Fourth Edition

GAS
DYNAMICS
Ethirajan Rathakrishnan
` 425.00

GAS DYNAMICS, Fourth Edition

Ethirajan Rathakrishnan

© 2012 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this
book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-4605-5

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Eleventh Printing (Fourth Edition) … … … June, 2012

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Rajkamal Electric Press, Plot No. 2, Phase IV,
HSIDC, Kundli-131028, Sonepat, Haryana.
Contents

Preface ................................................................................................ xi
Preface to the Third Edition ................................................................ xiii
Preface to the Second Edition ............................................................... xv
Preface to the First Edition ................................................................ xvii

1. Some Preliminary Thoughts ................................................... 1–17

1.1 Gas Dynamics—A Brief History .............................................. 1
1.2 Compressibility ........................................................................... 2
1.3 Supersonic Flow—What Is It? ................................................. 5
1.4 Speed of Sound .......................................................................... 6
1.5 Temperature Rise ..................................................................... 10
1.6 Mach Angle .............................................................................. 12
1.7 Summary ................................................................................... 15
2. Basic Equations of Compressible Flow ................................. 18–42
2.1 Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow ............................................. 18
2.2 First Law of Thermodynamics (Energy Equation) .............. 19
2.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics (Entropy Equation).... 23
2.4 Thermal and Calorical Properties .......................................... 24
2.5 The Perfect Gas ...................................................................... 26
2.6 Summary ................................................................................... 35
Problems ...................................................................................... 39
3. Wave Propagation ................................................................ 43–46
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 43
3.2 Wave Propagation .................................................................... 43
3.3 Velocity of Sound .................................................................... 44
3.4 Subsonic and Supersonic Flows .............................................. 44
3.5 Summary ................................................................................... 45
4. Steady One-Dimensional Flow .............................................47–105
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 47
4.2 The Fundamental Equations ................................................... 47
4.3 Discharge from a Reservoir .................................................... 51
4.4 Streamtube Area–Velocity Relation ....................................... 61

vii
viii Contents

4.5 De Laval Nozzle ...................................................................... 64

4.6 Supersonic Flow Generation ................................................... 72
4.7 Diffusers .................................................................................... 82
4.8 Dynamic Head Measurement in Compressible Flow ............ 86
4.9 Pressure Coefficient ................................................................. 91
4.10 Summary ................................................................................... 93
Problems ...................................................................................... 96
5. Normal Shock Waves ......................................................... 106–145
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 106
5.2 Equations of Motion for a Normal Shock Wave ................. 107
5.3 The Normal Shock Relations for a Perfect Gas ................. 108
5.4 Change of Stagnation or Total Pressure across the Shock ... 112
5.5 Hugoniot Equation .................................................................. 115
5.6 The Propagating Shock Wave ............................................... 118
5.7 Reflected Shock Wave ............................................................ 124
5.8 Centred Expansion Wave ....................................................... 129
5.9 Shock Tube .............................................................................. 132
5.10 Summary .................................................................................. 137
Problems .................................................................................... 141
6. Oblique Shock and Expansion Waves ................................ 146–212
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 146
6.2 Oblique Shock Relations ........................................................ 147
6.3 Relation between b and q ........................................................... 150
6.4 Shock Polar ............................................................................. 153
6.5 Supersonic Flow over a Wedge ............................................. 155
6.6 Weak Oblique Shocks ............................................................. 158
6.7 Supersonic Compression ......................................................... 160
6.8 Supersonic Expansion by Turning ......................................... 161
6.9 The Prandtl–Meyer Expansion .............................................. 162
6.10 Simple and Nonsimple Regions ............................................. 170
6.11 Reflection and Intersection of Shocks and
Expansion Waves .................................................................... 170
6.12 Detached Shocks ..................................................................... 186
6.13 Mach Reflection ...................................................................... 187
6.14 Shock-Expansion Theory ........................................................ 191
6.15 Thin Aerofoil Theory ............................................................. 196
6.16 Summary .................................................................................. 203
Problems .................................................................................... 205
7. Potential Equation for Compressible Flow ........................ 213–231
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 213
7.2 Crocco’s Theorem ................................................................... 213
7.3 The General Potential Equation for
Three-Dimensional Flow ......................................................... 217
7.4 Linearization of the Potential Equation ............................... 219
 Contents ix

7.5 Potential Equation for Bodies of Revolution ...................... 222

7.6 Boundary Conditions .............................................................. 224
7.7 Pressure Coefficient ................................................................ 227
7.8 Summary .................................................................................. 228
Problems .................................................................................... 231
8. Similarity Rule .................................................................. 232–269
8.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 232
8.2 Two-Dimensional Flow: The Prandtl–Glauert Rule
for Subsonic Flow ................................................................... 232
8.3 Prandtl–Glauert Rule for Supersonic Flow:
Versions I and II .................................................................... 240
8.4 The von Karman Rule for Transonic Flow ......................... 243
8.5 Hypersonic Similarity ............................................................. 246
8.6 Three-Dimensional Flow: The Gothert Rule ........................ 249
8.7 Critical Mach Number ........................................................... 259
8.8 Summary .................................................................................. 264
Problems .................................................................................... 268
9. Two-Dimensional Compressible Flows .............................. 270–282
9.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 270
9.2 General Linear Solution for Supersonic Flow ...................... 271
9.3 Flow along a Wave-Shaped Wall .......................................... 276
9.4 Summary .................................................................................. 280
Problems .................................................................................... 281
10. Prandtl–Meyer Flow ......................................................... 283–289
10.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 283
10.2 Thermodynamic Considerations ............................................. 284
10.3 Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Fan .............................................. 284
10.4 Reflections ............................................................................... 287
10.5 Summary .................................................................................. 288
Problems .................................................................................... 288
11. Flow with Friction and Heat Transfer ............................... 290–317
11.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 290
11.2 Flow in Constant-Area Duct with Friction ......................... 290
11.3 Adiabatic, Constant-Area Flow of a Perfect Gas ............... 292
11.4 Flow with Heating or Cooling in Ducts .............................. 302
11.5 Summary .................................................................................. 309
Problems .................................................................................... 313
12. Method of Characteristics ................................................. 318–342
12.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 318
12.2 The Concepts of Characteristics ........................................... 318
12.3 The Compatibility Relation ................................................... 319
12.4 The Numerical Computational Method ................................ 322
12.5 Theorems for Two-Dimensional Flow ................................... 330
x Contents

12.6 Numerical Computation with Weak Finite Waves .............. 332

12.7 Design of Supersonic Nozzle .................................................. 336
12.8 Summary .................................................................................. 341
13. Measurements in Compressible Flow ................................ 343–415
13.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 343
13.2 Pressure Measurements .......................................................... 343
13.3 Temperature Measurements ................................................... 350
13.4 Velocity and Direction ........................................................... 354
13.5 Density Problems .................................................................... 356
13.6 Compressible Flow Visualization ........................................... 356
13.7 High-Speed Wind Tunnels ..................................................... 374
13.8 Instrumentation and Calibration of Wind Tunnels ............. 400
13.9 Summary .................................................................................. 407
Problems .................................................................................... 415
14. Rarefied Gas Dynamics ..................................................... 416–423
14.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 416
14.2 Knudsen Number .................................................................... 417
14.3 Slip Flow ................................................................................. 420
14.4 Transition and Free Molecule Flow ...................................... 420
14.5 Summary .................................................................................. 422
15. High Temperature Gas Dynamics ..................................... 424–426
15.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 424
15.2 The Importance of High-Temperature Flows ....................... 424
15.3 The Nature of High-Temperature Flows .............................. 425
15.4 Summary .................................................................................. 426
Appendix A ........................................................... 427–495
Table A1 Isentropic Flow of Perfect Gas (g = 1.4) ................... 427
Table A2 Normal Shock in Perfect Gas (g = 1.4) ..................... 440
Table A3 Oblique Shock in Perfect Gas (g = 1.4) .................... 450
Table A4 One-Dimensional Flow with Friction ( g = 1.4) .......... 484
Table A5 One-Dimensional Frictionless Flow with
Change in Stagnation Temperature (g = 1.4) ............ 490
Appendix B ............................................................ 496–503
Listing of the Method of Characteristics Program ...................... 496
Appendix C ............................................................ 504–507
Output for Mach 2.0 Nozzle Contour ............................................ 504
Appendix D ........................................................... 508–509
Oblique Shock Chart 1 .................................................................... 508
Oblique Shock Chart 2 .................................................................... 509
Selected References ................................................. 511–512
Index .................................................................... 513–517
 1 Some Preliminary Thoughts

1.1 GAS DYNAMICS—A BRIEF HISTORY

Until the nineteenth century very little knowledge of gas dynamics had been
assimilated by man. The motion of air, its effects and power were felt by human
beings only through storms or from the disturbances created for lighting fires
and other similar natural phenomena. Only those who were gifted with
imagination beyond their times observed the flying of birds and dreamt of flying
machines. Many efforts were made in those directions, costing priceless human
lives. The early manned flights like those of Icarus and Bladud were not based
on any aerodynamic concept.
The theory of air resistance was first proposed by Sir Isaac Newton in 1726.
According to him, aerodynamic forces depend on the density and velocity of the
fluid, and the shape and size of the displacing object. Newton’s theory was soon
followed by other theoretical solutions to fluid motion problems. Fluid motion
was assumed to occur under idealized conditions, i.e. air was assumed to
possess constant density and to move in response to pressure and inertia.
Interest in gaining a deep understanding of dynamics of air motion arose
because of its application to hot air balloon, windmill, ballistic devices (guns
and cannons), and so on. Knowledge was mostly derived by trial and error, and
codes of practice did not exist. The experimental techniques introduced for
measurement during the eighteenth century provided a breakthrough in the
study of aerodynamics. Benjamin Robins in the UK constructed a whirling arm
to determine the air resistance of bodies, and a “ballistic pendulum” to find the
velocity of a bullet or shell. In the former experiment, a horizontal arm was
rotated about a vertical axis by the tension of a string holding a falling weight.
After a few rotations the speed of the end of the whirling arm was constant, at
approximately 7.6 m/s. Test objects were mounted at the end of the arm and
their air resistance altered the speed of rotation. This device was used to
compare the resistance of different shapes, and to show how the resistance of
1
18 Gas Dynamics

2 Basic Equations of
Compressible Flow

2.1 THERMODYNAMICS OF FLUID FLOW

Entropy and temperature are the two fundamental concepts of thermodynamics.
The energy changes associated with compressible flow, unlike low-speed or
incompressible flow, are substantial enough to strongly interact with other
properties of the flow. Hence, the energy concepts play an important role in the
study of compressible flow. In other words, the study of thermodynamics
which deals with energy (and entropy) is an essential component in the study
of compressible flow.
The following are the broad divisions of the fluid flow studies classified,
based on thermodynamic considerations: Fluid mechanics of perfect fluids, i.e.
fluids without viscosity and heat (transfer) conductivity, is an extension of
equilibrium thermodynamics to moving fluids. The kinetic energy of the fluid
has to be considered in addition to the internal energy which the fluid possesses
when at rest.
Fluid mechanics of real fluids goes beyond the scope of classical thermo-
dynamics. The transport processes of momentum and heat are of primary
interest here. But, even though thermodynamics is not fully and directly
applicable to all phases of real fluid flow, it is often extremely helpful in relating
the initial and final conditions.
For low speed flow problems, thermodynamic considerations are not
needed because the heat content of the fluid flow is so large compared to the
kinetic energy of the flow that the temperature remains nearly constant even if
the whole kinetic energy is transformed into heat.
In modern high-speed problems, the kinetic energy content of the fluid can
be so large compared to its heat content that the variations in temperature can
become substantial. Hence, the emphasis on thermodynamic concepts assumes
importance.

18
Home > PHI Learning > Gas Dynamics

GAS DYNAMICS
RATHAKRISHNAN, E.
EDITION: FOURTH EDITION
ISBN: 978-81-203-
4605-5
Pages: 536
Price: R 425.00

About The Book

Description:
This revised and updated fourth edition continues to provide the most accessible and readable approach to the study of all the vital topics and issues associated
with gas dynamic processes. At every stage, the physics governing the process, its applications and limitations are discussed in depth.

With a strong emphasis on the basic concepts and problem-solving skills, this text is suitable for a course on Gas Dynamics/Compressible Flows/High-speed
Aero-dynamics at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels in aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, chemical engineering and applied physics.
The elegant and concise style of the book, along with illustrations and worked examples, makes it eminently suitable for self-study by scientists and engineers
working in the field of gas dynamics in industries and research laboratories.

Some of the Distinguishing Features of the Book :

Concise coverage of the thermodynamic concepts to serve as a revision of the background material.

Logical and systematic treatment of fundamental aspects of gas dynamics, waves in the supersonic regime and gas dynamic processes.

In-depth presentation of potential equations for compressible flows, similarity rule and two-dimensional compressible flows.

Introduction to measurements in compressible flows and optical flow visualization techniques.

Introduction to rarefied gas dynamics and high-temperature gas dynamics.

Solution Manual for instructors containing the complete worked-out solutions to chapter-end problems.

New to the Fourth Edition :

Some vital aspects associated with the compression and expansion waves are explained, with suitable worked numerical examples.

A brief section on critical Mach number is added in Chapter 8, highlighting its influence on the aerodynamic efficiency of flying mechanics.

Nozzle flow process has been illustrated with worked examples focusing on the design and application aspects.

A considerable number of worked examples are added, focusing attention on the design aspects.

Some new problems along with answers are added at the end of many chapters.

Contents:
Preface • Preface to the Third Edition • Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition
1. Some Preliminary Thoughts. 2. Basic Equations of Compressible Flow. 3. Wave Propagation. 4. Steady One-Dimensional Flow.
5. Normal Shock Waves. 6. Oblique Shock and Expansion Waves. 7. Potential Equation for Compressible Flow. 8. Similarity Rule.
9. Two-Dimensional Compressible Flows. 10. Prandtl-Myer Flow. 11. Flow with Friction and Heat Transfer. 12. Method of Characteristics. 13. Measurements in
Compressible Flow. 14. Rarefied Gas Dynamics. 15. High Temperature Gas Dynamics.
Appendices
A: Table-A1: Isentrophic Flow of Perfect Gas (γ = 1.4). A2: Normal Shock in Perfect Gas (γ = 1.4). A3: Oblique Shock in Perfect Gas
(γ = 1.4). A4: One-Dimensional Flow with Friction (γ = 1.4). A5: One-Dimensional Frictionless Flow with Change in Stagnation Temperature (γ = 1.4). B: Listing
of the Method of Characteristics Program. C: Output for Mach 2.0 Nozzle Contour. D: Oblique Shock Chart I, Oblique Shock Chart II
Selected References • Index