CAPE Environmental Science Field Reports

CARIBBEAN ADVANCED PROFICIENCY EXAMINATIONS
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
UNIT 1
SCHOOL BASED ASSESSMENT
NAME : VIVEK SOOKDEO
SCHOOL : COUVA EAST SECONDARY
CANDIDATE NUMBER : 1600140626
SCHOOL CODE : 160014
SUBJECT : ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE UNIT 1
TEACHER : MR. NAVINDRA RAMSAROOP

Contents
1.0 Location of Avocat Waterfall ............................................................................................................ 7
1.1 Objectives...................................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 8
1.3 Activities undertaken were as follows: ......................................................................................... 8
1.4 Weather ........................................................................................................................................ 9
1.5 Vegetation ..................................................................................................................................... 9
1.6 Physical surroundings ................................................................................................................... 9
1.7 Wildlife ........................................................................................................................................ 10
1.8 Human Activity ............................................................................................................................ 10
1.9 Hike ............................................................................................................................................. 10
1.10 Results: ........................................................................................................................................ 11
1.11 Garbage collected: ..................................................................................................................... 11
1.12 pH ................................................................................................................................................ 11
1.13 Turbidity ...................................................................................................................................... 11
1.14 Temperature ............................................................................................................................... 12
1.15 Nitrates ....................................................................................................................................... 12
1.16 Dissolved Oxygen ........................................................................................................................ 12
1.17 Pictures of Avocat Waterfall Area ............................................................................................... 13
2.0 Rio Seco Waterfall, Salybia.............................................................................................................. 15
2.1 Objectives.................................................................................................................................... 16
2.2 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 16
2.3 Activities:..................................................................................................................................... 16
2.3 Weather ...................................................................................................................................... 17
2.4 Vegetation ................................................................................................................................... 17
2.5 Physical surroundings ................................................................................................................. 17
2.6 Wildlife ........................................................................................................................................ 17
2.7 Human Activity ............................................................................................................................ 18
2.8 Hike ............................................................................................................................................. 18
2.9 Results ......................................................................................................................................... 18
2.10 Garbage collected ....................................................................................................................... 18
2.11 pH ................................................................................................................................................ 19
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2.12 Turbidity ...................................................................................................................................... 19
2.13 Temperature ............................................................................................................................... 19
2.14 Nitrates ....................................................................................................................................... 20
2.16 Picture of Rio Seco Waterfall Area .............................................................................................. 21
3.0 Rincon Waterfall, located in Las Cuevas ......................................................................................... 25
3.1 Objectives.................................................................................................................................... 26
3.2 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 26
3.3 Activities ...................................................................................................................................... 27
3.4 Weather ...................................................................................................................................... 27
3.5 Vegetation ................................................................................................................................... 27
3.7 Wildlife ........................................................................................................................................ 28
3.8 Human Activity ............................................................................................................................ 28
3.9 Hike ............................................................................................................................................. 28
3.10 Results ......................................................................................................................................... 29
3.12 pH ................................................................................................................................................ 29
3.13 Turbidity ...................................................................................................................................... 29
3.14 Temperature ............................................................................................................................... 30
3.15 Nitrates ....................................................................................................................................... 30
3.17 Pictures of Rincon Waterfall Area ............................................................................................... 31
4.0 Paria Waterfall, Paria ...................................................................................................................... 34
4.1 Objectives.................................................................................................................................... 35
4.2 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 35
4.3 Activities ...................................................................................................................................... 35
4.4 Weather ...................................................................................................................................... 35
4.5 Vegetation ................................................................................................................................... 35
4.7 Wildlife ........................................................................................................................................ 36
4.8 Human Activity ............................................................................................................................ 37
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4.9 Hike ............................................................................................................................................. 37
4.10 Results ......................................................................................................................................... 38
4.12 pH ................................................................................................................................................ 39
4.13 Temperature ............................................................................................................................... 39
4.14 Turbidity ...................................................................................................................................... 40
4.15 Nitrates ....................................................................................................................................... 40
4.17 Pictures of Paria Waterfall Areas ................................................................................................ 41
5.0 LAB #1 ............................................................................................................................................. 47
5.1 TITLE: pH OF VARIOUS WATERFALLS IN TRINIDAD ..................................................................... 47
5.2 AIM .............................................................................................................................................. 47
5.3 THEORY ....................................................................................................................................... 47
5.4 APPARATUS AND MATERIALS ..................................................................................................... 48
5.5 DIAGRAM: ................................................................................................................................... 48
5.6 METHOD...................................................................................................................................... 49
5.7 RESULTS....................................................................................................................................... 49
5.8 INTERPRETATION OF DATA PRESENTED ..................................................................................... 50
5.9 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 50
6.0 LAB #2 ............................................................................................................................................. 52
6.1 TITLE: TURBIDITY OF VARIOUS WATERFALLS IN TRINIDAD ........................................................ 52
6.2 AIM .............................................................................................................................................. 52
6.3 THEORY ....................................................................................................................................... 52
6.5 DIAGRAM .................................................................................................................................... 55
6.6 METHOD...................................................................................................................................... 55
6.7 RESULTS....................................................................................................................................... 57
6.9 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 59
7.0 LAB #3 ............................................................................................................................................. 60
7.1 TITLE: NITRATE CONTENT OF WATER AT VARIOUS WATERFALLS .............................................. 60
7.2 AIM .............................................................................................................................................. 60
4
7.3 THEORY ....................................................................................................................................... 60
7.5 DIAGRAM .................................................................................................................................... 62
7.6 METHOD...................................................................................................................................... 62
7.7 RESULTS....................................................................................................................................... 63
7.9 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 65
8.0 LAB #4 ............................................................................................................................................. 66
8.1 TITLE: TEMPERATURE OF WATER AT VARIOUS WATERFALLS IN TRINIDAD ............................... 66
8.2 AIM .............................................................................................................................................. 66
8.3 THEORY ....................................................................................................................................... 66
8.4 APPARATUS AND MATERIALS: .................................................................................................... 67
8.5 DIAGRAM .................................................................................................................................... 68
8.6 METHOD...................................................................................................................................... 68
8.7 RESULTS: ..................................................................................................................................... 68
8.9 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 70
9.0 LAB #5 ............................................................................................................................................. 71
9.1 TITLE: DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONTENT OF WATER AT VARIOUS WATERFALLS IN TRINIDAD ...... 71
9.2 AIM .............................................................................................................................................. 71
9.3 THEORY ....................................................................................................................................... 71
9.4 APPARATUS AND MATERIALS: .................................................................................................... 75
9.5 DIAGRAM: ................................................................................................................................... 76
9.6 METHOD...................................................................................................................................... 76
9.7 RESULTS....................................................................................................................................... 78
9.8 INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA COLLECTED .............................................................................. 79
9.9 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 80
10 PROJECT DETAILS ............................................................................................................................ 81
10.1 Problem Statement ..................................................................................................................... 81
10.2 Purpose of Project....................................................................................................................... 81
10.3 Objectives.................................................................................................................................... 81
10.4 Variables...................................................................................................................................... 81
5
10.5 Method of Data Collection.......................................................................................................... 82
10.6 Literature Review ...................................................................................................................... 833
10.7 Presentation of Data ................................................................................................................. 866
10.8 Nitrate ......................................................................................................................................... 92
10.9 Temperature Results ................................................................................................................... 95
10.10 Dissolved Oxygen .................................................................................................................. 988
11.0 Analysis of Data ............................................................................................................................. 101
12.0 Discussion of Findings ................................................................................................................... 103
13.0 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 105
14.0 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................ 106
15.0 Limitations..................................................................................................................................... 107
16.0 Bibliography: ................................................................................................................................. 108
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1.0 Location of Avocat Waterfall
Name: Vivek Sookdeo

Class: L6-2
Date: 07-10-2018
Journal #1
Location: Avocat Waterfall (Northern Trinidad past Blanchisseuse)
Area Visited
Diagram 1 showing Location of Avocat Waterfall
7
1.1 Objectives
The following are the objectives of the Lab testing of Avocat waterfall water:
1. pH
2. Turbidity
3. Nitrates
4. Temperature
5. Dissolved Oxygen
1.2 Introduction
Located just a short distance off the Arima/Blanchisseuse Road is the village of Avocat. Within
this village lies one of the most mesmerizing eco-destinations in Trinidad, the Avocat Falls
otherwise known as ‘Gran Fond Falls’ meaning “the river that comes from the sky” as named by
the Amerindians. Landscaped by a wall of glistening bronze rocks and lush vegetation, one can
enjoy a spray bath behind the curtain of falling water that thunders down into a Jacuzzi type
pool below. The surrounding rocks also make a great springboard for jumping into the deep
blue-green water below, as the pool flows downstream into the Marianne River. Exiting the
Falls walking along the riverbank that leads out of the village, there is a nature trail on the
opposite side that leads you further into the Marianne Valley.
1.3 Activities undertaken were as follows:

 Hiking
 Observation of the surroundings
 Photography
 Water testing (refer to objectives)
 Identification and collection of non-biodegradable garbage left in the forest
 Site-seeing
8
1.4 Weather
The weather throughout the hike was sunny and the temperature was very cool. During the
hike, there were no heavy showers.
1.5 Vegetation
There was an abundance of tall trees of heights surpassing one (1) kilometre along with small,
thin vines draping around and hanging from the trees. Wild grasses were laced throughout the
hike trail. Medium sized coconut trees were observed at the beginning of the trail. Fallen trees
and branches were persisting in areas near the trail, most notably an up-rooted tree that
blocked the trail. Flowers of varying colours were spotted, such as a red non-bloomed flower.
Logs and bare branches were found floating down the river or perched on giant rocks near the
waterfall. Many rocks, trees and logs were coated with moss and were situated in places near
to the river ways. The leaves of trees were of different sizes and shapes. For instance some
leaves may be pointed, long and broad while others may be short and rounded. Leaf colours
varied from green, yellow, brown and orange-brown.
1.6 Physical surroundings
The hike trail was mainly through small rivers (streams), however, the pathway was
interchanging between the river and land. The rivers were not too deep, about one (1) metre
deep, although there were certain deep spots where the ground could not be reached. The
water was crystal clear giving a light green coloration from the base of the water. An
abundance of rocks were found throughout the trail: giant rocks, big rocks and small or grainy
rocks. Rocks of different colours were seen, most notably the distinct red rocks, the other rocks
were mainly grey or brown. The texture of rocks in the water were slippery due, in part, to
moss. On the land, on part of the trail there was only one (1) fallen tree, rope was used to go
around the tree root, there were also many tree roots that spread across the surface of the soil.
Some trees bore fruits, for example, coconut fruit, while other trees did not. No trees or grass
grew in the waterlogged areas. The trees were over one (1) kilometre high and prevalent
throughout with different shapes, sizes and colours (mainly green). The canopy blocked light
from reaching the floor of the waterways.
9
1.7 Wildlife
Not much wildlife was seen, possibly because of the noise pollution of the hikers who would
have been in front stamping their feet on the ground or splashing the water to cross the water
ways. The wildlife seen while hiking were small insects like ants, dragonflies, butterflies (notably
the blue-winged emperor), spiders, cray fish, lizards and termites along the trees. Perspiration
and body odours from hikers could have driven away wild animals from the trail. Fishes were
not seen in the waterfall basin.
1.8 Human Activity
Not many human activities were seen during the hike. There were mainly coconuts trees with
regard to the agricultural aspect, only before the forest. There were a few houses before the
trail of the hike and a parking area with two (2) change rooms and running taps, accompanied
by a tatched roof and benches. There was very little garbage found throughout the hike.
1.9 Hike
The hike was quite short and not very difficult. At the beginning of the trail, there was a dirt
road leading to the first part of the river. In the middle of the hike, a tree had to be crossed
using rope, as the soil around the tree was very slippery. At the waterfall, the water was clear
as day with little to no sediments being washed down the river. The waterfall had big rocks
surrounding it giving the shape of a pool, with one rock in particular being in the middle of the
the pool.
FOLLOW UP ACTIVITIES
After carrying out the tests we returned to school and exchanged information. We also planned
out the next hike we would be going to.
10
1.10 Results:
TABLE SHOWING RESULTS FROM WATER TESTING DONE AT AVOCAT WATERFALL,

BLANCHESSEUSE
TEST DONE RESULTS BEFORE RESULTS AFTER
pH 8.5 8.5
Turbidity 20JTU 15JTU
Nitrates 4.48ppm 4.48ppm
Temperature 25°C 25°C

Dissolved Oxygen 9 9
1.11 Garbage collected:
 Snack wrappers
 Plastic Bottles
 Bottle covers
 A hard plastic Water Bottle 1.5Litres
1.12 pH
The pH was taken both upon arrival and departure and was 8.5 for both, therefore, there was
negligible effect due to the presence of hikers.
1.13 Turbidity
Turbidity is how clear the water is. On arrival at the fall, the test was taken and it was 20JTU, on
leaving the test was taken again and it was 15JTU. The lower the turbidity the fewer sediments
in the water which would make it clearer but the higher the turbidity with more sediments in
the water makes it harder for light to pass though the water. From the results, it can be said
that the hikers had a somewhat positive effect on the turbidity of the water, as it decreased.
11
1.14 Temperature
The temperature of the water upon arrival was 25.0 ℃ and on leaving it remained 25.0℃. The
cold water from the higher mountains along with the rain flows into the pool of the waterfall
causing the oxygen to dissolve more readily. The falling of the water from that height provides
gusts of oxygen to be expelled upon hitting the surface of the water. This meant that human
intervention had no impact on temperature, hence the rate at which the water cools as a result
of the cold oxygenated water impacting the pool’s surface is equivalent to the amount of
energy produced by humans transfering their kinetic energy and body heat to the water. The
conclusion drawn is that the presence of hikers produced negligible effects on the temperature
of the basin of water under the waterfall.
1.15 Nitrates
The nitrate content of the water was 1.1ppm upon arrival and remained exactly the same on
leaving which may have been because of the turgor (water) pressure causing sediments or
minerals to be uplifted and carried into the water and, from the soil, and be transported via the
river current. Hence, it would appear that hikers had no effect on the nitrate content of the
water.
1.16 Dissolved Oxygen

The Dissolved Oxygen content remained relatively constant at 9 ppm before and after testing
the water, this being relatively high would be due to the high amounts of oxygen produced
from the cold water and the gravitational potential energy converting to kinetic energy causing
an influx of oxygen molecules to react with the water and increasing the pressure, hence the
reason for no fish being seen in the basin of the waterfall. It would appear that they were either
afraid of the hikers due to some kind of trauma or they could have all died from some change in
their environment that they could not adapt to, in order for them to survive. From the results
obtained, the dissolved oxygen content remained the same, hence hikers had no or negligible
effect on dissolved oxygen content of the water.
12
1.17 Pictures of Avocat Waterfall Area
Figure1: A picture of Avocat Waterfall
Figure3: A picture of various tall trees
Figure 2: A picture of Red Rocks found along

the trail Figure 4: Picture of Human Activity before
entering the trail
13
Figure 5: A picture of one of the clear water area
found along the hiking trail giving a light green
colouration
Figure 6: A picture of coconuts from a coconut tree
14
2.0 Rio Seco Waterfall, Salybia
Name: Vivek Sookdeo

Class: L6-2
Date: 11-11-2018
Journal #2
Location: Rio Seco Waterfall, Salybia
Visited Area
15
2.1 Objectives
The following were the objectives of the Lab testing of the water at Rio Seco Waterfall:
1. pH
2. Turbidity
3. Nitrates
4. Temperature
5. Dissolved Oxygen
2.2 Introduction
Described as one of the most attractive nature spots for outdoor recreation, the Rio Seco or
Salybia Waterfall is incomparable to the rest. There are many steep hills and is quite forested,
the place is somewhat humid. There are also many narrow path ways. The track becomes very
muddy if rain falls. The hike to the falls was not tiresome as it was a thirty minutes trail. On
reaching the falls, we discovered a huge plunge pool which was perfect for swimmers. The
bands of rock encircling the falls creates a relaxing atmosphere as nature lovers sit and enjoy
this spectacular land form. The refreshing air, the enchanting harmony of the birds, the
evergreen foliage with its autumn leaves and the softness of the Salybia waters enhance the
perfection of this environment. The water was crystal clear with a green complexion before
other hikers entered the water.
2.3 Activities:
The activities undertaken included:
 Hiking
 Observe Surroundings
 Photography
 Water testing
16
2.3 Weather
The weather was fine throughout the entire day, however, there was a burst of rainfall that
lasted about 2 minutes around 12:30 pm, there was some sun but clouds kept passing. The area
was very humid.
2.4 Vegetation
The vegetation can be described as densely populated with very tall trees of over 1.5 kilometre
in height. Most of the forest comprised of Mora trees. There were a lot of wild white flat-
headed mushrooms growing from both trees and the ground.
The leaves of the trees were of different colours, but mainly green with some of them being
brown in colour. The trees blocked most of the sunlight from reaching the surface of the soil,
also there were vines draping from trees. There was a particular giant vine that was noticed on
the trail and must have measured about 25 centimetres in diameter. There was river running
perpendicular to the hiking trail. The trail was mainly muddy and a large number of puddles
encased the tree roots, some of the puddles were black in colour while most were muddy
brown. These tree roots spread throughout the entirety of the trail. We descended a steep hill
using rope to reach the waterfall. At the waterfall there were three (3) distinct parts, the first
being big rocks, second being flat rocks submerged in shallow water of the pool and finally, a
very deep part about 4 metres deep. Along the trail there were three (3) fallen logs which had
its surface partially covered with either moss or white flat-headed mushrooms. A little before
the falls to the right, there was what looked to be a fallen tree.
2.6 Wildlife
Many types of wildlife were observed, such as, blue-winged and brown-winged emperor
butterflies, a nest of black ants, a dead crayfish, a hord of fish that were a mixture of light green
and brown were seen in the waterfall using bread to feed them. Dragonflies were seen and
footsteps of lizards were heard ruffling in nearby bushes. Not too many animals were seen
probably due to hikers “scaring” the animals away with their noise pollution from their constant
chatter, as well as, their footsteps being loud enough to be heard by organisms in and around
the area.
17
2.7 Human Activity
Various signs of human interference were seen along the trail as evidenced by mainly garbage.
2.8 Hike
The hike to the waterfall was short, approximately three quarter of an hour (45 minutes). The
hike path was mainly dirt covered with a carpet of brown leaves all through the trail of the hike,
however, the trail was wet and muddy all of the way, to which the mud had the highest depth
of about 7 inches (above ankle). Tree roots were abundantly present at every point on the trail
and they mainly contained puddles of brown muddy water, while some of the muddy water
puddles contained an opaque black colouration (assumed to be harbouring waste).
2.9 Results
TABLE SHOWING RESULTS FROM WATER TESTING DONE AT RIO SECO, SALYBIA
pH 8.0 7.5
Dissolved Oxygen 7ppm 7.5ppm
2.10 Garbage collected
 Shoe soles (abundant)

 Plastic bottles (few)
 Plastic bottle caps (abundant)
 4 plastic snack packs/wrappers
 1 glass hineken bottle
 1 glass stag bottle
 1 plastic sheet
 Shoes on the ground and on the trees (at the beginning of the hike)
18
2.11 pH
The pH taken upon arrival was found to be 8.0 according to the pH colour bar. The pH taken
when about to depart from the waterfall was found to have decreased by 0.5 to the value 7.5.
Pure water exposed to air has an acidic pH of about 5.6 because carbon dioxide hydrates in
water to form carbonic acid, which dissociates to hydrogen ion and bicarbonate (HCO 3-). The
waterfall water was not pure water because of all the minerals being deposited from the soil or
rocks. The minerals themselves do not contain free hydrogen ions (H+). The only possibility that
could have occurred to lower the pH was reducing pH with an acid that was introduced into the
water of the waterfall’s pool.
2.12 Turbidity
On arrival and on leaving, the turbidity levels for each were 40 JTU, hence the clarity of the
water was the same regardless of the presence of hikers. The lower the turbidity the fewer
sediments in the water which would make it clearer but the higher the turbidity, the more
sediments in the water making it harder for light to pass though the water. From the results,
one can deduce that the hikers, as well as the current of the water were not able to cause
sedements to be suspended in the water, therefore hikers being present had no or negligible
effect on the turbidity of the water.
2.13 Temperature
The temperature of the water upon arrival was recorded as 200C, but the temperature
recorded on leaving the waterfall decreased to 190C. This could have been due to the large
body of cold water accompanied by the wind created from the water falling from the waterfall’s
edge and into the pool. The wind generated would have been due to the high amounts of
oxygen being released. The shielding effect of the trees, that is blocking out the light and heat
energy from the sun for a long period of time combined with the effect of the breeze from the
waterfall could have played a key role in decreasing the temperature by 1 0C. Although the heat
energy released from the bodies of the hikers were capable of promoting or increasing the
pool’s temperature, other factors could have played a part in decreasing the water
temperature, hence the presence of hikers was supposed to have a negative effect on
temperature of the water. In this case, the hikers had no effect or perhaps a positive effect on
the waterfall’s temperature.
19
2.14 Nitrates
The nitrate content of the water was 0.25ppm upon arrival and remained as such on leaving
which may have been because of the short burst of rain which could have washed down
sediments or minerals from the soil into the water. Therefore, hikers had no effect on the
nitrate content of the water.
The dissoved oxygen content upon arrival was recorded to be 7ppm, however, on departure
the dissolved oxygen content increased by 0.5ppm to give the value of 7.5ppm. Oxygen is
critical to the survival of aquatic plants and animals, and a shortage of dissolved oxygen is not
only a sign of pollution, it is harmful to fish. Some aquatic species are more sensitive to oxygen
depletion than others, hence it is notable that less than 2ppm of dissolved oxygen could prove
fatal to aquatic organisms as they must respire to survive, whereas 5-6ppm is sufficient for
most species of the aquatic organisms to survive. However in this case the dissolved oxygen
content is very high, so high that eight (8) sharks could survive there. The increase in dissolved
oxygen content was most likely due to the coldness of the water being a factor that would
influence the rate of oxygen being dissolved, such that the colder the water the more oxygen
can dissolve in the water. According to the results of the test, hikers had a positive effect on the
dissolved oxygen content of the water due to activities such as splashing.
20
2.16 Picture of Rio Seco Waterfall Area
Figure 2: A picture of Rio Seco Waterfall from the water

level
Figure 1: A picture of Rio Seco Waterfall
Figure 3: A picture of tall trees with green

and brown leaves
21
Figure 4: A picture of one of the fallen logs on the trail
Figure 5: A picture of white wild mushrooms growing from the side of a log
22
Figure 6: A picture of an abnormal looking tree with moss growing on it
Figure 7: A picture of an eroded tree on the right

side of the Rincon Waterfall
23
Figure 8: A picture of clear skies before entering the trail to the waterfall
24
3.0 Rincon Waterfall, located in Las Cuevas
Name: Vivek Sookdeo

Class: L6-2
Date: 02-12-2018
Journal #3
Location: Rincon Waterfall, located in Las Cuevas (Northern Trinidad)
Visited Area
Diagram 1 showing Location of Rincon Waterfall in relation to starting point, Couva
25
3.1 Objectives
The following were the objectives of the Lab testing of water from Rincon Waterfall:
1. pH
2. Temperature
3. Nitrates
4. Turbidity
5. Dissolved Oxygen
3.2 Introduction
Rincon waterfall is in the Rincon valley on the outskirts of Las Cuevas and is situated on the
north coast of Trinidad. This waterfall is huge with a height of 250ft vertically upwards. The hike
begins in the valley of small farms, several crystal clear streams and then winds uphill on man-
made trails, along with a steep descent to the base of the waterfall, to which rope is needed to
descend where there was a big pool for swimming about 10-15 metres in width.
Rincón is a small community on the North Coast located about 2 km from the Las Cuevas Beach
Facility. Its historical authenticity goes back to 1795 when 1,250 acres of land was granted to
the Spanish Treasurer, Jose Ramon Muxica, to establish an estate. The Las Cuevas Estate
comprised of the Rincon Valley and extended all the way from the sea to the foothills of El
Tucuche. The landscape is boarded by two rivers, on the east by the Quebrada De Hierro and on
the west by the Curaguate or Rincon River. In 1797, the land was sold to Valentin de Basanta
who planted sugarcane but with the slave amelioration Act of 1824, the estate was bankrupt
and put up for sale. Within a few years sugar was replaced by cocoa as the dominant crop.
Rincón is a Spanish word that means “in a corner” and the area used as a crossroad between
the North Coast and the capital San José de Oruña. Today, unmanaged cocoa trees show
evidence of its past and nestled within its boundaries is one of the most superb waterfalls.
The Rincon Waterfall, with an altitude of 76 metres, is the second highest in the country. Its
source comes from Tucuche and along its path another fantastic falls is Habio. At the base of
the falls, there is a wide pool for bathing. A lovely sensation is to go under the cascade for a
refreshing massage. The journey to the falls will take 1-1½ hours and can be done as a circuit -
walk. The trail ascends on the right side of the valley and along its path it crosses another
enchanting falls known as Black Pool. On the return, there is the option to take another route
that descends steeply on the left side of the valley. Perching high up in the trees is the echoing
call of the black and white male bearded bellbird, locally known as Campanero. His calls are to
try and attract a female and at the same time ward off rival males
26
3.3 Activities
 Hiking
 Photography
 Water testing
 Site-seeing
3.4 Weather
The weather started off as sunny and the temperature was very hot. During the hike, there
were no heavy showers, and it remained that way throughout the entirety of the hike.
3.5 Vegetation
At the beginning of the hike, small agricultural fields that grew melongene, pimentos, bhagi,
cocoa trees and coconut trees with full coconuts were seen. Along the hike, there was a variety
of plants and tall, green trees, the leaves of the trees were mostly green but the trail was
covered with brown leaves. There were banana trees sighted, wide and flat with a high surface
area and long broad leaves, but the banana fruit had not grown ripe. Alot of bushy areas less
than a metre in height were noticed throughout the trail, accompanied by tall trees measuring
up to more than a kilometre tall. Moss grew on both trees and rocks, and white flat-headed
mushrooms grew abundantly on the soil and some even grew on trees. On another note,
bamboo tree clusters were noticed. There were also different types of flowers along the hike of
all different shapes, sizes and color.

There were different types of green vegetation along the hike. There were two small rivers that
we were required to cross to continue te journey to the waterfall. It was noticed that
deforestation had occurred at one point early in the hike. Some parts of the trail were narrow,
some other parts were a lot wider. Due to the rain the trails were very wet and slippery. There
was a contour like rock that was 12ft high made from solid rock as if a cave was forming and
there was moss growing from the wall. There were areas in the hike where the land was flat
and then some areas that were very steep, like for instance closer to the waterfall a rope had to
be used to hike down a steep part of the trail in order to reach the waterfall. The water from
the pool ran through a narrow river, while at the waterfall there were big naturally formed
rocks and the pool stretched 10-15 metres wide. The water by the waterfall was transparent
enough that the green plants under water would give the pool its pale green colouration. Fallen
trees and broken branches were observed throughout the hike trail.
27
3.7 Wildlife
Not much wildlife was seen which may have been because of the noise pollution of the hikers
indulging in loud conversations or the echo of their feet stomping on the ground that would
have been in front. The wildlife that was seen were small insects like leaf cutters, tadpoles,
centipedes, and spiders, blue emperor butterflies, a nest of black bullet ants, lizards, termites
and woodlice were seen while hiking. Birds were heard echoing their voices throughout the
forrested areas.
3.8 Human Activity

Many human activities were seen during the hike. There were houses in the trail of the hike and
a shed. The agricultural fields had melongene and pimentos, bhagi, cocoa and coconuts
planted. Tyre and bike tracks were seen on the trails that looked as though vehicles passed by.
Deforestation was observed, along with other hikers and people swimming and relaxing at the
pool of the water causing an increase in the energy content via kinetic energy from all the
motions of the persons who indulged themselves in various water activities. None of the
disposed garbage collected at the waterfall seemed to have an impact on the wildlife, meaning
no dead organisms were found, but there was alot of garbage found mainly throughout the
trail.
3.9 Hike
The hike was quite challenging but managable. At the beginning rivers had to be crossed, as
well as muddy areas and waterlogged portions of the trail and agricultural fields. Various crops
were seen from these fields as the paths were wide before entering the forest. In the middle of
the hike, the trails got narrower but mud was in abundance accompanied by puddles. It was
shady and sunny along the hike since the hikers would be passing by trees which would block
light from the sun and make it cooler. Also the heavy rain made the trails wet, muddy and very
slippery to hike on. Closer to the waterfall, it got steep and a rope was used and small rocks had
to be stepped on to get down the decline to reach the waterfall. At the waterfall, the water in
the pool appeared to be colourless showing the various deep and shallow paths of the pool. It
took approximately two and a half hours to hike to the waterfall and approximately two hours
to hike back out of the forest.
28
3.10 Results
TABLE SHOWING RESULTS FROM WATER TESTING DONE AT RINCON WATERFALL LAS CUEVAS
pH 7.0 7.0
Dissolved oxygen 8ppm 8ppm

 Soles
 Snack wrappers
 Plastic Bottles
 Bottle covers
 Plastic bags
3.12 pH
The pH was taken both upon arrival and departure was recorded to be 7.0 for both, therefore,
there was negligible effect due to the presence of hikers.
3.13 Turbidity
Turbidity is how clear the water is. On arrival the test was taken and it was 10JTU, on leaving
the test was taken again and it was 15JTU. The lower the turbidity the fewer sediments in the
water which would make it clearer but the higher the turbidity the more sediments in the water
making it harder for light to pass though the water. From the results, it can be said that the
hikers increased the turbidity by engaging in activities that promote sediments to be uplifted
and be allowed to flow with the water’s current. Therefore, from the data collected hikers have
a negative impact on the turbidity of the pool of water from waterfall.
29
3.14 Temperature
The temperature of the water upon arrival was 24.0 ℃ and on leaving it decreased by 10 C to
23.0 0 C. The cold water from the higher mountains flows into the pool of the waterfall causing
the water to be cold. This shows that the hikers and also the rain may have had an influence on
the temperature of the water by absorbing the heat from the hikers but if this happened the
temperature should of increased. the decrease was probably due to the surrounding trees
providing large amounts of shade or due to the prolonged gusts of winds removing the most
energised molecules. These probabilities would prove that hikers cannot decrease the
temperature of the water by 10C, hence hikers could not lower the water’s temperature but are
more likely to increase the temperature of the water.
3.15 Nitrates
The nitrate content of the water was 0.25ppm upon arrival and remained as such on leaving
which may have been because of the rain which washes down sediments or minerals into the
water, from the soil. Therefore, hikers had no effect on the nitrate content of the water.

The dissolved oxygen content remained the same value of 8ppm upon testing the water on
arrival to the waterfall and departure from the waterfall. From this it can be seen tha hikers
being present had no or negligible effect on the dissolved oxygen content of the water.
30
3.17 Pictures of Rincon Waterfall Area
Figure1: A picture of Rincon Waterfall
Figure2: A picture of a groove of bamboo trees along the trail
Figure 3: A picture of a tree with parasitic vines wrapped

around its trunk
31
Figure 4: A picture of a contour
wall formed from rock
Figure5: A picture of a flower along the trail
32
Figure 1: A picture of shallow water along the trail transitioning from land to water then land
33
4.0 Paria Waterfall, Paria
Name: Vivek Sookdeo
Class: L6-2
Date: 24-12-2018
Journal # 4
Location: Paria Waterfall, Paria
Visited Area
34
4.1 Objectives
The following were the objectives of the Lab testing of water:
1. pH
2. Temperature
3. Nitrates
4. Turbidity
5. Phosphates
4.2 Introduction
The hike to Paria waterfall involved passing two beaches. The longest beach was Paria beach
which has an estimated length of 2 km. The elevation of the Paria Waterfall was 1 m. This
waterfall is located in a very remote area from civilization making it a suitable site for a complex
ecosystem, unaffected by human activity. Around the pool, there was a lot of smooth, medium
sized rocks which seemed to have been deposited by the strength of the water currents. The
water was greenish in colour in the pool and milky yellow in the river.
4.3 Activities
 Hiking
 Photography
 Water testing
4.4 Weather
The weather at Paria was sunny and dry with occasional gusts, especially on the beaches via sea
breeze. When hiking back, no rain had fallen for the entire journey out of the forest.
4.5 Vegetation
The vegetation at Paria would be described as very densely populated with big, tall trees. There
were also small peasants farming on a hillside near the first beach that seemed to be growing
peppers. There were an abundant quantity of coconut trees along both beaches; more coconut
trees were on the longer beach.
35
There was a variety of different types of vegetation along the hike. There were two small
streams that hikers had to cross to continue the hike, as well as two beaches, one beach with a
short coastline and the other beach with a long coastline. At the end of the second beach, there
was a shed next to the trail made from galvanize. Some parts of the trail were narrow but the
majority of the trail was wide. The trail was wet, slippery and muddy in minor portions of the
hike. The majority of the hike was hilly land and one long beach (Paria Beach). At the start of
the hike there was a brick house that was not plastered and had running electricity, as well as, a
galvanized shed at the side, however, there were two other houses along the trail, one in the
open, far from the waterfall with something looking like a child’s toy, giving the impression that
someone lived there, and another house closer to the waterfall which had dogs barking,
indicating people also lived there. Along the trail not much flowers were seen, mostly green-
leafed trees of different shapes, sizes and texture, but they tasted bitter. During the hike, there
were some hilly regions about eight in total that had to be crossed in order to reach the
waterfall.
4.7 Wildlife
There were many different types of wildlife on the hike. There were living, blue emperor
butterflies, as well as, brown-winged butterflies, spiders with long legs and a round body. Paria
beach is important for the nesting of turtles, however no turtles were seen. The carcass of a
dead pale-blue shelled crab was noticed perched on a rock in the middle of the trail, the crab’s
severed arm was lying next to it. On the first beach, the carcass of a dead animal was observed.
The carcass appeared to have a pair of hind legs, a spine and a skull with fang-like teeth on its
lower jaw, from this information gathered, the hikers assumed that the carcass belonged to
either a dog (no front pair of legs seen) or a bird. On the animal carcass, upon observation there
was a troop of flies, mainly on the inner part of the spine. On the second beach (long coastline),
a tiny frog was seen along with a snake perched on top of a coconut tree. Along the hiking trail
a small black rhinoceros beetle was seen. On returning to the transport vehicles the hikers
noticed a snake with features resembling a baby anaconda on a fence, under the bridge at the
starting point of the hike, however, it died due to mishandling in an attempt to capture it. Upon
the arrival back to the starting point of the hike, persons had to wait until nightfall for every
hiker to assemble to leave and that is when a swarm of wild mosquitoes made an appearance
to feed on the hikers. There was more wildlife compared to Rincon waterfall due to greater
isolation, therefore, fewer disturbances by hunters.
36
4.8 Human Activity
Many human activities were seen during the hike. There was a lot of garbage along the trail. It
was unknown if the two houses seen used electricity to cook but if this was true then carbon
dioxide from cooking could diffuse throughout the forest, causing an increase in carbon dioxide
content in the air. There was also deforestation for peasant farming close to the second house
going to the waterfall; the plants looked as if they were pepper plants. The usage of land for
agricultural practices was most likely done by clearing away the forest, indicative of
deforestation, where habitats of organisms were destroyed so they could have had to relocate
and adapt, if they could not adapt to a change in the environment they would die. However if
the agricultural land was bare at first then not much habitat destruction would have occurred,
for instance; micro-organisms in the soil could die as a result of tilling. The amount of hikers
present amounted to over fifty confirmed persons, hence noise pollution from walking, running
or talking could of scared off organisms, as well as, the stench of sweat perspired by the human
hikers could have also affected the number and type of organisms seen. The pool was wide in
diameter and very deep with few fishes.
4.9 Hike
The hike was long, intense and took approximately two and a half hours to the waterfall and
the distance from the starting point of the hike was around 8.7 km. Although not a single drop
of rain fell, some parts of the trail were slippery and muddy, especially at the beginning of the
trail where the mud could cover one’s feet about 7 inches in depth (above the ankle). At the
beginning of the trail, there was a paved bridge suspended over a small stream. After the
bridge, there was an incline that led to a muddy pathway in spite of no rainfall, however, this
particular path had tyre marks as if a few vehicles passed to and fro (back and forth). The trail
required the hikers to pass through 2 beaches. The first beach had pale white sand but upon
entering from the forested area, to the left had a plethora of rocks and a natural arched land a
few metres from the colony of rocks. The second beach, on the other hand, was quite a longer
coast stretching around five to six kilometers, however, like the first beach the sand was pale
white. Upon returning to the beaches from the waterfall, it was observed that the tide raised
significantly, such that it almost touched the forested area. The hike trail also required hikers to
walk up and down appropriately eight mountainous regions, whereby the oxygen level was
lower than on a plain stretch of land, but it was manageable.
Along the hike there were two houses and a “possibly in use” resting shed was seen. The two
houses seen were quite different in structure and the first house seen while hiking to the
waterfall, was in an open area, whereas the second house was surrounded by trees but there
was a path leading to the house. It was also noticed that the house contained two dogs. The
shed was found close to the end of the second beach going to the falls and it was made of
37
galvanize and wooden benches. A few additional hikers in two groups were noticed on the way
back from the falls, where one group had a man and a woman (thought to be a married couple
since they were alone together) and the other group consisted of three persons (two adults,
male and female, looking like they were in their thirties, and a child around ten years old,
expected to be their offspring). The pool was 30ft wide and 7ft deep. The current of the water
was relatively stronger compared to the currents of Rincon. There was a larger space than that
of Avocat and Rio Seco, by the waterfall. The water was crystal clear similar to the waters of all
the other three waterfalls, hence, the water of the pool was slightly green where the water
runs into the river. The height of the fall was approximately 40ft in vertical height.
4.10 Results
TABLE SHOWING RESULTS FROM TEATING WATER AT PARIA WATERFALL, PARIA
PH 8.0 8.5
Nitrates 1.10ppm 1.10 ppm
Temperature 19.5°C 20.0°C
Dissolved Oxygen 9ppm 10ppm

 Plastic bottles (most prevalent, mainly found on beach)
 Plastic snack wrappers
 5 empty cigarette packs (3 were recently used)
 2 tin can covers
 1 tin can(found on the long beach)
 3 plastic bags
 1 business card
 2 glass bottles (stag)
 Plastic bottle covers
 Some kind of pvc covering
38
 2 pairs of slippers(first pair was found on the long beach, the other found on the
first quarter of the trail)
 1 right foot shoe (size 14)
 About 6-8 Shoe soles ( present along the forested part of the trail)
 2 red party solo cups(1 crushed, 1 normal)
 1 very old Styrofoam cup (found near the falls)
 3 aluminum cans
 1 chewed up drinking straw
 1 lip balm (recently bought)
 1 young rectangular Styrofoam plate
 1 red plastic jar cover
 1 red coca cola rag
Garbage found by the waterfall, left by hikers in this group
 1 red piece of a plastic wrapper

 1 wet plastic zip lock bag
 2 empty 400mL blue waters water bottles(crushed and uncrushed)
 1 ball of foil
 1 pringles can
4.12 pH
The pH of the water describes how acidic or alkaline is the solution. The pH was taken
upon arrival and was 8.0 whereas upon departure of the waterfall the pH made a 0.5
increase to 8.5. This may be because the water may have contained some kind of
pollutant or pollutants hence the reason for the increase in the pH. This showed that the
hikers had no effect on the pH of the water.
4.13 Temperature
Upon arrival the temperature was taken. It was recorded as 19.5°C. This is because
water from the high mountains flow along the river which was cold and mixed with the
water in the pool making the pool water cold. The colder the water, the greater the
amount of oxygen can react with the water. Upon departure from the waterfall, the
temperature increased to 20°C, probably due to the large amounts of body heat
produced as well as the high amounts of kinetic energy released during hikers engaging
in activities, therefore, hikers had an impact on the temperature.
39
4.14 Turbidity
Turbidity is the clarity of the water. On arrival the test was done and the result was
20JTU and upon leaving, the turbidity remained the same 20JTU. The turbidity was the
same due to little or rather negligible movement in the water (the current was exactly
the same as compared to Rincon) which means either there were very few sediments
present in the water or the current, as well as, the hikers’ activities were not enough to
lift the sediments from the water’s base. Therefore the presence of hikers had no effect
on the turbidity of the water.
4.15 Nitrates
The test for nitrates was taken on arrival at the waterfall. The nitrate content was
0.25ppm and remained the same on leaving the waterfall. This result may be due to
little sediments being washed down from the river above. This indicated that the hikers
had no effect on the amount of nitrates in the water. Moss grew on the rocks in the
water, as well as on a tree log where the tests were done.

There was a great amount of dissolved oxygen present in the waterfall since 5ppm and
up is indicative that aquatic life can be sustained. Upon arrival at the waterfall, the
water was tested for dissolved oxygen before hikers entered the water, the value
recorded was 9ppm which meant that all kinds of aquatic life could be sustained. Upon
leaving, the water was tested again. The result found was that the dissolved oxygen
content increased by 1ppm to give the value of 10ppm. This increase in dissolved
oxygen says that because the hikers were splashing water around and doing other
activities, more oxygen was forced to dissolve in the water. Hence hikers had a positive
effect on the dissolved oxygen content of the water since more oxygen means more
respiration which leads to carbon dioxide appearing in the water such that
photosynthesis can occur, thus preserving aquatic life.
40
4.17 Pictures of Paria Waterfall Areas
Figure 1: A picture of Paria Waterfall
41
Figure2: A picture of an arch of land extending 2metres into the ocean
Figure 4: A picture of the first beach of the hike
Figure 3: A picture of tyre tracks

complemented by mud at the beginning of the trail
Figure 6: A picture of a cape jutting into the sea
42
Figure 5: A picture of a herd of rocks before
the land arc on the first beach
Figure 7: A picture of the first beach with rocks, sand and the transition from land to sea
Figure 8: A picture of beach number 2
complemented with white sand and coconut
trees
43
Figure 9: A picture of a small stream along
the trail
Figure10: A picture of bush along the trail

Figure11: A picture of the trail to Paria
Waterfall
44
Figure12 (left) and 13 (right): A picture of beach one in the evening upon leaving the waterfall
Figure14: A picture of trees growing Figure15: A picture of dead leaves along the
in a straight line next to each other trail
Figure16: A picture of smaller coconut trees

surrounding a large, taller tree
45
Figure17: A picture of a dead carcass of an animal that is believed to be a dog, since the skeleton
had two hind less intact and a tail and a pair of fangs on the lower jaw of its skull, or a bird
Figure18: A picture of a mapappi snake
46
5.0 LAB #1
Date: 7th October, 2018 – Avocat Waterfall

11th November, 2018 – Rio Seco Waterfall
2nd December, 2018 – Rincon Waterfall
24th December, 2018 – Paria Waterfall
Sites Visited: Avocat Waterfall
Rio Seco Waterfall
Rincon Waterfall
Paria Waterfall
5.1 TITLE: pH OF VARIOUS WATERFALLS IN TRINIDAD
5.2 AIM
To measure the pH of four different waterfalls in Trinidad using pH tablets.
5.3 THEORY
pH is one of the most common analyses in soil and water testing. It is an indication of the
sample’s acidity; pH is actually a measurement of the activity of hydrogen ions in the sample.
pH measurements are reported on a scale from 0 to 14, with 7.0 considered neutral. Those
solutions with a pH below 7.0 are considered acids, and those between 7.0 and 14.0 are
designated bases. The pH scale is logarithmic, so a one unit change in pH actually reflects a
tenfold change in the acidity. For instance, orange juice, pH 4, is ten times more acidic than
cottage cheese, which has a pH of 5.
Low pH waters have a tendency to cause corrosion, while high pH waters may contribute to
scale formation in, for example, boiler or cooling systems.
47
Small changes in pH, 0.3 units or less, are usually associated with relatively large changes in
other water qualities — the solubility of iron, copper, calcium, manganese, and other metals,
and the proportions of carbon dioxide, bicarbonate, and carbonate are greatly changed by
small numerical changes in the pH measurement.
pH can be measured visually, through the use of liquid reagents or pH test strips, or
electronically, through the use of a pH meter or post-reaction colorimeter. Visual comparisons
use pH indicators where color changes reflect the pH, which are then matched to color
standards.
pH meters simplify the pH test. An electrode is placed in the sample, and the pH is read directly
from the meter. While the meter is very easy to use, the electronics within the meter are
complex. After the pH electrode measures the millivolts of potential between the reference
electrode and the pH electrode, the meter converts this reading to pH units.
In pools, a slightly alkaline pH of 7.4 to 7.6 is most desirable because this range is most
comfortable to the human eye and provides for optimum use of free chlorine while maintaining
water that is not corrosive or scale forming.
While the ideal pH level of drinking water should be between 6-8.5, the human body maintains
pH equilibrium on a constant basis and will not be affected by water consumption. For example,
our stomachs have a naturally low pH level of 2 which is a beneficial acidity that helps us with
food digestion.
5.4 APPARATUS AND MATERIALS

 30 mL *Wide Range pH Indicator
 2 Test Tubes, 2.5-5-10 mL, plastic, with caps
 1 Wide Range pH Octa-Slide 2 Bar
 1 Octa-Slide 2 Viewer
 Water at the waterfall
Note: Reagents marked with an (*) are considered to be potential health hazards.
5.5 DIAGRAM:
48
DIAGRAM 1.1 SHOWING THE TEST KIT USED TO MEASURE THE pH OF THE WATER SAMPLES
5.6 METHOD
1. On arrival at the site, the tube was filled with the 10mL of the water sample to be tested.
2. A total of 8 drops of Wide Range pH Indicator was added to the test tube filled with the
sample water.
3. The test tube was then capped and mixed, by turning the test tube upside down and back
to its upright orientation for a few times.
4. The Wide Range pH Octa-Slide 2 Bar was inserted into the Octa-Slide 2Viewer.
5. The test tube containing the mixture Bar was inserted into the Octa-Slide 2Viewer.
6. The colour of the sample was matched to that of the corresponding colour on the Wide
Range pH Octa-Slide 2 Bar and recorded as the pH for the sample.
7. Steps 1-6 were repeated on leaving the site.
5.7 RESULTS
TABLE 1.1 SHOWING THE pH READINGS OBTAINED AT THE FOUR WATERFALLS
49
SITE pH ON ARRIVAL pH ON LEAVING
AVOCAT 8.5 8.5
RIO SECO 8.0 7.5
RINCON 7.0 7.0
PARIA 8.0 8.5
Avocat
Rio Seco
Leaving pH
Arrival pH
Rincon
Paria
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE1: SHOWING A BAR CHART COMPARING THE pH OF THE FOUR WATERFALLS UPON
ARRIVAL AND ON LEAVING
5.8 INTERPRETATION OF DATA PRESENTED

All pH values were found within the range of 7.0 to 8.5. These high values show that the waters
were weakly alkaline in nature, which may be due to the effects of weathering of rocks and
erosion of the soil substrate and the surrounding land which introduces carbonates and
bicarbonates into the water. The low levels of acid rain, if any, had little to no effect on the pH,
which means that the air must be low in toxic and pollutant gases which are available to change
the quality of the water pH.
5.9 CONCLUSION
The average pH of the four waterfalls was found to be:
50
AVOCAT
 Upon arrival: 8.5

 On leaving: 8.5
RIO SECO
 Upon arrival: 8
 On leaving: 7.5
RINCON
 Upon arrival: 7
 On leaving: 7
PARIA
 Upon arrival: 8
 On leaving: 8.5
51
6.0 LAB #2

Rio Seco Waterfall
Rincon Waterfall
Paria Waterfall
6.1 TITLE: TURBIDITY OF VARIOUS WATERFALLS IN TRINIDAD
6.2 AIM
To measure the turbidity level of four different waterfalls in Trinidad using a LaMotte test kit.
6.3 THEORY
The definition of Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by suspended solids
that are usually invisible to the naked eye. The measurement of Turbidity is an important test
when trying to determine the quality of water. It is an aggregate optical property of the water
and does not identify individual substances; it just says something is there. Water almost
always contains suspended solids that consist of many different particles of varying sizes. Some
of the particles are large enough and heavy enough to eventually settle to the bottom of a
container if a sample is left standing (these are the settleable solids). The smaller particles will
only settle slowly, if at all (these are the colloidal solids). It’s these particles that cause the
water to look turbid. The term Turbidity (also called haze) can also be applied to transparent
solids like plastic and glass.
52
Organisms like phytoplankton can contribute to turbidity in open water. Erosion and effluent
from highly urbanized zones contribute to the turbidity of waters in those areas. Construction,
mining and agriculture, disturb the soil and can lead to raised levels of sediment which run off
into waterways during storms. Storm water from paved surfaces like roads, bridges and parking
lots also contribute to turbidity. In drinking water, the higher the level of turbidity, the higher
the chance that those using it could develop gastrointestinal diseases. Contaminants like
viruses and pathogenic bacteria can attach themselves to the suspended solids. These solids
then interfere with disinfection. High turbidity levels can reduce the amount of light reaching
lower depths in bodies of water like rivers, lakes and reservoirs, which inhibits growth of some
forms of aquatic plants and can negatively affect species that are dependent on them, like fish
and shellfish. High turbidity levels will also hinder a fish’s ability to absorb dissolved oxygen.
This condition has been observed and documented throughout the Chesapeake Bay in the Mid-
Atlantic region of the USA. The most common measurement for turbidity in the United States
are the Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).
There are several ways you can check turbidity in water, the most direct being a measure of
attenuation, or reduction in strength of a light source as it passes through a water sample. An
older system was called the Jackson Candle method, with units expressed as JTU or Jackson
Turbidity Units. It used a candle flame viewed through a clear column filled with water. The
length of water that the candle could be seen through related to the turbidity in the water
sample. With the advent of electronic meter technology this method is no longer used. The
particles suspended in the water will scatter a light beam focused on them. The scattered light
is then measured at various angles from the incident light path. This is now accepted as a more
precise measure of turbidity. To measure turbidity this way use a nephelometer, such as the
LaMotte 2020we. Nephele is the Greek word for "cloud"; metric means
measure." Nephelometric, therefore, means "measuring cloudiness." Most nephelometers
measure the scattered light at 90°. If more light is able to reach the detector it means there are
many small particles scattering the source beam, less light reaching the detector means fewer
particles. Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU) are the units of measurement used by a
nephelometer meeting EPA design criteria. The amount of light scattered is influenced by many
aspects of the particles like color, shape, and reflectivity. Because of this, and the fact heavier
53
particles may settle quickly and may not contribute to the turbidity reading, the relationship
between turbidity and total suspended solids (TSS) can change depending on the location that
the test sample was collected.
Measuring turbidity in environmental applications, such as the oceans, rivers and lakes, a Secchi
disk can be used. This is a black and white disk that is lowered into the water until it can no
longer be seen. At that depth (called Secchi depth), the correlating number is recorded as a
measure of the clarity in the water. The advantage in using this device in open waters is the
ability to measure turbidity at various depths where multiple turbidity layers are present. This
device is also easy to use and relatively inexpensive.
1. 60 mL Standard Turbidity Reagent

2. 2 Turbidity Columns
3. 1 Brush, Test Tube
4. 1 Pipet, 0.5 mL, plastic, with cap
5. 1 Rod, plastic, stirring
6. Water sample from the waterfall
54
6.5 DIAGRAM
DIAGRAM 2.1 SHOWING THE VARIOUS APPARATUS USED TO MEASURE THE pH OF THE WATER
SAMPLES
6.6 METHOD
1. Upon arrival at the site, One Turbidity Column was filled to the 50 mL line with the
sample water. If the black dot on the bottom of the tube was not visible upon looking
down through the column of liquid, a sufficient amount of the test sample so that the
tube would have been filled to the 25 mL line.
2. The second Turbidity Column was filled with an amount of turbidity-free water (i.e. pure
water, like from a sealed Dasani water bottle), that is equal to the amount of sample
being measured. Distilled water would have been preferred; however, bottled water
(unused) may be used. This was the “clear water” tube.
55
3. The two tubes were placed side by side on a flat plain and the difference in clarity was
noted. If the black dot had been equally clear in both tubes, the turbidity would have
equated to zero (0). If, however the black dot in the sample tube was less clear, then
Step 4 was necessary.
4. The Standard Turbidity Reagent was shaken vigorously and then 0.5 mL of the Standard
Turbidity Reagent was added to the “clear water” tube, while using the stirring rod to
stir contents of both tubes to equally distribute turbid particles. The amount of turbidity
was checked for by looking down through the solution at the black dot. If the turbidity
of the sample water was greater than that of the “clear water”, Standard Turbidity
Reagent was added continuously in 0.5 mL increments to the “clear water” tube, while
mixing after each addition until the turbidity equals that of the sample. The total
amount of Standard Turbidity Reagent added was recorded.
5. Each 0.5 mL addition to the 50 mL size sample equals to 5 Jackson Turbidity Units (JTUs).
If a 25 mL sample size was used, then each 0.5 mL addition of the Standard Turbidity
Reagent would equate to 10 Jackson Turbidity Units (JTUs). See the table below. Both
tubes were carefully rinsed after each determination.
6. Upon departure from the falls, steps 1 – 5 were repeated.
56
PICTURE 2.2: DEPICTING HOW THE RESULTS OBTAINED FROM THE EXPERIMENT SHOULD BE
INTERPRETED, GIVING THE ADDITIONS, THEIR AMOUNTS AND THE VALUES AND UNITS ASSOCIATED
WITH THE CORRESPONDING 50mL AND 25mL GRADUATION.
6.7 RESULTS
TABLE 2.1 SHOWING THE TURBIDITY READINGS OBTAINED AT THE FOUR WATERFALLS
SITE TURBIDITY ON ARRIVAL TURBIDITY ON LEAVING

AVOCAT 20JTU 15JTU
RIO SECO 0JTU 10JTU
RINCON 10JTU 15JTU
PARIA 20JTU 20JTU
57
TURBIDITY CHART
Avocat
Rio Seco
Rincon
Paria
0 5 10 15 20 25
On Arriving On Leaving
FIGURE1: DEPICTING A BAR GRAPH COMPARING THE TURBIDITY OF THE FOUR WATERFALLS
UPON ARRIVAL AND ON LEAVING.

The turbidity level at both Avocat and Paria was recorded 20JTU as the highest turbidity level
upon arrival, however upon departure Paria alone recorded the highest turbidity of 20JTU. The
lowest turbidity level recorded was 0JTU at Rio Seco upon arrival. Each one of the waterfalls
had a unique turbidity feature. At Avocat waterfall, the turbidity decreased from 20JTU to
15JTU. This decrease could have been a result of other hikers using the waterfall for activities,
since the distance to the waterfall is short, other persons could have recently used it, hence the
reason for the turbidity level being so high upon arrival to the waterfall. The lowering could be
due to hikers doing less rough activities, like sitting down and admiring the scenery, which
could have allowed the sediments uplifted by the previous hikers to settle, hence the reason for
the turbidity drop. Rio Seco had zero turbidity on arrival, this was probably due to the waterfall
not being used for a long time, thus allowing the sediments to settle over time, while on
departure from the waterfall there was an increase in turbidity from 0JTU to 10JTU, this could
have been the result of the hikers engaging in activities that influenced the sediments to rise. At
Rincon, the turbidity increased on departure like at Rio Seco, most likely due to hiker’s activities
that caused sediments to rise. Finally, at Paria the turbidity level remained 20JTU on both
58
arrival and departure, this could have been due to hikers doing negligible activities that
influence sediments to rise or the sediments could have been quite heavy causing it to settle
faster. In terms of trends, Avocat’s turbidity on arrival was equal to Paria’s turbidity on both
arrival and departure (20JTU), Avocat’s turbidity on leaving was the same as the turbidity on
leaving from Rincon waterfall (15JTU) and upon leaving the waterfall of Rio Seco and arrival at
Rincon waterfall proved to have the same turbidity value of 10JTU
6.9 CONCLUSION
The average turbidity of the four waterfalls was found to be:
AVOCAT
 Upon arrival: 20ppm

 On leaving: 15ppm
RIO SECO

RINCON

PARIA

59
7.0 LAB #3

Rio Seco Waterfall
Rincon Waterfall
Paria Waterfall
7.1 TITLE: NITRATE CONTENT OF WATER AT VARIOUS WATERFALLS
7.2 AIM
To measure the nitrate content of four different waterfalls in Trinidad using a LaMotte test kit.
7.3 THEORY
Nitrates are inorganic compounds made up of nitrogen and oxygen, NO3 (one nitrogen and
three oxygen molecules). These compounds combine with other elements like sodium and
potassium to make sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate. They are used as preservatives and
color fixatives in cured meats and have other industrial uses, such as in gunpowder, explosives,
fertilizers, and glass enamels.
When we eat nitrates, they are converted into nitrites in our digestive system, which are then
converted to ammonia and disposed of by the body. Nitrites are also inorganic compounds
made up of nitrogen and oxygen, but instead of three oxygen molecules they have two, NO2.
Nitrates are not generally harmful unless they are consumed in massive quantities. Nitrites, on
their own and in moderation, are also generally not harmful. However, nitrites can be degraded
into carcinogenic compounds by high heat and also by digestive enzymes. Nitrites are
particularly good at preventing botulism - an anaerobic form of bacteria that causes paralysis
60
and death - which is why small amounts of these compounds are added to cured meats. Neither
nitrates nor nitrites are good at preventing contamination by other kinds of bacteria, like E. coli.
Nitrate occurs naturally in the soil, either by itself or as a compound such as sodium nitrate. The
largest natural deposits of sodium nitrate are located in Chile and Peru. The War of the Pacific
(1879-1884) was over control of these deposits and pitted Chile against Peru and Bolivia. Early
in the 20th century, synthetic sodium nitrate began to be produced, and by the 1940's, the
demand for naturally-produced sodium nitrate dropped dramatically.

 50 Nitrate #1 Tablets 2799A-H
 50 *Nitrate #2 CTA Tablets
 2 Test Tubes, 2.5-10.0 mL, plastic, with caps
 2 Protective Sleeves 0106-FP
 1 Nitrate-Nitrogen Octa-Slide 2 Bar, 0-15 ppm
 1 Octa-Slide 2 Viewer
 1 Stopwatch
 Water sample at base of waterfall
*WARNING: Reagents marked with an (*) are considered to be potential health hazards.
61
7.5 DIAGRAM
DIAGRAM 3.1 SHOWING THE VARIOUS APPARATUS USED TO MEASURE THE NITRATE-
NITROGEN CONTENT OF THE WATER SAMPLES
7.6 METHOD
1. Upon arrival at the site, The Nitrate-Nitrogen Octa-Slide 2 Bar was inserted into the
Octa-Slide 2 Viewer.
2. A test tube was filled to the 5mL line with the sample water.
3. One Nitrate #1 Tablet was added to the test tube with the 5mL of the sample water.
4. The test tube was then capped and mixed by turning the test tube with the sample
water upside down and then back to its upright position a few times until the tablet
disintegrated.
5. One *Nitrate #2 CTA Tablet was added to the test tube with the sample water,
however, as soon as the tablet was added, the test tube was immediately slid into one
of the Protective Sleeves.
62
6. The test tube was capped and mixed by turning the test tube with the sample water
upside down and then back to its upright position for a timed period of two (2) minutes
using a stopwatch.
7. With the use of the stopwatch, a period of five (5) minutes was timed, such that at the
end of the waiting period the test tube was removed from the Protective Sleeve.
8. After removing the test tube from the Protective Sleeve, the test tube was placed into
the Octa-Slide 2 Viewer.
9. The colour of the sample in the test tube was matched to a colour standard. The
matched colour was recorded as ppm Nitrate Nitrogen.
10. Upon leaving the waterfall, steps 1 – 9 were repeated.
7.7 RESULTS
TABLE3.1: SHOWING THE NITRATE CONTENT MEASURED AT THE FOUR WATERFALLS
SITE NITRATES ON ARRIVAL NITRATES ON LEAVING
AVOCAT 4.48ppm 4.48ppm
RIO SECO 1.10ppm 1.10ppm
RINCON 1.10ppm 1.10ppm
PARIA 1.10ppm 1.10ppm
63
Nitrates
4.48
Avocat
1.1
Rio Seco
On Arrival
1.1 On Leaving
Rincon
1.1
Paria
0 1 2 3 4 5
FIGURE1: SHOWING A BAR CHART COMPARING THE NITRATES OF THE FOUR WATERFALLS
UPON ARRIVAL AND ON LEAVING

All the nitrate results were 0.25ppm at all the waterfalls upon arrival and leaving except for the
waterfall at Avocat. The frequent result of 0.25ppm indicates that there is a small concentration
and amount of nitrates present in the water, this could have been a reason for the absence of
fish at Rincon. Since nitrates are used to support the organisms that are using it and recycling it
in the nitrogen cycle, the data shows that there is little amounts of nitrates present in the water
of the waterfalls, this may be due to the fact that persons engaged in farming activities don’t
use a lot of fertilizers for their crops or persons in the areas do not engage in farming, hence
little or no nitrates, respectively, can be leeched from the soil and run off into the river hereby
increasing the nitrate content slightly. For any value above 0.25ppm, this may be due to extra
nitrogen in the water which may have been from the washing away of fertilizers into water
ways that may have been used in agriculture higher up in the forest. Avocat waterfall recorded
the highest number of nitrates in the water, 1.1ppm. This may be the result of farmers use of
fertilizers upstream in the field of agriculture. However, at Rio Seco, Rincon and Paria; the
lowest nitrate content in the water was recorded as 0.25ppm.
64
7.9 CONCLUSION
The average nitrate content of the four waterfalls was found to be:
AVOCAT
 Upon arrival: 4.48 ppm

 On leaving: 4.48ppm
RIO SECO
 Upon arrival: 1.1ppm

RINCON

PARIA

65
8.0 LAB #4

Rio Seco Waterfall
Rincon Waterfall
Paria Waterfall
8.1 TITLE: TEMPERATURE OF WATER AT VARIOUS WATERFALLS IN

TRINIDAD
8.2 AIM
To measure the temperature of four different waterfalls in Trinidad using a Mercury-
thermometer.
8.3 THEORY
Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something is; specifically, a measure of the
average kinetic energy of the particles in an object, which is a type of energy associated with
motion. The terms hot and cold are not very scientific terms. If we really want to specify how
hot or cold something is, we must use temperature. Using temperature instead of words, like
hot or cold, reduces confusion. All matter is made of particles - atoms or molecules - that are in
constant motion. Because the particles are in motion, they have kinetic energy. The faster the
particles are moving, the more kinetic energy they have. The more kinetic energy the particles
of an object have, the higher is the temperature of the object.
66
Temperature is an average measure. Particles of matter are constantly moving, but they don't
all move at the same speed and in the same direction all the time. The motion of the particles is
random. The particles of matter in an object move in different directions, and some particles
move faster than others. As a result, some particles have more kinetic energy than others. An
object's temperature is the best approximation of the kinetic energy of the particles. When we
measure an object's temperature, we measure the average kinetic energy of the particles in the
object.
The higher the temperature, the faster the molecules of the substance move, on the average.
Dyes will spread more rapidly through hot water than cold water. This is because of the
increased motion of the molecules. Temperature does not have to do with the number of
molecules involved. Under given conditions, the temperatures of 10-ml and 100-ml samples of
boiling water are equal. This means that the average kinetic energy of the molecules is the
same for the two different quantities of water. Since molecules are so small, you must use an
indirect method to measure the kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance. As heat is
added to a substance, the molecules move more rapidly. This increased motion causes a small
increase in the volume, or amount of space taken up by most materials. There are devices that
use the expansion of a substance to give an indirect measure of temperature. Such devices are
called thermometers.
There are many types of thermometers. Many thermometers are thin glass tubes filled with a
liquid. Mercury and alcohol are often used in thermometers because they remain liquids over a
large temperature range. A change in temperature causes a small change in the volume of the
liquid. However, this effect is magnified when the liquid expands in the very thin tube of the
thermometer.
Some thermometers involve the use of bimetal strips. In such thermometers, strips made of
two different metals are bonded or glued together. Because the metals expand at different
rates, the combined strip bends in a certain direction when it is heated. When it cools, it bends
in the opposite direction. The figure below shows a bimetal strip used as a thermostat.
A thermostat is a device used to control heating and cooling systems.
Some thermometers, often used on the outside of aquariums, contain liquid crystals that
change color based on temperature. As temperature increases, the molecules of the liquid
crystal bump into each other more and more. This causes a change in the structure of the
crystals, which in turn affects their color. These thermometers are able to accurately determine
the temperature between 650 F and 850 F.
8.4 APPARATUS AND MATERIALS:

• Water at the waterfall
• Mercury-thermometer
67
8.5 DIAGRAM
DIAGRAM 4.1 SHOWING THE VARIOUS APPARATUS USED TO MEASURE THE TEMPERATURE OF
THE WATER
8.6 METHOD
1. On arrival at the site, the bulb of the thermometer was immersed into the waterfall
water, for a period of two minutes and its temperature reading was recorded at eye
level before any person set foot in the water of the waterfall.
2. On departure from the site of the waterfall, the bulb of the thermometer was immersed
under the water’s surface for a 2 minute period and its temperature reading was
recorded at eye level while the thermometer was still submerged in the water.
8.7 RESULTS:
TABLE 1.1 SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE READINGS OBTAINED AT THE FOUR WATERFALLS
SITE TEMPERATURE ON ARRIVAL TEMPERATURE ON LEAVING
AVOCAT 25.00C 25.00C
RIO SECO 20.00C 19.00C
RINCON 24.00C 23.00C
PARIA 19.50C 20.00C
68
Avocat
Rio Seco
Name of Site
On Arriving
Rincon On Leaving
Paria
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Temperature(0C)
FIGURE1: SHOWING A BAR CHART COMPARING THE TEMPERATURES OF THE FOUR

WATERFALLS UPON ARRIVAL AND ON LEAVING

The highest recorded temperature amongst the four sites was in Avocat with 250C and the
lowest recorded temperature being 190C at Rio Seco. The general trend shown from the data is
that the temperature ranges from 190C to 250C. The cool temperature may have resulted from
a certain degree of cloud cover, aimed to reduce the light intensity of the sun’s shortwave
radiation onto the earth’s surface, hence reflecting some light back to space as longwave
radiation. The general decrease in temperature on leaving the waterfalls is believed to be a
result from a few factors, of which are: the reduction of light intensity from the sun’s radiation,
the effect of breeze as a cooling mechanism by removing the oxygen, hydrogen or nitrogen
molecules that are high in kinetic energy and the reaction oxygen dissolving into the cold water
produced from atop the mountainous area.
69
8.9 CONCLUSION
The average temperatures of the four waterfalls were found to be:
AVOCAT
 Upon arrival: 25°C

 On leaving: 25°C
RIO SECO

RINCON

PARIA
 Upon arrival: 19.5°C

70
9.0 LAB #5

Rio Seco Waterfall
Rincon Waterfall
Paria Waterfall
9.1 TITLE: DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONTENT OF WATER AT VARIOUS

WATERFALLS IN TRINIDAD
9.2 AIM
To measure the dissolved oxygen content of four different waterfalls in Trinidad using a
dissolved oxygen test kit.
9.3 THEORY
Aquatic animals need dissolved oxygen to live. Fish, invertebrates, plants, and aerobic bacteria
all require oxygen for respiration. Oxygen dissolves readily into water from the atmosphere
until the water is saturated. Once dissolved in the water, the oxygen diffuses very slowly and
distribution depends on the movement of the aerated water. Oxygen is also produced by
aquatic plants, algae, and phytoplankton as a by-product of photosynthesis.
This test kit uses the azide modification of the Winkler method for determining dissolved
oxygen. Oxygen is critical to the survival of aquatic plants and animals, and a shortage of
dissolved oxygen is not only a sign of pollution, it is harmful to fish. Some aquatic species are
71
more sensitive to oxygen depletion than others, but some general guidelines to consider when
analyzing test results are:
 5–6 ppm Sufficient for most species
 <3 ppm Stressful to most aquatic species
 <2 ppm Fatal to most species
Because of its importance to the fish’s survival, aqua culturists, or “fish farmers,” and aquarists
use the dissolved oxygen test as a primary indicator of their system’s ability to support healthy
fish.
The oxygen found in water comes from many sources, but the largest source is oxygen
absorbed from the atmosphere. Wave action and splashing allows more oxygen to be absorbed
into the water. A second major source of oxygen is aquatic plants, including algae; during
photosynthesis plants remove carbon dioxide from the water and replace it with oxygen.
Oxygen is continuously moving between the water and surrounding air. The direction and
speed of this movement is dependent upon the amount of contact between the air and water.
A tumbling mountain stream or windswept, wave-covered lake, where more of the water’s
surface is exposed to the air, will absorb more oxygen from the atmosphere than a calm,
smooth body of water. This is the idea behind aerators: by creating bubbles and waves the
surface area is increased and more oxygen can enter the water.
In the leaves of plants, one of the most important chemical processes on Earth is constantly
occurring: photosynthesis. During daylight, plants constantly take carbon dioxide from the air,
and in the presence of water, convert it to oxygen and carbohydrates, which are used to
produce additional plant material. Since photosynthesis requires light, plants do not
photosynthesize at night, so no oxygen is produced. Chemically, the photosynthesis reaction
can be written as:
Light + nCO2 + nH2O (C2HO)n + nO2
Light + Carbon Dioxide + Water Carbohydrate + Oxygen
72
Once in the water, oxygen is used by the aquatic life. Fish and other aquatic animals need
oxygen to breathe or respire. Oxygen is also consumed by bacteria to decay, or decompose
dead plants and animals. All animals, whether on land or underwater, need oxygen to respire,
grow and survive. Plants and animals respire throughout the night and day, consuming oxygen
and producing carbon dioxide, which is then used by plants during photosynthesis.
All plant and animal waste eventually decomposes, whether it is from living animals or dead
plants and animals. In the decomposition process, bacteria uses oxygen to oxidize, or
chemically alter the material to break it down to its component parts. Some aquatic systems
may undergo extreme amounts of oxidation, leaving no oxygen for the living organisms, which
eventually lead to them leaving or suffocating.
The oxygen level of a water system is not only dependent on production and consumption. The
potential dissolved oxygen capacity of water is limited by atmospheric pressure (altitude),
salinity, and temperature. These factors determine the highest DO level possible. The percent
saturation value expresses the quantity of dissolved oxygen in the sample as a percent of the
theoretical potential. When water holds all of the dissolved oxygen that it can hold at a given
altitude, temperature, and salinity, it is said to be 100% saturated. If it holds a quarter as much
as it could possibly hold under those conditions it is 25% saturated. It is possible to get percent
saturation values over 100% when water becomes highly aerated by tumbling over rapids and
dams. It can also become supersaturated on a sunny day when dense areas of plants or algae
produce oxygen through photosynthesis. Low atmospheric pressure found at higher altitudes
slightly decreases the solubility of oxygen in water so the dissolved oxygen value must be
corrected for altitude. The various minerals dissolved in water lower the capacity of the water
to hold oxygen. A correction factor can also be applied to dissolved oxygen measurements in
saline waters. In fresh water, where the salinity is very low, this effect is insignificant when
compared to the effect of temperature. Therefore, a correction for salinity is not incorporated
into the calculation. Cold water can hold more oxygen than warm water. That is why fish that
require higher levels of oxygen, like trout, are found in cold water and dissolved oxygen
concentrations are usually higher in the winter than they are in the summer at the same
location.
The percent saturation concentration can be corrected for water temperature. Percent
saturation levels from 80 to 120 percent are considered to be excellent. Levels between 60 and
79 percent are adequate. Above 125 percent and below 60 percent saturation levels are poor.
Fish and invertebrates that can move will leave areas with low dissolved oxygen and move to
areas with higher levels. Slow moving, trapped or non-mobile aquatic animals may perish if
levels become too low. Extremely high dissolved oxygen concentrations are harmful to fish
73
even for very short periods of time. Gas bubble disease, which is characterized by the rupturing
of capillaries in the gills due to supersaturated water, is usually fatal.
Biochemical oxygen demand is determined by measuring the dissolved oxygen concentration in

a freshly collected water sample and comparing it to the dissolved oxygen level in a sample that
was collected at the same time but incubated under specific conditions for a specific length of
time. The difference between the two oxygen levels represents the amount of oxygen required
for the decomposition of organic material and the oxidation of chemicals in the water during
the storage period, a measurement known as the BOD. Unpolluted, natural waters will have a
BOD of 5 ppm or less. Raw sewage may have levels of 150 to 300 ppm. Wastewater treatment
plants must reduce BOD to levels specified in their discharge permits, usually between 8 and
150 ppm BOD.
The first step in a DO titration is the addition of Manganous Sulfate Solution and Alkaline
Potassium Iodide Azide Solution. These reagents react to form a white precipitate, or floc, of
manganous hydroxide, Mn(OH)2. Chemically, this reaction can be written as:
MnSO4 + 2KOH Mn(OH)2 + K2SO4
Manganous Sulfate+ Potassium Hydroxide Manganous Hydroxide +Potassium Sulfate
Immediately upon formation of the precipitate, the oxygen in the water oxidizes an equivalent
amount of the manganous hydroxide to brown-colored manganic hydroxide. For every
molecule of oxygen in the water, four molecules of manganous hydroxide are converted to
manganic hydroxide. Chemically, this reaction can be written as:
4Mn(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O 4Mn(OH)3
Manganous Hydroxide + Oxygen + Water Manganic Hydroxide
After the brown precipitate is formed, a strong acid, such as Sulfamic Acid Powder or Sulfuric
Acid, 1:1 is added to the sample. The acid converts the manganic hydroxide to manganic
sulfate. At this point the sample is considered “fixed” and concern for additional oxygen being
introduced into the sample is reduced. Chemically, this reaction can be written as:
2Mn(OH)3 + 3H2SO4 Mn2(SO4)3 + 6H2O
Manganic Hydroxide+ Sulfuric Acid Manganic Sulfate + Water
74
Simultaneously, iodine from the potassium iodide in the Alkaline Potassium Iodide Azide
Solution is oxidized by manganic sulfate, releasing free iodine into the water. Since the
manganic sulfate for this reaction comes from the reaction between the manganous hydroxide
and oxygen, the amount of iodine released is directly proportional to the amount of oxygen
present in the original sample. The release of free iodine is indicated by the sample turning a
yellow-brown color. Chemically, this reaction can be written as:
Mn2(SO4)3 + 2KI 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + I2
Manganic Sulfate +Potassium Iodide Manganous Sulfate +Potassium Sulfate +Iodine
The final stage in the Winkler titration is the addition of sodium thiosulfate. The sodium
thiosulfate reacts with the free iodine to produce sodium iodide. When all of the iodine has
been converted the sample changes from yellow-brown to colorless. Often a starch indicator is
added to enhance the final endpoint. Chemically, this reaction can be written as:
2Na2S2O3 + I2 Na2S4O6 + 2NaI
Sodium Thiosulfate + Iodine Sodium Tetrathionate + Sodium Iodide
9.4 APPARATUS AND MATERIALS:

• 30 mL *Manganous Sulfate Solution
• 30 mL *Alkaline Potassium Iodide Azide
• 30 mL *Sulfuric Acid, 1:1
• 60 mL *Sodium Thiosulfate, 0.025N
• 30 mL Starch Indicator Solution
• 1 Direct Reading Titrator
• 1 Test Tube, 5-10-12.9-15-20-25 mL, glass, with cap
• 1 Water Sampling Bottle, 60 mL, glass
• Sampling water from the waterfall
*WARNING: Reagents marked with an * are considered to be potential health hazards.
75
9.5 DIAGRAM:
DIAGRAM 5.1 SHOWING THE VARIOUS APPARATUS USED TO MEASURE THE DISSOLVED
OXYGEN CONTENT OF THE WATER SAMPLES
9.6 METHOD
 Part 1 - Collecting the Water Sample:

1. The Water Sampling bottle was rinsed with the sample water.
2. The Water Sampling bottle was then tightly capped then submerged to a desired
depth in the sampling water.
3. While submerged, the cap of the water sampling bottle was removed and
allowed to be filled with the sampling water.
4. While still submerged, the sides of the water sampling bottle were tapped to
dislodge any air bubbles.
5. The cap of the water sampling bottle was replaced while still submerged.
6. The bottle was retrieved and it was ensured that no air bubbles were present in
the water sampling bottle.
76
 Part 2 - Adding the Reagents:
1. The cap from the sampling bottle was removed.
2. Immediately after opening the cap, 8 drops of Manganous Sulfate Solution was
added to the water sampling bottle, along with 8 drops of Alkaline Potassium
Iodide Azide being added to the water sampling bottle.
3. The bottle was capped and mixed by inverting several times to form a precipitate.
4. The precipitate was left alone to settle on a flat plain.
5. After the precipitate had settled a further 8 drops of Sulfuric acid was added to
the sampling bottle.
6. The sampling bottle was capped and gently inverted multiple times to mix the
contents until the precipitate and reagent had fully dissolved. If the sample
contained dissolved oxygen, the solution would change colour from clear yellow
to orange. At this point the sample has been “fixed” and contact between the
sample and the atmosphere will not affect the test result. Samples may be held
at this point and titrated later.
 Part 3 - The Titration:

1. The titration tube was filled to the 20mL line with the fixed sample. The titration
tube was capped.
2. The plunger of the Titrator was depressed.
3. The Titrator was inserted into the plug at the top of the Sodium Thiosulfate, 0.025N
titrating solution.
4. The Sodium Thiosulfate, 0.025N titrating solution bottle was inverted and the
plunger was slowly withdrawn until the large ring on the plunger was opposite the
zero (0) line on the scale (NOTE: If small air bubbles had appeared in the titrator
barrel, they would be expelled by partially filling the barrel and pumping the
titration solution back into the reagent container. This is repeated until bubble
disappears).
5. The Sodium Thiosulfate, 0.025N titrating solution bottle was turned upright and the
Titrator was removed (If the water sample in the water sampling bottle was a very
pale yellow colour then Step 9 could have been done).
6. The tip of the Titraror was inserted into the opening of the titration tube cap.
7. The plunger was slowly depressed to dispense the titrating solution until the yellow
brown colour changes to a very pale yellow colouration. The tube was swirled gently
during the titration to mix the contents.
8. Both the Titrator and cap were removed, while being careful not to disturb the
Titrator plunger.
77
9. To the titration tube, 8 drops of Starch Indicator Solution was added, turning the
sample into a blue coloured solution.
10. The titration tube was recapped and the tip of the Titrator was inserted into the
opening of the titration tube cap.
11. The titration was continued until the blue colour of the solution disappeared so that
the solution becomes colourless (NOTE: If the plunger ring reaches the bottom line
on the scale (10 ppm) before the endpoint color change occurs, the Titrator would
be refilled and the titration would be continued. The value of the original amount of
reagent dispensed (10 ppm) when recording the test result was included).
12. The test result was read directly from the scale, where the large ring on the Titrator
meets the Titrator barrel and record as Dissolved Oxygen in ppm. Each minor
division on the Titrator scale was equal to 0.2 ppm. When the testing was completed
the titrating solution in the Titrator was discarded, and both the Titrator and the
titration tube were rinsed thoroughly without removing the plunger or adapter tip.
9.7 RESULTS
TABLE 1.1 SHOWING THE DISSOLVED OXYGEN READINGS OBTAINED AT THE FOUR WATERFALLS
SITE DISSOLVED OXYGEN ON ARRIVAL DISSOLVED OXYGEN ON LEAVING
AVOCAT 9.0ppm 9.0ppm
RIO SECO 7.0ppm 7.5ppm
RINCON 8.0ppm 8.0ppm
PARIA 9.0ppm 10.0ppm
78
Dissolved Oxygen
Avocat
Rio Seco
Rincon
Paria
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Paria Rincon Rio Seco Avocat
On Arriving 9 8 7 9
On Leaving 10 8 7.5 9
FIGURE1: SHOWING A BAR CHART COMPARING THE DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONTENT OF THE
FOUR WATERFALLS UPON ARRIVAL AND ON LEAVING
9.8 INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA COLLECTED

The dissolved oxygen data collected from all four waterfalls range from 7ppm to 10ppm, where
7ppm at Rio Seco waterfall was recorded as the lowest dissolved oxygen content and 10ppm at
Paria waterfall was noted as the highest dissolved oxygen reading. Trend-wise, Avocat waterfall
and Rincon waterfall exhibited no signs of increasing or decreasing dissolved oxygen content,
instead they remained 9ppm and 8ppm respectively. This could have been because aquatic
organisms used up the same amount of oxygen that was dissolved in the water by the water
being cold. The colder the water the more oxygen will dissolve into the water. Hence the rate at
which the water’s oxygen was depleted by aquatic organisms was equal to the amount of
oxygen dissolved into the water in spite of the presence of hikers. Another trend would be that
both Rio Seco waterfall and Paria waterfall showed an increase in dissolved oxygen on
departure from the waterfalls. This could be because of the high amounts of cloud cover, thus
reducing the amount of heat and light energy entering the waterfall basin along with strong
gusts which could have removed the more energized molecules in an effort to cool the water.
79
9.9 CONCLUSION
The average dissolved oxygen of the four waterfalls was found to be:
AVOCAT

RIO SECO

RINCON
 Upon arrival: 8 ppm

 On leaving: 8 ppm
PARIA

80
10 PROJECT DETAILS
10.1 Problem Statement

The Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Fisheries inTrinidad and Tobago has
noticed a decline in water quality at various waterfalls due to an increase in the number of hikers
visiting waterfalls.
10.2 Purpose of Project

To investigate the impact of hikers on four waterfalls in Trinidad by testing its water quality and
observing its wildlife.
10.3 Objectives
1. To locate four popular waterfalls in Trinidad.
2. To identify and conduct five water pollution tests upon arrival and on leaving the site; pH,
Temperature, Nitrates, Turbidity and Dissolved Oxygen.
3. To document observations made using photographs and journals.
4. To observe the surroundings and water for possible sources of pollutants.
10.4 Variables
Controlled:
 Same tests were done at all sites.
 Identical kits and apparatus were used to conduct the tests at all sites.
 Equal volumes of samples were used for every test.
 Tests were taken upon arrival and on leaving the sites.
 The part of the area where the tests were done were taken at the basin of the waterfalls.
 Bathing/swimming/entering in the water was restricted.
 All tests were performed around the same time at each site (around mid-day).
Manipulated:
 Sites were changed where tests were done.
 Different people did different tests.
 Day/time when the tests were conducted.
81
Responding:
 Observations of the surrounding flora and fauna and water.

 The results obtained from each test conducted at each waterfall.
10.5 Method of Data Collection
Four waterfalls, Avocat, Rio Seco, Rincon and Paria, and the dates of visit were chosen by the
teacher, they were a month apart and the hike was carried out on Sundays.
Students were arranged in groups of four, where each group carried out one test (temperature,
pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity and nitrates) on the water samples at each waterfall. The tests
were exchanged between the different groups for each of the waterfalls, ensuring that each group
did a different test, that is, no group did the same test twice.
On arriving, the class conducted the tests before the hikers entered the water and another test was
done after the hikers left the water. Students conducted the tests near to the end of the water
basin. Refer to the Appendix for the descriptions of these tests.
82
10.6 Literature Review
On the 9th of October 2012 an article on waterfalls was published by “National Geographic
Society” and on the 1st of April 2019 “Wikipedia” published an article about waterfalls. Both
these websites shared similar descriptions of a waterfall. Both authors described a waterfall as
river or other body of water's steep fall over a rocky ledge into a plunge pool below. Waterfalls
are also called cascades. The process of erosion, the wearing away of the earth, plays an
important part in the formation of waterfalls. Waterfalls themselves also contribute to erosion.
Often, waterfalls form as streams flow from soft rock to hard rock. This happens both laterally
and vertically. In both cases, the soft rock erodes, leaving a hard ledge over which the stream
falls. A fall line is the imaginary line along which parallel rivers plunge as they flow from
uplands to lowlands. Many waterfalls in an area help geologists and hydrologists determine a
region's fall line and underlying rock structure. As a stream flows, it carries sediment. The
sediment can be microscopic silt, pebbles, or even boulders. Sediment can erode stream beds
made of soft rock, such as sandstone or limestone. Eventually, the stream's channel cuts so deep
into the stream bed that only a harder rock, such as granite, remains. Waterfalls develop as these
granite formations form cliffs and ledges. A stream's velocity increases as it nears a waterfall,
increasing the amount of erosion taking place. The movement of water at the top of a waterfall
can erode rocks to be very flat and smooth. Rushing water and sediment topple over the
waterfall, eroding the plunge pool at the base. The crashing flow of the water may also create
powerful whirlpools that erode the rock of the plunge pool beneath them. The resulting erosion at
the base of a waterfall can be very dramatic, and cause the waterfall to recede. The area behind
the waterfall is worn away, creating a hollow, cave-like structure or rock shelter. Eventually, the
rocky ledge may tumble down, sending boulders into the stream bed and plunge pool below.
This causes the waterfall to "recede" many meters upstream. The waterfall erosion process starts
again, breaking down the boulders of the former outcropping. Erosion is just one process that can
form waterfalls. A waterfall may form across a fault, or crack in the Earth’s surface. An
earthquake, landslide, glacier, or volcano may also disrupt stream beds and help create
waterfalls.
However, there is some sort of environmental impact of these human exploitive techniques. For
example, hiking contributes to pollution of the water sources where hikers leave behind their
garbage because it is too challenging to exit the forest with it. Also, by their movement and noise
pollution along the trails deter animals away from those areas so the possibility of observing
wildlife is low. When hikers bathe in the water at the pools and rivers, they affect the chemical
composition of the water, which in turn adversely impacts aquatic life, indicating poor water
quality, making the water unsuitable for aquatic life to reach its climax. To verify this, water
quality tests are performed. In accordance with the “LaMotte Water Monitoring Kit Manual”,
unpolluted waters have nitrate content of below 4 ppm, a pH range of 6.5 to 8.2 is tolerable for
83
aquatic life, phosphate content of 1ppm, a temperature change between 0 °C - 2 °C and a
turbidity reading of less than 40 JTU. At lower temperatures water contains more dissolved
oxygen which must be sufficient to cope with the high oxygen demand of the aquatic organisms.
Therefore, colder waters have more dissolved oxygen which would have more aquatic life.
In an article entitled “Why Are Waterfalls Important?” published on the 6th of June 2018, an
anonymous writer attempts to focus on the importance of waterfalls, claiming they have health
benefits to humans, in regards to calmness of mind and body, and various utilizations in
hydroelectric processing, and the ecology around them. From the article, there are scientific
claims that negative ions that are abundant in waterfalls somehow increase serotonin levels,
which ultimately helps our mood. The mental health aspect comes from the relaxation-tendencies
we’d tend to have from the simple act of watching the motion and sound of moving water.
Hikers explore these waterfalls in hopes to ponder its natural beauty. They go to take pictures
and make memories with friends and families, or they may go to exercise. Waterfalls are major
promoters of ecotourism, according to due to the provision of many health benefits including
improved mood and mental health, exercise, good respiration, and optimization of limited time
on. The improved mood results from the fact that waterfalls tend to have aesthetic qualities to
them, providing relaxation, exercise through hiking, provision of clean air to help reduce the
effects of respiratory disorders and providing a suitable environment for meditation. There are
also hikers who pollute the environment of the waterfalls with their garbage thus ruining natures’
beauty. Garbage can negatively affect the biodiversity around the waterfall, for instance; some
animals could mistake plastic snack paper for food and suffocate or even die, hence reducing the
animal population, or food could get into the waterways and affect the mineral content or reduce
the pH content. Organisms that manage to adapt over the many of years given the set of
conditions that Nature had set for them. Hikers influence noise pollution with their feet stomping
about stepping on dry leaves and branches or even talking among one another hence scaring
away organisms, this is the reason for hikers seeing very little wildlife. Hikers tend to give off a
scent that animals can pick up from great distances; this scent allows the animals to sense the
presence of the hikers. Hydroelectricity can be generated from waterfalls that utilize gravitational
potential and kinetic energies to turn mechanical devices which can convert that energy into
electricity.
In 2016, according to a report from the “British Ecological Society”, most protected areas have a
double mandate to protect natural resources while also allowing recreation. This includes non-
consumptive recreation such as hiking, biking and horseback riding, and, in many parts of the
world, also consumptive recreation such as managed hunting and trapping. Hunters exhibit
negative influences on the wildlife population, around the waterfall, which can in turn cause a
major disturbance to wildlife within protected areas, potentially changing the biodiversity there.
Unregulated hunting can quickly lead to population declines and extinction but professional
hunters know to not make too much noise and mask their scents with the environment since they
don’t want their prey to flee and they also know to set up traps, these pros only influence little
84
noise pollution. Unskilled hunters are noisy and try to catch their prey quickly. There are those
hunters that use hunting dogs to locate herds of the prey and these dogs may make noise in the
process. Overhunting is becoming a problem in modern times; hence there are negative
relationships between hunting and their visit frequency. The impact of recreation on wildlife in
protected areas is an important question that relates not only to management of protected areas,
but also to how modern society connects to nature through recreation.
Lastly, farmers, while they try to grow food to feed the world population. According to “Utah
State University”, agricultural practices may have negative impacts on water quality. Improper
agricultural methods may elevate concentrations of nutrients, fecal coliforms, and sediment loads.
Increased nutrient loading from animal waste can lead to eutrophication of water bodies which may
eventually damage aquatic ecosystems. Animal waste may also introduce toxic fecal coliforms which
threaten public health. Grazing and other agriculture practices may intensify erosion processes, making
drinking water treatment more difficult. Farmers need land to grow food, to do so they must clear
the forest and plant seeds in the soil. To clear land, heavy machinery must be used, in the process
of clearing land for agriculture noise pollution drives animals away and these machines destroy
habitats not only for animals but for microorganisms as well. While planting, farmers use
fertilizers which can be leeched from the soil and seep into the waterways and influence
eutrophication to occur, this would deprive living organisms of oxygen needed for their survival.
Proper agriculture management practices are necessary to reduce the impact of farming on the
water quality.
85
10.7 Presentation of Data
pH Results
RESULTS:
TABLE 1 SHOWING THE pH READINGS OBTAINED AT THE FOUR WATERFALLS
SITE pH ON ARRIVAL pH ON
DEPARTURE
AVOCAT 8.5 8.5
RIO SECO 8.0 7.5
RINCON 7.0 7.0
PARIA 8.0 8.5
Standard Deviation:
𝑛
∑𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
𝑆= √
𝑛−1
S= standard deviation
n= total number of values collected
∑= sum of (summation)
X= pH on arrival or departure
𝑋 = average pH values collected upon arrival /departure at each site
i = value
ARRIVAL:
n-1= 4-1= 3
𝑋 = (8.5 + 8 + 7 +8) ÷ 4= 7.875
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)2 = (8.5- 7.875)2 + (8- 7.875)2 + (7- 7.875)2 + (8- 7.875)2
= (0.390625) + (0.015625) + (0.765625) + (0.015625)= 1.1875
86
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
∴𝑆= √
𝑛−1
1.1875
=√ = 0.629152869
3
DEPARTURE:
n= 8.5 + 7.5 +7 + 8.5= 31.5
𝑋 = (8.5 + 7.5 + 7 + 8.5) ÷ 4= 7.875
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)2 = (8.5- 7.875)2 + (7.5- 7.875)2 + (7- 7.875)2 + (8.5- 7.875)2
= (0.390625) + (0.140625) + (0.765625) + (0.390625)= 1.6875
n-1= 4-1= 3
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
∴𝑆= √
𝑛−1
1.6875
=√ = 0.75
3
87
Avocat
Rio Seco
Rincon
Paria
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Before After
FIGURE 1: SHOWING A BAR CHART COMPARING THE pH OF THE FOUR WATERFALLS

UPON ARRIVAL AND ON LEAVING
88
Turbidity
TABLE 2 SHOWING THE TURBIDITY READINGS OBTAINED AT THE FOUR

WATERFALLS
SITE TURBIDITY ON TURBIDITY ON
ARRIVAL (JTU) LEAVING (JTU)
AVOCAT 20 15
RIO SECO 0 10
RINCON 10 15
PARIA 10 15
Standard Deviation:
𝑛 2
∑ (𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)
𝑆 = √ 𝑖=1
𝑛−1
X= Turbidity on arrival or departure
𝑋 = average Turbidity values collected upon arrival /departure at each site
i = value
ARRIVAL:
n-1= 4-1= 3
𝑋 = (20 + 0 + 10 + 10) ÷ 4 =10
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)2 = (20- 10)2 + (0- 10)2 + (10- 10)2 + (10- 10)2
= (100) + (100) + (0) + (0) = 200
89
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
∴𝑆= √
𝑛−1
200
=√ = 8.164965809
3
DEPARTURE:
n-1= 4-1= 3
𝑋 = (15 + 10 + 15 + 15) ÷ 4 =13.75
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)2 = (15- 13.75)2 + (10- 13.75)2 + (15- 13.75)2 + (15- 13.75)2
= (1.5625) + (14.0625) + (1.5625) + (1.5625) = 18.75
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
∴𝑆= √
𝑛−1
18.75
=√ = 2.5
3
90
15
Avocat
20
10
Rio Seco
0
15
Rincon
10
15
Paria
10
0 5 10 15 20 25
FIGURE 2: SHOWING A BAR CHART COMPARING THE TURBIDITY OF THE FOUR

91
10.8 Nitrate
TABLE 3: SHOWING THE NITRATE CONTENT MEASURED AT THE FOUR WATERFALLS
SITE NITRATES ON NITRATES ON

ARRIVAL (ppm) DEPARTURE
(ppm)
AVOCAT 4.48 4.48
RIO SECO 1.10 1.10
RINCON 1.10 1.10
PARIA 1.10 1.10
Standard Deviation:
𝑛
∑𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
𝑆= √
𝑛−1
X= Nitrate on arrival or departure
𝑋 = average Nitrate values collected upon arrival /departure at each site
i = value
ARRIVAL:
n-1= 4-1= 3
𝑋 = (4.48 + 1.1 + 1.1 + 1.1) ÷ 4 = 1.945
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)2 = (4.48-1.945)2 + (1.1- 1.945)2 + (1.1- 1.945)2 + (1.1- 1.945)2
= (6.426225) + (0.714025) + (0.714025) + (0.714025) = 8.5683
92
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
∴𝑆= √
𝑛−1
8.5683
=√ = 2.8561
3
DEPARTURE:
n-1= 4-1= 3
𝑋 = (4.48 + 1.1 + 1.1 + 1.1) ÷ 4 = 1.945
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)2 = (4.48-1.945)2 + (1.1- 1.945)2 + (1.1- 1.945)2 + (1.1- 1.945)2
= (6.426225) + (0.714025) + (0.714025) + (0.714025) = 8.5683
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
∴𝑆= √
𝑛−1
8.5683
=√ = 2.8561
3
93
4.48
Avocat
4.48
1.1
Rio Seco
1.1
1.1
Rincon
1.1
1.1
Paria
1.1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
FIGURE 3: SHOWING A BAR CHART COMPARING THE NITRATES OF THE FOUR

94
10.9 Temperature Results
RESULTS:
TABLE 4 SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE READINGS OBTAINED AT THE FOUR
WATERFALLS
SITE TEMPERATURE ON TEMPERATURE ON

ARRIVAL (℃) DEPARTURE (℃)
AVOCAT 25.0 25.0
RIO SECO 20.0 19.0
RINCON 24.0 23.0
PARIA 19.5 20.0
Standard Deviation:
𝑛
∑𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
𝑆= √
𝑛−1
X= Temperature on arrival or departure
𝑋 = average Temperature values collected upon arrival /departure at each site
i = value
ARRIVAL:
n-1= 4-1= 3
𝑋 = (25 + 20 + 24 + 19.5) ÷ 4 = 22.125
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)2 = (25- 22.125)2 + (20- 22.125)2 + (24- 22.125)2 + (19.5- 22.125)2
= (8.265625) + (4.515625) + (3.515625) + (6.890625) = 23.1875
95
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
∴𝑆= √
𝑛−1
23.1875
=√ = 2.780137886
3
DEPARTURE:
n-1= 4-1= 3
𝑋 = (25 + 19 + 23 + 20) ÷ 4 = 21.75
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)2 = (25- 21.75)2 + (19- 21.75)2 + (23- 21.75)2 + (20- 21.75)2
= (10.5625) + (7.5625) + (1.5625) + (3.0625) = 22.75
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
∴𝑆= √
𝑛−1
22.75
=√ = 2.753785274
3
96
Avocat
25
Rio Seco
19
Rincon
23 Before
After
Paria
20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Paria Rincon Rio Seco Avocat
Before 19.5 24 20 25
After 20 23 19 25
FIGURE 4: SHOWING A BAR CHART COMPARING THE TEMPERATURES OF THE FOUR

97
TABLE 5: SHOWING THE DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONTENT MEASURED AT THE FOUR

WATERFALLS
SITE DISSOLVED OXYGEN DISSOLVED OXYGEN
ON ARRIVAL (ppm) ON DEPARTURE
(ppm)
AVOCAT 9 9
RIO SECO 7 7.5
RINCON 8 8
PARIA 9 10
Standard Deviation:
𝑛
∑𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
𝑆= √
𝑛−1
X= Dissolved Oxygen on arrival or departure
𝑋 = average Dissolved Oxygen values collected upon arrival /departure at each site
i = value
ARRIVAL:
n-1= 4-1= 3
𝑋 = (9 + 7 + 8 + 9) ÷ 4 = 8.25
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)2 = (9- 8.25)2 + (7- 8.25)2 + (8- 8.25)2 + (9- 8.25)2
= (0.5625) + (1.5625) + (0.0625) + (0.5625) = 2.75
98
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
∴𝑆= √
𝑛−1
2.75
=√ = 0.957427107
3
DEPARTURE:
n-1= 4-1= 3
𝑋 = (9 + 7.5 + 8 + 10) ÷ 4 = 8.625
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥)2 = (9- 8.625)2 + (7.5- 8.625)2 + (8- 8.625)2 + (10- 8.625)2
= (0.5625) + (1.265625) + (0.0625) + (1.890625) = 3.78125
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥)2
∴𝑆= √
𝑛−1
3.78125
=√ = 1.122682799
3
99
Avocat
Rio Seco
Rincon
Paria
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
On Arrival On Leaving
FIGURE 5: SHOWING A BAR CHART COMPARING THE DISSOLVED OXYGEN OF THE FOUR
100
11.0 Analysis of Data
During each hike, the weather was somewhat desirable. The hikers appeared to enjoy the journey
passing through the forested areas to get to the waterfall. Everyone looked fascinated at the
things that they encountered along the way. The view of the waterfalls were breathtaking and the
pool below had welcoming water where some of the hikers walked through the water or had a
bathe. Everyone appeared peaceful and happy during the various journeys.
Some tall evergreen trees, approximately 500 meters high in the canopy layer, shielded most
sunlight from reaching the forest floor, reflecting on very low undergrowth (short grasses). A
variety of fauna was observed during the hikes including, Emperor butterflies (which was spotted
at almost every site, mainly the blue-winged), birds, crayfish, black bullet ants and a snake. Most
of the trails started as a gravel road then dirt with grass and concrete in between. Some trails led
to junctions that were marked with an orange cloth tied around a noticeable tree branch to
identify the correct path. At Rincon, there was a small occupied house, a farm, 2 ponds and a
gate which was passed through. Dogs and farming techniques, like mono cropping, were seen. At
Paria, there were melongene crop fields, a house and a road at the first beach, but in all, there
were two houses and two beaches on which one had a galvanized shack at their end. At Avocat,
there was a parking area next to a house, there was a big shed with 2 change rooms and a center
table, along with benches. At Rio Seco, there were parking facilities and large signs along the
trail. At the pools of all the waterfalls, there were large rocks under the water, providing shallow
areas to stand and possible habitats for crayfish. Many waste products were noticed at these sites;
these included plastic and glass bottles, snack wrappers and cigarette pack and mostly burst
footwear or detached shoe soles which were used by humans over time in the past.
The average temperature of the water at the waterfalls was determined to be 21.9 °C. The
standard deviation of this figure was found to be 2.78 on arrival at the waterfalls, and 2.75
indicating very little difference between the temperatures of the water at each site. Avocat
waterfall had the highest temperatures for both on arrival and leaving, so it has the highest
average temperature of 25°C, whereas Rio Seco had the lowest temperature of 19°C. However,
all the temperatures fell mostly below the International Standard Range of 23.0°C to 30.0°C,
only Avocat and Rincon conformed to the International Standard Range.
The average pH of the water at the waterfalls was found to be 7.8, which lies within the suitable
pH of fresh water, which ranges from 6.5 to 9. The standard deviation of the pH values upon
arrival was 0.62, whereas, upon departure the value increased to 0.75 which indicated that the
deviation values did not vary by much, they varied by a 0.1 increase. The highest pH value was
8.5 for both arrival and departure at Avocat, however, upon leaving Paria, the pH was deemed
8.5 and the lowest value was 7 in Rincon.
101
The average dissolved oxygen value was 8.4375 ppt. This value is quite suitable for plant
growth. A standard deviation of 0.95 was found upon arrival and on leaving the deviation
increased by 0.1 to 1.12, which meant that the values varied little between waterfalls .The
highest was recorded to be 10ppt at Paria upon departure and the lowest was 7ppt at Rio Seco
upon arrival. The dissolved oxygen levels varied from 7 to 10ppt on arrival and on leaving the
sites.
The average turbidity level was 11.87 JTU with a standard deviation of 8.16 upon arrival and 2.5
upon departure. Since the deviation decreased by 5.5, this meant that the values varied
significantly at each waterfall. The lowest turbidity recorded was 0 JTU at Rio Seco upon arrival
and the highest 20 JTU was at Avocat. Due to the large variation of values, this accounted for the
large deviation. The average value did not exceed the international standard for turbidity which
is between 0 and 20 JTU.
The average nitrate level was 1.38ppm with a standard deviation of 8.56 for both arrival and
departure because the value was constant and at each site. Therefore, all sites had their modal
value of 1.1 ppm. This value is not greater than 4 ppm (unpolluted water) so it does not exceed
this standard except for Avocat, which has a higher number than the standard (4.48ppm).
Out of all the tests, only turbidity had the greatest deviation (a significant variation) and nitrates
had the only deviation that remained the same and the highest deviation value on arriving and
leaving the sites, whilst the other tests had minor deviations so there were no significant
variations at the four waterfalls.
102
12.0 Discussion of Findings
According to article “Why are waterfalls important?” published on 6th June 2018 by an
anonymous writer waterfalls are promoters of eco-tourism and also help to improve moods,
mental health, exercise and good respiration. The hikers to the various waterfalls said that they
felt very peaceful, happy being in the forested environment and the beautiful waterfalls they saw.
The temperatures of the water at each site had little variation. Avocat had the highest temperature
of 25°C, Paria and Rio Seco had closely related temperatures, 19- 200C. Rincon had closer
temperatures to Avocat than the others. Weather conditions may have been a limiting factor with
respect to the accuracy of the results. At Paria waterfall, there was less cloud cover and very few
trees covering the pool so the sunlight could have heated up the water at the pool much more
than at the other locations. Also, the heat energy released from the hikers’ bodies could have also
contributed to the temperature levels as it is transferred into the water. The lower temperatures
can be accounted for by more trees covering the pools and more cloud cover being present,
reducing the amount of heat energy gained by the water from the sunlight. At Avocat and
Rincon, the temperatures fell within the international standard of 23°C to 30°C, whereas Rio
Seco and Paria temperatures were less than the international standard.
The pH levels were very similar to each, ranging from 7 to 8.5. The highest value was 8.5 which
was recorded at Avocat and Paria. This indicates that the water had an alkaline nature due to the
occurrence of weathering and erosion of rocks, as well as low occurrences of acid rain, if any,
since no industries were seen around the vicinity of the waterfall sites. This had negligible effects
on the water. This could have meant that the level of air pollution in the surrounding areas was
very low but the recordings fell within the international standard pH range of 6.5 to 9.0. National
Geographic article dated 9th October 2012 stated that streams carrying sediments which erode
stream beds made of soft rocks.
Paria waterfall had the highest dissolved oxygen level of 10ppt and the lowest of 7 and 7.5ppm at
Rio Seco. This indicates that there were some level of human interference with the water supply
acquiring extra dissolved oxygen, since it was observed that the dissolved oxygen content did not
drop, instead it either remained constant or increased. There were high rates of oxygen dissolving
into the river water upstream, since this cold water could accommodate the oxygen to dissolve in
water and be recycled when impacting the waterfall basin to evaporate and then repeat the
dissolving. However, the lower dissolved oxygen level at the other sites may be due to the
increased temperatures of water from the absorption of the sun’s light and heat energy, due to
lack of cloud cover or the canopy shading the water from the light energy. Human interference
affected the water supply’s dissolved oxygen content positively, since the recorded observations
showed only constant or increased dissolved oxygen content. The oxygen is needed by both
aquatic plants and animals to photosynthesize and respire.
103
The turbidity level at Avocat was the highest, 20JTU, obtained maybe because of the amount of
silt and clay in the water from light rainfalls, since the water is likely to have run down from
hillsides containing loose soil particles which are carried by the rainwater, eventually leading to
the main watercourse. The lower values could be due to good weather conditions prior to testing
the water which would have brought in little to no sediments in the water, giving low turbidity
measurements at Rincon, Paria and Rio Seco, especially Rio Seco, since the turbidity was 0 upon
arrival.
At every site, except Avocat, the nitrate level was the same,1.1ppm. Avocat recorded the highest
nitrate content 4.48ppm. Avocat’s high nitrate content could be from excess nitrates from the soil
or fertilizers up stream being dissolved or run off into the water, hence increasing the nitrate
content. Nitrates are a result of the release of simpler compounds from decomposition of dead
organisms. When dissolved in rainwater and washed into rivers as well as dead, decaying aqua
life in the water itself could contribute to the nitrate content. Human impact could have also
played a role such as urinating, the over-use of inorganic fertilisers, leaching through the soil,
eventually leading to fresh water supplies and increase the nitrate content. Nitrates are involved
in the nitrogen cycle which helps to sustain life especially aquatic life, through the recycling of
nutrients in various forms which are useable to all organisms. This view is supported by Utah
State University agricultural practices may have negative impacts on water quality, animal waste
may introduce toxic fecal coliforms which threaten public health and the use of fertilizers can
also affect water quality.
A variety of animals were not seen along the hikes, possibly due to the interference of the hiking
trails with natural ecosystems where animals remain far away from the trails, thereby, separating
the natural ecosystem into two since organisms in one side may have to resort to alternative
sources of food. Hunting also scares away animals by the loud sounds of gun shots and chatting
of shoes hitting the ground, as well as, over hunting might have contributed to the low
availability of animals. According to the “British Ecological Society” the most protected areas
have a double mandate to protect natural resources while allowing recreation. The article further
stated that hunters exhibit negative influences on wildlife population as they can cause major
disturbances to wildlife.
The garbage that was left along trails and at waterfalls were not contained inside garbage bags
but they were not properly disposed of. Some might have accidentally or intentionally left their
garbage behind. The theory states that hikers contribute to pollution of the water when they leave
back garbage. The La Motte Water Monitoring Kit Manuel provides a technique to determine
levels of pollution.
104
13.0 Conclusion
Four waterfalls in Trinidad were studied, Rincon, Paria, Paramin and Rio Seco. Water quality
tests were performed such as temperature, pH, nitrates, dissolved oxygen and turbidity.
Observations were made on the variety of flora and fauna along the trails and at the sites,
including weather patterns and the physical surroundings. Photographs were taken. Some sites
had had evidence of very little wild life. Due to the results of the water quality tests and the
observations made on the physical surroundings, inclusive of wildlife, one can conclude that
human beings have a negative impact on the environment.
105
14.0 Recommendations
1. Garbage bins should be located near the entrance/exits of waterfalls so that hikers will be
keen on properly disposing their garbage and it will not accumulate and degrade the
environment.
2. Install security cameras with underground wires around the waterfall area.
3. Install signs to remind nature seekers to not leave behind their garbage at the waterfalls and
show locations of nearby bins.
4. Increase the fine for littering and enforce the law.
5. Assign Forest Rangers and capable tour guides to assist hikers to their destinations and to
ensure no littering occurs under their watch.
6. Governments should ban Styrofoam materials from the island.
7. Governments should ensure that persons carry several thermal flasks to replace the quantity
of water bottles used.
8. Governments must assign appropriate authorities to ensure that hikers do not leave behind
their garbage. Also, Forest Rangers from Forestry Division of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Land and Fisheries must be very alert and ensure that hunters do not capture endangered
species as those are of great value.
9. Educate the public through public awareness programmes and on television and print media
about the need to conserve and preserve the environment, as well as, teach them sustainable
methods of utilizing the natural resources.
10. Tests should have been performed at each site simultaneously to ensure the most accurate
results were obtained, decreasing the possibility of other limiting factors of decreasing the
accuracy of the results.
106
15.0 Limitations
1. Tests were not performed simultaneously at each site to ensure the most accurate results
would be obtained; this was a limiting factor that decreased the accuracy of the results.
2. The weather forecasts were not the same on the days of the test, hence this is another
limiting factor affecting the results.
107
16.0 Bibliography:
 Books:
1. Ramsaroop, Navindra. Environmental Science for the Caribbean. Caribbean Educational
Publishers, 2011.
2. Wright, Richard T. Environmental Science. Pearson, 2014.
3. Cunningham, William P., and Mary Ann Cunningham. Environmental Science a Global Concern.
McGraw-Hill Education, 2018.
 Websites:
1. National Geographic Society. “Waterfall.” National Geographic Society, National
Geographic, 9 Oct. 2012, www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/waterfall/.
2. “Waterfall.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 1 Apr. 2019,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfall
3. “Why Are Waterfalls Important?” World of Waterfalls, 6 June 2018, www.world-of-
waterfalls.com/why-are-waterfalls-important/.
4. Gordon, Zahra. “Hiking on the up and Up.” Trinidad Guardian,
www.guardian.co.tt/lifestyle/hiking-and-6.2.398396.74f74b1769.
5. Simpson, David. Database Focus: Impact of Hiking on Trails and Environment,
www.cabi.org/leisuretourism/news/16160.
6. Kays, Roland, et al. “Does Hunting or Hiking Affect Wildlife Communities in Protected
Areas?” Journal of Applied Ecology, British Ecological Society,
www.asociacionfototrampeo.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Kays_et_al-2016-
Journal_of_Applied_Ecology.pdf.
7. “Water Quality.” Agriculture and Gardening,
https://extension.usu.edu/waterquality/learnaboutsurfacewater/usesofwater/agriculture.
8. Company, LaMotte. “Products By Industry.” LaMotte Company :: Water Quality and
Analytical Testing Equipment Manufacturer, www.lamotte.com/en/.
108
Appendix
Lab Prodecures
Temperature
1. On arrival at the site, the bulb of the thermometer was submerged under the water for a 2
minutes and its temperature reading was recorded before human contact was made with
the water.
2. On leaving the site, the bulb of the thermometer was submerged under the water for a 2
minutes and its temperature reading was recorded at eye level whilst still submerged in
the water.
pH
1. On arrival at the site, the tube filled with the 10mL of the water to be tested.
2. One pH tablet was added to the sample, the tube was sealed and shaken thoroughly.
3. The colour of the sample was compared to the pH Chart and an appropriate value closest to
the colour change was considered.
4. Steps 1 -3 were repeated on leaving the site.
Dissolved Oxygen
1. Fill Water Sampling Bottle (0688-DO).
2. Add 8 drops of *Manganous Sulfate Solution (4167).
3. Add 8 drops of *Alkaline Potassium Iodide Azide (7166).
4. Cap and mix.
5. Allow precipitate to settle.
6. Add 8 drops of *Sulfuric Acid, 1:1 (6141WT).
7. Cap and mix until reagent and precipitate dissolve.
8. Fill test tube (0608) to the 20 mL line.
9. Fill Titrator with Sodium Thiosulfate, 0.025N (4169).
10. Titrate until sample color is pale yellow. DO NOT DISTURB TITRATOR.
11. Add 8 drops of Starch Indicator (4170WT).
12. Continue titration until blue color just disappears and solution is colorless.
13. Read result in ppm Dissolved Oxygen
109
Turbidity
1. Upon arrival at the site, the turbidity tube was filled up to the 10mL mark with the water
to be tested.
2. The base of the tube was placed on the outline of the turbidity chart.
3. The Secchi Disk icon on the chart was observed through the water sample in the test tube
and its appearance was compared to the Secchi Disk icons on either side of the test tube
on the turbidity chart and the value most suited was recorded in JTU.
4. Steps 1-3 were repeated on leaving the site.
Nitrate
1. Upon arrival at the site, a test tube was filled up to the 10mL mark with the water
sample to be tested.
2. One tablet was added to the sample at the bottom of the test tubes.
3. The contents of the test tube were shaken thoroughly to ensure that the entire tablet
dissolved. The colour of the sample was compared to the nitrates chart and the
corresponding value was recorded.
4. Steps 1-3 were repeated for another sample on leaving the site.
110

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CARIBBEAN ADVANCED PROFICIENCY EXAMINATIONS

SCHOOL BASED ASSESSMENT

NAME : VIVEK SOOKDEO

SCHOOL : COUVA EAST SECONDARY

CANDIDATE NUMBER : 1600140626

SCHOOL CODE : 160014

SUBJECT : ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE UNIT 1

TEACHER : MR. NAVINDRA RAMSAROOP

Name: Vivek Sookdeo

Diagram 1 showing Location of Avocat Waterfall

1.3 Activities undertaken were as follows:

1.6 Physical surroundings

1.8 Human Activity

TABLE SHOWING RESULTS FROM WATER TESTING DONE AT AVOCAT WATERFALL,

TEST DONE RESULTS BEFORE RESULTS AFTER

Turbidity 20JTU 15JTU

Nitrates 4.48ppm 4.48ppm

Temperature 25°C 25°C

1.11 Garbage collected:

1.16 Dissolved Oxygen

Figure1: A picture of Avocat Waterfall

Figure3: A picture of various tall trees

Figure 2: A picture of Red Rocks found along

entering the trail

Figure 6: A picture of coconuts from a coconut tree

Name: Vivek Sookdeo

The activities undertaken included:

2.5 Physical surroundings

TEST DONE RESULTS BEFORE RESULTS AFTER

Turbidity 40JTU 40JTU

Nitrates 1.10ppm 1.10ppm

Temperature 20°C 19°C

Dissolved Oxygen 7ppm 7.5ppm

2.10 Garbage collected

 Shoe soles (abundant)

2.15 Dissolved Oxygen

Figure 2: A picture of Rio Seco Waterfall from the water

Figure 1: A picture of Rio Seco Waterfall

Figure 3: A picture of tall trees with green

Figure 7: A picture of an eroded tree on the right

Name: Vivek Sookdeo

Diagram 1 showing Location of Rincon Waterfall in relation to starting point, Couva

3.6 Physical surroundings

3.8 Human Activity

TEST DONE RESULTS BEFORE RESULTS AFTER

Turbidity 10JTU 15JTU

Nitrates 1.10ppm 1.10ppm

Temperature 24°C 23°C

Dissolved oxygen 8ppm 8ppm

3.11 Garbage collected

3.16 Dissolved Oxygen

Figure1: A picture of Rincon Waterfall

Figure2: A picture of a groove of bamboo trees along the trail

Figure 3: A picture of a tree with parasitic vines wrapped

Figure5: A picture of a flower along the trail

Name: Vivek Sookdeo

TEST DONE RESULTS BEFORE RESULTS AFTER

Turbidity 20JTU 20JTU

Nitrates 1.10ppm 1.10 ppm

Temperature 19.5°C 20.0°C

Dissolved Oxygen 9ppm 10ppm

4.11 Garbage collected