrinsic satisfier
E.G. Lambert et al.
5. Whitehead and COs in all the prisons in one US state Maslach Burnout Inventory – three Age had a negative association with
Lindquist (1986) (#? prisons) dimensions using the frequency score depersonalization. Amount of inmate
option contact had a negative association with
lack of sense of accomplishment. Lack of
support, role conflict, job stress, and lack
of job satisfaction all had a positive
association with emotional exhaustion
and depersonalization. Inmate contact
had a negative association with lack of
sense of accomplishment, while lack of
job satisfaction had a positive
association. NS for emotional exhaustion:
age, inmate contact, and lack of input
into decision-making. NS for
depersonalization: inmate contact, lack of
input into decision-making, and lack of
job satisfaction. NS for sense of
accomplishment: age, lack of input into
decision-making, lack of support, role
conflict, and job stress
6. Gerstein, Topp, Staff from various positions at two US Total Exhaustion Scale –measured Positive views of inmates, inmate
and Correll prisons emotional exhaustion contact, and selecting the job because of
(1987) salary were negatively associated with
total exhaustion scores, and age and
selecting the job because of their
educational background had positive
associations. NS for exhaustion burnout:
age, tenure, number of children, job
classification, closeness with other prison
units/programs, coworker support, family
support, community support, inmate
relationship, self-efficacy, role ambiguity,
vacation days previous year, and view of
adequacy of vacation time
7. Whitehead, Sample of COs across one US state Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three Age had a positive association with
Linquist, and correctional agency (#? prisons) dimensions using frequency score option depersonalization. Lack of job
Klofas (1987) satisfaction had a positive association
with emotional exhaustion and lack of
personal accomplishment. Role conflict
has a positive association with emotional
exhaustion and depersonalization. Job
stress had a positive association with
emotional exhaustion. Punitive
orientation towards offenders had a
negative association with
depersonalization. Keeping a social
(Continued)
405
406

distance from inmates had a positive
association with lack personal
accomplishment. Holding a counseling
role viewpoint had a negative association
with lack of personal accomplishment.
NS for emotional exhaustion: counseling
role, concern for corruption of authority
role, social distance role, punitive
orientation role, and input into decision-
making. NS for depersonalization:
counseling role, concern for corruption of
authority role, social distance role, lack
of job satisfaction, input into decision-
making, and job stress. NS for lack sense
of accomplishment: concern for
corruption of authority role, punitive
orientation role, input into decision-
E.G. Lambert et al.
making, role conflict, and job stress

8. Dignam and West COs at two US prisons Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three Did both a cross-sectional and
(1988) dimensions – included both frequency longitudinal study (3 months between
and intensity score options. Used only surveys). In the cross-sectional model,
the emotional exhaustion and workplace support (combined measure of
depersonalization measures coworker and supervisor support) and a
combined measure of burnout (emotional
exhaustion both frequency and intensity
and depersonalization both frequency and
intensity) had a negative association. In
the cross-sectional study, job stress and
burnout had a positive relationship.
Burnout was linked to decreased physical
health. The longitudinal models failed to
fit the data
9. Drory and COs from four Israeli prisons Pines and Kafry (1978) measure – Role conflict role, role ambiguity, and
Shamir (1988) physical exhaustion, emotional family-work conflict had positive
exhaustion, and mental exhaustion – associations with the burnout measure.
combined to form composite measure of Management support, community
burnout support, task significance, and job
feedback all had negative associations
with the burnout measure. NS for
burnout measure: skill variety, and job
autonomy
10. Farmer (1988) Staff at two US juvenile facilities Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three Reported all the burnout measures,
dimensions – included both frequency except one, fell on the moderate level.
and intensity score options Personal accomplishment intensity fell on
the low range for this index. The level of
perceived exploitation by juvenile
inmates was negatively associated with
personal accomplishment (both frequency
and intensity) and positively associated
with emotional exhaustion (intensity)
11. Whitehead US COs at #? prisons. Sampled 1/3 of MBI – all three dimensions; while Reported that COs had higher levels of
(1989) the COs in Alabama. Also surveyed measured both frequency and intensity, emotional exhaustion compared to SIR
Alabama probation and parole officers used only the frequency response option staff and were similar to the level
(PPO) and staff at a supervised for analysis. reported by PPOs. COs reported higher
intensive restitution (SIR) program. levels of a lack sense of personal

accomplishment than did SIR staff and
was similar to that reported by PPOs.
Levels of personalization was similar for
all three groups. Among COs, found that
lack of social support, role conflict, job
stress, and lack of job satisfaction all had
positive associations with emotional
exhaustion. Age had a negative
association with depersonalization, and
lack of support, role conflict, and job
(Continued)
407
408

stress had positive associations. Inmate
contact had a negative association with a
lack of sense of personal accomplishment
and lack of job satisfaction had a
positive association. NS for emotional
exhaustion: age, inmate contact, and lack
of input into decision-making. NS for
depersonalization: inmate contact, lack of
input into decision-making, and lack of
job satisfaction. NS for lack of sense of
personal accomplishment: age, lack of
input into decision-making, lack of social
support, role conflict, and job stress. In
testing a path model, role conflict also
had a direct positive association with job
stress and age had a negative association,
and, in turn, job stress had positive
E.G. Lambert et al.
associations with emotional exhaustion

and depersonalization. Likewise, role
conflict and lack of input into decision-
making had positive direct associations
with lack of job satisfaction, which in
turn had positive associations with
emotional exhaustion and a lack of a
sense of personal accomplishment
12. Wright and Sample of staff at 46 US federal prisons Created measure of combined emotional Women were reported to have higher
Saylor (1991) exhaustion and depersonalization levels of burnout and feel less efficacy in
(labeled as job stress). Created a measure working with inmates, and the greater
of perceptions of being effective in amount of inmate contact led to greater
working with inmates (labeled as levels of burnout. Women who worked
efficacy) in custody positions reported greater
inmate efficacy, while men who worked
in non-custody positions reported feeling
more efficacious. Regardless of race/
ethnicity, women reported higher levels
of burnout as compared to their male
counterparts. Minority male staff reported
lower levels of burnout
13. Saylor and Sample of staff at 46 US federal prisons Created measure of combined emotional Custody staff, institutional tenure, and
Wright (1992) exhaustion and depersonalization gender (men) each had negative
(labeled as job stress). Created a measure associations with the efficacy measure.
of perceptions of being effective in Conversely, amount of inmate contact,
working with inmates (labeled as supervisory status, working at a
efficacy) minimum security facility, minority
status, and age each had positive
associations with the efficacy measure.
Working in custody, working at a
minimum security facility, minority
status, and age each had positive
associations with the burnout measure.
The amount of inmate contact,
institutional tenure, and gender (female)
all had negative associations with
burnout. NS for burnout measure:

agency, tenure, supervisory status,
security level medium, security level
maximum, previous correctional
experience, and shift. NS for efficacy
measure: agency tenure, security level
medium, security level maximum,
previous correctional experience, and
shift
14. Wright and Sample of staff at #? US federal prisons Created measure of combined emotional Black staff reported greater efficacy and
Saylor (1992) exhaustion and depersonalization lower burnout. The percent of the inmate
(labeled as job stress). Created a measure population at the facility that was Black
409
(Continued)
410

of perceptions of being effective in had a negative association with efficacy
working with inmates (labeled as and a positive association with the
efficacy). Burnout measures from Wright burnout measure. The percent of the
and Saylor (1991) inmate population at the facility that was
Hispanic had a positive association with
the burnout measure. NS for burnout
measure: Being Hispanic, percent of staff
being minority, percent of the community
being Black, and percent of the
community being Hispanic. NS for
efficacy measure: percent of inmate
population being Hispanic, percent of
staff being minority status, percent of the
community being Black, and percent of
the community being Hispanic
15. Gross, Larson, Sample of COs in one US state across Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three Men reported higher levels of
Urban, and Zupan 40 prisons and camps dimensions depersonalization. White males reported
E.G. Lambert et al.
(1994) the highest level of depersonalization and

Black females reported the lowest level
of depersonalization
16. Camp (1994) Federal prison staff at 65 US Measure of combined emotional Study was on the factors associated with
correctional facilities exhaustion and depersonalization turnover of federal correctional staff. In
(labeled as job stress). Created a measure multivariate analysis neither of the
of perceptions of being effective in burnout measures were significant
working with inmates (labeled as predictors of turnover
efficacy). Burnout measures from Wright
and Saylor (1991)
17. Camp and Federal prison staff at #? US Measure of combined emotional For combined burnout measure (i.e.
Steiger (1995) correctional facilities exhaustion and depersonalization cynicism), race White, tenure, having a
(labeled as cynicism). Created a measure college degree, high security, and
of perceptions of being effective in working in the South Central region had
working with inmates (labeled as positive associations, and race Black and
efficacy). Burnout measures from Wright age had negative associations. For a
and Saylor (1991) sense of accomplishment (i.e. efficacy),
security level minimum had a positive
association, and race White, tenure,
security level high, security level
medium had negative associations. NS
for combined burnout measure: gender,
race other, had worked at other federal
facility, salary, security level medium,
security level low, working in Mid-
Atlantic region, working in North Central
region, working in Northeast region,
working in Southeast region, percent of
institutional promotions to women,
percent of institutional promotions to
minorities, percent of institutional staff
who are women, percent of institutional
staff who are minority, percent of

supervisors who are women, and percent
of supervisors who are minority status.
NS for sense of accomplishment measure
(efficacy): gender, race black, race other,
age, having a college degree, had worked
at other federal facility, salary, security
medium, security level low, working in
Mid-Atlantic region, working in North
Central region, working in Northeast
region, working in Southeast region,
working in the South Central regions,
percent of institutional promotions to
411
(Continued)
412

women, percent of institutional
promotions to minorities, percent of
institutional staff who are women,
percent of institutional staff who are
minority, percent of supervisors who are
women, and percent of supervisors who
are minority status
18. Britton (1997) Federal COs at #? US prisons Measure of combined emotional For the combined measure, Black men
exhaustion and depersonalization reported lower burnout. Tenure had
(labeled as job stress). Created a measure positive association with the combined
of perceptions of being effective in burnout measure, while proportion of
working with inmates (labeled as White inmates, quality supervision
efficacy). Burnout measures from Wright perceptions and efficacy in working with
and Saylor (1991) inmates had negative associations. For a
sense of accomplishment (i.e. efficacy),
Hispanic men, inmate contact,
supervisory status, working in a women’s
E.G. Lambert et al.
facility, and proportion of White inmates

had positive associations, while tenure
and working in a maximum security
facility had negative associations. NS for
combined burnout measure: White
women, Black women, Hispanic men,
other race men, inmate contact,
supervisory status, size of inmate
population, working in a maximum
security prison, working in a women’s
facility, and proportion of White COs.
NS for sense of accomplishment (i.e.
efficacy) measure: White women, Black
men, Black women, other race men, size
of inmate population, and proportion of
White COs
19. Hurst and Hurst One US medium security prison – Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three Higher than average on
(1997) unclear if all were COs dimensions using the frequency score depersonalization, slightly higher on
option emotional exhaustion, COs lower on
personal accomplishment, and no
different between men and women on the
three burnout dimensions
20. Wright et al. Sample of US federal prison staff. Created measure of combined emotional Percent of the staff at the facility with 5
(1997) Combined individual responses to create exhaustion and depersonalization or more years tenure had a positive
facility level measures for 73 US (labeled as job stress). Created a measure association with the burnout measure,
federal prisons of perceptions of being effective in and percent of staff who had positive
working with inmates (labeled as perception of job autonomy had a
efficacy). Burnout measures from Wright negative association. Percent of black
and Saylor (1991) inmates at a facility, percent of Hispanic
inmates, percent female staff, percent
Nonwhite staff, staff to inmate ratio, and
percent of staff who had positive
perception of job autonomy all had
positive associations with efficacy. NS
for burnout measure: percent Black

inmates, percent Hispanic inmates,
average inmate sentence length, percent
of undesignated inmates, percent of
female staff, percent of Nonwhite staff,
percent of inmates with history of
violence, percent of inmate population to
facility capacity, staff to inmate ratio, and
percent of staff who had a positive
perception of input into decision-making.
NS for efficacy measure: average inmate
(Continued)
413
414

sentence, percent of undesignated
inmates, percent of inmates with history
of violence, percent of staff with 5 or
more tenure, percent of inmate
population to facility capacity, and
percent of staff who had a positive
perception of input into decision-making
21. Morgan, Van COs across #? US prisons Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three Men reported greater depersonalization.
Haveren, and dimensions using intensity score option COs with less than 1 year tenure reported
Pearson (2002) lower depersonalization than did COs
with more than 3 years tenure. COs with
less than 1 year tenure reported higher
personal accomplishment than did COs
with 5 to 9 years tenure and those with
more than 15 years of tenure. COs with
less than 1 year tenure had lower
emotional exhaustion scores than did
E.G. Lambert et al.
COs with more tenure. It was reported

that age and educational level were
positively associated with personal
accomplishment. NS for emotional
exhaustion for age, race, gender,
educational level, security level, and
inmate contact. NS for depersonalization:
age, race, educational level, shift,
security level, and inmate contact. NS for
sense of accomplishment: gender, race,
educational level, shift, security level,
and inmate contact
22. Carlson et al. COs from two US prisons – one female Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three No difference by gender for emotional
(2003) inmate and one male inmates. dimensions using the frequency scoring exhaustion. Women were higher on
option personal accomplishment. Men were
higher on depersonalization. COs in the
male prison reported higher emotional
exhaustion. COs at the female prison
were higher on personal accomplishment
and lower on depersonalization
23. Savicki, Cooley, COs from one US state prison and three Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three Men higher on depersonalization. For
and Gjesvold county jail facilities dimensions using the frequency scoring men, work pressure and lower
(2003) option supervisory reward style was positively
associated with emotional exhaustion and
personalization. For women, work
pressure and harassment were positively
associated with emotional exhaustion.
For women, harassment and coercive
supervision were positively associated
with personalization. NS for female
emotional exhaustion: supervisor reward
power, supervisor coercive power,
supervisor legitimate power, supervisor
expert power, and supervisor referent
power. NS for female depersonalization:

work pressures, supervisor reward power,
power. NS for female sense of
accomplishment: harassment, work
pressures, supervisor reward power,
supervisor coercive power, supervisor
legitimate power, supervisor expert
power, and supervisor referent power. NS
for male emotional exhaustion:
(Continued)
415
416

harassment, supervisor coercive power,
expert power, supervisor referent power.
NS for male depersonalization:
harassment, supervisor coercive power,
expert power, supervisor referent power.
NS for male sense of accomplishment:
harassment, work pressures, supervisor
reward power, supervisor coercive power,
power
24. Garland (2004) Mental health and substance abuse staff Total Emotional Exhaustion Index – Perceived dangerousness of the job had a
in 14 US male prisons measured emotional exhaustion positive association with emotional
exhaustion and administrative support
and amount of inmate contact each had
E.G. Lambert et al.
negative associations with the emotional

exhaustion measure. NS for burnout
measure: amount of paperwork, caseload,
job experience, prior correctional work
experience, contract position, age,
educational level, race, and gender
25. Lambert, Federal correctional staff at #? facilities Created measure of combined emotional Studied the antecedents of absenteeism
Edwards, Camp, exhaustion and depersonalization (use of sick leave) and found that the
and Saylor (2005) (labeled as job stress). Burnout measure burnout measure was positively
from Wright and Saylor (1991) associated to greater use of sick leave
26. Carlson and Caseworkers from two US prisons and Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three Summed the three dimensions of burnout
Thomas (2006) COs from a US prison dimensions using the frequency scoring and found that caseworkers had a
option significant higher level of burnout as
compared to COs. Additionally,
caseworkers were higher than COs on
emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization. In an open ended
question, caseworkers indicated that
burnout was one of three reasons (money
and lack of management support) for
other caseworkers quit
27. Garner et al. Drug counselors at eight US prisons Created seven item burnout measure of Age, adaptability (willing to try new
(2007) emotional exhaustion ideas), and clarity of mission (clearness
of organizational goals) were inversely
associated with emotional burnout. Job
stress has a positive association with
emotional burnout. NS for burnout
measure: race, gender, educational level,
certified counselor, field experience,
tenure, high caseload, professional
growth, job efficiency, influence of other
staff, program needs, training, pressure to
change, adequacy of offices and
equipment, staffing level, computer
access, ease of e-communication, staff
cohesiveness, staff autonomy,

communication openness, and
organizational openness for change
28. Lambert (2007) Federal prison staff at #? US prisons Created measure of combined emotional In a multivariate analysis found that the
exhaustion and depersonalization burnout measure had a negative
(labeled as job stress). Burnout measure association with organizational
from Wright and Saylor (1991) commitment and a positive association
with turnover intent
29. Neveu (2007) COs from six French prisons French version of the Maslach Burnout It was found that resource depletion (lack
Inventory – all three dimensions using of coworker support, lack of personal
the frequency scoring option growth, lack of skill utilization, and lack
(Continued)
417
418

of participation) had positive associations
with depersonalization, emotional
exhaustion, and reduced personal
accomplishment. In turn, emotional
exhaustion had positive associations with
depersonalization, personal
accomplishment, depression, and
absenteeism (frequency)
30. Keinan and Israeli prison staff at #? prisons Burnout measure of physical and Reported the burnout level among the
Malach-Pines emotional exhaustion surveyed staff was high, and was higher
(2007) than found among Israeli police officers.
Commanding staff had was lower than
rank and file staff. COs reported more
stress than did staff in other positions.
Age and tenure both had a positive
association with burnout exhaustion.
Educational level had a negative
E.G. Lambert et al.
association with the burnout measure.

Job stress had a positive association with
burnout. The burnout measure was
reported to be linked to higher levels of
physical and psychological negative
symptoms
31. Lambert and Staff at one Midwestern (US) state Created measure of combined emotional Connected a correlational analysis and
Hogan (2007) prison exhaustion and depersonalization reported that the burnout measure had a
(labeled as job stress). Burnout measure negative correlation with job satisfaction
from Wright and Saylor (1991) and affective organizational commitment.
The burnout measure had a positive
correlation with use of sick leave in past
six months, view that sick leave was a
right to be used however the employee
wished to use it, and that fellow staff had
excessive sick leave use. Gender, age,
position, tenure, educational level, race,
and supervisory status all had non-
significant correlations with the burnout
measure
32. Cieslak, COs and treatment staff at 29 prisons in Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three Work stressors (combined measure of
Korcynska, Poland dimensions using the frequency scoring dangerousness, exposure to violence, role
Strelau, and option conflict, and role ambiguity) had positive
Kaczmarek associations with emotional exhaustion,
(2008) depersonalization, and personal
accomplishment. Age had positive
and personal accomplishment. Social
support at work (coworkers and
supervisors) had a positive association
with personal accomplishment and a
negative association with emotional
exhaustion. Emotion-oriented coping
style had positive association with
emotional exhaustion and a negative
association with personal
accomplishment. Task-oriented coping

style had a positive association with
depersonalization and personal
accomplishment. NS for
depersonalization: age and social
workplace support
33. Lambert et al. Staff at a US private maximum security Used a composite measure of burnout of Tenure, role overload, and role ambiguity
(2009) prison emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, all had a positive association with the
and feeling ineffective composite burnout measure. NS for
burnout measure: Working in custody,
supervisory status, gender, age,
(Continued)
419
420

educational level, race, inmate contact,
role conflict, and perceived
dangerousness of the job
34. Xanthakis COs from an English prison Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three Reported COs had moderate levels of
(2009) dimensions using the frequency scoring burnout. Negative attitudes toward
option. Created a combined score by inmates and higher tenure were
adding all three dimensions together associated with higher burnout. NS:
(reverse coded sense of accomplishment) Inmate contact. Also, no relationship
between burnout and attitudes toward
psychological counseling
35. Wells et al. Staff at 11 juvenile facilities in Used job stress measure from Wright Job satisfaction and organizational
(2009) Kentucky (US) and Saylor (1991) with emotion commitment had a negative effect on the
exhaustion and depersonalization burnout measure, and percent of
combined (labeled as job stress) dangerousness youth, supervisor status,
increased chance of being assaulted by
offenders, and a low sense of efficacy
with working with offenders had positive
E.G. Lambert et al.
associations with burnout. NS for

burnout measure: urban facility, security
level, tenure, attended training academy,
salary, perception of authority and
structure, communication with supervisor,
facility layout, number of assaults at
facility in prior 6 months, gang activity
at facility in prior 6 months, number of
use of force incidents at facility in past
6 months, adequacy of safety and
security policies, and percentage of
extremely dangerous youth
36. Griffin, Hogan, Staff at a US private juvenile prison Short measures of the three dimensions Job stress had a positive association with
Lambert, Tucker, of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and age had a negative
and Baker (2010) depersonalization, and reduced association. Job stress and job
accomplishment involvement has positive associations
with emotional exhaustion, and job
satisfaction had a negative association.
Job satisfaction had a negative
association with reduced personal
burnout measure: gender, race, age,
educational level, tenure, supervisory
status, position, and affective
organizational commitment. NS for
depersonalization measure: gender, race,
educational level, tenure, supervisory
status, position, job involvement, job
satisfaction, and affective organizational
commitment. NS for reduced
accomplishment measure: gender, race,
age, educational level, tenure,
supervisory status, position, job
involvement, job stress, and affective
organizational commitment
37. Lambert et al. Staff at a US private prison Short measures of the three dimensions Amount of inmate contact had a negative
(2010) of emotional exhaustion, association of feeling ineffective at work.
depersonalization, and reduced Management support and supervisor
accomplishment support had negative associations with
emotional exhaustion and a sense of
reduced accomplishment. Age, coworker
support and supervisor support had
negative associations with
depersonalization. Coworker support had
an inverse association with feeling being
(Continued)
421
422

ineffective at work. NS for emotional
burnout measure: educational level,
supervisory status, position, race, gender,
tenure, age, inmate contact, coworker
support, and family/friends support. NS
for depersonalization measure:
educational level supervisory status,
position, race, gender, tenure, inmate
contact, management support, and
family/friends support. NS for sense of
reduced accomplishment measure:
educational level, position, race, gender,
tenure, age, management support, and
family/friends support
38. Lambert and Staff at a US state prison Shortened measure based on Wright and COs were lower on average on the
Hogan (2010) Saylor (1991) of emotional exhaustion burnout measure than were non-custody
and depersonalization combined staff. Perceived dangerousness of the job,
E.G. Lambert et al.
role stress (role conflict and role

ambiguity), and work on family conflict
all had positive associations with the
burnout measure. NS for burnout
measure: gender, age, tenure, educational
level, race, and family on work conflict
39. Lambert, Staff at a US private prison Short measures of the three dimensions Emotional exhaustion had a negative
Hogan, and of emotional exhaustion, association with life satisfaction and a
Altheimer (2010) depersonalization, and reduced positive association with turnover intent
accomplishment and absenteeism. Depersonalization had a
positive association with turnover intent
and absenteeism. NS for life satisfaction
measure: position, gender, age, tenure,
educational level, race, supervisory
status, depersonalization, and reduced
accomplishment. NS for turnover intent
educational level, race, supervisory
status, and sense of reduced
accomplishment. NS for absenteeism
educational level, race, and reduced
sense of accomplishment
40. Lambert et al. Staff at a US state prison Shortened measure based on Wright and Input into decision-making, favorable
(2010) Saylor (1991) of emotional exhaustion views of promotional opportunity,
and depersonalization combined formalization, and instrumental
communication all had negative
associations with the burnout measure.
Supervisors reported higher levels of
burnout. Inmate contact had a positive
association. NS for burnout measure:
tenure, position, educational level, race,
age, gender, and integration
41. Lambert et al. Staff at a US private prison Measure of emotional exhaustion and Distributive justice, and procedural
(2010) depersonalization combined to form a justice both had negative associations
composite burnout measure with the burnout measure. NS for

burnout measure: position, gender, age,
tenure, educational level, race, and years
worked in criminal justice
42. Roy, Novak, Staff at three US prisons and nine Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three US staff reported greater
and Miksaj- Croatian prisons dimensions using the frequency scoring depersonalization than did Croatian staff.
Todorovic (2010) option The Croatian staff reported greater
emotional exhaustion and lower personal
accomplishment
43. Senter, Morgan, Psychologists working at #? US Psychologists working at correctional
Serna-McDonald, correctional facilities, Veteran’s Affairs, facilities reported higher
(Continued)
423
424

and Bewley public hospitals, and university Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three depersonalization than did psychologists
(2010) counseling centers dimensions; using the intensity score working at Veteran’s Affairs and
option university counseling centers.
Psychologists working at correctional
facilities reported lower personal
accomplishment than did psychologists
working at university counseling centers
44. Lambert et al. Staff at a US private juvenile prison Short measures of the three dimensions COs reported lower personal
(2012) of emotional exhaustion, accomplishment. Tenure had a positive
depersonalization, and reduced association with emotional exhaustion.
accomplishment Age had a negative association with
depersonalization. Supervisor trust and
management trust had negative
and depersonalization. Supervisor trust
had a positive relationship with personal
accomplishment. Women reported a great
E.G. Lambert et al.
sense of reduced accomplishment.

Greater inmate contact was associated
with a higher level of sense of
exhaustion measure: age, educational
level, race, position, gender, years
worked in criminal justice and inmate
contact. NS for depersonalization
measure: tenure, educational level, race,
position, gender, years worked in
criminal justice, and inmate contact. NS
for sense of reduced accomplishment:
age, tenure, educational level, race, years
worked in criminal justice, and
management trust
45. Lambert, Staff at a US state prison Shortened measure based on Wright and COs reported lower burnout. Job
Hogan, Saylor (1991) of emotional exhaustion autonomy and job feedback had negative
Cheeseman, and depersonalization combined associations with the composite burnout
Jiang, and measure, and inmate contact had a
Khondaker (2012) positive association. NS for burnout
measure: sex, age, tenure, educational
level, race, quality of supervision, and
job variety
46. Roy and Avdija Staff at three US prisons Modified from 22 to 19 items of Age had a negative association with both
(2012) Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three emotional exhaustion and personal
dimensions using the frequency scoring accomplishment. Gender had a
option significant association with personal
accomplishment (but how gender was
coded was not reported). Staff working
in medium security facilities reported
lower depersonalization as compared to
staff working in a maximum security
prison. Job satisfaction had a negative
association with emotional exhaustion

and depersonalization and a positive
association with personal
exhaustion: gender, marital status,
educational status, and tenure. NS for
depersonalization: age, gender, marital
status, educational level, and tenure. NS
for sense of accomplishment: marital
status, educational level, and tenure
(Continued)
425
426

47. Boudoukha, Staff at #? French correctional facilities French version of Maslach Burnout Reported emotional exhaustion and
Altintas, Rusinek, Inventory – all three dimensions using depersonalization scores were high, and
Fantini-Hauwel, the frequency scoring option personal accomplishment scores were
and Hautekeete low. Emotional exhaustion,
(2013) depersonalization, and low personal
achievement were positively associated
with post-traumatic stress, and job stress
was positively correlated with the
burnout dimensions of emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and low
personal achievement
48. Gil-Monte, Staff at three Mexican prisons Spanish Burnout Inventory – three The study was a conformity factor
Figueiredo-Ferraz, dimensions (job enthusiasm, analysis of the dimensions and validity
and Valdez- psychological exhaustion, indolence, and of the Spanish Burnout Inventory.
Bonilla (2013) guilt) Results supported the 4 burnout
dimensions proposed to be measured by
the Spanish Burnout Inventory
E.G. Lambert et al.
49. Gould, Watson, COs from 10 adult and youth offender Maslach Burnout Inventory – all three Reported that COs were high on
Price, and centers in Canada dimensions using the frequency scoring emotional exhaustion and
Valliant (2013) option depersonalization and average on
personal accomplishment. Males reported
higher depersonalization. Tenure was
positively associated with emotional
exhaustion and personal accomplishment.
COs working at adult centers reported
higher emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization and lower personal
accomplishment than did those working
at youth centers. Finally, even though
there was high reported use of emotion-
focused coping strategies (humor,
seeking emotional support, positive
reframing, and religion) and lower use of
dysfunctional coping strategies (e.g.
denial, venting, substance use, behavioral
disengagement), burnout was still high
50. Harizanova and Staff at a Bulgarian prison Created measure of burnout of which the Reported a high level of burnout. Single
Tarnovska (2013) main form of burnout was exhaustion staff, particularly those divorced, reported
higher levels of burnout. Educational
level had a positive association with
burnout. Burnout was higher among staff
with less than one year tenure or more
than 5 years tenure. Line staff reported
greater burnout
51. Lambert et al. Staff at a US prison Three item measure of emotional COs reported lower emotional
(2013) exhaustion from based on Wright and exhaustion. Amount of inmate contact
Saylor (1991) and continuance commitment had
positive associations with emotional
exhaustion. Affective commitment had an
inverse association. NS for burnout
measure: gender, age, tenure, educational
level, race, and moral commitment
52. Perkins and Interviewed 10 community and 10 US The Professional Quality of Life Scale, The majority of substance abuse
Sprang (2013) prison substance abuse counselors in #? which includes three subscales: counselors, regardless of location, scored
prisons compassion satisfaction, burnout, and in the middle of burnout, and nine
compassion fatigue counselors scored high on the
compassion fatigue measure. There was
no significant difference on the measures
reported between community and prison
counselors. Prison counselors, however,
were found to be more likely to approach
their supervisors for assistance when they
felt overwhelmed by work
(Continued)
427
428

53. Minor, Wells, Staff employed by the KY (US) Dept. Used the measure from Wright & Saylor Study was on the predictors of job
Lambert, and of Juvenile Justice; #? facilities (19,921 with emotion exhaustion and morale. Found that combined burnout
Keller (2014) depersonalization combined (labeled as measure had a negative association with
job stress) job morale
Reviews
54. Schaufeli and Reviewed 43 studies focusing on correctional staff job stress and burnout 1981–1997, of which 14 studies involved burnout
Peeters (2000)
55. Finney et al. Reviewed eight articles from 1999 to early 2012 that focused only on COs. Only one article included burnout. The other seven
(2013) articles focused only on job stress
Notes: COs stands for correctional officers, #? means unknown number of facilities, and NS represents variables in a multivariate analysis which had a non-significant
association with the job burnout measure. The three dimensions of the Maslach Burnout Inventory are emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accom-
plishment. The studies involving the Wright and Saylor (1991) labeled the burnout variable as job stress even though the items were measuring emotional exhaustion
and personalization. As such, they were included in this review. Both review articles looked at both job stress and job burnout together. Finally, it appears that some of
the studies used the same data-set to review different aspects of job burnout.
E.G. Lambert et al.
working with inmates, but an analysis of their items indicated that they were
measuring the three dimensions of burnout proposed by Maslach and Jackson
(1981). Their measure of job stress was a combined measure of emotional exhaus-
tion and depersonalization, and their efficacy with inmates measure is similar to a
reverse coded measure of feelings of reduced accomplishment. Other studies
(n = 16) have used their own measures (12–14, 16–18, 20, 25, 28, 31, 35, 38, 40,
45, 51, 53).
Other studies (n = 11) used other types of burnout measures, of which all mea-
sured some form of emotional exhaustion and many measured one or more other
dimensions of burnout, including a seven-item measure to capture emotional burn-
out (27), the Spanish Burnout Inventory to measure job enthusiasm, psychological
exhaustion, indolence, and guilt (48), the Professional Quality of Life Scale, which
measured compassion satisfaction, burnout, and compassion fatigue (52), a measure
of exhaustion (50), a measure of physical and emotional exhaustion (30), a com-
posite measure of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization (41), a composite
measure of burnout consisting of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and feel-
ing ineffective at work (33), and shortened measures of emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization, and reduced accomplishment (36–37, 39, 44).
Three things can be gleaned from the review of how burnout is measured. First,
there is no single measure of burnout used by all the correctional staff burnout
studies. This makes it difficult to compare the findings of these studies as it is
unclear if the findings may have been influenced by the manner in which burnout
was measured. Second, the modal measure of burnout was the MBI. It is important
to note that the MBI consists of 22 items and there is a fee required for its use.
The cost of using the MBI may lead some researchers to use alternative measures
of burnout. Similarly, researchers who measure a wide array of workplace factors
may choose not to use the 22-item MBI in its entirety to prevent the survey from
being too long. As such, some researchers have used a measure of burnout consist-
ing of fewer items. Third, emotional exhaustion is the most common dimension of
burnout measured. Emotional exhaustion is a critical element of burnout in the
literature (Cherniss, 1980a, 1980b; Keinan & Malach-Pines, 2007; Maslach &
Jackson, 1981; Pines & Keinan, 2005). As noted Maslach et al. (2001), ‘when peo-
ple describe themselves or others as experiencing burnout, they are most often
referring to the experience of [emotional] exhaustion’ (p. 402).
Personnel focus of past studies

There is no single definition of ‘correctional staff’ in the literature; the term can
range from including all staff to specific work positions (e.g. correctional officers)
within a correctional facility. The reviewed burnout studies support the contention
that there is a wide definition of what is meant by correctional staff and which
positions should be studied. Some of the reviewed studies focused on a wide array
of correctional staff, such as correctional officers, counselors, teachers, medical per-
sonnel, and industry personnel. Other studies focused only a few select positions,
such as correctional officer, caseworkers, or substance abuse counselor.
Of the 53 reviewed studies, 32 included correctional staff working in a wide
array of positions (1, 2, 6, 10, 12–14, 16–17, 20, 25, 28, 30–31, 33, 35–42, 44–48,
50–51, 53). Sixteen studies focused solely on correctional officers (3–5, 7–9, 11,
15, 18, 21–23, 29, 32, 34, 49), who make up the largest single work group at
correctional facilities (Lambert, 2004). Two studies surveyed both correctional

officers and caseworkers/treatment staff (26, 32). Six studies focused on other staff
positions, including mental health staff (24), substance abuse counselors (24, 27,
52), and psychologists (43). In one study, the positions of the surveyed correctional
staff were unclear (19).
The location and type of the correctional facilities studied varied, as well as the
number of institutions studied. The bulk of the reviewed studies (n = 42) selected
staff working at some type of correctional institution located in the US (3–8,
10–28, 31, 33–46, 51–53). Eleven studies examined burnout issues among staff
working in a nation other than the US. These studies examined staff working in
Bulgaria (50), Canada (49), England (34), France (29, 47), Israel (1–2, 9, 30),
Mexico (48), and Poland (32). One study surveyed both Croatian and US prison
staff (42). In terms of type of facility, most of studies (n = 41) focused on govern-
ment-operated correctional institutions (1–9, 11–32, 38, 40, 42, 45–48, 50–51, 53),
which is not surprising given that the vast majority of correctional facilities are
government operated (Maguire, 2014; Mason, 2013). Additionally, burnout has
been studied among staff working at private correctional institutions (n = 6) (33,
36–37, 39, 41, 44). For five studies, it was unclear if the staff worked for a private
or public correctional organization (10, 34, 43, 49, 52). A majority of studies
(n = 40) focused on individuals working at government-run facilities that housed
adult offenders (1–9, 11–32, 38, 40, 42, 45–48, 50–51). Eight studies focused on
some aspect of burnout among staff working at juvenile or youth correctional facili-
ties (10, 35–37, 39, 44, 49, 53). Nine studies focused on US federal correctional
staff (12–14, 16–18, 20, 25, 28). A single study surveyed correctional officers
working at a US county (jail) facility (23). For one study, whether the correctional
officers surveyed worked for a government-run or private prison in England was
unclear (34). Most studies (n = 33) included staff working at two or more correc-
tional facilities (1–2, 4–18, 20, 22–24, 25–29, 32, 35, 42, 46, 49, 52–53). Among
these studies, 16 indicated that staffs were surveyed from an entire correctional
agency (4–5, 7, 11–18, 20, 25, 28, 35, 53). Fifteen studies examined staff burnout
at a single correctional institution (3, 19, 31, 33, 34, 36–41, 44–45, 50–51). The
number of correctional facilities selected in the remaining studies was unclear
(21, 30, 43, 47).
Three primary conclusions can be drawn from this assessment. First, a majority
of the studies focused on US staff. This should not be surprising in that the US has
the largest proportion of its citizens incarcerated of any nation in the world. As a
result, the ‘correctional industry’ employs a large number of individuals to work
within correctional facilities (Maguire, 2014; Walmsley, 2013). Of course, this does
not mean that burnout among correctional staff is of less value to researchers in
other countries, or that research involving correctional staff in other nations is of
less value. The causes and effects of job burnout may be contextual and situational,
and as such, could vary between nations due to cultural variables. Second, the
majority of studies have focused on staff working in adult prisons. Most correc-
tional facilities house adult offenders (Hockenberry, 2014; Maguire, 2014); how-
ever, adult prisons are not the only type of correctional facilities. Far less research
examines burnout among officers working within juvenile facilities. It has been
argued that working with juveniles can be more straining than working with adults
(Lambert, Hogan, Barton-Bellessa, & Jiang, 2012; Lambert et al., 2010; Wells,
Minor, Angel, Matz, & Amato, 2009). The lack of studies on burnout among jail
staff is also a marked limitation of burnout research. In the US, there are over 3000
jails employing more than 200,000 staff members (Maguire, 2014). Working in a
jail differs from working in a prison. Offenders in prison usually arrive with written
information concerning their history and needs, and offenders are sent to facilities
with different security levels based on their risk and needs assessments. Jails, on
the other hand, house a very different kind of offender. Jails generally hold both
pretrial and convicted offenders, who may differ significantly from those housed in
prison. For many pretrial detainees, particularly those just arrested, there has been
little time to provide an assessment of their risk and needs (Lambert, Reynolds,
Paoline, & Watkins, 2004). From a management perspective, the turnstile nature of
the jail population raises very different issues for jail staff. With only a single study
on burnout in jail staff (23), understanding whether the development and impact of
burnout differ between jail and prison staff is impossible. Third, the vast majority
of studies have focused on either a wide array of staff or just correctional officers.
Including all staff is sometimes done in an effort to increase the number of partici-
pants to reach a sufficient number to allow for multivariate analysis (i.e. power of
analysis requirements). Including all staff makes a critical assumption that the
causes and effects of burnout are the same regardless of one’s role within the
organization. Yet arguably, burnout could differ by position (the findings when a
position variable is included is discussed later). Likewise, while it makes sense to
study burnout among correctional officers, one should not make the assumption that
the correlates of burnout do not vary by officer position. For example, role over-
load (i.e. too much to do) could be problematic for officers working a busy housing
unit, while role underload (i.e. too little to do) could be an issue among armed
patrol officers (i.e. driving around the perimeter of a facility for an entire shift).
The research to date has cast a wide net of staff that may impede the ability to
observe nuances associated with burnout.
Findings on the antecedents of correctional staff job burnout

As mentioned previously, the individual worker has, at times, been blamed for
burnout rather than the work environment in which the individual functions.
Maslach (2003) contended that it is the job and not the person that leads to burn-
out. The research on correctional staff supports the contention, however, that differ-
ent aspects of the work environment are responsible for job burnout among
correctional staff (Lambert, Hogan, & Jiang, 2010; Neveu, 2007). Overall, work
environment variables explain a greater amount of variance of job burnout mea-
sures than do demographic characteristics when both are included in multivariate
analyses (Griffin et al., 2010; Lambert, Hogan, Jiang, & Jenkins, 2009; Lambert,
Kelley, & Hogan, 2013; Lambert et al., 2010). Two theoretical models have been
developed to explain why work environment variables are linked to job burnout –
the job demand-control model and the resource conversation model (Lee &
Ashforth, 1996; Neveu, 2007). Under the job demand-control model, an employee
who faces demands with little control over the demands is more likely to experi-
ence strain, which, over time, increases the likelihood of job burnout (Cable &
Judge, 1994; Edwards, 1991; Karasek, 1979). Job demands represent stressors over
which employees have little or no control; over time, these demands can wear on a
person, resulting in burnout (Neveu, 2007). Examples of job demands include stres-
sors such as role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload, role underload, perceived
dangerousness of the job, harassment, and work-family conflict (Lambert & Hogan,
2010; Lambert et al., 2006, 2009).
The conservation of resources model holds that when needed and valued
workplace resources are lost, do not meet job requirements, are not sufficient, or
are missing, the likelihood of burnout increases (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993; Lee &
Ashforth, 1996; Leiter & Maslach, 1988; Neveu, 2007). Resources are valued by
employees because they help employees do their jobs, and can either prevent work-
place stressors from occurring or can buffer workers from the full effects of the
stressors. Additionally, missing or threatened removal of workplace resources can
be a stressor, which can wear on a person, ultimately leading to burnout (Neveu,
2007). Examples of workplace resources are input into decision-making, organiza-
tional support, supervisor support, coworker support, social support, job autonomy,
organizational fairness, trust of supervisors and managers, job satisfaction, job
involvement, and organizational commitment (Griffin et al., 2010; Lambert, Hogan,
Dial, Jiang, & Khondaker, 2012; Lambert et al., 2010, 2012; Wells et al., 2009;
Wright, Saylor, Gilman, & Camp, 1997). Both the job demand-control model and
the conservation of resources model hold that workplace psychological strain leads
to burnout; however, the two theories differ in the source of the strain. The first
model holds that workplace demands which cannot easily be controlled result in
strain for people. The second model holds that the removal or threatened removal
of valued workplace resources results in the strain. In the end, for both models, this
strain wears on workers, increasing the chances of burnout from the job.
Among stressors, role overload has been reported to have a positive association
with burnout, especially emotional exhaustion and depersonalization (2–4, 33).
Likewise, role ambiguity and role conflict have been reported to lead to greater
burnout, especially emotional exhaustion and depersonalization (3, 7, 9, 11, 27,
38). Perceived dangerousness of the job and work pressure can result in higher
levels of emotional burnout (23, 24, 35, 38). Work-family conflict appears to con-
tribute to correctional staff burnout, particularly the emotional and depersonalization
dimensions (38). A combined measure of stressors (i.e. perceived dangerousness of
the job, role ambiguity, role conflict, and exposure to violence) was found to be
associated with greater emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and a reduced
sense of personal accomplishment (32). For women, harassment may lead to higher
levels of emotional exhaustion (23). Interestingly, workload was found to have a
positive relationship with feelings of personal accomplishment among correctional
officers working in a US prison (3). The amount of time spent on paperwork was
reported to have a negative relationship with depersonalization and a positive
association with sense of personal accomplishment (4). Job stress has also been
reported to be linked to higher levels emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and
reduced sense of accomplishment (5, 7, 8, 11, 27, 30, 36, 47).
Working directly with inmates may be a stressor; however, the relationship
between inmate contact and burnout has had mixed findings. In some instances, the
amount of inmate contact has been reported to be linked to higher emotional
burnout and depersonalization (12, 40, 45, 52); in other cases, inmate contact has
been linked to lower levels of these dimensions of burnout (6, 13, 24), and still
other studies have observed no relationship (4–5, 11, 18, 21, 33–34, 37, 44). A
more consistent finding is that inmate contact is associated with an increased sense
of personal accomplishment (4–5, 11, 13, 18, 37, 44), although one study reported
no significant relationship between inmate contact and the sense of personal
accomplishment (21). These mixed findings could be a result of how past studies
have measured contact with inmates. Typically, contact with inmates has been
measured as a dichotomous variable (i.e. yes or no) or reflecting the amount of
contact (e.g. number of hours of contact with inmates in a typical day). This
approach to measuring inmate contact is simplistic and fails to differentiate positive
and negative interactions with inmates. Intuitively, it would seem important to
understand the quality of the interaction between officer and inmate, but there is
limited research to support this notion. The research that does exist suggests that
negative inmate contact is linked to higher levels of emotional burnout, while posi-
tive contact with inmates is associated with increased feelings of personal accom-
plishment (3). Additionally, feelings of exploitation at the hands of inmates has
been found to be positively related to emotional exhaustion and negatively related
to a sense of accomplishment (10). Adding to the complexity of the issue of inmate
contact is officer perceptions of offenders. A negative view of inmates is linked to
greater emotional burnout, while holding punitive views of offenders is associated
with higher depersonalization (6–7, 34). Maintaining a social distance from
inmates was reported to be negatively associated with a sense of personal accom-
plishment, while holding a counseling view was associated with a greater sense of
accomplishment (7).
Interestingly, one study reported those working with adult offenders were more
likely to report higher levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and a
decreased sense of personal accomplishment than were staff working with juvenile
offenders (49). Some studies suggest that the reasons why a person took a correc-
tions job may be linked to burnout. Those who did not initially plan a career in
corrections reported higher levels of the burnout dimensions of emotional exhaus-
tion and depersonalization, and those who selected the job because of educational
level or the salary experienced greater emotional exhaustion (4, 6).
As previously indicated, some studies only focused on a single work position
(e.g. correctional officers) and other studies have examined multiple work positions.
Among those that included staff holding different positions and also included a
variable measuring position, the findings are mixed. Some studies have reported
that custody/correctional officers tended to have higher levels of burnout (13, 30,
44, 49). Other studies found that non-custody staff had higher levels of burnout
(26, 38, 45, 51). Still other studies observed that position was not a significant pre-
dictor of burnout (6, 24, 31, 33, 36, 37, 40, 41). The findings on position could
vary by type of correctional facility or by how the position variable was measured.
Of the studies that included a variable for position, only two (24, 26) focused on
whether the level of burnout varied from one position to another. The majority of
these studies (e.g. 31, 33, 36, 37, 40, 41) included position more as a control than
an explanatory variable, and most measured position as a simple dichotomous
variable (i.e. custody/non-custody). Workplace variables may play a greater role in
shaping burnout among staff, regardless of position, as is postulated by the
demand-control and conservation of resources models.
Among workplace resources, satisfaction with supervision and positive supervi-
sion have been negatively linked to job burnout, particularly emotional exhaustion
(1, 18, 23). Conversely, perceptions of coercive supervision was associated with
higher depersonalization (23). Satisfaction with promotional opportunity appears to
have a negative relationship with burnout (1, 40). Job autonomy is negatively
related to emotional and depersonalization forms of burnout (20, 45). In addition,
job autonomy appears to lead to a greater sense of personal accomplishment (20).

Lack of participation in decision-making has been reported to be positively related
to all three dimensions, and input into decision-making may reduce the burnout
dimensions of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization (4, 29, 40). A lack of
personal growth work skill utilization appears to increase the likelihood of
increased emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced sense of accom-
plishment (29). Task significance, skill utilization, and job feedback appear to lead
to lower levels of burnout (9, 29, 45). Instrumental communication and formaliza-
tion both have been observed to have a negative relationship with burnout (40).
Furthermore, organizational fairness, in terms of distributive and procedural justice,
may reduce burnout in terms of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization (41).
Management support, coworker, supervisor, community and societal support have
been found to be negatively related to burnout, particularly for emotional exhaus-
tion, and may lead to a higher sense of personal accomplishment at work (2, 4,
8–9, 11, 24, 26, 29, 32, 37). Supervisor trust and management trust had negative
associations with emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and a positive rela-
tionship with a sense of accomplishment at work (44). Clarity of organizational
mission/goals has been found to be negatively related to emotional burnout (27).
The work attitudes of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job
involvement have been studied, as well. Low job satisfaction can result in higher
emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced sense of accomplishment
(5, 7, 11, 36). Conversely, higher levels of job satisfaction are linked to lower
levels of emotional and depersonalization burnout (31, 35, 46). Moreover, job satis-
faction has been found to be associated with a great sense of personal accomplish-
ment (36, 46). Affective commitment, the psychological form of bonding to the
organization, has been reported to have an inverse relationship with emotional
burnout, while continuance commitment, the form of organizational commitment
where a person bonds with the organization because the costs associated with quit-
ting are too high (such as loss of pension or having non-transferable job skills) has
a positive association with emotional burnout (28, 31, 35, 51). Job involvement
(i.e. the importance the job plays in a person’s life) may lead to greater emotional
exhaustion for correctional staff (36).
Four primary conclusions on the research of the antecedents of burnout can be
drawn. First, there is support that stressors, as postulated under the job demand-
control model, increase the likelihood of burnout among correctional staff. As sug-
gested by past research, the effects of different stressors appear to vary depending
on which other stressors are included in the analysis. No past study has included
all the major stressors in a single multivariate analysis to determine which ones are
more salient predictors of the different burnout dimensions. Until several compre-
hensive studies are done which include all the major stressors, those that play a
greater role in leading to correctional staff burnout cannot be conclusively identi-
fied. All that can be concluded is that stressors play a role in burnout in the field
of corrections. Second, more focused measures that can tease out the nature of
interactions are needed to determine if and how interactions with inmates are linked
to burnout. Third, there is some support that some positions, particularly in terms
of being a correctional officer or treatment provider, may be more vulnerable to
burnout than other positions. Research to date does not explain why position may
be associated with burnout. Fourth, there is support for the conservation of
resources model. Various work environment factors appear to be linked to burnout,
particularly when they are missing. As with stressors, workplace factors appear to
vary in their effects depending what other workplace factors are included in the
multivariate analysis. No past study has included all the major workplace factors in
a single multivariate analysis to see which ones are more salient predictors of the
different burnout dimensions. Without comprehensive studies that include all the
major workplace factors, we are unable to identify with certainty which factors
contribute to or act as protective factors reducing burnout among correctional staff.
All that can be concluded is that workplace factors play a role in burnout.
Findings on consequences of job burnout among correctional staff

The limited research to date indicates that burnout takes its toll on correctional
staff. One study reported that high levels of emotional exhaustion may lead to
higher levels of depersonalization and a lower sense of personal accomplishment
(29). Emotional exhaustion has been found to have a positive association with
depression (29). A measure of emotional and physical burnout was reported to be
linked to higher levels of negative physical and psychological symptoms (30).
Emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of sense of accomplishment were
linked to increased levels of post-traumatic stress (47). Burnout was also linked to
decreased physical health (8). A combined burnout measure of emotional exhaus-
tion and depersonalization was observed to have a negative association with job
morale (53). Additionally, emotional exhaustion may result in decreased life satis-
faction (39). Support exists for the contention that those suffering from burnout will
try to escape either temporarily by being absent or permanently by quitting.
Emotional burnout and depersonalization have been reported to be positively linked
to increased absenteeism (25, 29, 39). A combined measure of emotional exhaus-
tion and depersonalization burnout was observed to be positively associated with
increased use of sick leave, greater support for the view that sick leave is a right to
be used how the employee wishes, and that fellow staff took excessive sick leave
(31). Emotional exhaustion and depersonalization have been reported to be associ-
ated with increased turnover intent (25, 28, 39).
The results point to two fundamental conclusions. First, there is evidence that
burnout has negative consequences for the staff member, coworkers, and the correc-
tional organization. Second, it is clear that there has been far less research on
exploring the potential consequences of burnout in comparison to studies that have
focused on the possible antecedents of burnout. This lack of research may explain
why many past correctional staff studies have cited research on the consequences
of burnout involving occupational fields other than corrections. Failure to account
for the unique work environment that is corrections by relying on findings from
outside of the correctional context leaves too many unanswered questions. Clearly,
the effects of burnout for correctional staff may differ considerably from the effects
found among employees in other occupational fields.
Recommended future research focuses

Replication and confirmation of the findings of the limited research to date on cor-
rectional staff burnout is needed. Additionally, future research needs to determine
(1) if burnout levels differ between different positions, and, if so, why; (2) which
factors contribute to or help prevent burnout among those working at a correctional
institution; (3) what other possible consequences of job burnout exist for
correctional staff (e.g. if job burnout decreases the effectiveness and efficiency of
work performance, places greater burden on coworkers, reduces the quality of life
for inmates, and increases the chances of substance abuse, divorce, physical and
mental health problems, and suicide of the affected correctional staff). Furthermore,
future studies on correctional staff burnout should strive for some consistency in
the measurement of burnout. For the purpose of comparisons across studies,
researchers should make clear what measure of burnout was used. In addition,
future studies making use of a composite measure should make clear why two or
more dimensions of burnout were combined. Failure to do so adds to the difficulty
in providing a more comprehensive understanding of how staff burnout develops
and functions across multiple sites and over varying periods of time. In light of the
harmful effects of burnout, there is the need for additional research on the factors
which may lead to or may help prevent burnout among those working at a
correctional institution.
Moreover, longitudinal studies are needed to determine how workplace factors
specifically contribute to correctional staff burnout, and, in turn, if burnout actually
leads to specific outcomes or are other variables causing these outcomes. In addi-
tion, longitudinal studies could provide empirical support as to whether the dimen-
sions of burnout occur simultaneously or if one occurs first and then leads to the
other two burnout dimensions. Furthermore, future research should examine burn-
out as a dynamic causal process rather than a static model where all the stressors
and workplace factors have a direct effect on the different dimensions of burnout.
One approach would be to use path analysis to model the direct and indirect effects
of groups of variables on burnout, where one group of variables has effects on a
different group of variables, and, in turn, these variables have either direct negative
or positive effects on burnout. For example, workplace variables, such as job vari-
ety and instrumental communication, could have direct effects on job stress, job
satisfaction, and organizational commitment, and, in turn, job stress, job satisfac-
tion, and organizational commitment could then have direct effects on burnout.
Another possible path is that workplace factors have direct effects on job satisfac-
tion and organizational commitment, and these work attitudes have negative effects
on burnout. Testing different dynamic causal models would allow for a better
understanding of the direct and indirect effects of variables on burnout. There is
support for this approach. In a test of a path model, workplace support did not have
a direct effect, but was indirectly linked by having a negative association with role
ambiguity, which then had a positive relationship with a combined burnout measure
of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization (3). In another study, a lack of input
into decision-making, while not having a direct effect, had in indirect effects on
burnout by having a positive association with lack of job satisfaction and role con-
flict, which, in turn, had direct positive relationships with the burnout measures (5).
A glaring gap in this area of research to date is the lack of an assessment of
effective interventions taken to prevent burnout, as well as an examination of inter-
vention strategies once burnout occurs. No studies could be located which directly
tested the effectiveness of interventions to either prevent or deal with correctional
staff burnout. How staff responds to the strains of working in a correctional facility
may play a role in the burnout process. For example, coping styles may be linked
to burnout (32, 49); however, intervention strategies designed to develop better
coping skills among staff remain untested. Likewise, if research finds that specific
stressors play a greater role in promoting burnout, additional research is then

needed to explore how these stressors can be realistically avoided or reduced. There
is considerable evidence from job burnout research in other occupational fields that
individual interventions can help human service professionals better cope with job
demands (Maslach et al., 2001). Interventions designed to assist corrections person-
nel develop better thinking habits and coping skills, however, remain untested.
Furthermore, as the bulk of the research concludes that workplace factors play a
greater role than individual factors in explaining job burnout in corrections, addi-
tional research is then needed on how these stressors can be realistically avoided or
reduced. Maslach and Leiter (2008) offered a possible approach. Based on their
review of the vast burnout literature across varied organizations in numerous coun-
tries, these researchers concluded that the major source of job burnout was what
they labeled ‘person-job mismatches’ that fell into six categories; workload, control,
reward, community, fairness, and values. Workload deals with being overloaded
with job duties. An example of workload issue for correctional staff is being
required to oversee too many inmates. Control refers to the ability to control work
demands, such as having role clarity and input into decision-making. Examples of a
lack of control for correctional staff would no voice in organizational decision-mak-
ing and dealing with role ambiguity of what is expected for job duties and how to
do job tasks. The category of reward deals with a lack of recognition of work well
done. Correctional staff should be recognized by supervisors and administrators for
work done well, and this could be as simple as a verbal recognition. Community is
the overall quality of social interactions at work. A lack of support from coworkers,
supervisors, and administrators can raise the chances of burnout. A lack of social
support can be a strain for correctional staff. Fairness focuses perceptions of fairness
of salient organizational outcomes and processes, such as promotions or job assign-
ments. A lack of fairness, such as a supervisor playing favorites in assignments and
evaluations of subordinates, can be a strain for correctional staff. To reduce job
burnout, Maslach and Leiter (2008) posited that organizations must first determine
the areas in which their mismatches lie, and then devise tailored solutions and inter-
ventions to improve the fit in each area. Maslach and Leiter (2008) proposed a
framework for diagnosing these mismatches and designing targeted interventions
that can be utilized by corrections organizations and tested.
No comprehensive study was located that examined both the potential causes
and consequences of burnout among correctional staff. Future studies that utilize
either path analysis or structural equation modeling should test a comprehensive
model of burnout. Comprehensive approaches to complex human processes, such
as job burnout, provide structure and discipline for researchers, as well providing a
broader framework for correctional administrators to understand the process of
burnout more comprehensively. Finally, barring the development of new theoretical
models, future studies may wish to the job demands-control and/or conservation of
resources model for developing a comprehensive models of the antecedents and
consequences of burnout among correctional staff. In sum, there is much research
remaining to be done concerning correctional staff burnout.
Limitations of current review

The current review had limitations. It is possible that some published studies were
missed and not reviewed, which could affect the conclusions and recommendations.
As originally noted, only selected journals and the reference sections of correctional
staff burnout articles were searched. There are wide arrays of publication outlets
for studies on burnout among correctional staff. In addition, only published articles
were selected for review. There are dissertation and thesis studies that could be
reviewed to determine whether similar conclusions are reached. The current study
was a narrative review of past findings. There was no estimate of effect sizes of
different workplace variables on burnout as would be done in a meta-analysis. A
meta-analysis is needed in this area after there is prolonged use a consistent mea-
sure of job burnout. Nevertheless, the current narrative review provides a good
starting point for a meta-analytic study on burnout among correctional staff.
Conclusion
When correctional staff experience job burnout, the costs to their mental and physi-
cal health, their families, their ‘clients,’ and their organizations can be astronomical.
This awareness has generated considerable research on correctional staff burnout in
varied correctional facilities with a wide range of corrections personnel. The major-
ity of this research concluded that factors in the work environment, rather than indi-
vidual factors, are to blame for correctional staff job burnout. While several factors
made it difficult to compare the findings of the 55 studies we reviewed (e.g. differ-
ent measures of burnout use, different categories of corrections personnel surveyed,
various types of facilities), we were able to discern several patterns in the findings
and several gaps in the corrections job burnout literature. We offered recommenda-
tions to help fill these research gaps.
By far, the most glaring gap in this research is the absence of studies that exam-
ine how corrections organizations can prevent job burnout from happening in the
first place or how they can intervene successfully once job burnout has begun. The
importance of such research is obvious. Burned out correctional personnel often
reduce their level of work performance, have lower work standards, care less about
work quality, make more errors, are poorer problem solvers, and are less committed
to their organizations (Lambert et al., 2013). At present, job burnout research in
corrections has made great strides in understanding the nature of job burnout and it
antecedents. Future research must focus on what can be done to prevent and control
it. It is hoped this review will spark further research on correctional staff burnout.
There is too much at stake to do nothing.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Janet Lambert for editing and proofreading the paper. The authors also
thank the anonymous reviewers and the editor for their comments and suggestions. These
comments and suggestions improved the paper. The authors thank them for their input on
the presentation.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes on contributors
Eric G. Lambert is a faculty member in the Department of Criminal Justice at Wayne State
University. He received his PhD from the School of Criminal Justice at the State University
of New York at Albany. His research interests include organizational issues, job and
organizational effects on the attitudes, intentions, and behaviors of criminal justice employ-
ees, and the international perceptions, attitudes, and views on criminal justice issues.
Nancy L. Hogan is a faculty member in the School of Criminal Justice at Ferris State
University and Graduate Program Coordinator at Ferris State University. She received her
PhD in Justice Studies from Arizona State University. Her research interests include job
satisfaction and organizational issues of correctional staff, use of force, and cognitive behav-
ioral treatment for inmates.
Marie L. Griffin is a faculty member in the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice at
Arizona State University. She received her PhD in Justice Studies from Arizona State
University. Her research interests include organizational issues in the correctional setting,
use of force in corrections, prison and jail misconduct, and gender and crime.
Thomas Kelley is a faculty member in the Department of Criminal Justice at Wayne State
University. He received his PhD from Wayne State University. His research efforts are juve-
nile justice and delinquency, child abuse and neglect, correctional counseling methods, posi-
tive psychology, and mindfulness.
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Criminal Justice Studies

A Critical Journal of Crime, Law and Society

ISSN: 1478-601X (Print) 1478-6028 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gjup20

The correctional staff burnout literature

Eric G. Lambert, Nancy L. Hogan, Marie L. Griffin & Thomas Kelley

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2015.1065830

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The correctional staff burnout literature

*Corresponding author. Email: eglamber@olemiss.edu

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

Deﬁning job burnout

Method for current review

National Criminal Justice Reference Service, National Institute of Corrections,

How job burnout was measured

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

work-family conﬂict, job autonomy, peer

while age and role conﬂict had negative

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

making, role conﬂict, and job stress

intensive restitution (SIR) program. levels of a lack sense of personal

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

associations with emotional exhaustion

burnout. NS for burnout measure:

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

(1994) the highest level of depersonalization and

staff who are minority, percent of

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

facility, and proportion of White inmates

for burnout measure: percent Black

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

COs with more tenure. It was reported

power. NS for female depersonalization:

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

negative associations with the emotional

cohesiveness, staff autonomy,

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

association with the burnout measure.

accomplishment. Task-oriented coping

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

associations with burnout. NS for

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

role stress (role conﬂict and role

composite burnout measure with the burnout measure. NS for

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

sense of reduced accomplishment.

association with emotional exhaustion

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

Studies on correctional staff/ofﬁcer job burnout

Personnel focus of past studies

correctional facilities (Lambert, 2004). Two studies surveyed both correctional

Findings on the antecedents of correctional staff job burnout

job autonomy appears to lead to a greater sense of personal accomplishment (20).

Findings on consequences of job burnout among correctional staff

Recommended future research focuses

stressors play a greater role in promoting burnout, additional research is then

Limitations of current review