LIGHTING BASICS Practical Application Gu 2

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LIGHTING BASICS-
Practical Application Guide
Information that Illuminating Engineers & Lighting
designers the world over find invaluable!
John Iwaszko
Front Cover- two examples of the author’s experiments, Left, A Nuclear Fusion experiment literally a ‘star in a
Jar’ light source!-2006 And right, the crowning glory of the author's opus is the magical and remarkable
levitating 240V 25W BC incandescent GLS lamp, illuminated wirelessly by the high-frequency field from an
Electrical transmitter, a receiving coil is looped around the lamp, receives energy wirelessly through space,
levitation is achieved by Electromagnetic Suspension-repulsion and attraction with feedback loop control,
this experiment combines three of the author’s scientific passions, lighting, wireless electrical energy
transmission and antigravity-1996, refer http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zgt1DBYR9GE
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Preface & Acknowledgements
LIGHTING BASICS-
Practical Application Guide
First Edition April 2010
This is a first-edition technical guide that deals with basic lighting theory and design.
A handy compendium of useful information on Illuminating Engineering practice, based on actual

field work, a distillation of the most commonly useful information and formulas by the author an
Associate and Technical Member of the Illuminating Engineering Society of Victoria (IES).
Its format hopefully makes it suitable for use as reference information by lighting engineers,
technical salesmen, consultants, architects, and technically orientated customers alike.
The information provided is in part referenced from the type of information and format provided
by the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Lighting 1H and 2H, an Associate Diploma of
Engineering in Electrical that the author completed in 1992, the content of which is heavily edited,
to facilitate a simple response to most customer enquiries, inspired by years of experience with
countless projects. Although the author has elaborated on unique information, that is uncommon
or relatively unknown.
An acknowledgement to the following companies that the author was either employed with or
contracted to over the past 23 years, broadening his range of electrical, electronic, lighting design,
photometry and illuminating engineering experience: -
GMT Agencies-now GMT Lighting, Hilux International-now Advanced Lighting-Venture Lighting,

Newtronics-now a division of Tridonic-Atco, Beacon Lighting, Famco-Rham Industries-now Famco
Lighting and Masson For Light.
John Iwaszko April 2010
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Contents
Preface & Acknowledgements.................................................................................................1
1 Light and Radiation..............................................................................................................5
2 Lighting Standards & the Building Code of Australia.............................................................6
3 General Lighting Definitions.................................................................................................8
4 Perfect Radiator-History & Derivation..................................................................................10
5 Basic Lighting Parameters.....................................................................................................12
5.1 Luminous flux.............................................................................13

5.2 Luminous Intensity.....................................................................14
5.3 Illuminance............. ...................................................................14
5.4 Luminance..................................................................................14
5.5 Newton's Inverse Square Law....................................................15
5.6 Steradian....................................................................................17
6 Photometry........................................................................................................................18
6.1 Photometric Bench....................................................................18

6.1.1 Testing Non Isotropic sources........................................................................26
6.1.2 Calculating the Virtual Point Source distance................................................28
6.2 Integrating Sphere......................................................................29

6.2.1 Substitution Method .......................................................................................22
6.2.2 Calculating Procedure for Total Luminous Flux................................................33
6.2.2a Single-lamp luminaires ...................................................................................34
6.2.2b Multi-lamp luminaires ....................................................................................34
6.2.3 Simple Integrating ‘Cube’ Photometer ............................................................34
6.3 Goniophotometer......................................................................39
6.3.1 Simple Goniophotometer...............................................................................33
6.3.2 Method of Goniophotometer stabilization....................................................34
6.3.3 Relative Method of Calibration with a Goniophotometer.............................42
6.3.4 Evaluation of Total Luminous Flux.................................................................46
6.3.5 Zonal Factor Method of Total Luminous Flux................................................49
6.3.6 Graphical Integration of Total Luminous Flux................................................75
6.3.7 The Rousseau Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux................................41
6.3.8 Exitance…………………………………………………………..............................................93
6.3.9 Spherical Reduction Factor……………………………...............................................96
6.3.10 The Kennelly Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux .............................100
6.3.11 The Fluxolite Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux...............................102
6.3.12 Russell Angles Method of Total Luminous Flux ...........................................105
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6.4 Spectrophotometry...................................................................111
6.4.1 Simple Spectroscope.......................................................................................113
6.4.2 Spectral Measurements..................................................................................116
6.4.3 Spectrophotometric procedure for Quantitative Analysis..............................116
6.4.4 Spectral Measurement Example .................................................................122
6.4.5 Spectrophotometer optical system, light source and filter analysis...............150
7 SI Photometry & Radiometry units....................................................................................157
7.1 Foot-Candle / Candle Power..............................................................................157

Other Useful Lighting Terms.....................................................................................158
7.2 Colour Rendering Index (CRI) ............................................................................162
7.3 Colour Temperature–the Appearance of Light..................................................163
8 Light Source & Luminaire Data..........................................................................................171
8.1 Luminous Flux Output in lumens ..............................................171

8.2 Luminous Intensity in Candela...................................................171
8.3 Illuminance in Lux......................................................................173
8.4 Other Factors affecting Rating Systems.....................................174
8.5 Sourcing Light Output Data........................................................174
9 Simple Design Formulae....................................................................................................175
9.1 Intensity Method........................................................................175

9.2 Luminaire Spacing & Beam width Calculations...........................176
9.3 Luminaire Beam Widths..............................................................178
9.4 Lumen Method ...........................................................................179
9.5 Building Code Vs Australian Standards........................................186
9.6 Flood Lighting hints.....................................................................188
9.7 Uniformity...................................................................................190
9.8 PAR16 Style Light Source Comparisons.......................................191
10 Lighting Design Programs................................................................................................193
10.1 AGI.............................................................................................195
10.2 DIALux........................................................................................196
10.3 Other Lighting Programs............................................................200
Further Reading......................................................................................................................204
Bibliography............................................................................................................................205
Colophon................................................................................................................................206
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1 Light and Radiation
Light is electromagnetic radiation that the human eye perceives. This radiation is between 360 and 830 nm, a very
small part of the known spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.
Fig 1.00 The electromagnetic spectrum and applications
The eye has different responses as a function of

wavelength when it is adapted to light conditions
(photopic vision) and dark conditions (scotopic vision).
Illuminating Engineering and Photometry are typically

based on the eye's photopic response; therefore,
photometric measurements may not accurately indicate
the perceived brightness of objects in dim lighting where
colours of objects are not discernible, such as under
street lighting, moonlight or starlight illumination.
Fig 1.01 Photopic (black) and scotopic (green) luminosity functions.

The photopic includes the CIE 1931 standard (solid), the Judd-Vos 1978 modified data (dashed), and the Sharpe,
Stockman, Jagla & Jägle 2005 data (dotted). The horizontal axis is wavelength in nm.
5
2 Lighting Standards & the Building Code of Australia
Some Standards “are mandatory for compliance with the BCA, while the latter are the most up-to-date
versions, released by Standards Australia, recommended for best practice.”1
“Failing to comply with certain Australian Standards® can lead to legal repercussions.”2
Lighting Designers have a Duty of care to comply.
Main Australian Standard is: -
AS/NZS 1680.0:1998
Interior lighting - Safe movement
Other Standards include: -
AS/NZS 3000:2007
AS 3137 -> AS/NZS 60598 series of Standards Approval and test specification - luminaires (light fittings)
AS/NZS 4051 -> AS/NZS CISPR 15
Radio frequency electromagnetic interference has replaced the latest international proposals which
include increasing the managed spectrum from 30MHz to 300MHz using "open area testing".
AS 1158
"Street Lighting Applications” Road Lighting for Vehicles, Pedestrian Area Lighting (including Car Park
Lighting)
AS 4282
"Obtrusive Effects of Outdoor Lighting",
AS/NZS 4783
Minimum Energy Performance Standards for Ballasts used with linear fluorescent lamps 15W and above.
AS/NZS 4782
Minimum Energy Performance Standards for lamps.
1 Newsletter: Building code of Australia, March 09 2010, SAI GLOBAL
2 The New Standard Catalogue, Australian Standards® and other products Catalogue 2010, SAI GLOBAL
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Lighting Standards & the Building Code of Australia
AS 3771 -> AS/NZS 1158.6
“Road Lighting Luminaires” is expected to adopt the electrical safety requirements of IEC 60598.2.3 and
also cover other functional safety aspects issued for public comment.
AS/NZS 2293
Emergency lighting standard
AS/NZS 3820:1998
Essential safety requirements for low-voltage electrical equipment
Building Code of Australia
BCA 2005–ENFORCED BY LAW: -“mandatory compliance”
BCA Referenced Standards
AS1680 is now a BCA Referenced standard: BCA-Part J6 Artificial Lighting and Power, now references
AS1680, therefore, parts of AS1680 it refers to are also a “mandatory compliance” that is enforced by
Law.
Fig 2.00 The electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelength that is visible to the human eye is in a range from about
380 or 400 nanometres to about 760 or 780 nm.
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3 General Lighting Definitions
Recommended Definitions
A light fixture is an electrical device used to create artificial light and/or illumination. 3
A luminaire is a lighting fixture complete with the light source, the reflector for directing the light, an
aperture (with or without a lens), the outer shell or housing for light source alignment and protection, an
electrical ballast if required, and connection to a power source.
A Light source can be considered as an object or source that emits electromagnetic radiation of a
wavelength that is visible to the human eye (in a range from about 380 or 400 nanometres to about 760
or 780 nm) refer to fig 2.00. The most common light sources are thermal: a body at a given temperature
emits a characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation. Examples include sunlight, incandescent light,
and glowing solid particles in flames.
A light source can also be produced by atoms that emit and absorb light at characteristic energies. This
produces "emission lines" in the spectrum of each atom. Such as in light-emitting diodes, gas discharge
lamps (such as neon lamps and neon signs, mercury-vapour lamps, etc.), and flames (light from the hot
gas itself— for example, sodium in a gas flame emits characteristic yellow light). Emission can also be
stimulated, as in a laser or a microwave maser.
Deceleration of a free-charged particle, such as an electron, can produce visible radiation: cyclotron
radiation, synchrotron radiation, and bremsstrahlung radiation. Particles moving through a medium
faster than the speed of light in that medium can produce visible Cherenkov radiation.
Certain chemicals produce visible radiation by chemiluminescence. In living things, this process is called
bioluminescence. For example, fireflies and boats moving through water can disturb plankton which
produces a glowing wake.
Certain substances produce light when they are illuminated by more energetic radiation, a process
known as fluorescence. Some substances emit light slowly after excitation by more energetic radiation.
This is known as phosphorescence.
Phosphorescent materials can also be excited by bombarding them with subatomic particles.
Cathodoluminescence is one example of this. This mechanism is used in cathode ray tube television sets
and computer monitors.
The word light source and luminaire has been selected by lighting professionals to accurately describe
their function so please be accurate in your terminology as it is important not to interchange with any of
the following ambiguous terms:-
3 Wikipediacontributors, 'Light fixture', Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 25 April 2010, 18:10 UTC,
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Light_fixture&oldid=358244844> [accessed 1 May 2010]
8
General Lighting Definitions
1/ A Lamp can be any of several devices that produce illumination such as oil lamps, the original use of
the term, kerosene lamps or any vessel in which a liquid fuel is burned to supply illumination, as well as
any gas or electric light source. Furniture holding one or more electric light bulbs and lampshades, light
fixtures (luminaire) such as a table lamp, floor or reading lamp. Any protective ornamental shade used to
screen a light source from direct view. Signal lamps or for that matter any of a variety of a million devices
that produce radiation etc.
2/ The word Bulb should be avoided as it not only describes incandescent light sources or its glass
housing it can also describe an underground vertical shoot that has modified leaves or a plant that grows
from a bulb. A rounded projection or part: the bulb of a syringe... Any rounded dilation or expansion of a
canal, vessel, organ; etc
3/ A Globe can be a body with the shape of a sphere, especially a representation of the earth in the form
of a hollow ball, a planet, a spherical or bowl-like container, an orb, or a glass cover for a light bulb. Any
sphere emblematic of sovereignty; etc
4/ A Light can also describe any one of a million things such as daylight, dawn; daybreak, or anything that
admits illumination such as a window. A source of flame or fire, such as a match or cigarette lighter.
Spiritual awareness; illumination. Something that provides information or clarification. A state of
awareness or understanding, especially as derived from a particular source: in the light of experience.
Public attention; general knowledge brought the scandal to light.
A way of looking at or considering a matter; an aspect: saw the situation in a different light. Archaic
Eyesight. One's individual opinions, choices, or standards: acted according to their own lights. A person
who inspires or is adored by another: My daughter is the light of my life. A prominent or distinguished
person; a luminary: one of the leading lights of the theatre. An expression of the eyes: a strange light in
her eyes. Light In Quaker doctrine, the guiding spirit or divine presence in each person. The
representation of light in art. To set on fire; ignite or kindle. To cause to give out light; make luminous: lit
a lamp. To provide, cover, or fill with light; illuminate: fireworks lighting the sky. To signal, direct, or guide
with or as if with illumination. To enliven or animate: A smile lit her face. To start to burn; be ignited or
kindled: Green wood does not light easily. To emit light; be lighted: Wait until the indicator lights up.
Having a greater rather than lesser degree of lightness. Of or being an additive primary colour.
Characterized by or filled with light; bright: a room that is light when the shutters are open. Not dark in
colour; fair: light hair and skin. Served with milk or cream; etc.
Other words that are used indiscriminately within the lighting industry include: -
5/ A Diffuser is any device that diffuses or spreads or scatters light in some manner, to achieve a uniform
or ‘soft light,’ which include ground glass diffusers, sand blasted, Teflon diffusers, holographic diffusers,
opal glass diffusers, and greyed glass diffusers. This term should not be confused with: -
6/ A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate axial symmetry which transmits and
refracts light, converging or diverging the beam. Lenses are typically made of glass or transparent
plastic. Therefore, a K12 or K15 prismatic lens is NOT A K12 Diffuser!!! Nor is a Refractor lens a
diffuser.
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4 Perfect Radiator-History & Derivation
The theoretical “perfect radiator” concept is used in Illuminating Engineering, Photometry and Physics.
Most light sources are generally not perfect radiators. Therefore, a concept called "Black body" radiation
was invented; the light is given off by a "perfect" radiator. Although a black body is a theoretical object,
Black-body radiation is light in thermal equilibrium with a black body, light radiation with a given
temperature in Kelvin. It is the reference thermodynamic equilibrium state of light. Experimentally, it is
established as the steady state equilibrium radiation in a rigid-walled cavity that contains a black body. All
objects above the temperature of absolute zero emit electromagnetic radiation consisting of a broad
range of wavelengths described by a distribution curve whose peak wavelength for a "perfect radiator"
known as a black body is given by Wien's Displacement law.
λmax =b/T (4.00)
where λmax is the peak wavelength, T is the absolute temperature of the blackbody, and b is a constant of
proportionality called Wien's displacement constant, equal to 2.8977685(51) ×10−3 m.K
Wein’s At ordinary temperatures this radiation is in the infrared region of the

displacement
spectrum, but as the temperature rises above approximately 1000K,
law
more energy is emitted in the visible wavelength region; the object
begins to glow, first with red light, and then shifting toward the blue as
Visible portion temperatures increase.
of spectrum
This type of radiation has two important characteristics. Firstly, the

spectrum is continuous throughout all wavelengths, although intensities
may vary smoothly with differing wavelengths. The other curious
property of black body radiation is that it is independent of the
composition of the object; and is entirely dependent on temperature.
Fig 4.00 Black body radiation according to Planck’s Law. The thermal emission intensity as a function of wavelength for various
(absolute) temperatures.
Perfect Black bodies do not exist in nature; graphite is a good approximation particularly when it is
enclosed in a box with graphite walls at a steady state achieves a close to ideal black body radiation. The
Wein-Pasceh formula represents the emission of perfectly radiating bodies in its relation to their
temperature and period of the emitted radiation has been thoroughly tested in the region of the
continuous spectra. Because light is the oscillation of a continuous electromagnetic field, the study of
black-body radiation reveals how continuous fields can have a temperature, something which contradicts
classical physics.
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Perfect Radiator-History & Derivation
A cavity that does not contain any black material body does not sustain black body radiation at
equilibrium; this fact was found experimentally by Kirchhoff. Black bodies could test the properties of
thermal equilibrium because they emit radiation which is distributed thermally. Studying the laws of the
black body historically led to quantum mechanics. Before the advent of quantum mechanics in the 19th
century the thermal state of light was so confusing, arguments that light has a thermal equilibrium state
were made very carefully. Calculating the black-body curve was also a major challenge in theoretical
physics during the late nineteenth century.
Max Planck finally solved the problem in 1901, introducing Planck's law of black-body radiation. He
achieved this by making changes to Wien's radiation law (not to be confused with Wien's displacement
law) consistent with thermodynamics and electromagnetism, he also discovered a mathematical formula
that fit the experimental data satisfactorily. To find a physical interpretation for this formula, Planck
assumed that the energy of the oscillators in the cavity is quantized (i.e., integer multiples of some
quantity). Einstein is one of a few, historically known to have built on this idea and propose “the
quantization of electromagnetic radiation itself in 1905 to explain the photoelectric effect. These
theoretical advances eventually superseded classical electromagnetism by quantum electrodynamics.
Today, these quanta are called photons and the black-body cavity may be thought of as a containment of
a gas of photons. In addition, it led to the development of quantum probability distributions, called Fermi-
Dirac statistics and Bose-Einstein statistics, each applicable to a different class of particle, which are now
used in quantum mechanics instead of the classical distributions.” 4
Fig 4.01 As temperature decreases, the peak of the black-body

radiation curve moves to lower intensities and longer
wavelengths. This black-body radiation graph is also compared
with the classical model of Rayleigh and Jeans.
4 Wikipediacontributors, 'Black body', Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 1 April 2010, 02:52 UTC,
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_body&oldid=358979090> [accessed 14 April 2010]
11
5 Basic Lighting Parameters
Fig 5.00a The authors “Important Lighting Terms/ Formula Quadrangle” which defines the relationships between
Luminous Flux, Luminous intensity, Illuminance and Luminance.
12
Basic Lighting Parameters
Fig 5.00b Simplified “Important

Lighting Terms/ Formula Quadrangle” w
5.1 Luminous flux

Describes a measure of the total emitted electromagnetic radiation between 360 and 830 nm, light the human eye
perceives.
Luminous efficiency is the ratio of the luminous flux to the electrical power consumed (lm/W)
It is a measure of a light source's economic efficiency.
Symbol 4π lm
. Isotropic source
concept Luminous Flux F, φ
1 cd
unit Lumen lm
Φ=ІΩ, (5.00), Φ=EA (5.01) Basic
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Lighting Parameters
5.2 Luminous Intensity

Describes the quantity of wavelength- weighted visible light emitted within a solid angle of one steradian, radiated
in a specific direction. A useful measurement for directive lighting elements such as reflectors. It is commonly
represented by luminous Intensity distribution curves (LDC) and “cone diagrams”. It is also a SI base unit. (Since
October 1979, the candela has been “the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a light source that emits monochromatic
radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1⁄683 watt per steradian.”1 The
candela is the only SI unit based on human perception. It is also the least certain, having an uncertainty of about half a per cent.)
Symbol
concept Luminous Intensity І
unit Candela cd
І= Φ/Ω (5.02) 1 cd
5.3 Illuminance
Describes a measure of the total quantity of visible light (luminous flux) incident on (or illuminating) a surface per
unit area from all directions. This light decreases by the square of the distance (inverse square law). Relevant
standards specify the required illuminance (e.g. AS1680)
E(lx)=luminous flux (lm)

. area (m2)
Symbol
concept Illuminance E
unit Lux lx
E= Φ/A (5.03)
5.4 Luminance
Describes a measure of the luminous intensity per unit area. Specifically, the amount of light travelling in a given
direction that passes through or is emitted from a particular area and falls within a given solid angle. The unit
specifies the “brightness” of a surface dependant on its reflectance (finish and colour). It is the only basic lighting
concept that is perceived by the human eye looking at the surface from a particular angle of view. Luminance is thus
an indicator of how “bright” the surface will appear. In this case, the solid angle of interest is the solid angle
subtended by the eye's pupil.
Symbol
concept Luminance L
unit Candela/area (Nits) cd/m2
L = І/A (5.04) L = E/Ω (5.05)
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5.5 Newton’s Inverse Square Law
1 lux 1m2 1d
Intensity I(cd)= 1 d
d2
¼ lux 4m2 2d
Illuminance E(lx) =І. d

d2
1/
9 lux 9m2 3d
Fig 5.01 The inverse-square law applies to electromagnetic radiation and other forces or energy that is radiated outward radially
from a source.
The surface area of a sphere is 4πr 2 and as such is proportional to the square of the radius, as the emitted radiation
gets farther from the source, it spreads out over an area that is proportional to the square of the distance from the
source. Hence, the radiation passing through any unit area is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
from said source.
The lines represent individual flux emanating from the source. The total number of flux lines depends on the
strength of the source and is constant with increasing distance. A greater density of flux lines (lines per unit area)
suggests a stronger field. The density of flux lines is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the
source because the surface area of a sphere increases with the square of the radius. Thus, the strength of the field
is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source.
Any point source which spreads its influence equally in all directions without a limit to its range will therefore obey
the inverse square law. This comes from strictly geometrical considerations. The intensity of the influence at any
given radius (r) is the source strength divided by the area of the sphere. Being strictly geometric in its origin, the
inverse square law applies to diverse phenomena such as point sources of gravitational force, and electric field;
light, sound, and radiation all obey the inverse square law, where: -
E=І/d2 (5.06)
The SI base unit for luminous intensity is the candela.

1 candela is equal to 1 lumen/steradian.
We can therefore interpret the definition of luminous flux in lumen, as 1(lm) = 1(cd) x 1(sr). One lumen in
this case is a measure of the amount of luminous flux emitted onto an area by 1/60 of a single square
centimetre of platinum at its melting point into a certain angle. The lumen measurement is also
associated with power in watts which determines the luminous efficiency of a light-emitting body.
15
5.6 Steradian
Luminous intensity is therefore a measure of luminous flux from a point source, lumens per solid angle.
Luminous intensity has a unit called candela (cd) and is lumen/steradian. There is 4π steradian solid angle
per sphere. A uniformly radiating 1-lumen source spreads the luminous flux over 4π steradians, hence
producing 1/4π candela. The steradian was formerly an SI supplementary unit, but this category was
abolished in 1995 and the steradian is now considered an SI-derived unit.
Fig 5.02 Intensity at the surface of a sphere
Fig 5.03 The steradian (from Greek stereos, solid) is the SI-derived unit of
solid angle and the 3- dimensional equivalent of the radian. A steradian is a
standard unit of measurement used to define a solid angle. The technical
definition of a steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a
sphere of radius r by a portion of the surface of the sphere whose area, A,
equals r2.5 In this definition, the term subtended is the relationship
between the length of the arc that creates the angle. The steradian is
therefore unit less; it is represented by the abbreviation sr. Symbol Ω or ω.
Using the meter as a unit of measurement, we can therefore define a steradian mathematically as: -
1(sr) = m2 x m-1.
Ω=A/r2 = 2πh / r (5.07) Ω=sr, cone subtending an angle Ѳ is: - Ω =2π [(1 - cos Ѳ] (5.08) Fig 5.04
From the Inverse-square law, the flux of light in any direction is independent of the
intensity of the source in that direction. A source of unit intensity is defined as one
which radiates unit flux within the solid angle. Hence the total spatial angle around
our source is 4π solid units. The surface of the whole sphere =4πr2. No of
Steradians in a whole sphere is Ω=4πr2/r2=4π from Eq. 5.00 Φ=І Ω or Φ= І 4π
(5.09) the total flux is given by substituting the inverse square law E = І
Eq.5.06 into Φ=I Ω eq. 5.00 which derives: -
d2 . .
Φ=E Ω d 2
(5.10)
This formula is the basis of all luminous intensity measurements or Photometry.
5
"Steradian", McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, fifth edition, Sybil P. Parker, editor in chief.
McGraw-Hill, 1997
16
6 Photometry
6.1 Photometric Bench
The simplest device is called a “photometric bench” and is mainly used to calibrate light sources,
illuminance meters and many other optical systems.
A Light Source of C Photometer Reference Plane B Light Source of

Collimators
Known Intensity . (Bunsen Screen (assumed Infinitely Unknown Intensity
. (4 off)
. Іs (Standard) . & Mirrors) Thin) . Іu (Unknown)
4
EA---I I---EB
d1 d2
To Power Supply To Power Supply
Metric Rule mm)
100mm
2400mm
Fig 6.01 A classical
1653mm Mean from experiment.
arrangement of a photometric bench, with a Bunsen Photometer.
The original form of the photometric bench was invented by Count Rumford in 1792. Fig 6.01 shows a
classical Photometric Bench setup that incorporates the Bunsen Photometer Head a comparison screen
with a grease spot, shown in Fig 6.02, was deemed obsolete by the 1920s but must be mentioned since
its genius is its sheer simplicity.
Screen of Paper Mirrors Screen of Paper
m1 m2
Grease Spot
FRONT VIEW of TOP SECTION VIEW
Photometer Head of Photometer Head
Fig 6.02 Bunsen Screen and mirrors (Plan). To facilitate the determination of balance both sides of the screen are
visible simultaneously. Two upright mirrors set at equal dihedral angles from 60 to 70 deg. Light enters at the ends,
falls upon the screen to the observer and is reflected by mirrors m1 and m2, The sight tube T screens external light.
17
Photometric Bench
The Bunsen photometer ‘C’ consists of a fine grain paper screen that is opaque (neither transparent nor
translucent) that is free from glaze, in the centre of which is a sharply defined grease spot rendered
translucent by impregnation with paraffin or stearin. This screen is mounted transversely in a blackened
box with apertures to admit light and to permit the observation of the screen. In another embodiment, a
Leeson disc consists of three pieces of paper that are clamped together, the middle one incorporates a
round or star-shaped hole (Leeson Disc) whose edges exactly coincide on the two sides of the screen.
The measurements involve comparing the ‘B’ test lamp at the left end of the bench, with a standard lamp
‘A’ on the opposite side of the photometer, as shown in Fig 6.01. The standard lamp ‘A’ is mounted on
positioning stages that allow adjustment in two horizontal positions, height, and angle. The standard
Lamp, unknown lamp and photometer are all mounted onto a carriage that allows horizontal movement
on a linear track.
The Bunsen photometer head ‘C’ is mounted between both light sources which are aligned to the optical
axis of the photometer head. To avoid stray light errors, aperture screens or collimators made of matt
black painted thin sheet metal that are adjustable with various sized apertures are used. The photometric
bench is usually installed in a dark room where the equipment and all walls are preferably painted matt
black.
The measurements are made by either varying the position of the comparison lamp ‘A’ (standard Lamp)
or by varying the position of the test lamp ‘B’ or varying the position of the Bunsen screen ‘C’ so that
when viewed at a certain angle, the appearance of the spot has the same contrast pattern on both sides.
This occurs because of the arrangement of the two integral mirrors as per fig 6.02. (The process is similar
to modern-day adjustments of brightness or gamma settings when calibrating a monitor or scanner with
a calibration program to a computer screen where you have to match two shades manually to be equal.)
Measurement is complete when two sides of the screen are equal and balanced. The illuminance at this
reference plane is then equal on both sides, and the intensity of the light sources is also equal to the
squares of the distances of the light sources from the screen. This photometer is easily made and capable
of high precision. The below example shows the method of determination.
Example. Referring to Fig 6.01, use the classical Bunsen Photometer and bench setup to determine the
luminous flux of the unknown light source ‘B’, where the luminous flux of the standard lamp ‘A’ is 2835
lumens.
The photometer ‘C’ is moved back and forth until an approximate “balance” is obtained. The motion
should be smooth and gentle; the head oscillated by hand on either side of the point of “balance”
gradually reducing the difference until it is almost imperceptible. The point of balance is in the middle of
this small range. This method is recommended especially if there is a colour difference, as when the best
possible “balance” is obtained the colours remain, but by oscillating the perceived brightness is altered. A
distinction is therefore made between colour and brightness.
18
Photometric Bench
Sixteen measurements of the photometer head C ‘balance’ position were made which were 1605, 1590,
1615, 1620, 1664, 1663.5, 1665, 1663, 1664, 1665, 1664, 1665, 1675, 1695, 1675, and 1660 millimetres.
The sum of these measurements divided by 16 determines the mean.
𝛴=26448.5/16
The average distance of d1 is therefore (1653mm (photometer head C) - 100mm (Test lamp B) =
1553mm refer to fig 6.3.
The average of d2 is, (2400mm (total bench length) -1653mm (photometer head C)) =747mm
Where the centre of standard lamp A (Іs) =100mm and the centre of unknown lamp B (Іu) is 2400mm.
d1= 1553mm d2= 747mm
100mm
1653mm Mean from experiment.

Fig 6.03 Ratio of distances
The law of inverse squares Eq 5.06 E=І/d2 applied to the photometric bench setup is,
EA = І s
. d12
where EA is the illuminance of Light source A (standard lamp) in lux, Іs is the luminous intensity of light
source A (standard lamp) and d1 is the distance in meters of the standard lamp A to the photometer
head.
……………………………………………………………….EB=Іu
. d22
where EB is the illuminance of Light source B (unknown lamp) in lux, Іu is the luminous intensity of light
source B (unknown lamp) and d1 is the distance in meters of the unknown lamp A to the photometer
head.
At “Balance” luminous intensities are then in the ratio of distances squared.
EA = EB “BALANCE”
Іs = Іu .
. d12 d22
19
Photometric Bench
Іu = Іs d22 (6.01)
. d12
The standard or known lamp A=2535 lumens as the distance of A to B is 2300mm where A to photometer
head C is 553mm and distance from the photometer head C to lamp B is 747mm Fig 6.3.
From Eq. 5.9 Φ= І 4π
Φ s = Іs 4π
Іs = Φ/ π,
Іs = 2835
4π
∴ Іs = 225.6 cd
Therefore the luminous intensity of the standard lamp A of known luminous flux is equal to 225.6
candelas.
From “Balance” formula Eq 6.1 Іu = Іs d22

. d12
Substituting known values,
Іu =225.6 (747/1553)2
=225.6x (558009/2411809)
=225.6x 0.2314
∴ Іu =52.2 cd.
Therefore the luminous intensity of the unknown lamp B is equal to 52.2 candela.
From Eq. 5.9 Φu= Іu 4π
=52.2x4 π
∴ Φu=656 lm
Hence the luminous flux of the unknown lamp B is equal to 656 lumens.
20
Photometric Bench
Fig 6.04 A traditional photometric bench.
Fig 6.04 shows a more modern photometric bench setup. At the left end of the bench, a luminous-
intensity standard lamp is mounted on positioning stages that allow adjustment in two horizontal
positions, height, and angle. On the right side, a photometer head is mounted and aligned on the optical
axis of the lamp. To avoid stray light errors, aperture screens or collimators are used that are adjustable
and the photometric bench is usually installed in a dark room where the equipment and all walls are
painted matt black.
The modern photometric bench utilises a photometer head ideally with a Visibility Wavelength V (λ) and
cosine corrected Photovoltaic cell. If a Photovoltaic cell is not V (λ) corrected the manufacturer usually
supplies factors by which the reading is multiplied by to obtain a correct value.
In response to the illumination falling onto a photocell І(Ѳ) is normally incident, but when the
illumination is at some other angle Ѳ, the ideal response would be І (Ѳ) =І cos Ѳ. Real photocells don’t
have this response because of their reflective properties and the area is increased as Ѳ is increased Fig
6.05.
21
Visibility V (λ)
Correction
Uncorrected Selenium Photo Cell
Average response of Human eye . .
(photopic)-Light adapted
Corrected Photo cell
Dome of diffusing material
Fig 6.05 Right A Dome or disc of white diffusing material Fig 6.06 Cross section of a V (λ) corrected Photovoltaic cell, the
over a Photocell is used to achieve Cosine correction. cell is colour corrected and the shape and composition of the
plastic diffuser permits a near perfect cosine correction as the
curve shows. As light increases in Ѳ causes the reflection of the
Photometric Bench
surface to be increased.
Fig 6.07 As the beam of light tilts at an angle, the area covered by the
beam increases. Since the amount of light within the beam remains
constant, the illumination on the surface decreases. This decrease is
proportional to the cosine of the angle which the incident beam
makes perpendicular to the surface. Therefore, the meter reading of a
full cosine corrected light meter represents true illumination,
regardless of the angle from which the light approaches.
This error can be greatly reduced if a disc or dome of diffusing material is placed over the cell Fig 6.07 this
is called cosine correction. Fig 6.06 shows the eyes' responses as a function of wavelength when it is
adapted to light conditions (photopic vision) black plot and dark conditions (scotopic vision) green plot.
The solid blue line is the photovoltaic cell's natural response to wavelengths of light.
Illuminating Engineering and Photometry are typically based on the eye's photopic response;
therefore photometric measurements are “Visibility” and Cosine V (λ) corrected to achieve a similar
response to the human eye as shown by the dashed blue plot of Fig 6.06. Visibility Correction is
achieved by a colour-correcting filter refer to Fig 6.05 cross-section of the GE Model SL-480A with V
(λ) correction and the diffusing plate provides the desired cosine correction.
22
A very simple photometric bench setup can be constructed using a standard “Lux Meter”, most modern
Illuminance Meters are Visibility and Cosine V (λ) corrected, a lighting track or even a plank of wood
painted matt black, an adjustable vice, clamps, a tape measure, and a reputable branded light source.
Level meters and or a laser can be helpful to align this setup. Use an accurate power supply to adjust to
the correct specified voltage as transformers are usually below the correct light source specified voltage,
to increase light source life. It would be desirable that either the light source or the meter be calibrated
recently to start with. My tests reveal that halogen light sources from reputable manufacturers usually
have very consistent luminous flux values when compared to the manufacturer's published light source
data.
Fig 6.08 Thin black

baffles reduce stray
reflections, which allows
accurate conversions
between geometry-
based measurements.
23
Photometric Bench
The best way to perform any photometric test is within the centre of a large empty room or space,
leaving as much distance as possible between walls, floor and ceiling, that are preferably painted matt
black or with “black velvet” paint. This is because reflective surfaces may reflect stray light onto the
photocell, if this is not practical collimators or aperture screens can be used to prevent stray light
reflections. These can be simple black baffles made of thin sheet metal painted black, multiple aperture
screens ensure that the stray light is “trapped” and will not interfere with the test.
Fig 6.09 With a calibrated Lux Meter you can

Lux meter verify the lamp flux and then put this light source
to further use as a ‘standard lamp’ to check and
Adjustable mini vice
calibrate other light meters, for example in the
image to the left an Osram 12V 50W IRC Halogen
Halostar GY6.35 is rated as 1250 lm, my test
Light Source Osram
12V 50W IRC using a commercial freshly calibrated light meter
Halogen GY6.35 measured 25 lux at a distance of 2m.
1250 lm
Adjustable
Clamp
Φ=E Ω d2 Eq. 5.10
Φ =25x4π22
=1256 lm
Light Flux emanating from a point source in all directions is Illuminance - ¼ π lumens, which is
sometimes termed Mean Spherical Luminous Intensity (msli). This unit is used as the light flux is
radially outwards from a source which may be assumed to be a point.
Light Source Type Distance (d) is measured at set distances in meters, and illuminance (E) is
& Test Number measured with a light meter, light source flux Φ is calculated using
Osram 12V 50W IRC Φ=E Ωd where E is measured with specific light meters in lux.
Halogen Halostar GY6.35 The “Spectra” meter could only measure foot candles (FC) therefore readings
1250 lm were multiplied by 10.76 to covert to Lux.
serial # 1018 Spectra National Model Lutron LX-102 Digitech
23-11-2008 Lumicon Series IIBN-2000LTE Light Meter – QM1587
Light Meter- Digital Lux digital s.n.L025982 Digital Lux
analogue s.n 02227 Tester s.n.000588 manufactured 1992
Taiwan (results after
Meter s.n.S544209
manufactured in 1976 manufactured 1987 manufactured 2007
calibration 23-11-2008)
USA (results after Japan, calibrated China (original factory
d=12mm, calibration 23-11-2008)) circa. 2007) calibration)
l=44mm where d=2m
E Lux Φ lm E Lux f lm E Lux Φ lm E Lux Φ lm
Test 1 x0.1(2000) 25 1257 25 1257 25 1257 25 1257
Tabulation 6.01 Example of Calibration test results of 4 light meters two off after calibration.
24
Photometric Bench
The accuracy of the above example can only be true for a relatively uniform and Isotropic radiator; the
error margin can therefore be calculated.
І Luminous Intensity distance r E=I/r2 From Eq 5.06
D Diameter R
Fig 6.10 Uncertainties of measurement.
Distance r Between Photometer and circular Percentage Difference between theoretical

source of diameter D
and actual Value of E (lux)
Distance r Between Photometer and circular Percentage Difference between theoretical

source of diameter D and actual Value of E (lux)
R=5D +0.6%
R=4D +0.8%
R=3D +0.2%
R=2D +5.0%
R=1.5D +8.0%
R=1D +8.0%
R=0 
Table 6.01 Margin distance error percentage.
Uncertainties: - The percentage difference between theoretical and actual values of intensity is
based on the inverse square law.
r=xD (6.02)
Where r is the distance between a photometer and a circular light source and D is the aperture
diameter of the light source, and x is the constant that makes both sides of the equation equal.
For Fig 6.09 tests r=2m and D=0.012m

Therefore 2=x0.012
x=166.6
x>5
Therefore, the percentage difference between theoretical and actual values of illuminance where
r<5xD is <+ 0.6%
6.1.1 Testing Non-Isotropic Light sources
Most Light sources are non-isotropic (Isotropy -non-directionality) or not perfect point source radiators,
many have a base that obscures some of the light or emits light in a certain direction, can these be tested
accurately?
25
Photometric Bench
Example. In a particular experiment refer to Fig. 6.08, a 240V 100W ES GLS incandescent is set up on a
photometric bench with a calibrated lux meter and 3 collimators. The incandescent light source has a
clear glass envelope and is considered a relatively isotropic point source at a 3m distance, with the
exception that the base blocks a 30° solid angle. 12.2 lux was measured at 3m. What is the true
illuminance measurement at 1m and what is the luminous flux in lumens that the light source is
producing?
The illuminance at 1.0 meters can be calculated as follows: -
E = І Eq 5.06 or E1 = (d2 / d1)2 * E2 (an alternative form that may be more convenient or:-) E1 d12 = E2 d22(6.03)
d2
12.2 lx3m=І/32m=110 cd or E1.0 m = (3.0 / 1.0)2 * 12.2 = 110 lux
E1.0m=110/12m=110 lux
From Chapter 5.6:- The SI base unit for luminous intensity is the candela where:-
1 lx = 1 lm·m-2 = 1 Ω.sr.m–2
To convert from lux or lm/m2 to lm/sr at 1.0 m:
110 lm/m2 x 1 m2/sr = 110 lm/sr
To calculate the solid angle of the light source:
From Eq. 5.08 Ω =2π [(1 - cos Ѳ] since the Periodicity of cosine has a period of 2π the general
expression becomes:-
Ω = 2π [(1 - cos (Ѳ/ 2)] (6.04)
Ω = 2π [1 - cos (330 / 2)] = 12.35 sr
To calculate the luminous flux:

Φ =E Ω d2 Eq. 5.10
110 lm/sr x 12.35 sr = 1360 lm
Another method involves a photocell that is kept in a fixed position from the light source, which is not
only convenient but has other practical advantages. The Photo current As as measured by the photocell at
a fixed distance for a standard lamp A is noted. The test lamp or unknown lamp B is substituted for the
standard lamp and the photocurrent Au for the unknown lamp is noted. If the luminous intensity of the
standard lamp is Іs then that of the test lamp Іu is given by,
Іu =І s Au (6.05)
. As
26
Testing Non-Isotropic Light sources
6.1.2 Calculating the Virtual Point Source Distance

Some luminaires and light sources utilise a lens system that redirects or concentrates light, projecting the
light from the true position of the point source. It is, therefore, necessary to find the virtual origin of a
source by measuring illuminance at two different points and solving for the offset distance, X, using the
Inverse Square Law derivative:
E1 (d1 + X) 2 = E2 (d2 + X) 2 (6.06)
Fig 6.11 Photometric bench setup designed to calculate the true distance or virtual origin of a point source.
Figure 6.11 illustrates a photometric bench setup to determine the location of a light source such as a
LED. Leds usually contain a lens and the virtual point source is therefore usually behind the LED. Two
measurements are made using a light meter at known distances from a reference point. The formula to
calculate the offset to the virtual point source is: -
X = [d1 (E1/E2) ½ -d2] (6.07)

[1-(E1/E2) ½]
Fig 6.12 LED-lighting is revolutionizing the lighting industry, their long life and low energy requirements make them an eco-friendly lighting
solution. Left images, the design of Queenscliff Harbour's retail precinct in 2009, had to meet strict guidelines in relation to a two-storey restaurant
building which incorporates a Navigational Light directing boats into Port Phillip Bay, a lookout platform as well as a perforated circular stainless
steel / aluminium shroud that sits on the top of the tower structure. A LED lighting line was fixed to the circular opening of the shroud. LED lighting
to the external staircase had a threefold requirement, decorative, practical and to light the landings with battery backup as an escape route which
had to comply with Emergency standard AS2293. The Masson For Light cat # 8600 series LED was selected, a lighting design was achieved and a
special central system maintained battery backup system was designed and manufactured by the author and Masson For Light. The average
emergency lighting achieves the 0.2 lux minimum requirement. Right images The Sofitel Café in Melbourne 2009, required over 100 off Masson For
Light cat # MS718XX series recessed LEDs to be DSI Dali dimmed, the author modified a PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) circuit to achieve this.
27
Photometry
6.2 Integrating Sphere

In photometry, an Integrating sphere (also known as an Ulbricht sphere) is used to determine an
accurate measurement of the total light output of light sources very rapidly which is achieved by
comparing the flux of light sources and thereby the Light output ratios of luminaires with
considerably fewer readings than measurement with a goniophotometer refer Ch 6.3.
The Integrating sphere makes use of the fact that illuminance received at any position on the surface
from another part of the surface is independent of the position of the two points; the light from the
source is bounced around the sphere and is substantially evenly distributed over the surface. Hence
the inter-reflected illuminance is constant over the whole surface which enables the total luminous
flux and light output ratio of an unknown light source or luminaire to be evaluated, hence the first
part of the name, integrating, referring to one of the main functions of the device, namely that it
spatially integrates the light flux, the light reflected from a light source.
Consider a sphere of radius r (Fig 6.13), which implies the shape of the hollow cavity, commonly
spherical, with a light source L at its centre where the inner surface of the sphere is coated with a
highly diffuse material of high reflectivity  (i.e., white). P is a point on the inner surface and is
shielded from direct light by a baffle Q.
δS
Ѳ
r
L
d
P
Fig 6.13 Integrating Sphere Theory.
If P receives light reflected from the whole of the sphere surface, the illuminance δE at P due to an
element of the surface S at distance d is,
δE=LδS cos Ѳ cosφ (6.08) .

. d2
28
Integrating Sphere
The surface should approach the ideal Lambertian scatterer, which means that the light falling on
the surface is evenly scattered in all directions and the scattered light intensity is proportional to the
cosine of the angle of observation. From the Inverse-square law and cosine law of illumination for a
point source refer to Eq 9.1
E = І cosA
. d2
where δE=LδS cos Ѳ cosφ (6.09)
for the element δS of luminance L.

The geometry of the sphere Ѳ= φ and d=2rcos φ. Therefore,
δE=LδS/4r2 (6.10)
δE is independent of Ѳ, showing that the illuminance received at any position on the surface of the
sphere from another part of the surface is independent of their relative positions.
The direct luminous flux ΦD from a light source, within the interior of a sphere from a light source within,
is,
Φ= ΦD+ ΦI (6.11)
where ΦI is the inter- reflected flux. The reflectance  is the ratio of the reflected flux to the
incident flux.
ΦI= Φ (6.12)
By eliminating Φ from Eq. 6.10 we obtain,
ΦI=  ΦD /(1-) (6.13)
The inter-reflected illuminance E, which is constant over the sphere surface, is given by the
expression
E= ΦI√S=  ΦD /S(1-) (6.14)
where S is the inner surface area of the sphere.
Figure 6.14 shows a typical integrating photometer that has a standard point source ‘L’ of light at
the centre of an opaque sphere. Within an opening in the wall of the sphere, a port window ‘W’, of
circular aperture contains a white glass diffusing translucent disc. This window can be up to 8.0 cm
in diameter in large diameter spheres, where a photocell is placed that receive diffused light from
the source. As an option, a spectrophotometer can also be used as
29
Integrating Sphere
the detector and all forms of colour quantities can be measured in addition to Lumens, refer to
Chapter 6.2.9.
Window ‘W’ is shielded by diffusing screen ‘Q’. This shield is a metal baffle located between the light
source ‘L’ and the window ‘W’ which prevents direct light from falling directly onto the window;
therefore the illuminance on the window ‘W’ is a measure of the total luminous flux of the light
source after the sphere has been calibrated for the type of source being measured.
Due to the multi-cross reflections within the sphere, the light on the window ‘W’ is proportional to
that received by any similar portion of the sphere interior.
The internal surfaces within commercial units are painted with a special paint, which requires a
specific compromise, in that the reduction of errors due to the effect of the screen requires a high
reflectivity greater than 85%, whereas the reduction of absorption errors requires a low reflectance.
Photometric centre
L
W P
A
Q
A Auxiliary Lamp
L Test or Standard Lamp/Luminaire
W Window - Diffusing plate
P Photocell- Illuminance Meter
Q Diffusing Screen
Fig 6.14 Centre, a typical Integrating Photometer cross-section, with various

commercially manufactured units from large to small, left, setting up a light source test, top left, Lighting
Sciences Inc., Series 4000 Integrator and bottom left a 2m at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory-
Lighting Research Group, Right top, A generic Integrating Sphere from SphereOptics ready for customization,
and right bottom, the ISV400 a visible source 0.3m diameter integrating sphere with a 0.1m diameter exit port
by Electro Optical Industries Inc.
Barium Sulphate suspended in Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose binder practically achieves this
compromise. Since the refractive index of Barium Sulphate is low, Barium Sulphate with polyvinyl
alcohol water-soluble synthetic polymer has also been used as working standard of reflectance and
for coating integrating spheres6. This polymer has excellent film forming, emulsifying, and adhesive
properties, which are also resistant to oil, grease, and solvent. The spectral reflectance of barium
sulphate is highly reflective, >97% in the visible spectrum, which. is significantly greater than that of
30
Integrating Sphere
magnesium oxide (another alternative), in the shorter wave regions and satisfactory particularly in
the UV region to 200 nm, which can achieve a spectral reflectance from 0.992 to 0.995± 0.001, if
correctly applied, then there is a corresponding gain in instrument sensitivity and as a comparison
material when used within an integrating sphere, therefore also satisfactory for use in the
wavelength range of 0.20-2.0 μ (200 -2000nm) which is from the Far Ultraviolet (FUV) to the Near IR
region.
The illuminance E may be measured with a V(λ) corrected photocell. The theoretical concept of
Equation 6.14 is inadequate in practice as it measures the luminous flux of a light source by
measurements of illuminance E at the window W, the inaccuracy mainly due to absorption of the
window and photocell and that the properties of the best sphere paints available are far from ideal.
6.2.1 Substitution Method
Some of these problems are therefore overcome or minimised by Calibration of the integrating
sphere which requires diffusing screens and the ‘substitution’ method of evaluation, where a lamp
of known luminous flux (standard lamp) ‘S’ calibrated in terms of luminous flux (lumens) is placed
within the photometric centre of the integrating photometer and a measurement of the illuminance
of the inner sphere wall. Referring to Table 6.02 let this reading be called R2.
Measurement No. TEST PROCEDURE

Reading Standard Lamp Test (Unknown) Light Auxiliary Lamp Illuminance Reading
(S) Source or Luminaire (T) (Symbol as per AS1680.3)
RA - - ON
R1 In Luminaire. OFF - ON B
R2 In Luminaire. ON - OFF A
R3 - In Luminaire. OFF ON D
R4 - In Luminaire. ON OFF C
Table 6.02 Determination Ratio of Self Absorption, Total Luminous Flux and Light Output Ratio (LOR).
A test lamp ‘T’ is then substituted inside the sphere by replacing the standard lamp ‘S’ and the
illuminance is measured again, let this value be called R4. If both light sources are physically identical,
except for their luminous flux, then from the ratio of the illuminance readings the test lamp T flux
can be determined, from the known luminous output of the standard lamp. In this arrangement,
both light sources must absorb a similar amount of radiation, which can be written symbolically as,
E S:T = lim ΔS = R4
S =T ΔT R2
∴ ΦT = ΦS x R4 (6.15)
. R2
31
Substitution Method
where E S: T is the ratio of Illuminance readings within an integrating sphere, that determines the
ratio of flux output ΦT of the unknown test lamp T, as compared to the standard lamp S as long as
the physical structure of both the standard lamp S and test lamp T are the same.
It may be seen more clearly written in the following format, whereby the Ratio of flux output of
Test Lamp T (unknown) to standard Lamp S is,
ΦT : ΦS = Reading 4 (Aux. Lamp Off-Test Lamp on) . (6.16)

. Reading 2 (Aux. Lamp Off-Standard Lamp on)
A source of possible inaccuracy in integrating sphere measurements is the self-absorption of light by

objects within the sphere such as lamp bases and even the light source, particularly if the test lamp
and the standard lamp are physically different (i.e., S ≠ T), it is therefore necessary to measure the
ratio of self-absorption, to compensate for this potential inaccuracy. The sphere is therefore
equipped with an auxiliary lamp and screen which allows for the measurement of absorption losses,
which are then applied to the readings for the highest accuracy. This is achieved by placing an
auxiliary lamp ‘A’ close to the sphere wall which is also baffled to prevent light from falling directly
onto the photocell or test lamp ‘L’. A reading is taken with the auxiliary lamp on, let this reading be
called RA after which the standard lamp is placed in the normal position which is the photometric
centre of the integrator, but unlit, and a further reading is taken likewise, R1. Let the ratio of these
readings be RS. This procedure is then repeated with the test lamp in place of the standard lamp
respectively, RA, R3. Let this ratio be RT. Then ratio RS /RT can be used to correct the readings taken.
𝒜S:T = lim ΔS = RA = Rs : RA = Rt
S ≠T ΔT R1 R3
∴ 𝒜S:T = Rs / Rt (6.17)
where 𝒜S:T is the ratio of self-absorbance of visible incident flux absorbed by the difference in
physical structure, between the standard lamp S and the physical structure of the test lamp T.
It may be seen more clearly written in the following format, whereby RA is cancelled out of the
equation and the ratio of self-absorption, where the standard lamp S and unknown Test lamp T differ
in type and or size if they are the same physical size the value of = RS / RT
will be unity and this constant can be neglected.
𝒜S: T = Reading 1 (Aux. Lamp On- Standard Lamp in place but off) (6.18).
. Reading 3 (Aux. Lamp On-Test lamp in place but off)
6.2.2 Calculating Procedure for Total Luminous Flux & LOR
32
Since Equation 6.17 determines self-absorption and Equation 6.15 determines the ratio of flux
output, these two ratios multiplied together will determine the flux of the unknown test Light source
Φ T, if the standard lamp flux ΦS is known,
ΦT = ΦS x R1xR4 (6.19)
. R3 R2
Alternatively, if the Light Flux emanating from a point source in all directions is Illuminance - ¼ π
lumens, termed Mean Spherical Luminous Intensity (msli) then.
msli of test Lamp = test Lamp Reading 4 (6.20).

. msli of standard Lamp standard Lamp Reading 2
from this, the total luminous flux of the test lamp can be obtained by multiplying msli by 4 π.
Calculating Procedure for Total Luminous Flux & LOR
The Light output ratio (LOR) is the ratio of the flux emitted by the test light source within a luminaire
ΦT to the total flux emitted by a bare standard Lamp ΦS. Australian Standard 1680.3 allows an un-
calibrated intensity distribution to be measured in this way; this distribution may be calibrated using
the light output ratio.
LOR = ΦT x 100 (6.21)

. ΦS
6.2.2 a -Single-lamp luminaires.
A determination of LOR using an integrator makes it unnecessary to calibrate the readings regarding
the bare lamp as with a Goniophotometer (Ch 6.3). The readings are taken of the light source/s and
repeated with the light source within the luminaire. The LOR is given by the reading corrected for
self-absorption ratio as described and calculated above, by following measurements of light output
not necessarily in the order given in Table 6.02. The reported LOR of the luminaire can be calculated
from the equation:
LOR = R1xR4 (6.22)

. R3 R2
6.2.2 b Multi-lamp luminaires The LOR for a multi-lamp luminaire can be measured in a similar way
as for a single-lamp luminaire. The bare lamp reading measurement R3 and R4 of Table 6.02 shall be
made separately for each lamp, leading to readings of R3 (1), R3 (2).....R3 (𝑛) and R4 (1), R4 (2).....R4 (𝑛). The
reported LOR of the luminaire shall be calculated from the equation:
1 (6.23)
. LOR = R1 x R2(1) + R2(2) + R2(𝑛)
. R3 R4(1) + R4(2) + R4(𝑛)
Where the lamps are of different types or are arranged so that they do not have an equal effect on
total output, each bare lamp shall, if necessary, have its supply voltage adjusted so that the values
of R3 (1), R3 (2).....R3 (𝑛) are in the same ratio as the published initial values of rated luminous flux of the
33
corresponding lamps. Each supply voltage shall be individually maintained for the same lamp when
all lamps are operated together in measurements R1, and R2 of Table 6.02.
Due to the correction factors the ‘Substitution’ method affords a reasonable accuracy within limits,
and allows the construction of spheres which are somewhat not ideal in theoretical concept; AS
1680.3—1991, SECTION 4, 4.3 states that “Integrators should be large and preferably spherical in
shape,” the major criterion is therefore that the Integrating sphere should be as large as possible,
proportionate to the size, and luminous flux of the light source or luminaire and sensitivity of the
photocell, therefore the sphere diameter should be at least ten times the size of any compact lamps,
2 times the length of linear lamps and 1.5 times the maximum dimension of any luminaire used. The
size of the commercial sphere can therefore vary anywhere from 0.05m for measuring miniature
lamps and L.E.D.s to diameters of more than 3.0 meters in diameter for high-wattage discharge lamps
and fluorescent lamps. The Luminous flux measurement range for a 1m sphere is therefore
approximately 0.1 to 60,000 lumens and for a 2m sphere: 0.5 to 256,000 lumens.
Calculating Procedure for Total Luminous Flux & LOR
6.2.3 Simple Integrating ‘Cube’ Photometer

The use of an Integrating sphere can be best illustrated by the construction of a simple Integrating
photometer. One could be made out of a large wooden cube such as a plywood packaging box or
similar, which is of course far simpler than the manufacture of the “preferable” sphere. If a non-
spherical shape is used, a thorough check should be made to ensure uniform reflection properties.
The integrating cube should be constructed with removable ports used for changing the test or
standard light source and auxiliary lamp. The window should have transmission properties that are
independent of the angle of incident light, therefore a translucent window should be provided to
illuminate the photocell, and it should be flat to the edge of the sphere.
34
Simple Integrating ‘Cube’ Photometer
All internal panels should be sanded in between coats and coated with white Barium Sulphate
(BaSO4) water paint, a minimum of 4 layers; the finished surface should have a perfect diffusing
uniform matte finish that is also achromatic and spectrally neutral. The spectral reflectance can be
measured by the following method: a part of the spherical surface is substituted by a surface with
low reflectance and spectrophotometric measurements are made on the luminance of the
measurement window of the cube before and after the substitution, operating a tungsten lamp in
the sphere. The values of spectral reflectance obtained by this method in the author's unit were from
0.93 to 0.96 in the visible region, the paint should always be clean and free from dust to reduce
errors. Integrators should be repainted regularly as dirt accumulates preferentially on the lower
surfaces.
Photometric centre
A
W P
L Auxiliary Lamp port

Test Lamp Terminals
A Auxiliary Lamp
L Test or Standard Lamp/ Luminaire
W Window - Diffusing plate
P Photocell- Illuminance Meter
Q Diffusing Screen
Fig 6.15 Centre, a ‘poor man’s’ Integrating ‘Cube’ Photometer, cross section and right a photo of the
Integrating ‘Cube’ made from a plywood pallet foldable packing wooden box with steel edges, with
removable cut-out holes as needed for entrance and exit ports. Left, a commercial Oriel Integrating ‘cube’
from Newport Corporation.
Wooden dowels can be used to make sure that the structure lines up exactly in the same place every
time it is used. The integrating cube only measures reflected light, and an inner diffusing screen ‘Q’
is provided to prevent light from hitting the window ‘W’ and photocell head from direct light from
all sizes of luminaires or light sources for which the integrator is designed.
This can be achieved with a variety of attachable suitably sized screens, or one screen adjusted in
area so that all luminous parts of the luminaire being measured including the mounting mechanism
are just screened by a screen area as small as is necessary to screen the luminaire under test when
viewed from any part of the test window. The finish of the screen should be painted in the same way
as the inside of the integrator. The paint should be renewed frequently. Any large external non-
luminous surfaces of a luminaire that does not have a white finish should be covered or painted with
35
white material. The position of the screen should be approximately halfway between the Window
and the nearest part of the luminaire.
The auxiliary lamp ‘A’ preferably an incandescent filament light source such as a GLS is required to
assess the self-absorption properties of the test lamp and achieve the correction for absorption of
inter-reflected light by the luminaire or light source under test. The auxiliary light source is positioned
close to the inner wall near the ceiling of the integrator and an additional screen is provided above
the auxiliary lamp so that no direct light can fall on the test window; AS1680.3 recommends that the
direct light should be projected to the floor and lower walls of the integrator, this simulates the direct
distribution pattern of many types of luminaires.
For large luminaires, a group of recessed spotlights could be used to simulate the light distribution
pattern more accurately than a single auxiliary light source. A linear luminaire should be positioned
parallel and in line with the centre of the integrator's test window centre. The luminaire, bare lamp
or light source on a test should be positioned at its photometric centre which is at the centre of the
integrating photometer. Any luminaire or light source that focuses or concentrates light luminaire
should be aimed 90o away from the test window. If the lamp is operated horizontally, its axis shall
be parallel to the line from the centre of the integrator to the centre of the test patch. The direct-
light screen shall be secured in the same position for measurements on the bare lamp as for
measurements on the luminaire.
AS1680.3 recommends that the supply voltage to the auxiliary lamp should always be stabilised at
95% of the lamp's rated voltage. Measurements should be stable within ±0.2 per cent for all
measurements. The readings should be made in arbitrary units but shall be the same units for all
measurements. Therefore, it is recommended that the illuminance measuring range should not be
changed during the entire test. The overall sensitivity range of the illuminance meter should be set
for a near full-scale deflection measurement for the standard lamp when lit (reading R2), then a quick
check to make sure the other readings do not exceed the range.
The cell should closely follow the spectral response of the CIE photopic curve, to deal correctly with
coloured light sources and should also be checked for calibration from time to time. On occasions,
the value of the light output ratio should be checked against the values obtained with a
goniophotometer.
36
Simple Integrating ‘Cube’ Photometer
Example. Using the ‘poor man’s Integrating ‘Cube’ Photometer refer to Fig 6.15, where the flux of
a standard lamp is 2835 lumens, determine the Total Luminous flux and the LOR of an opal
sphere.
Measurement No. TEST PROCEDURE

Reading Standard Lamp Unknown Light Source Auxiliary Lamp Illuminance Reading
Footcandle(lm/ft2) Lux (lx)(lm/m2)
÷ 0.0928→  ÷10.764
R1 In Luminaire. OFF - ON 2.43 26.16
R2 In Luminaire. ON - OFF 7.62 82.02
R3 - In Luminaire. OFF ON 2.42 26.05
R4 - In Luminaire. ON OFF 3.68 39.65
Tabulation 6.02 Illuminance readings inserted into Table 6.02, the Illuminance meter was a Spectra Lumicon Series
II Light Meter-analogue s.n 02227, because of its small diameter cell and calibrated as per Tabulation 6.01, readings
are therefore originally taken in Foot-candles.
From Eq. 6.18 ΦT = ΦS x R1xR4

. R3 R2
Since the equation deals in Ratios it is not necessary to convert to lux, therefore,
ΦT = 2835 x 2.43 x 3.68

. 2.42 7.62
∴ ΦT= 1375 lm
From Eq. 6.21

LOR = R1xR4
. R 3 R2
LOR = 2.43 x 3.68

. 2.42 7.62
LOR = 0.48
Or from Eq. 6.20
LOR = ΦT x 100
. ΦS
LOR = 1375 x 100

. 2835
LOR = 48%
37
6.3 Goniophotometer
The goniophotometer is different from the integrating sphere previously described as the sphere
only measures the total light output of a light source or luminaire and not the direction. Photometric
tests usually measure and calculate the luminous flux of a luminaire principally by measuring the
intensity of a luminaire in selected directions using a Goniophotometer refer Fig 6.17, or other types
of photometers from which a polar diagram of light distribution is usually generated. The idea is a
simple extension of the photometric bench but allows further measurement of relevant planes,
particularly for luminaires or light sources that are not symmetrical.
The CIE (Commission on Illumination - abbreviated as CIE from its French title Commission
Internationale de l'Eclairage) has conventions of alignment termed C0 plane alignment and C-plane
rotation direction for using a Goniophotometer and data interpretation. It is set up in the laboratory
from which data can be generated to create a polar curve or IES or LDT files used in computer lighting
programs, refer to Chapter 10.
Figs 6.16 Schematic of CIE principal alignment planes showing vertical and horizontal angles.
A simple Photometer consists of a photocell, mounted on the end of an arm, or curved track, where
the luminaire is attached to a rotatable platform, enabling readings at any angle of azimuth. There
are many types of photometers and goniophotometers; AS1680.3-1991 lists 10 variations, and all
must be constructed to be at a calculated distance that enables the luminaire to be considered a
point source of light. Therefore, long distances are required for large luminaires such as certain
indoor luminaires that contain fluorescent or high-wattage discharge light sources, and even larger
units for projectors, automobile headlamps, and other concentrating beams, some in the order of 25
to 33 meters in distance usually with a fixed photocell, where the luminaire is rotated.
Other goniophotometers are generally any combination of off, fixed or a moving luminaire/light
source, fixed or moving photocells or fixed or moving mirror/s. It is common to use rotating mirrors
to achieve a compact construction, which has a stationary photocell; the disadvantage is that they
require constant cleaning and alignment. Most use computer-controlled motorized systems that
38
Goniophotometer
positions a mirror/s, luminaire, or photocell to reflect light from the luminaire in specific planes to
the photocell.
Goniophotometers may use two or sometimes three-axis testing planes to change the orientation of the
luminaire concerning the photocell. In either case, luminous intensity is tabulated from this data which is
useful in lighting design.
Fig 6.17 A simple polar photometer, using a mirror to

lengthen the optical path which reduces the size of the
instrument.
Fig 6.18 Three Systems of Goniophotometer measurement, from CIBS National Lighting Conference 1980.
39
Goniophotometer
6.3.1 Simple Goniophotometer

A very simple goniophotometer can be constructed from a portable bench vice which would allow
the luminaire to turn about a fixed horizontal axis and about an axis that in the position of rest is
vertical and the rotation follows the movement of the horizontal axis. A 360-degree protractor is
attached to the fixed horizontal axis.
Axis of rotation
Fig 6.19 A simple goniophotometer constructed from a portable vice shown testing a Masson for Light Cat
No. # CM118IP65EL 18W "Casta Mini IP65" Horizontal compact fluorescent recessed Downlight.
This instrument utilises the B-ß system of measurement where the co-ordinates in which the axis of
rotation is horizontal and parallel to the axis of tilt of the luminaire as described in C.I.E. committee
TC-2.4 Note on co-ordinate systems for testing, Oct.1973and CIBS National Lighting Conference-
Three systems of measurement 1980, refer Fig 6.18. Which can also be described as type 9,
Rotating luminaire; fixed cell position. The luminaire is rotated about the horizontal axis for
measurement of its transverse plane. The luminaire can then be turned on its side and rotated
about the vertical for measurement of its axial plane, as per Table F1 pg 44, in Australian Standard
AS1680, Part 3, 1991 Interior Lighting Measurement & Calculation.
Other useful instruments can consist of horizontal/vertical aligning tools, spirit level, right angle
spirit level, laser level and protractors. Matt's black cloth is laid down over all the reflective
surfaces within the vicinity of the test.
Fig 6.20 A lux meter is used in the test and can be attached to a camera tripod, accurate alignment is crucial!
40
Simple Goniophotometer
The measurements can be achieved with a Lux or other light meter with a selenium photovoltaic
cell, preferably with zero auto adjustment, a small sampling time, with high resolution and
accuracy, would be preferable. The meter can be mounted onto an adjustable camera tripod and
aligned true with a laser and a spirit level.
6.3.2 Method of Goniophotometer Stabilization

A stabilized power supply or ballast is important depending on the light source, most reputable
brand electronic ballasts are excellent as they regulate the constant current output at a supply
voltage range of 220 to 240VAC at 50—60Hz which is desirable as a good reference ballast, voltage
and current should still be monitored for consistency throughout the test as per AS1680.3 1991.
Reported measurements are made only until the luminaire or light source has stabilized
photometrically. The measuring instruments are also stabilized before use by the following
methods.
Readings are checked (e.g. of an intensity) at regular intervals of every 5 min. Photometric
stabilization is deemed to have been achieved when the differences between successive regular
readings at 15 min intervals are less than 1 percent.
Before a check of stabilization is made, as apparent stabilization is reached, the voltage is

monitored closely during a measurement. At other times during stabilization, the supply voltage
should be held within 1 percent of the objective voltage (e.g., 230VAC) in Australia.
The ambient temperature is also monitored at regular intervals during stabilization. During the
later stages of stabilization, the ambient temperature of the light source particularly fluorescent
should be held as close as possible to the objective temperature.
6.3.3 Relative Method of Calibration with a Goniophotometer

The bare light source data will determine the Light Output Ratio (LOR), the ratio of the luminous
Flux output Φ of a luminaire L, as measured under specified practical conditions to the sum of the
total luminous flux output T of the bare light source, operating outside the luminaire under
reference conditions, as opposed to a Test Lamp over a standard lamp as per Eq. 6.21
LOR=ΦL x100 (6.24)

. ΦT
For general purposes, measurements do not need to be made in absolute units. This would require
test light sources of known output, derived from Eq. 6.21, as well as photocells calibrated in
absolute units.
For many purposes in photometry, calibrated results also are not needed. For example, an intensity
distribution may be in arbitrary units if only the shape of the distribution curve is needed. Also,
arbitrary units are suitable for the determination of ratios. Arbitrary units are however subject
41
Relative Method of Calibration with a Goniophotometer
to the usual requirements for linearity within any one range, and between ranges.
When calibration is needed, e.g., of intensity, luminance or illuminance, the standard method is the
‘relative method of calibration’. This method involves a measurement of the bare lamp under
reference conditions, as well as the measurement of the luminaire.
The latter is then expressed in terms of the former, and the units of measurement are SI units per
thousand total lumens. In effect, a lamp of 1000 lumen output is used, and an adjustment is made
by users of photometric information for the actual light output published for the light source. This
method of expressing results as a ratio allows for all photometric measurements from which they
are derived to be made in arbitrary units because, provided that the same measuring instrument is
used for measuring the output of the luminaire and of the bare lamp, the scale factor of the
instrument will cancel. Measuring errors also tend to cancel. For example, the luminaire intensity in
one direction (C, γ), in candelas per 1000 lamp lumens, can be determined as follows:
Luminaire I C, γ= Photometer reading C, γ x 1000 . (6.25)

(6.25)..…………………………….………………………………………………….…………………………….∑𝒏𝒙=𝟏 𝛷 x
where
𝛷x = luminous flux of lamp No. x, in arbitrary units, calculated from the photometer readings of the
bare lamp utilizing a suitable procedure such as Russell angles refer C. 6.2.9, zone factors refer Ch.
6.2.2 or, for direct calculation, by the following equation:
𝟐𝝅 𝝅
𝛷x= ∫𝒄=𝟎. ∫𝜸=𝟎. Bare lamp I C, γ x sin γ d γ d C (6.26)
NOTE: Although arbitrary, units for photometer reading C, γ and bare lamp I C, γ must be the same.
A measurement of LOR is similar to a measurement calibrated by the relative method, in that it

entails a comparison with the bare lamp. Measurements that involve calibration may either be
calibrated against the bare lamp or may be made in arbitrary units and calibrated by a
measurement of LOR made separately.7
The Goniophotometer is mounted onto a small bench and two tests are carried out a bare lamp
test and a luminaire test with the bare lamp within. In a real test for example an Osram Dulux D
18W/21-840 compact fluorescent “bare lamp” is measured, and then the same light source is
measured within a Masson For Light “CVM118” luminaire carefully clamped to the
goniophotometer.
A laser level is then used to align and point the light meter to the exact centre of the lamp and
luminaire on test. Readings at 2.5-degree steps are taken using the light meter in the C0 to C90 plane
in a darkened room at night, all shiny surfaces within the vicinity of the test were covered with
matt black cloth during the test.
7 Committee LG/1, Interior Lighting, approved in 1990 on behalf of the Council of Standards (2006) Australian Standard ®-
AS1680.3 -1991 Interior lighting Part 3: Measurement, calculation and presentation of photometric data, STANDARDS
AUSTRALIA, Homebush, NSW, STANDARDS ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA, Pg 37 APPENDIX B(1) & B(2) CALIBRATION OF
MEASUREMENTS (informative)
42
The peripherals listed are then used in the procedure to calibrate by using the ‘relative method of
calibration’. This method involves measurements of the bare lamp under reference conditions,
relative to measurements of the same test lamp within the luminaire on test.
Fig 6.21 A very simple goniophotometer constructed from a portable vice shown testing a D 18W/21-840
compact fluorescent, note the black cloth covering that ensures that the stray light is “trapped” and will not
interfere with the test.
Readings of intensity are taken in several well-spaced directions. It is standard practice to take
readings at intervals in vertical planes (or half-planes) which are themselves spaced at intervals in
azimuth. A trial run should be conducted with the luminaire or light source on test, to find the
location and rate of the maximum changes in intensity.
For luminaires not having a concentrating distribution, it is usually sufficient to take intensity
readings every 10o in elevation. For luminaires having a concentrating distribution reading shall be
taken at least every 5 o where zonal multipliers can then be used, refer to Chapter 6.2.2.
For luminaires that, from a trial run are found to exhibit rapid changes in luminous intensity, for
example where values between adjacent readings at the selected intervals are changing rapidly, it
may be necessary to introduce additional readings of a sufficient number both in azimuth and
elevation, to provide a good representation of the intensity distribution therefore a greater
number of readings may be required for luminaires which have a high degree of asymmetry about
the horizontal or vertical axis.
A measurement at 0° elevation (or at 180° if the luminaire is supported from below) shall be
included for each vertical plane, as a check that stabilization has been maintained.
43
Luminous Intensity250Cd/1000 Lamp Lumens

Comparison between a Commercial Test
200 and the Simple Goniophotometer Test
150 Masson for Light Cat # CVM118
100 Comercial Test 01-12-2007 10:34:28

test distance 3000mm
220VAC
50 25oC
65% humidity
0 Simple GionioTest15-03-2008
02:08:10 test distance1200mm
240 VAC
23oC
63% humidity
Commercial Gonio
Simple Gonio
1. 6.22 A very simple goniophotometer constructed from a portable vice, polar curve plot –blue, compared
to a commercially manufactured goniophotometer test with ISO – (International Organization for
Standardization) certification, green plot, to the same scale.
44
Fig 6.23 A simple goniophotometer constructed from a portable vice shown testing a Masson for Light Cat
No. # CVM118 “Casta Mini Round" 18W vertical compact fluorescent recessed Downlight, the polar curve is
shown above.
6.3.4 Evaluation of Total Luminous Flux
Fig 6.24 Goniophotometric method for total luminous flux measurement
45
Evaluation of Total Luminous Flux
A photometric bench can only be useful for a light source that has a significantly uniform
distribution if the total luminous flux is desired. There are quite a few methods that can determine
the total luminous flux of any source of light that is not uniform or non-isotropic that can be
achieved by measuring the values of luminous intensity ІѲ at even steps in Ѳ, then by multiplying
each factor before summation to determine the total luminous flux. A Gonio photometric test,
refer Fig 6.24 is used in several alignment planes of vertical and horizontal angles refer Fig 6.16,
that measure the intensity distribution of the light source.
Fig. 6.25 Calculation of zone angles, δѲ is the solid angle, the elementary band shaded partially blue is the
elementary zone, and zone factor calculations are a common method to determine the total luminous flux of a lamp.
The diagram shown in Fig 6.25 is a sphere that encloses a light source at the centre O. The solid
angle Ω is subtended at the centre of the sphere by the part of the sphere lying between two lines
of latitude suspending angles Ѳ1 and Ѳ2 as measured from the downward vertical plane.
The solid angle Ω is mathematically equal to the area divided by the square of the radius r.
Therefore an elementary zone band at an angle of Ѳ subtending an angle of δѲ, the solid angle is
equal to:-
δΩ= 2πr sin Ѳ x r δѲ

r2
δΩ = 2π sin Ѳ δѲ (6.27)
For the zone extending from Ѳ1 to Ѳ2
Ѳ2
Ω= 2π∫Ѳ1 .sin Ѳ δѲ
Ω = 2π (cos Ѳ1-cos Ѳ2) (6.28)
46
Flux within the zone Ѳ1 - Ѳ2 = Φ
The average Intensity in the zone, multiplied by the solid angle (zone factor –steradian)
where Φ =І Ω Eq. 5.00
Area of Elementary band = 2πr sin Ѳ x r δѲ
= 2π r2 sin Ѳ δѲ (6.29)
Illuminance EѲ of this Area from the inverse square law Eq.5.06, EѲ=ІѲ/r2
Therefore the total luminous flux Φ, incident on the Area,
δ Φ = ІѲ/r2 x 2π r2 sin Ѳ δѲ
δ Φ =2π ІѲ sin Ѳ δѲ (6.30)
Therefore the total luminous flux Φ from the light source O,

𝝅
Φ = 2π ∫𝒐 .ІѲ sin Ѳ δ (6.31)
which is a general expression, as ІѲ sin Ѳ cannot usually be integrated, many methods have been
adopted, such as 1/ Zonal factor Method, 2/ Graphical Integration, 3/ The Rousseau Diagram, 4/
The Kennelly Diagram, 5 / The Fluxolite Diagram, and 6/ Russell Angles (Direct Average). The most
common method in use today, considered the most accurate is the Zonal factor method. All
methods involve calculations of luminous flux Φ from intensity IѲ.
These Methods can be best described by the following examples.
47
6.3.5 Zonal Factor Method of Total Luminous Flux
This method makes use of values of ІѲ at even steps of Ѳ but multiplies each by a factor before
summation.
To find the flux in a particular zone, the zone factor is multiplied by the average intensity ІѲ in the
directions of the zone. For luminaires symmetrical at their vertical axis this can be found from the
average of intensities, ½(cos Ѳ1+cos Ѳ2), in elevation taken at 45 degrees in azimuth. For linear
luminaires such as those that contain fluorescent light sources, the interval is reduced to 30
degrees in azimuth. Once the flux from Ѳ =0o to 180o has been found the total lower and upper
hemispherical flux values can be obtained by summation.
𝟏𝟖𝟎
Φ = ∫𝒐 . 𝛴І Ѳ (6.32)
. 𝑛
Referring to Fig 6.26, ІѲ is considered to be
constant over a zone of angular width α, the
flux in the first zone from Eq. 6.30

𝛼
Φ1= 2π ІѲ1 ∫𝑜 .ІѲ sin Ѳ. δѲ
Φ1= 2π ІѲ1 (1- cos α) (6.33)
The fluxes in subsequent zones are;
Φ2= 2π ІѲ2 (cos α – cos2 α)
Φ3= 2π ІѲ2 (cos 2α – cos3 α)
.............................................
Φ𝑛= 2π ІѲ𝑛 (cos 𝑛 – ІѲ cos 𝑛α)

Fig. 6.26 Zodial Method of Computation
The ratio Φ𝑛/ІѲ is called the Zone Factor, its general value being:-
2π (cos – 1α – cos𝑛 α) (6.34)
The value of α is in practice generally 5o or 10o depending on the shape or distribution curve, such
as irregularities or sudden changes. They are calculated by attributing 𝑛 with the value 1, 2, 3...etc
Example. Calculate the eleventh factor for 5o zones, and the sixth factor for 10o zones.
With 5o zones, the mid-values are at 2.5o, 7.5o, etc., therefore the eleventh zone at 50 o to 55 o has a
mid-value of 52.5 o. From Eq. 6.34, 2π (cos – 1α – cos𝑛 α). The factor therefore is,
2π (cos50 o – cos55 o)
= 2π (0.6428 – 0.5736)=0.4349
48
Zonal Factor Method of Total Luminous Flux
With 10o zones, the mid-values are at 5o, 15o, etc., therefore the sixth zone is the mid-value at 55 o.
The factor is,
2π (cos50 o – cos60 o)
= 2π (0.6428 – 0.5000)=0.8972
5o Zones 10o Zones
Zonal
Ѳo,mid-value Zonal Factor Ѳo,mid-value Factor
2.5 and 177.5 0.0239 5 and 175 0.095

7.5 " 172.5 0.0715 15 " 165 0.284
12.5 " 167.5 0.1186 25 " 155 0.463
17.5 " 162.5 0.1648 35 " 145 0.628
22.5 " 157.5 0.2098 45 " 135 0.774
27.5 " 152.5 0.2531 55 " 125 0.897
32.5 " 147.5 0.2945 65 " 115 0.993
37.5 " 142.5 0.3337 75 " 105 1.058
42.5 " 137.5 0.3703 85 " 95 1.091
47.5 " 132.5 0.4041
52.5 " 127.5 0.4349
57.5 " 122.5 0.4623
62.5 " 117.5 0.4862
67.5 " 112.5 0.5064
72.5 " 107.5 0.5228
77.5 " 102.5 0.5352
82.5 " 97.5 0.5435
87.5 " 92.5 0.5476
Table 6.03 For convenience the tables of zone factors for 5o and 10o zones are reproduced above.
The Excel formula to create zone factors is,
=PI()*2*((COS(RADIANS(insert-column 𝑥 row #))-(COS(RADIANS(insert column 𝑥 row #))))) (6.35)
Where the inserted column and row coordinates are Ѳ angles between mid values in degrees refer to Fig.
6.27.
Note: - To convert from radians to degrees,

multiply radians by
When solving trigonometric expressions like sine, cosine

and tangent, it is important to realize that Excel uses
radians, not degrees to perform these calculations! If the
angle is in degrees you must first convert it to radians.
Fig 6.27 The screen shot above shows how to use Excel to There are three easy ways to do this:-
determine the zone factor.
1. Therefore, if the angle is in degrees, multiply degrees by PI/180° to convert it to radians. With Excel, this
conversion can be written PI( )/180. For example, to convert 45° to radians, the Excel expression would be 45*PI( )/180 which
equals 0.7854 radians.
2. Excel has a built-in function known as RADIANS(angle) where angle is the angle in degrees you wish to convert to radians. For
example, the Excel expression used to convert 270° to radians would be RADIANS(270) which equals 4.712389 radians
3. You can use the DEGREES(angle) function to convert radians into degrees. For example, DEGREES(PI( ) ) equals 180.
49
Zonal Factor Method of Total Luminous Flux
Example 1. Using a Swinging Arm Photometer refer to Fig 6.28, where d is equal to 1.372m and is
the distance from the photocell to luminaire, a 500W GES GLS Incandescent light source has a
luminous flux of 7700 lumens is tested within an ‘RLM’ shade.
180o
Example 1 vertical
. RLM reflector
. . Luminaire with a 500W
d=1.372m
GES, GLS, incandescent
with a luminous flux of
7700 lumens.
.
0o .
vertical
Pivot points
Photocell
Type 1 Goniophotometer
Fig. 6.28 Swinging Arm Photometer setup, Classified as a Type 1, fixed luminaire: travelling cell with no
mirror, Goniophotometer in Table F1, AS1680.3.
1. Calculate the luminous flux that the luminaire generates using the Zonal Factor Method
2. Calculate the Light Output Ratio (LOR) and the DLOR Downward Light Output Ratio.
3. Draw the Polar Curve
50
Measured Zonal Flux
Angle - Illuminance- Intensity Zonal (ІӨ x Solid
degreesӨ EӨ (Lux) -ІӨ (cd). ZONE constant angle) .
0 1475 2776.516
5 1443 2716.28 0. - 10 0.095 258.05
15 1413 2659.809 10. - 20 0.284 755.39
25 1319 2482.864 20. - 30 0.463 1149.57
35 1023 1925.679 30. - 40 0.628 1209.33
45 529 995.7811 40. - 50 0.774 770.73
55 294 553.4209 50. - 60 0.897 496.42
65 176 331.2996 60. - 70 0.993 328.98
75 52 97.88397 70. - 80 1.058 103.56
85 0 0 80. - 90 1.091 0.00
SUM(Lumens) 5072.03
Angle –
degrees Ө 0o 5o 15o 25o 35o 45o 55o 65o 75o 85o
Measured
Illuminance-
EӨ (Lux) 1475 1443 1413 1319 1023 529 294 176 52 0
Calculated
Intensity-ІӨ
(cd)(І=E*d2) 2776.52 2716.28 2659.81 2482.86 1925.68 995.78 553.42 331.30 97.88 0.00
Zonal Factor Method of Total Luminous Flux, Example 1
Tabulation 6.04 shows the use of zone factors calculated in Table 6.03 in the above Tabulation to calculate
the zonal flux per solid angle.
The photometric Test measured Illuminance ІӨ, per Ө angle; we can therefore use the zone factors
calculated in Table 6.03 in the above Tabulation 6.04 to calculate the zonal flux per solid angle.
Since there was no measurable luminous intensity above 85 degrees, only the zone factors for the
Tabulation 6.03-Measured result tabulation of the RLM shade, note: -There was no
measurable luminous intensity above 85 degrees.
recorded angles need to be calculated as tabulated above.
1/ Therefore the total luminous flux output of the luminaire calculated is 5072 Lumens.
2/ The Light Output Ratio (LOR) in this case is considered the Downward Light Output Ratio (DLOR)
for the reasons stated above, from Equation 6.24,
51
LOR= ΦL x100
. ΦT
= 5072.03 x100
. 7700.00
∴ DLOR=66%
Therefore the Total Flux <90o=5072 lumens where 66% of the luminous flux output is less then 90o
3/ Prior to advanced computer programs, Polar Distribution or Luminous Intensity Distribution

Curves were plotted by hand on polar curve or polar graph paper. Today there are many more
ways available using computer programs; the left side polar curve refer Fig 6.29 was plotted in
Microsoft Excel/ Word 2007, using chart, and selecting radar. The one on the right was created
from the calculated Tabulation 6.04, from which an IES File was created with Lumdat 2.10, and a
polar curve generated with DIALux 4.7, refer Chapter 10.
52
Luminous Intensity Distribution Curve

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000 Swinging Arm

Photometer
500
500W GES
0 19-03-1990
test distance :-1.372m
cd / lm
C0 - C180
Fig 6.29 Luminous Intensity Distribution Curve* of 500W GES GLS Incandescent light source as tested within an RLM
shade. The left Polar Curve was plotted, in Microsoft Excel and Word 2007, using chart and selecting radar. The one on
the right was created from calculated Tabulation 6.04, an IES File was created with Lumdat 2.10, and a polar curve
generated with DIALux 4.7.
Fig 6.30 The reflector photometrically tested above is commonly referred to as a “RLM” shade which stands for Reflector Luminaire
Manufacturer. A typical RLM shade includes a lamp holder channel and a reflective underside which direct light downward without the
addition of any diffuser. These retro style light fixtures originated for industrial lighting over 100 years ago, styles ranged from classic to
contemporary, from functional to decorative. Shades were usually constructed of spun or cast aluminium or cold-rolled steel, though some
may feature brass or copper construction. Shade diameters varied from 180mm to 700mm or more, a reflector of this type was reconditioned
for the Little Creatures Restaurant in Fitzroy, Melbourne 2008, powder coated Brunswick green, refer images right, lighting design and BCA
calculations by the author, a similar concept was previously used in Laguna Supermarket Melb. 2005, this time using Metal Halide Hi-Bays with
the back of the reflector powder coated red, designed by the author, supplied by Masson For Light. A lighting designer’s expertise is a pledge
of expertise to the art of aesthetic appeal, good sensible illumination within the framework and guidance of the Australian standards and the
relevant building codes.
53
Example 2. Use the simple goniophotometer described in Ch. 6.2.4 to test and calculate the total
luminous flux by use of the ‘relative method of calibration’ described in Ch. 6.2.6 which involves
measurements of the bare lamp under reference conditions, relative to measurements of the
same test lamp within the Masson for Light Cat no. CM118IP65EL 18W "Casta Mini IP65"
Horizontal compact fluorescent recessed downlight luminaire.
1. Calculate the luminous flux that the luminaire generates using the Zonal Factor Method
2. Calculate the Light Output Ratio (LOR) and the DLOR Downward Light Output Ratio.
3. Draw the Polar Curve.
Luminaire can be turned on side to measure axial plane
Pivot points
Photocell
Fig. 6.31 Centre, Simple Goniophotometer is classified as a Type 9, rotating luminaire, the fixed cell with no
mirror, Goniophotometer in Table F1, AS1680.3. Left and Right images, CM118IP65EL 18W "Casta Mini IP65"
Horizontal compact fluorescent recessed downlight luminaire on a test.
54
Fig 6.32 A very simple goniophotometer constructed from a portable vice shown testing a Masson for Light
Cat No.# CM118IP65EL 18W "Casta Mini IP65" Horizontal compact fluorescent recessed Downlight, note the
black cloth covering that ensures that the stray light is “trapped” and will not interfere with the test.
The samples, one-off Osram Dulux D 18W/21-840 compact fluorescent and one-off Masson for
Light CM118IP65ELD were tested at a distance of 3.0m @ 25 degrees Celsius ambient, and a
relative humidity of 65 %
1/ An Osram Dulux D 18W/21-840 ‘bare lamp’ is rigged to the simple goniophotometer, the
illuminance at 3.0 meters is measured at selected intervals of 2.5 degrees per measure as the “simple
Goniophotometer “rotates in the 0o to 180o, or C0-C180 vertical planes of coordinates refer
Tabulation 6.05. This bare lamp is then removed and placed within the Masson for Light
CM118IP65ELD, and the test process is repeated, refer to Tabulation 6.06. The Inverse-square law
formula Eq. 5.06 is then used to calculate the Intensity per measured angle 𝜽 within the tabulations.
Where E= І
d2
Therefore І=Ed2 where d=3.0 m
Lumens per candelas are expressed in terms of units of measurement in SI units per thousand total lumens as
recommended by AS1680.3 -1991, refer to chapter 6.3.2. In effect, a light source of 1000 lumen output is
used, and an adjustment is made by users of photometric information for the actual light output published
for the light source, particularly for users of photometric files such as IES or Lumdat files that computer
lighting programs utilise. Also, this method of expressing results as a ratio allows for all photometric
measurements from which they are derived to be made in arbitrary units because, provided that the same
measuring instrument is used for measuring the output of the luminaire and of the bare lamp, the scale
factor of the instrument will cancel. Measuring errors also tend to cancel.
55
Tabulation 6.05 shows the use of zone factors calculated in Table 6.03 in the above Tabulation to calculate the
zonal flux per solid angle for testing a D 18W/21-840 compact fluorescent “bare lamp”.
56
Tabulation 6.06 shows the use of zone factors calculated in Table 6.03 in the above Tabulation to calculate the
zonal flux per solid angle for testing Masson for Light Cat no. CM118IP65EL 18W "Casta Mini IP65" Horizontal
compact fluorescent recessed downlight luminaire.
57
Luminous Intensity 200 Cd/1000 Lamp Lumens
Luminous Intensity Distribution Curve

150
100 Masson for Light Cat # CM118IP65EL
50 Simple Gonio. Test 15-03-2008 02:08:10

test distance1200mm
240 VAC
0 25oC
65% humidity
cd/Klm
C0-C180
Fig 6.33 Luminous Intensity Distribution Curve* of Osram Dulux D 18W/21-840 as tested within a Masson For
Light CM118IP65EL, expressed in terms of units of measurement in SI units per thousand total lumens as
recommended by AS1680.3 -1991.
Results are then carefully analysed and using the ‘relative method of calibration’ a photometric file
is created with Lumdat a utility program in an IES format. Photometric Pro 1.2.7 a software package
was used for reporting and generating luminaire performance from the photometric files
58
Fig 6.34 Luminous Report Summary for the Masson For Light CM118IP65EL created from an IES file by Protometrics
Pro report program.
59
Zonal Factor Method of Total Luminous Flux, Example
2
1/ Therefore the total luminous output of the luminaire is calculated at 562.53 Lumens.
2/ The Light Output Ratio (LOR) in this case is considered the Downward Light Output Ratio (DLOR) as
there was no measurable luminous intensity above 90 degrees. From Eq. 6.24
LOR= ΦL x100
. ΦT
= 562.53 x100
. 1191.8
∴ LOR=47.2%
The test data is stored electronically as File “CM118 CASTA MINI. JI Photo TEST.IES “and identified
as Test No. JI060808 therein.
The photometric working sheets are stored electronically as “CM118IP65EL MINI CASTA MASSON
PHOTOMETRIC TEST # 170308 30-03-2008.doc”, “CM118IP65EL Photometric report. PDF”,
“CM118IP65EL MINI CASTA MASSON PHOTOMETRIC TEST # 170308 30-03-2008.doc PDF “and
“Mincastas results 20-03-2008G.xls”
Report of Test
Test Distance: 3.0 meters
Test Temperature: 25 degrees Celsius
Relative Humidity 65%
Significance: The testing laboratory had no control over the selection of samples that were .
. tested and was tested as supplied. All testing is performed on the understanding
. that the significance of the report is limited to the extent that the test sample is .
. representative of production units.
Special Notes: The intensity values contained in this report are based on the ‘relative method of .
. calibration’ relative to a Radiant flux of 1000.0 lumens. When using these values
. to calculate the appropriate Ballast factor the Manufacturer’s rated radiant flux .
. must be considered.
Prorating the radiant flux output for use of other lamp or ballast combinations .
. then the stated items tested may produce erroneous results.
The term “LOR” is used in this report to denote the “Light output Ratio” as . .
. defined in Australian standard AS1680, Part 3, 1991 section 1.3.9
Deviations Luminaire additions to or exclusions from the test methods specified Australian .
. Standard AS1680, Part3, 1991 Interior Lighting Measurement & Calculation. The
. Goniophotometer used in the Simple Goniophotometer Test may have been
. slightly off-centre to the photometric centre. It is believed that since the method .
. of expressing results as a ratio allows for the photometric measurements from . .
. which they are derived to be made in arbitrary units, measuring the output of the .
luminaire and of the bare lamp, the scale factor of the instrument as well as . .
measuring errors will tend to cancel.
. . .
60
Uncertainties: - The uncertainties for the simple Goniophotometer tests are: -
The percentage difference between theoretical and actual values of intensity is based on the inverse square
law.
r=xD (Eq 6.02)
Where r is the distance between a photometer and a circular light source and D is the aperture diameter of
the light source, and x is the constant that makes both sides of the equation equal.
For the simple Goniophotometer tests r=3.0m and D=0.076m

Therefore 3.0=x0.076
x=39.5
x>5
Therefore the percentage difference between theoretical and actual

values of illuminance where r>5xD is <+ 0.6%
Temperature ±1
degree Celsius
Light Output Ratio ± 5%
Luminous Intensity ± 5%
Angular displacement ±1.0
degrees
% difference b/w actual & theoretical (E) ±0.6%
Random Errors ±5%
Voltage ±1%
As estimated at the 99% confidence limit.
Tested following the applicable sections of CIE Publication Number 24

and the Australian Standard As1680, Part 3, 1991
Fig 6.35 High-Speed Moving

Mirror Swing-Arm
Goniophotometer Model # 6440
from Lighting Sciences Inc. is
classified as a Type 9, rotating
luminaire, a fixed cell with
mirror, Total vertical travel of
lamp/luminaire is approximately
1.8m which requires the
following minimum room
dimensions to perform a test, a
ceiling height of 5.4m, a room
width of 5.4m and room length
of 8m.
61
.
Luminaire Vertical Axis
Mirror Assembly Axis
SPECIFICATIONS Vertical Adjustment

Type of Luminaire:-Fluorescent Troffer
Luminous Opening: - 0.52x0.23m Photocell
Lamp Type: - 2x20W Thorn Cool White Fluorescent Lamps
Nominal Flux of Bare Lamps: - 2x800 Lumens→1600 Lumens Gantry
Mirror Reflectance ( 𝝆):-0.85
Distance Between Luminaire & Photocell (d):- d1 + d2=3.06m
. Photocell Sensitivity
Tungsten Lamp:-0.121 𝝁A/lux Luminaire
Fluorescent or Daylight :-0.121 𝝁A/lux d1 d2
Fluorescent white* :-0.122 𝝁A/lux
Sodium Vapour :-0.112 𝝁A/lux
Mercury Vapour :-0.115 𝝁A/lux To Power Supply
*Test Lamp
Galvanometer Sensitivity
0.009412𝝁A/division Illuminated Dial
Galvanometer d1 + d2=3.06m
Mirror 𝝆=0.85
Fig. 6.36 Swinging arm photometer setup, top left, Fluorescent Troffer recessed luminaire and experiment specifications.
Example 3. Use a swinging arm photometer and a galvanometer to test a twin fluorescent troffer
with two 20-watt cool white fluorescent lamps with and without a diffuser.
1. Take galvanometer readings C0, C90, C45 and C135 without the diffuser.
2. Take galvanometer readings C0, C90, C45 and C135 with the diffuser.
3. Draw the Polar Curves, viz: with and without the diffuser.
4. Calculate the Zonal flux each 10o with and without the diffuser, hence DLOR, ULOR and LOR
5. Calculate the efficiency of the diffuser.
6. Calculate L55o, L65o, L75o, L75o, and L85o in C0 and C90 plane (a) without diffuser (b) with diffuser.
Pivot point
Photocell
Mirror
Fig. 6.37 Swinging arm Goniophotometer is classified as a Type 9, rotating luminaire, fixed cell with mirror,
Goniophotometer in Table F1, AS1680.3.
62
C270 C225 C180

180o
C135
225o 135o
270o 90o
C315
315o 45o
C0 C45 C90
360o= 0o C
Fig. 6.38 Measurement Angles C of azimuth. Fig. 6.39 The angle C represents planes in azimuth and 𝜸
represents planes in elevation. The axis of the system passes
through the centre of the luminaire. 𝜸 angles are measured
from nadir.
For a point source from the law of inverse squares Eq
5.06
E =І
. d2
C45 C90
where E is expressed in lux, І in candela and d in meters.
І𝜽
∴ І 𝜽 = E d2
𝜸
. C135 C0
∴ І𝜽 = E (d1+ d2 )2 (6.36)
. 𝝆
Fig. 6.40 The Polar curve Plot configuration key, where angle
C represents planes in azimuth and 𝜸 represents planes in
E=galv. Reading (div) x 𝝁A X lux (6.37) elevation. The axis of the system passes through the centre
. div. 𝝁A of the luminaire. 𝜸 angles are measured from nadir.
∴ І𝜽 = (d1+d2)2 X galv. Sensitivity x (galv. Div.) Candela (6.38)

. 𝝆 x photocell sensitivity
63
Substituting the values into Eq. 6.38 where: -
distance between luminaire and photocell d1+d2 =3.06m,
Galvanometer sensitivity =0.009412ua/division
Photometer mirror reflectance p=0.85
Photocell sensitivity for a fluorescent white lamp =0.122ua/lux
∴ І𝜽 = (3.06)2 X 0.009412 x (galv. Div.) Candela .

. 0.85 x 0.122
∴ І𝜽 = 0.85 x (galv. Div.) Candela
Therefore for both luminaires open (without diffuser) and with diffuser, we will substitute the
galvanometer readings in each division to find the luminous Intensity І:-
Readings of intensity are taken in several well-spaced directions at intervals in vertical planes (or
half-planes) which are spaced at intervals in azimuth; a trial run was conducted with the luminaire,
to find the location and rate of the maximum changes in intensity between adjacent readings at the
selected intervals, it was therefore necessary to introduce additional readings of a sufficient
number both in azimuth and elevation, to provide a good representation of the intensity
distribution, therefore, a greater number of readings were required than per the previous
luminaire examples which had a higher degree of symmetry about the horizontal and vertical axis,
therefore the readings were taken at every 5 o and in 4 planes of azimuth, where zonal multipliers
could then be used, the results are tabulated below, Tabulation 6.07.
1. Galvanometer readings C0, C90, C45 and C135 of Troffer without the diffuser.
Description of Luminaire: - Twin Fluorescent Troffer-OPEN- (NO DIFFUSER), Luminous opening (0.59mx0.23m) Tested by:- John Iwaszko
Lamps:- 2x 20W 600x38mm thorn Rapid start (MCFE) cool white fluorescent tubes. Date: - 6-8-1990
Tabulation 6.07 Galvanometer readings in each division determine the luminous Intensity І at every 5 o and in 4
planes of azimuth for the troffer luminaire open (without diffuser).
64
Fig 6.41 The excel formula to create zone factors is, =((3.06*3.06)*0.009412*insert-column 𝑥 row #* insert
column 𝑥 row #)/(0.85*0.122) (6.39)
for the above example column D, row 5 =((3.06*3.06)*0.009412*B5*C5)/(0.85*0.122)
3a. The Polar Curves of Troffer open without the diffuser.
_C _C
45 0
_C _C
135 90
Fig 6.42 Luminous Intensity Distribution Curve Twin Fluorescent Troffer-OPEN- (NO DIFFUSER), Lamps: - 2x 20W
600x38mm Thorn Rapid start (MCFE) cool white, fluorescent tubes. The left Polar Curve and the right 3D
distribution were created from the calculated Tabulation 6.07, an IES File was created with Lumdat 2.10, and a polar
curve was generated with AGI Photometric Toolbox PE.
65
4a. Calculation of Zonal flux each 10o without the diffuser, hence LOR, DLOR and VLOR
Tabulation 6.08 Computation of Luminous Flux from Luminous Intensity values (І ) from Tabulation 6.07. * 1st
Reading averaged is the sum of І0 (І0-180 + І 90-270+І 45-225+ І135-315)+ І5 (І0-180 + І 90-270+І 45-225+ І135-315) /8 for the troffer
luminaire open (without diffuser).
The Luminaire with no diffuser had two 20-Watt Cool White Florescent light sources, each having
an output of 800 lm therefore a total of 1600 lumens.
The Downward Light Output Ratio (DLOR) is from 0o to 90o
DLOR= ΦD
. ΦT (6.40)
Where ΦD is the Downward Flux from 0o to 90o and ΦT is the Total Flux of the bare light sources.
Therefore:-
= (981.7-0.348)
. (800)* (2)
∴ DLOR=0.61 or 61 % of the Total Luminous Flux.
66
The Upward Light Output Ratio (ULOR) is from 90o to 180o
ULOR= ΦU
. ΦT (6.41)
Where ΦU is the Upward Flux from 90o to 180o and ΦT is the Total Flux of the bare light sources.
Therefore:-
= 0.348
. (800)*(2)
∴ DLOR=2.2X 10-4 or 0.02 % of the Total Luminous Flux
The Light Output Ratio (LOR) from Eq. 6.24
LOR= ΦL x100
. ΦT
= 981.7 x100
. 1600
∴ LOR=61.4%
5a. The efficiency of the open Luminaire is 61% of the Total Flux generated and also 61% in the
downward direction.
6a. Calculations of L55o, L65o, L75o, L75o, L85o in C0 and C90 plane without diffuser.
From Equation 5.04 L = І/A, therefore with an element of an area of an extended source the luminaire
intensity 𝛿І of the luminaire viewed in a direction making an angle 𝛿 with the perpendicular to the
surface of illuminance is therefore given by:-
L = І𝛿 . (6.42)
. . Acos𝛿
C45 C90
І𝛿
C135 𝛿 Fig 6.43 An element of an area of an extended source the luminaire .

C0
. intensity 𝛿І of the luminaire viewed in a direction making an angle 𝛿 with .
. . the perpendicular to the surface of illuminance.
67
L𝛿 = І𝛿 . Luminance
Angle 𝛿 in Intensity I cd Acos𝛿
C90 Plane in C90 Plane . where the opening of luminaire =0.59x0.23m
cd/m2
55 204.0 L55=204.0/(0.59X0.23) Cos55 2621.0
65 178.5 L65=178.5.0/(0.59X0.23) Cos65 3112.5
75 116.0 L75=116.0/(0.59X0.23) Cos75 3302.8
85 7.6 L85=7.6/(0.59X0.23) Cos85 642.6
Tabulation 6.09 Computation of Luminance of Angles of Luminaire without Diffuser in the C90 Plane from Luminous
Intensity values (І ) from Tabulation 6.07.
cd/m2
55 161.5 L55=204.0/(0.59X0.23) Cos55 2074.9
65 118.6 L65=178.5.0/(0.59X0.23) Cos65 2068.0
75 33.1 L75=116.0/(0.59X0.23) Cos75 942.4
85 11.9 L85=7.6/(0.59X0.23) Cos85 1006.2
Tabulation 6.10 Computation of Luminance of Angles of Luminaire without Diffuser in the C0 Plane from Luminous
Fig 6.44 The Excel formula to create zone factors is, =( insert-column 𝑥 row
#)/((0.59*0.23)*(COS(RADIANS(insert-column 𝑥 row #)))) (6.43)
for the above example column R, row 22 =(P22)/((0.59*0.23)*(COS(RADIANS(O22))))
68
2. Galvanometer readings C0, C90, C45 and C135 with the diffuser.
Description of Luminaire: - Twin Fluorescent Troffer- with DIFFUSER, Luminous opening (0.59mx0.23m) Tested by:- John Iwaszko
Lamps:- 2x 20W 600x38mm thorn Rapid start (MCFE) cool white fluorescent tubes. Date: - 6-8-1990
Tabulation 6.11 Galvanometer readings in each division determine the luminous Intensity І at every 5 o and in 4
planes of azimuth for the troffer luminaire with the diffuser.
3b. The Polar Curves of Troffer with the diffuser.
_C _C
45 0
_C _C
135 90
Fig 6.45 Luminous Intensity Distribution Curve Twin Fluorescent Troffer with DIFFUSER, Lamps: - 2x 20W 600x38mm
Thorn Rapid start (MCFE) cool white, fluorescent tubes. The left Polar Curve and the right 3D distribution were
created from the calculated Tabulation 6.11, an IES File was created with Lumdat 2.10, and a polar curve was
generated with AGI Photometric Toolbox PE.
69
4b. The Zonal flux of each 10o of Troffer with the diffuser, hence LOR, DLOR and VLOR
Tabulation 6.12 Computation of Luminous Flux from Luminous Intensity values (І ) from Tabulation 6.11. * 1st
Reading averaged is the sum of І0 (І0-180 + І 90-270+І 45-225+ І135-315)+ І5 (І0-180 + І 90-270+І 45-225+ І135-315) /8 for the troffer
luminaire with diffuser.
The Luminaire with no diffuser had two 20 Watt Cool White Florescent light sources, each having
an output of 800 lm, therefore, a total of 1600 lumens.
The Downward Light Output Ratio (DLOR) is from 0o to 90o from Eq 6.40.
DLOR= ΦD .
. ΦT
Where ΦD is the Downward Flux from 0o to 90o and ΦT is the Total Flux of the bare light sources.
Therefore:-
= (668.33-0.46)
. (800)*(2)
∴ DLOR=0.42 or 42 % of the Total Luminous Flux.
70
The Upward Light Output Ratio (ULOR) which is from 90o to 180o from Eq 6.41
ULOR= ΦU
. ΦT
Where ΦU is the Upward Flux from 90o to 180o and ΦT is the Total Flux of the bare light sources.
Therefore: -
= 0.46 .
. (800)*(2)
∴ DLOR=2.9X 10-4 or 0.03 % of the Total Luminous Flux
The Light Output Ratio (LOR) from Eq. 6.24
LOR= ΦL x100
. ΦT
= 668.33 x100
. 1600
∴ LOR=41.8%
5b. The efficiency of the open Luminaire is 42% of the Total Flux generated and also 42% in the
downward direction.
6b. Calculations of L55o, L65o, L75o, L75o, L85o in C0 and C90 plane of Troffer with diffuser.
cd/m2
55 107.1 L55=204.0/(0.59X0.23) Cos55 1375.8
65 45.9 L65=178.5.0/(0.59X0.23) Cos65 800.2
75 26.8 L75=116.0/(0.59X0.23) Cos75 762.2
85 10.2 L85=7.6/(0.59X0.23) Cos85 862.3
Tabulation 6.13 Computation of Luminance of Angles of Luminaire with Diffuser in the C90 Plane from Luminous
71
C90 Plane in C90 Plane . where opening of luminaire =0.59x0.23m
cd/m2
55 89.2 L55=204.0/(0.59X0.23) Cos55 1146.5
65 28.9 L65=178.5.0/(0.59X0.23) Cos65 503.8
75 18.7 L75=116.0/(0.59X0.23) Cos75 532.3
85 4.2 L85=7.6/(0.59X0.23) Cos85 359.3
Tabulation 6.14 Computation of Luminance of Angles of Luminaire with Diffuser in the C0 Plane from Luminous
In Photometry Lambert's cosine law is the radiant intensity observed from a "Lambertian" surface which is directly
proportional to the cosine of the angle θ between the observer's line of sight and the surface normal. The law is also
known as the cosine emission law or Lambert's emission law, named after Johann Heinrich Lambert, from his
published work Photometria, in 1760.
An important consequence of Lambert's cosine law is that when such a surface is viewed by the human eye from any
angle, it, therefore, has the same luminance (apparent brightness), even though the emitted radiance from a given
area element is reduced by the cosine of the emission angle, the size of the observed area increases by a
corresponding amount so that although the area element appears the same, in reality, it has increased by the cosine
of the angle and therefore its radiance is the same. The Sun is therefore almost a perfect Lambertian radiator, and as
a result, the luminance of the Sun is almost the same everywhere. A black body is also considered a perfect
Lambertian radiator.
For a Uniform perfect Lambertian radiator І= І 𝜽 cos𝛿
Eq 6.42 ∴ L𝛿 = І . . .
.b Acos𝛿 .
∴ L𝛿 = І 𝜽 cos . .
. Acos𝛿
∴ L𝛿 = І 𝜽 . Eq. 5.04 direction is equal.
Constant, the luminance in every direction is equal.
72
. A
C45 C45 C90

C90
І𝛿 І𝛿
C135 𝛿 C0 C135 𝛿 C0
. =
Fig 6.46 NON-UNIFORM DIFFUSER, Clark &Mackinney’s Tests Of Various Globes and a PERFECT UNIFORM DIFFUSER
73
6.3.6 Graphical Integration of Total Luminous Flux

Graphical Integration is the process of using a set of approximate values from a function to
calculate its integral to comparable accuracy. This can be applied to Intensity ІѲ values at various
angles of Ѳ of a Polar curve. There are no hard or fast rules and the following selection has been
developed and used on occasion by the author and is best illustrated by the following examples:-
Example 1 Calculate the output from the light source of the example shown in Fig 6.08
𝛼
Φ= 2π I Ѳ ∫𝑜 . sin Ѳ δѲ from Eq. 6.31
= 2π IѲ (1-cosα) refer Eq 6.33
The incandescent light source is a relatively isotropic point source with the exception that the base
blocks a 30° solid angle. The intensity calculated is 110cd
Since the range of the function is π
330o /2=165
=2 π x 110 (1-cos 165) =1360 lumens
Example 2 A customer desires a luminaire that can be mounted up to a height of 6 m and achieve
a uniform illuminance of 3 lux over a radius of 20m, and then cut off.
6m IѲ max
20m
3 Lux
.Fig 6.47 The customer's envisioned lighting scenario, the above 3-D diagram was rendered using DIALux 4.7,
and an IES File was created with Lumdat 2.10 from the tabulation below, refer to Chapter 10.
74
Graphical Integration of Total Luminous Flux
1/Plot the desired luminaires Polar Curve. 2/Calculate the total luminous flux that will achieve
the required illuminance. 3/Find a suitable luminaire/light source to do the job.
1/ Plot the Polar Curve
EH= IѲ cos3 / H2 Eq. 9.03 Fig 6.48 Ѳ IѲ max

H=6m
IѲ = H2 /cos3Ѳ
=62x 3/cos3Ѳ 20m
3 Lux
=108/cos3Ѳ
Since the cut-off is at a radius of 20m, the maximum value of Ѳ is given by
Ѳmax=tan-120/6=73o (to the nearest whole degree)
Өo 0o 10o 20o 30o 40o 50o 60o 70o 73o
cosӨ 1.0 0.9848 0.9397 0.8660 0.7660 0.6428 0.5000 0.3420 0.2924
cos3Ө 1.0 0.9551 0.8298 0.6495 0.4520 0.2656 0.1250 0.0400 0.0250
108/cos3Ө 108 113.1 130.2 166.3 238.9 406.6 864 2700 4320
Tabulation 6.15 The above values are plotted as a polar curve below
Cut-off 73o
75
Fig 6.49 The above Polar curve was created from the
calculated tabulation 6.15, an IES File was created with
Lumdat 2.10, using DIALux 4.7, refer to Chapter 10.
Fig 6.50 The Polar curve top right shows a published

polar curve and cross-section, lower right of a Mazdalux
“Rural Open” Luminaire designed for 100/200W gas-
filled incandescent lamps from a very old 1960’s
catalogue, that appears perfect for the job.
76
2/The total luminous flux Φ that will achieve the required illuminance.
𝜋
Φ= 2π ∫𝑜 .IѲ sin Ѳ. δѲ Eq. 6.31
Since the cut-off Ѳmax, the general expression becomes:-
Ѳ
Φ= 2π ∫𝑜 .max IѲ sin Ѳ. δѲ
Ѳ
= 2x108xπ ∫𝑜 .max sin Ѳ. δѲ /cos3Ѳ
=108 π [1/ cos2Ѳ]oѲmax
=108 π [1/ cos273o-1]
=3629 lumens
3/Therefore we would require a light source that achieves at least 3629 lumens or more
depending on the Light Output Ratio (LOR) which describes the ratio of the luminous flux emitted
by the luminaire to the lumens of the light source, refer to Eq. 6.24
A luminaire is sourced which has a similar distribution. It is of course impossible to obtain a

theoretical distribution such as calculated above in a practical form of a luminaire, but a close
match is achievable, the exaggerated side spread can be achieved with a refractor lens. The
essential feature is the prismatic refractor dome by which a high portion of the high-angle light is
refracted into a slightly downward direction.
For uniform illumination over an area, there would of course be no lines of equal illuminance!
Refer to Fig 6.50 of a true luminaire and actual polar distribution that could do the job, because this
luminaire is very old the author found another luminaire manufactured by Famco/Rham a company
he once worked for.
Fig 6.51 The left Polar curve shows the distribution from a Famco “Broadlight” Luminaire shown right with an
enclosed injection moulded reflector/refractor controlled wide beam luminaire designed for 70 to 100W
Metal Halide and 80W Mercury Vapour light sources that also appears adequate for the job.
77
Several light sources could be used that would have to be in a compact preferably pear or ovoid in
shape and would have to be adequate for the selected luminaire or thermally tested to be suitable.
Our calculations suggest a light source in the order of 3630 lumens therefore for the “Mazdalux”
any of the flowing light sources could be suitable:-200W ES GLS (3040 lm), Halogen 230W ES
“Halolux Ceram” (4350 lm), Compact fluorescent 42W Dulux T/E (3200 lm), Mercury Vapour 80W
MBF (3850 lm), Metal Halide 35W CDM-TC or HQI-T (3300lm) or High-Pressure Sodium 50W SON
(3500 lm), as for the Famco “Broadlight” only the compact fluro, Mercury Vapour, Metal Halide and
Sodium lamps will be suitable as it is a fully enclosed luminaire, an incandescent or Halogen light
sources will generate too much heat. Refer to Appendix 1 Lamp Data
Let’s compare the performance with “Isoline” or “Isolux” diagrams generated by DIAlux 4.7.
1 2 3
Fig 6.52 From left to right respectively, all illuminances shown were calculated at a height of 6m. 1/Calculated
ideal distribution of the desired luminaire. 2/The Mazdalux “Rural Open” luminaire” with a 200W gas-filled
incandescent light source and 3/The Famco “Broadlight” with a 35W Metal Halide light source.
1/Ideal distribution of the desired luminaire
2/The Mazdalux “Rural Open” luminaire” with a 200W gas-filled incandescent light source.
3/The Famco “Broadlight” with a 35W Metal Halide light source.
Tabulation 6.16 Illuminance averages and Uniformity performance.
78
Fig 6.53 The Mazdalux “Rural Open” luminaire” with a 200W gas-filled incandescent light source.
Fig 6.54 The Famco “Broadlight” with a 35W Metal Halide light source.
The Famco “Broadlight” appears to be the better choice with slightly better illuminance,
uniformity, and desired cut-off performance. Also, a wise choice from an energy savings point of
view! The example illustrates one role of the Illuminating engineer, to examine the requirement,
find, create or modify an existing luminaire that is suitable for the job.
79
Fig 6.55 The Glen Shopping Centre
Car park, Victoria, illuminated with
the Famco “Broadlight” with a 100W
Metal Halide light source, lighting
design by the author, the luminaire
was selected because of it broad
photometric distribution, and high
efficacy white light source.
80
6.3.7 The Rousseau Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux
The Rousseau Diagram is a graphical method used to determine the zonal and total luminous flux
of a luminaire or light source.* A geometric construction is created from a polar curve diagram
which gives the effective luminous intensity of the luminaire/light source in various directions. It is
derived in a similar way to the zonal factor method. Refer to 6.2.2 Zonal Factor Method of Total
Luminous Flux.
O r=1 Y
=
Ѳ
IѲ
Ѳ
r=1
=
sin Ѳ δy δy
IѲ
Ѳ
δѲ
0o
Y’
Fig. 6.56 The Basis of Rousseau Construction. δ Φ =2π X shaded rectangle Eq 6.25.
Fig 6.56 shows a portion of Fig 6.25, the radius of the sphere r is isotropic. The arc of the
elementary zone, namely r δѲ is numerically equal to δѲ projected to the right so that axis YY’ is
made equal to the sphere of r radius to the left, which are values of ІѲ. If we erect a right-angled
triangle on the hypotenuse whose perpendicular side is denoted by δy, from similar triangles
we obtain,
δy = sin Ѳ
δѲ 1
∴ δy = sin Ѳ δѲ (6.44)
The flux incident on the zone is, therefore,
δ Φ =2π ІѲ sin Ѳ δѲ Eq. 6.30
∴ δ Φ =2π ІѲ δѲ (6.45)
*Since the advent of electronic calculators and computers, this method and others that follow are considered by some to
be antiquated, but mentioned here as the author believes they are still invaluable to understand in the least. AS1680.3-
1991 currently states, “utilizing a suitable procedure such as Russell angle,” refer Ch 6.2.9 and as such have been useful
to the author as quick methods of rule of thumb particularly if working with non-electronic media, such as published
printed Polar curves.
81
The Rousseau Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux
Consider the Polar curve shown on the left of Fig 6.57 for a typical incandescent light source with O
denoted as the centre of the light source. The polar curve shown is enclosed by a semicircle of
radius (r), OA = OB. Radius OA=r and from the tips of the radial segments, horizontal lines are
extended to cut a vertical line A’O’B’ to scale depending on the length of the projected radii to the
right so that A’O’B’ corresponds to AOB and the distances A’P, O’Q’, XR’, etc. are made equal to OP,
OQ, OR, etc which are values of IѲ. A small sector OR of the polar curve subtends δѲ at O, when
projected as shown on the Rousseau diagram, gives an intercept XY on AO’B’. The area of the
element R’XY is
ІѲ r sin Ѳ δѲ
the total area of Figure P’Q’S’B’A’ is

𝜋
Area ∫𝑜 . ІѲ sin Ѳ δѲ
However, the total flux from an axially-symmetrical luminaire using equation Eq. 6.27
δΩ = 2π sin Ѳ δѲ is
𝝅
Φ =∫ ІѲ δѲ=2π ∫𝒐 . ІѲ sin Ѳ δѲ =2π X area.
(6.46)
. r
A P’ A’
O Q r=1 Q’
O = O’
Ѳ
IѲ
Ѳ
r=1 R
= R’ X
δy δy
sin Ѳ
y Y
Ѳ
δ
S Ѳ
B B’
0o S’
Fig. 6.57 Rousseau diagram for determining flux from a polar intensity curve.
82
The area enclosed by the Rousseau construction curve divided by the length of the base YY’ axis is
also a measure of average Intensity.
ІѲ (av) =area of Rousseau curve/Y axis length (6.47)
The average widths of the curve P’ to A’, Q’ to O’, R’ to X, and S’ to B’ respectively equal to the
average intensity also referred to as Mean Spherical Luminous Intensity (MSLI) referred to in
chapter 5. The method of summation of widths or lengths has also been described by “Kennelly’s”
mathematical derivation referred to Ch. 6.2.7
ІѲ (av) =average widths of Rousseau curve (6.48)
Since A’B’=2r, the mean height of the curve P’ S’ is area/2r, therefore the flux is,
Φ =4π X mean height* (6.49)
Referring back to Fig.6.56, if δy is projected onto a vertical axis and a perpendicular at its mid-point
equal to IѲ is erected, also the total area of the figure P’Q’S’B’A’ of Fig 6.57 we obtain,
δ Φ =2π X projected area . (6.50)
This is the basis of the Rousseau Diagram Method. Radii of the polar distribution curve is drawn to
meet the circle of unit radius, the intersections are projected horizontally to the interval axis Y, Y’
refer Fig. 6.56 and A’B,’ refer Fig. 6.57 and the values of ІѲ marked off. A curve is therefore
obtained whose area, multiplied by 2π, gives the total luminous flux output in lumens, since
+𝟏
Φ= 2π ІѲ ∫−𝟏 . ІѲ δѲ (6.51)
The projected curve is plotted to the right with rectangular co-ordinates and the mean value may
be determined graphically by any convenient means such as counting squares, a planimeter or by
diving the base of the YY’ axis into an equal number of parts, that are equal in average length, for
example 10 or 20 equal intervals, and then averaging, or an equal number of parts equal in length,
based on the shape or distribution curve, such as irregularities or sudden changes. Note that the
base extends over the complete range of 0 to 180o (π), -1 to +1.
*Mean Height can also be considered as mean width since P’S’ is area/2r. The terms “mean” and “average” refer to the
sum of all values divided by the total number of values.
83
The Rousseau Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux, Example 1a
Example 1. The use of a Rousseau diagram can be illustrated in Fig 6.58. Calculate the total
luminous flux of a 60W light source of 610 lumens with a translucent shade using the Rousseau
diagram method.
Fig 6.58 A Rousseau Diagram for a 60W light source with a translucent shade.
Mean Widths of the Base determination of total luminous flux. (Has also been described as the
‘Kennelly Diagram Method ‘refer to Ch 6.3.9)
Using equation 6.48, ІѲ (av) =average widths of Rousseau curve
Refer to Fig 6.58, the average widths of the curve are at a value at the midpoint of a square
from the range 0o to 180o respectively,
90+89+88+86+84+80+75+60+40+15+10+11+12+12+13+14+14 +15+15+0 /20 =823/20 =41.15
cd, which is the average Intensity.
From Eq.6.49 Φ =4π X mean height
∴ Φ =4π X 40.15 =505 lumens.
84
The Rousseau Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux, Example 1b
Or Counting Squares Method
Mean Value determination by counting squares. Refer to Fig 6.58, A total quantity of 69 major grid
line ‘complete squares’, plus 23 ‘part squares’ (divided by 2≈a “complete square”), (69+11.5) =80.5
therefore the total qty of major grid line squares is the area of the projected area, multiplied by 2π,
gives the total luminous flux output in lumens, this area is numerically equal to the plotted
intensity value ІѲ projected from the polar curve, therefore divided by the base YY’ length, which is
made up of a length of 20 major grid line squares, from Equation 6.47
ІѲ (av) =area of Rousseau curve/Y axis length
80.5 (Total Squares)/20( YY’) =4.03 squares area is equal to the mean intensity.
The mean intensity value of 4.03 squares corresponds to a value where the maximum intensity of
90 cd is plotted over 9 squares therefore by ratios,
90 cd(І Ѳ max) x4.03/9(І Ѳ 𝑥) =40.3cd which is the mean intensity.
Therefore the mean coordinate is 40.3 cd, the limits of integration are between -1 and +1, the
length of the base must be 2 and the area under the curve is therefore 2x 40.3 cd,
+1
Using equation 6.51 Φ= 2π ІѲ ∫−1 . ІѲ δѲ
∴ Φ =2π X 2x 40.3 =506 lumens.
The results derived are Tabulated below:-
Translucent shade Bare Lamp With shade

Rousseau area …………….. 80.6
Mean Spherical Intensity Іav …………….. 40.3
(M.S.C.P)
Luminous Flux 𝝓 Lumens 610 506
LOR (Efficiency of the reflector), per cent …………….. 83
Maximum Intensity Іmax …………….. 90
Approx. The direction of І𝜽max …………….. 0
Max., degrees
Tabulation 6.17 Results enable a useable specification of the luminaire derived from the Rousseau Method.
85
Example 2. Use the Rousseau diagram method to calculate the total luminous flux of the simple
shade with a 500W GES lamp refer to diagram Fig 6.28. For convenience, Tabulation 6.4 is
reproduced below.
The Polar curve from Fig 6.29 is reproduced below; refer to Fig 6.59, from which the Rousseau
diagram is drawn as follows:-
Angle –
degrees Ө 0o 5o 15o 25o 35o 45o 55o 65o 75o 85o
Measured
Illuminance-
EӨ (Lux) 1475 1443 1413 1319 1023 529 294 176 52 0 SUM
Calculated
Intensity-IӨ
(cd)(I=E*d2) 2776.52 2716.28 2659.81 2482.86 1925.68 995.78 553.42 331.30 97.88 0.00 14539.53
Tabulation 6.18- Measured result tabulation of the RLM shade, note:-There was no measurable luminous
intensity above 85 degrees.
From the tip of the radial segments, horizontal lines are drawn and extended to cut the vertical
line to scale depending on the length of the radial line.
The projected curve is plotted to the right.
+1 Y
Y’
-1
Fig 6.59 Rousseau diagram for the simple shade with 500W GES light source.
86
Counting Squares Method
Mean Value determination by counting squares. Refer to Fig 6.59, a total quantity of 45 major grid
line ‘complete squares’, plus 20 ‘part squares’ (divided by 2≈a “complete square”), (45+10) =55,
therefore, the total qty of major grid line squares is the area of the projected area, multiplied by
2π, gives the total luminous flux output in lumens, this area is numerically equal to the plotted
55 (Total Squares)/25( YY’) =2.2 squares area is equal to the mean intensity.
The mean intensity value of 2.2 squares corresponds to a value where the maximum intensity of
2776.52 cd is plotted over 15 squares therefore by ratios,
2776.52 cd(І Ѳ max) x2.2/15(І Ѳ 𝑥) =407.22cd which is the mean intensity.
Therefore the mean coordinate is 407 cd, the limits of integration are between -1 and +1, the
length of the base must be 2 and the area under the curve is, therefore, 2x 407 cd,
+1
∴ Φ =2π X 2x 407 =5115 lumens.

Rousseau area …………….. 814
Mean Spherical Intensity Іav …………….. 407
(M.S.C.P) (Area/2)
Maximum Intensity Іmax …………….. 2776.52
Approx. The direction of І𝜽max …………….. 0
Max., degrees
In practice, it is not necessary to draw the polar curve as only the sinusoidal scale of angles is
required that corresponds to the divisions along the YY axis in the corresponding figure. This scale
will suffice, provided the same scale of squared paper or template is used.
87
The Rousseau Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux, Example 2b
Fig 6.60 Luminous Intensity Distribution Curve* of 500W GES GLS Incandescent light source as tested within a
simple luminaire shade.
Mean Widths of the Base also refer to the ‘Kennelly Diagram Method’ Ch 6.2.7
Since the values from the Polar Curve refer to in Fig 6.60 consist of the intensities at regular angles,
the mean height of the curve can be taken from the polar curve or a tabulation of results that the
polar curve is plotted with, such as tabulation 6.18. The sum of ІѲ values;
2776.5+2716.3+2659.8+2482.9+1925.7+995.8+553.4+331.3+97.9=14539.4, is then averaged over
18 divisions because 9 readings were taken within 90 degrees, therefore, the sum of the Zonal Value
over 180 degrees is 18 intervals.
π Using equation refer 6.70 where,

𝜋
Φ = 2π ∫𝑜 . 𝛴ІѲ
. 𝑛
3π π/2
.2 ∴ Φ =2π x 14539.53
. 18
. ∴ Φ =5075.24 lumens
0,2π
Fig 6.61 Polar curve of the RLM shade through 360o or 2𝝅.
This is very close to the value of 5072.03 lumens determined by the zonal method refer to
Tabulation 6.04.
Where the intensity values are at regular angular differences, they may be multiplied by the zonal
values, and the sum of these up to any zone, or for the hemisphere or the whole sphere, can
88
The Rousseau Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux, Example 2c
determine the average Intensity for that solid angle. The following tabulation 6.20 of the ‘RLM’
shade with 500W GES light source are values of zones at 15 degrees for the lower hemisphere.
Angle –degrees Ө 0o 5o 15o 25o 35o 45o 55o 65o 75o 85o
Measured
Illuminance-EӨ (Lux) 1475 1443 1413 1319 1023 529 294 176 52 0
Calculated Intensity-ІӨ
(cd)(І Ө =E*d2)
Zonal Value 2776.5 2716.3 2659.8 2482.9 1925.7 995.8 553.4 331.3 97.9 0
Zonal Value Lumens
І Ө x 2π 17445.4 17066.9 16712.1 15600.3 12099.4 6256.7 14362.9 331.3 615.0 0
Tabulation 6.20-Note:-There was no measurable luminous intensity above 85 degrees.
To find the flux in a particular zone, the luminous flux Φ of the light source is 2π times the intensity
ІѲ value for the hemisphere in the directions of the zone.
From Eq. 6.30, δ Φ =2π ІѲ sin Ѳ δѲ
Refer to zonal Value Lumens tabulation 6.20, І Ө x 2π in red type.
For luminaires symmetrical at their vertical axis the total Luminous flux can be found from the
average of intensities, once the flux from Ѳ =0o to 180o has been found the total lower and upper
hemispherical flux values can be obtained by summation. Refer Eq. 6.32
180
Φ = ∫𝑜 . 𝛴ІѲ
. 𝑛
The mean Widths of the Base refer to the ‘Kennelly Diagram Method’ Ch 6.3.9
10 readings were taken within 90 degrees therefore the sum of the Zonal Value over 180 degrees is
20 intervals.
17445.4+ 17066.9 + 16712.1 + 15600.3 + 12099.4 + 6256.7 + 14362.9 + 331.3 + 615.0 + 0 =100490
𝟏𝟖𝟎
Φ = ∫𝒐 . 100490
. 20
=5024.50 lumens
89
The Rousseau Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux, Example 3
Example 3. Fig 6.62 shows a double Rousseau diagram, one curve is of a 500-watt clear bare light
source, the other for the light source with a Holophane D’Olier steel reflector with porcelain
enamel, No ED-500. Use the Rousseau diagram method to calculate the total luminous flux and
the efficiency of the reflector.
Fig 6.62 A double Rousseau diagram.
Counting Squares Method for the bare lamp
Mean Value determination by counting squares. Refer to Fig 6.62, A total quantity of 11 major
‘complete squares’, plus 10 ‘part squares’ (divided by 2≈a “complete square”), (11+5) =16,
16 (Total Squares)/8( YY’) =2.0 squares area is equal to the mean intensity.
The mean intensity value of 1 square corresponds to a value of the intensity of 200 cd therefore by
ratios,
200 cd(І Ѳ max) x2.0(І Ѳ 𝑥) =400 cd which is the mean intensity.
90
The Rousseau Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux, Example 3
length of the base must be 2 and the area under the curve is therefore 2x 407 cd,
+1
∴ Φ =2π X 2x 400 =5027 lumens.
Counting Squares Method for the Luminaire
In a similar way mean Value determination by counting squares. Refer to Fig 6.62, A total quantity
of 9 major ‘complete squares’, plus 7 ‘part squares’ (divided by 2≈a “complete square”), (9+3.5)
=12.5, therefore divided by the base YY’ length, which is made up of a length of 8 major grid line
squares, from Equation 6.47
12.5 (Total Squares)/8( YY’) =1.56 squares area is equal to the mean intensity.
The mean intensity value of 1 square corresponds to a value of the intensity of 200 cd therefore by
ratios,
200 cd(І Ѳ max) x1.56(І Ѳ 𝑥) =312 cd which is the mean intensity.
length of the base must be 2 and the area under the curve is, therefore, 2x 312 cd,
+1
∴ Φ =2π X 2x 312 =3921 lumens.

Rousseau area 800 624
Mean Spherical Intensity Іav 400 312
(M.S.C.P) (Area/2)
Maximum Intensity Іmax 500 970
Approx. The direction of І𝜽max 90 5
Max., degrees
The efficiency of the reflector, the lumen output and the Mean intensity are obtained directly from
the Rousseau areas.
91
The Rousseau diagram may also be used to illustrate the flux emitted from a uniform diffuser, refer
to Fig 6.63.
A A’
O O’
Ѳ IѲ
IO
R
S
R’ X
B B’
S’
Fig 6.63 Determination of flux from a uniform diffuser by the use of a Rousseau diagram
The uniform diffuser has a circular polar curve therefore in this case ІѲ= ІѲcos Ѳ, ORS can form a
right angle. A geometric Rousseau construction is projected to the right.
Projection R’X is equal to OR which is equal to OS cos Ѳ and O’X is also equal to OB cos Ѳ, showing
that R’X/O’X is equal to OS/O which is a constant, therefore R’O’ must have a constant gradient and
S’O’ must therefore be a straight line. Since S’B ’is equal to ІѲ, the mean height of the triangle over
A’B’ is ІѲ/4. Therefore from equation 6.49
Φ =4π X mean height
∴ Φ = π ІѲ
(6.52)
6.3.8 Exitance
The previous result can also be obtained by direct integration. Dividing by the area also
demonstrates the relationship between the exitance and luminance of a uniform diffusing isotropic
source. The relationship between exitance and luminance is.
Mv= πLv
(6.53)
This is derived by calculating the total luminous flux arriving at a hemispherical surface centred on a
plane source refer to Fig 6.64 assumed to obey Lambert’s law, Eq. 9.01
The corresponding radiation measure is called radiant exitance Mv
The luminous exitance Mv at a point on a surface is equal to the total luminous flux emitted per
unit area. For an element of area δS emitting a total flux of δΦv over a solid angle of 2πsr refer to
Fig 6.64.
92
Mv=δΦv/δS (6.54)
Exitance
Extended source
r δS
δΩ
Ѳ
Eye δ S’
Fig 6.64 Observation of an extended light source.
The relationship between exitance and luminance is important and can also be used to find the
intensity (І) normal to the surface of a uniform diffusing cylinder, such as a fluorescent tube, if the
total luminous flux output Φ is known. Where the length of the tube 𝑙 has a radius r, then the
luminance is equal to the quotient intensity І in candelas/projected area, where,
L= І (6.55)
2r𝑙
The lumen output per unit surface area, exitance, therefore is,
M= Φ
2 πr𝑙
So from equation 6.27
L= Φ (6.56)
2 π2r𝑙
Therefore І= Φ (6.57)
π2
Fleming8 has likewise shown that the average candle power, (candlepower equates directly to the
modern candela, refer Ch 7.1) of a straight or linear filament (Lin.) giving unit horizontal intensity is,
І h (av) Lin. π/4

(6.58)
93
Exitance
Therefore, any long light source such as incandescent Philinea (architectural) Lamp, Striplight,
Tubular Colorenta Lamp, fluorescent tubes or tubular luminaire will have the same reduction factor
refer Ch 6.3.8
8Proc. Phys. Soc., Vol. 19, pg. 208; and Phil. Mag., Aug. 1905
To obtain the total luminous flux,
from Eq. 5.09 Φ= І 4π
where І h (av) Lin.=π/4
therefore multiply by 4π, which gives,
Φ= І h (av) Lin 4π X π
4
Φ = І h (av) Lin π2
The flux in lumens is, therefore, π2 which is approximately 10 times the mean horizontal intensity,
as per Eq. 6.57
І h (av) Lin =. Φ
π2
І h (av) Lin ≈ Φ (6.59)

10
* Therefore, for rough estimates the intensity in candela of a fluorescent tube or other linear
source with a straight filament normal to its surface may be calculated as one-tenth of its lumen
output.
94
6.3.9 Spherical Reduction Factor
As the previous estimate demonstrates, the Spherical Reduction-Factor is the ratio of the mean
spherical Intensity to the mean horizontal intensity. Hence the mean spherical intensity is equal to
the product of the mean horizontal intensity and the spherical reduction factor. The total luminous
flux in lumens is equal to 4𝝅, multiplied by the product of the mean horizontal Intensity and the
spherical reduction factor.
І ms =∫π І h and 𝝓=4 π∫Іh (6.60)
Early in electric lighting history, the spherical reduction factor was commonly tabulated in light
source data alongside Mean Spherical Candle power and other data, which permitted accurate
comparisons between different types of light sources, extremely useful in the absence of proper
facilities for direct measurements. This factor when applied correctly, determines the particular
type and characteristics of each light source and in the author’s, an opinion should be re-adopted
due to the unsatisfactory nature of the present methods of manufacturers' light source data
tabulation presentations which leads to horrendous confusion, particularly by the general public.
Data is commonly shown these days as either power in Watts, intensity in cd, cp or MSCP, luminous
flux in lumens or Illuminance in Lux., refer to chapter 8, which often makes quick comparisons
difficult.
Therefore, a lamp manufacturer could tabulate the specification data to consumers in any format
along with the all-important ‘Spherical reduction factor’ enabling a useful and quick comparison
for light source selection.
Referring to Ch6.1.1 Testing Non-Isotropic Light sources of an experiment that referred to Fig. 6.08,
a 240V 100W ES GLS incandescent, where the cosine law was required to determine the true
luminous flux from an illuminance measurement at 3.0 meters, this effort could be substantially
simplified if a spherical reduction factor was supplied.
The minimum data that ought to be specified for this or any light source for example is,
240V 100W ES GLS incandescent, Spherical Reduction Factor of 0.986,
Determination of total luminous flux or vice versa could be made alongside any of the following:
1/intensity in candelas, 2/ luminous flux in lumens and 3/ Illuminance that can also be measured
simply with a light meter in lux,
From Illuminance data
12.21 lux at 3 meters.
E = І Eq 5.7
.d2
12.2 lx3m=I/32m=109.8 cd
From Intensity
95
Eq. 6.60 𝝓=4 π∫Іh
To calculate the luminous flux:
𝝓=4 π x 109.8 = 1379.79 lm x Spherical Reduction Factor of 0.986 = 1360 lumen
The reduction factor for a flat source such as a “wreath” filament or a gas-filled electric light source
may be greater than unity, for the horizontal intensity of such a small light source will be small, this
is particularly important when selecting light sources as” standard lamps” for photometric bench
tests refer Ch.6.1.
Spherical Reduction Factor
Castellated Filament “Straight Up & Down” Filament “Ring” Filament (Traction

(Traction Type). (Reduction factor 0.77 to 0.78) Type). (Reduction factor 1.0
(Reduction factor 0.93) to 1.2)
Fig 6.65 Reduction Factors examples of various Incandescent light sources.

“Wreath” Filament.
(Reduction factor 0.8 to 0.9)
96
12
5
9
4 10
11
8
2
1
6 7
Fig 6.66 Obsolete, antique incandescent light sources from the author’s collection include the following, 1/ Philips
210-260V 60W 16CP, 3 Loop Carbon Filament, Made in Holland, 2/ GEC 230-250V 130W, 4 Coil ‘Robertson’ Carbon
Filament, Made in England, 3/ GEC 230-250V 65W, 5 Coil ‘Robertson’ Carbon Filament, Made in England, 4/ Philips
230V 32CP, 3 Loop Carbon Filament, Made in Holland, c. 1920, 5/ Crookes phosphor coated cathode ray ‘Flower Petal
Tube’ c.1890’s, top left image-activated, 5000V AC/DC, Made in England 6/ Crompton 260V 15W ‘Castellated’
Tungsten Filament Sign Lamp, Made in Japan, 7/ Osram 100V 20W ‘Straight Up & Down’ also referred to as a ‘squirrel
cage’ vacuum tungsten filament lamp, Made in England, c. 1920, 8/ Mazda 110V 20W Navy ‘squirrel cage’ vacuum
tungsten filament lamp, Pat Nov 8-1904, 9/ Philips 220-230V “N” 50CP ‘squirrel cage’ vacuum tungsten filament lamp,
c. 1920, 10/ Mazda 110V 40W ‘squirrel cage’ vacuum tungsten filament lamp, c. 1930, 11/ Unknown only visible
marking is “3706” ‘squirrel cage’ vacuum tungsten filament lamp c. 1920, and 12/Commercial Plasma lamp ‘Nebula
Ball’ c. 1994, Made in Taiwan. All lamps except no’s 5 & 12 have a BC base, all lamps are functional! Most envelopes
had the exhaust nipple on top of the envelope up until the 1920s.
97
Spherical Reduction Factor
1 4
Fig 6.67 The Australian Government passed measures to prohibit the sale of incandescent light sources in 2008, these
include some of the following from the author’s collection which were converted to ‘Plasma Lamps’ when the author was
just a teenager in an era when Plasma lamps cost thousands of dollars! Spherical-shaped light sources performed well
and were a very economical alternative, from left to right, 1/ 250V 60W Crown Silver Spherical G125, with a circular fluro.
beneath, used to provide a circuit voltage drop, driven by a low frequency of 3.23 Hz, generated by a 555 timer driving a
single BUX80 transistor to an automotive induction coil, circa 1985, 2/ another 60W G125 Crown Silver Spherical, with 2
off ‘2 D’ compact fluorescents on the sides and two Xenon flash tubes on the front panel for an additional decorative
effect, 15 KHz, powered by two 2N3055’s via a push-pull oscillator driving a TV flyback transformer-1986, 3/ a small neon
flickering flame candle, illuminated wirelessly by the high-frequency field from the surrounding High-Frequency circuits,
levitation is achieved by magnetic mechanical constraint-repulsion refer
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xXRSoPSBcvY, 4/ Philips 500W GES Clear GLS made in Aust. 25 KHz powered by two
2N3055s via a push-pull oscillator driving a TV flyback transformer-1987, 5/ GEC 240V 2000W GES Clear GLS Made in
England 6.5 KHz, a 555 timer driving a 2SD1554 transistor via a MOSFET, to a TV flyback transformer-1993 and 6/
Crompton 240V 100W G125 BC Clear Spherical made in Japan powered by a variable resonant 50 to 70 KHz, SG3525A
PWM (Pulse Width Modulator) IC driving two IRF540 MOSFETs via a push-pull oscillator to a TV flyback-1994.
Fig 6.68 The only aesthetically pleasing light source within the above cray pots at Hellenic Republic Restaurant that
was desired were G125 clear spherical light sources which are no longer available in Australia because of the
Government Incandescent light ban, dimming was also desirable. Therefore, 12V 50W Halogen IRC burners that can
be dimmed were fitted into round bottom chemistry flasks, supplied by Masson For Light, BCA calculations,
luminaire design, lighting design and calculations by the author- 2008. Other Masson luminaires include cat #
MS718XX series recessed LEDs illuminating the Rope feature left, and ‘Tully’ spotlights.
98
6.3.10 The Kennelly Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux.
The Kennelly diagram* performs the integration of flux and determination of spherical intensity by
a simple process not requiring the use of a planimeter, counting squares or other methods of area
measurement. Its construction is best described by the following example.
Fig 6.69 Construction of the Kennelly Diagram.
Referring to Fig 6.69, XYZ is an example of a polar curve from which the derived quantities are
obtained. The curve is divided as per the Russell method refer to Ch 6.3.11, into a series of equal
solid angle zones of 15-degree divisions as shown, themid–zone positions are indicated on the
curve.
From centre O an arc, ab is drawn through 15 deg., its radius is a vector of the polar curve at the
first mid-point below the horizontal. The line Ob is also projected from b the distance bP is equal to
the radius of athe
*For fullpolar curveofatthe
statement the second
theory mid-zone
of the Kennellypoint below
Diagram seethe
Elec.horizontal. The28,projected
World, March 1908.
centre P an arc bc is projected through 15 deg, from and from its lower terminus c is drawn cP.
Proceeding as per the previous cq is projected to the radius vector of the next lower mid-point and
from q an arc is projected through 15 degrees. Continuing this fashion an arc is projected in
succession for each zone of the lower hemisphere, the radius of each is the intensity that
corresponds to the mid-point position of the polar curve. The lower terminus g of the curve so
obtained is projected to the point g’ on the vertical axis of the polar diagram. Beginning at the
horizontal an exactly similar construction is carried out in the upper hemisphere, the curve
terminating at point J, which is projected to J’ on the vertical axis of the diagram. The length of line
Og’ measured to the same scale as the polar curve represents the mean intensity of the lower
hemisphere. Similarly, OJ’ represents the mean intensity of the upper hemisphere. The arithmetical
mean of Og’ and OJ’, i.e., one-half the length g’J’, represents the mean intensity of the illuminant.
99
The Kennelly Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux
The flux within any zone or series of zones is determined by multiplying by 2𝝅 the projection on
the vertical axis of the corresponding portion of the curves h J and ag.
The principles involved in the above construction are derived as follows; the geometrical
theorem assumes that the area of a zone of a sphere is proportional to its altitude 𝒍a. If we
consider a light source at the centre of a hollow sphere of radius 𝒍r and this sphere is divided
into 𝜼 horizontal zones. The total spherical area is therefore proportional to 2𝒍r . The solid
angle subtended by any zone is,
= 𝒍a .4𝝅
2 𝒍r
(refer Eq. 5.07) Ω =2𝝅𝒍a (6.61)

𝒍r
Assuming the intensity at the midpoint I to fairly represent the mean intensity for its zone,
from Eq 5.00, the flux within any zone is,
Φ = I𝜽 Ω (Eq.5.00)
Φ =2𝝅 I𝜽 𝒍a (6.62)
𝒍r
And the mean intensity for either hemisphere,
Imhs = 𝚺𝝓
2𝝅
Imhs = 𝚺I𝜽 𝒍a (6.63)

𝒍r
If the radius of the sphere be taken as unity of the intensity scale of the polar diagram,
Imhs = 𝚺𝝓I𝜽 𝒍a ; (6.64)
Therefore the mean intensity of either hemisphere may be represented graphically by a

summation of lengths, (or widths of the curve) which represent the mean or average intensities
of the several zones multiplied by the altitudes of the corresponding zones of a sphere of unit
radius, also referred to as Mean Spherical Luminous Intensity (MSLI) refer Chapter 6.1. It is easily
seen that this is what is accomplished by the method described, as per the previously derived
Equation 6.47, ІѲ (av) =average widths of Rousseau curve; refer to examples shown Ch 6.3.7 pages
77, 81 and 82.
100
6.3.11 The Fluxolite Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux.

Instead of dividing a sphere into zones of subtended equal angles of elevation as per the Zonal
Method, the Fluxolite is a neat and convenient means to determine the flux within the several
zones of distribution and the values of mean spherical or hemispherical intensity.
The Fluxolite diagram was derived by Mr Wohlauer* and describes a method where zones that
subtend into a series of equal solid angle zones are divided to overcome the inconvenience of
multiplying zonal intensities by different zone factors, refer to Ch 6.3.5.
Fig 6.70 The Fluxolite Diagram.
The construction is indicated in Fig 6.70. The flux emitted within any zone equals the mean
intensity within the zone multiplied by the number of solid angle units it subtends. This is also
proportional to the area of the zone and thereby proportional to its altitude and to the sine of the
angle of departure from the downward vertical.
Therefore,
І=k(І5 sin 5o+ І15 sin 15+ ………………………………………..…..…… І185 sin 185o) (6.65)
The value of the proportionality factor is denoted as k, which depends in value upon the width of
the zones into which the arc covered is divided.
The polar curve of Fig 6.70 is divided into 15-degree zones, a quantity of 12 equiangular zones.
Geometrically the altitude and hence the area, of each of the 𝜼 equiangular zones is proportional
to the sine of its bisecting angle measured from the vertical axis. Assuming the mid-zone intensity
approximates the mean intensity of the zone, the flux within the zone has the value,
𝝓𝜼=kІ𝜼 sin𝛼𝜼,
(6.66)
*Illum. Eng., Vol III (1909), p 655; vol 4 (1910),pp.148, 491
101
The Fluxolite Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux
Where І is the mid-zone intensity, 𝛼𝜼 the bisecting angle and k is a constant of proportionality.
Thus, referring to the diagram,
𝝓2 =kІ2 sin ∠ doa=Ka,

𝝓3 =kІ3 sin ∠ eob=Kbe,
𝝓4 =kІ4 sin ∠ foc=Kcg;
That is the flux within any zone is equal to the horizontal projection of its mid–zone intensity
multiplied by its constant. This constant indicates the numerical ratio of the solid angular units
within the zone to the sine of its bisecting angle, and may easily be computed from different widths
of the zone, giving the values in Table 6.4.
Ѳo zone width, Ѳo, zone width,

degrees k degrees k
5 0.548 50 5.3
10 1.098 55 5.8
15 1.64 60 6.28
20 2.18 65 6.75
25 2.72 70 7.2
30 3.25 75 7.65
35 3.77 80 8.1
40 4.3 85 8.5
45 4.8 90 8.85
Table 6.04 Values of k in 𝝓𝜼 =kІ sin𝛼𝜼
The polar curve is laid off with vertical lines spaced equally to the intensity scale to assist the
evaluation of the projections of the several mid-zone intensities, From the summation of the
elements of flux within either hemisphere the mean hemispherical intensity can be derived by
diving the sum by 2𝝅,
IMSІ = kІ𝜼(sum) (6.67
2π
and by dividing the summation of the flux throughout the entire sphere by 4𝝅 the total luminous
flux is obtained,
𝝓= kІ(sum) (6.68)
4π
where k is the proportionality factor, which depends in value upon the width of the zones into
which the arc covered is divided.
102
The Fluxolite Diagram Method of Total Luminous Flux
Example Use the simple goniophotometer test example 2, Ch 6.3.5, described on page 50 to
calculate the total luminous flux by use of the Fluxolite Diagram Method for the Masson for Light
Cat no. CM118IP65EL 18W "Casta Mini IP65" Horizontal compact fluorescent recessed downlight
luminaire.
Luminous Intensity
cd/1200 Lamp Lumens
Tabulation 6.22- The polar curve on the left has projected vertical lines spaced Fig 6.71 Luminous Intensity
equally to the intensity scale to assist the evaluation of the projections of the Distribution Curve* of Osram Dulux
several mid zone intensities, which are multiplied by values of k in 𝝓𝜼 =kІ𝜼 sin𝛼𝜼 D 18W/21-840 as tested within a
.
Masson For Light CM118IP65EL,
expressed in candelas per 1200
lumens as tested.
Tabulating our calculations according to this outline we obtain successive columns of Tabulation
6.22. Wohlauer called his specially prepared paper “Fluxolite” paper. It was ruled for polar
coordinates and rectangular coordinates. Using this arrangement, the polar curve is plotted on the
sheet and readings of successive І𝓍sin products can be taken directly therefrom. This is illustrated
in Fig 6.71, using 5 deg. Zones.
In practice, it is not necessary to draw the polar curve as only the sinusoidal scale of angles is
required that corresponds to the divisions along the Y axis in the corresponding figure.
Therefore by dividing the summation of the flux throughout the entire sphere by 4𝝅 total
spherical flux is obtained, Eq 6.68,
𝝓= kІ(sum)
4π
∴ 7196 /4𝝅=572 lumens
103
6.3.12 Russell Angles Method of Total Luminous Flux.
Instead of dividing a sphere into zones of subtended equal angles of elevation as per the Zonal
Method refer to Ch 6.3.5., Dr A. Russell’s modification* of the Rousseau method is considered the
simplest. This method is referred to as “Russell Angles” and has also been called “Spherical
Intensity by Direct Average” which describe a method where zones that subtend into a series of
equal solid angle zones are divided to overcome the inconvenience of multiplying zonal intensities
by different zone factors, similar to the Fluxolite diagram refer Ch 6.3.10, where the zones are
proportional to its altitude and the sine but the difference is that the divisions are divided into
areas equal in area. This idea by analogy is similar to a cake divided into slices of uniform thickness,
and then the surface of each zone is of the same area. This also calculates total luminous flux
easier.
The method consists of finding the direct mean position of the intensities at different angles, such
that each corresponds to a mean position of one of the 𝑛 zones of equal area.
A
154.2
134.4
120
107.5
95.7
O
𝑛 zones
84.3
72.5
60
45.6
25.8
B
Fig 6.72 Russell’s Method for determining average candela from a Polar curve, the Polar curve is divided
into equal “𝑛” zones of equal solid angle and area.
Consider a spherical surface such as shown in Fig 6.24 & 6.25, the light source at the centre
denoted as O is divided into 𝑛, horizontal zones of equal area. In this geometrical theorem, it is
assumed that the area is proportional to altitudes of Ѳ. If the point of bisection of each angle
of Ѳ is projected upon the circumference and a horizontal line is drawn through this point on
the sphere, this circle bisects the zone. The zones would have to be a sufficient number or an
equal number of parts equal in length, based on the shape or distribution curve, such as
irregularities or sudden changes, the bisecting circles may be assumed as the approximate
average for the zone. Each zone has an area of 4πІr2/𝑛 and subtends a solid angle of 4π/𝑛.
*Journ. Inst. E.E. Vol. 32, pg 640 (1903).
104
Russell Angles Method of Total Luminous Flux
The flux within each zone is,
Φ = IѲ 4π
. 𝑛
The total luminous flux within each zone is,
𝛴Φ = 4π ІѲ
. 𝑛
ІѲ (av) = ІѲ
. 𝑛
Φ = 4π ∑𝒏І=Ѳ 𝑰Ѳ
. 𝑛
Where 𝑛 is a set of horizontal zones of an equal area where Intensity ІѲ is equal to І 1 + І 2 + … + І n
Therefore the total luminous flux Φ from the light source O,

𝟐𝝅
Φ = 4π ∫𝒐 . 𝛴ІѲ
(6.69) . 𝑛
𝝅
Φ = 2π ∫𝒐 . 𝛴ІѲ
(6.70) . 𝑛
∑𝒏𝒙=𝟏 𝜱 𝛴Φ = 4π ∑𝒏𝒙=𝟏 𝛷 IѲ
(6.71) .
𝑛
The mean spherical intensity is measured at an angle of elevation found by averaging intensities
from the polar curve, for all equal values of solid angle zones; the positions on the polar curve are
selected as the most convenient intensities to be averaged, called the “Russell angles” which
corresponds to the line of latitude that also divides the zone into two equal zones of equal solid
angle. Intensities measured by this method can be averaged and multiplied by 4π to find the total
flux. Intensity is flux per unit solid angle, therefore multiplying intensity values by the solid angles
over which they are valid, the flux may be calculated. The solid angle Ω between two angles of
elevation measured from the nadir, Ѳ1 and Ѳ2, is 2π, Ω = 2π (cos Ѳ1-cos Ѳ2) refer Eq. 6.28, with
which the Russell angles may be determined, the formula to calculate the Russell angles is,
R𝒌 =cos-1( ± 2𝒌+1) (6.72)

. 𝑛
where n is the number of angles in the set and k is an integer between 0 and 𝑛/2 –1.
105
For example, determine the 3rd Russell angle for a set of 10 increments.
The 3rd Russell angle increments k is an integer of 2, therefore,
R2 =cos-1(+ 2(2)+1)
. 10
R2 =60 degrees
For convenience, the Russell angles have been determined from Eq. 6.72 where 𝑛 is equal to sets
of 10, 12 and 20 increments in Table 6.5.
Table 6.05 Russell angles for determining total luminous flux, make it simple to calculate the flux for each
intensity value, and the LOR.
Note: - When solving trigonometric expressions like sine, cosine, and tangent, it is very important to realize
that Microsoft Excel uses radians, not degrees to perform these calculations! If the angle is in degrees, you
must first convert it to radians. Refer to page 46. For Example, the 3rd Russell angle is determined for a set of
10 increments. The excel formula to enter into a cell is: =DEGREES(ACOS((J13*(2)+1)/10))
(6.73)
where J15 refer to the k value column and row number which is an integer between 0 and 𝑛/2 –1.
Fig 6.73 The screenshot above shows how to use Excel to determine the Russell Angle set of 12o zones.
106
The mean intensity of either hemisphere of a polar curve may be found by averaging the intensities
at the positions specified within its limits. For example the mean intensity below 60 deg. with the
vertical in the lower hemisphere can be found by averaging all the Intensity values corresponding
to Russell angles at or below 60 degrees. The flux within this zone is equal to pi (3.1416) times the
mean intensity. In applying this method to a polar curve it is convenient to use a transparent
protractor with the radii to be averaged indicated drawn on it. This protractor may be placed over
the polar curve and the readings taken without troublesome interpolation will suffice, for any other
polar curve as long as the scale of intensities is observed.
The use of a Russell angle can be best illustrated by the following examples:-
Refer to the polar curve of a simple shade with a 500W incandescent light source, originally shown
in Fig 6.28. From the centre O a semi-circle is drawn (green plot), to enclose the curve and the
diameter is divided into convenient equal parts, 20 of which have been selected. Horizontal lines
are then drawn from alternate points as shown. These lines are the mid or average points in
thickness of 10 zones or slices of the sphere and cut the semi-circle at points where the Intensity
may be truly averaged.
There is therefore no relation between mid-points and the intensity scale as in the zonal method.
Radial lines are then drawn that cut the intersection of the horizontal lines with the circle. The
average length of these lines is a measure of average or mean spherical candela.
ІѲ
B
Fig 6.74 Example of Russell’s Method for determining the total luminous flux from a Polar curve of a 500W
GES light source with a simple shade.
To complete Russell’s modification of the Rousseau diagram. A line CD is drawn parallel to AB (Fig
6.75), and set out at right angles to its lines equal to the length of corresponding radial lines of the
Russell construction. The ends of these lines are connected by a curve. The area enclosed by the
Russell construction curve divided by the length of the base CD is a measure of average Intensity.
107
A C
B D ІѲ
Fig 6.75 Russell’s construction of Rousseau’s diagram for determining the total luminous flux from a Polar
curve.
To determine the area enclosed by the projected curve CD the same methodology can be
employed that is used for the Rousseau method refer to chapter 6.3.7. Note that the curve
produced differs from one that is produced by the Rousseau method where lines were projected
from equal intervals of angles, by diving the base of the YY axis into an equal number of parts, refer
to Fig 6.59.
Counting Squares Method
Mean Value determination by counting squares. Refer to Fig 6.75, A total quantity of 99 major grid
line ‘complete squares’, plus 20 ‘part squares’ (divided by 2≈a “complete square”), (99+10) =109,
109 (Total Squares)/25( YY’) =4.36 squares area.
The mean value of 4.36 squares corresponds to a value where the maximum intensity of 2776.52
cd is plotted over 15 squares therefore by ratios,
2776.52 cd(І Ѳ max) x4.36/15(І Ѳ 𝑥) =807.04cd
Therefore the mean coordinate is 807.04 cd, the limits of integration are between -1 and +1 the
length of the base must be 1 and the area under the curve is therefore 1x 807.04 cd,
108
𝜋
From equation 6.70 Φ = 2π ∫𝑜 . 𝛴ІѲ
. 𝑛
∴ Φ =2π X 807.04=5071 lumens.
In practice it is not necessary to draw the polar curve; the graphical procedure is instructive and not
necessary for finding the total luminous flux.
A Fig 6.76 Example of Russell’s Method for determining the total luminous flux from a
Polar curve of a 500W GES light source with an RLM shade.
The following are values for zones of 10 degrees for example originally
shown as Fig 6.29, the polar curve of a simple shade with a 500W
incandescent light source.
O Russell angles are selected that are in the centre of solid zones. Where
the Intensities are given at regular angular differences, they may be
multiplied by the zonal values, and the sum of the hemisphere or the
entire sphere, which will calculate the average Intensity for that solid
angle.
B Using Table 6.05 Russell angles, the intensity values are selected from the Polar curve
shown in Fig 6.75 to create Tabulation 6.23.
25.8 45.6 60.0 72.5 84.3 95.7 107.5 120.0 134.4 154.2
2000 + 1823 + 1881 + 1433 + 1293 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0
Tabulation 6.23 Russell angles determination, the values of the plots are simple to determine with a lighting
program called IES viewer v2.99n by Andrew Legotin, by just pointing to the coordinate of interest with a
mouse pointer!
The sum =8430 cd
Using equation 6.70 where,

𝜋
Φ = 2π ∫𝑜 . 𝛴ІѲ
. 𝑛
∴ Φ =2π x 8430
. 10
=5297 lumens
109
6.4 Spectrophotometry
Spectrophotometry is seldom referred to in Lighting design and was not included in the syllabus of
the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Lighting 1H and 2H, an Associate Diploma of
Engineering in Electrical that the author completed in 1992. Nevertheless, the author has found
spectrophotometry invaluable in his work, so it is included and examples are offered in this
chapter.
Spectrophotometry involves the use of a spectrophotometer. A spectrophotometer is a

photometer (a device for measuring light intensity) which can also measure intensity as a function
of colour or more specifically the wavelength of light. Important features of spectrophotometers
are spectral bandwidth and linear range of absorption measurement. In chemistry,
spectrophotometry is the quantifiable study of electromagnetic spectra that deals with visible light,
near-ultraviolet, and near-infrared.
Fig 6.77 The Authors' Spectrophotometer setup with a new antique Shimadzu QV-50 which houses the
following light sources used to test sample material, a 375VDC (4.6/2.9VAC)Shimadzu # H300 005039
Deuterium lamp with flying leads for the UV range, a Tungsram # 1055 incandescent lamp BA15S based
modified to P30s base for the visible to IR spectrum and an Osram 16VAC 0.57A Pico base #Na10 FL 83977~2
sodium lamp used for calibration.
The spectrophotometer like the Spectro-radiometer can also be used to measure the light output
of a light source at each wavelength separately, which also enables measurement of all visible
wavelengths to obtain the total light output of a source, visible to the human eye.
The console portion of the spectrophotometer is used to display the meter readings and also to
adjust measurement settings such as the sensitivity to specific wavelengths.
A computer can be or in modern machines is interfaced with the spectrophotometer and can be
used to send commands to the machine and receive store, and analyse data.
110
Spectrophotometry
The spectrophotometer is a CCD (Charge Coupled Device) measurement system that obtains near-
instantaneous spectral data for chemical samples, test lamps, or light sources. A standard visible
light spectrophotometer can also measure a limited range of near-IR and UV wavelengths, for
example from 380 to 780 nm. Depending on specific unit specifications, purpose-built units are also
manufactured and designed for specific ranges of wavelengths.
The spectrophotometer can also be used in conjunction with an integrating sphere. This requires
the Integrating spheres window to receive light in place of where a light meter's sensor head
usually goes (see Chapter 6.2 Integrating spheres). In this way the spectral reflectance of an
Integrating photometer can also be tested, refer to chapter 6.2.3.
Modern-day Spectrophotometer software, integrated with that of the integrating sphere, allows
the collection of spectral data simultaneously with lumen output.
Data provided can also include:
• CIE XY Chromaticity Coordinates

• Correlated Colour Temperature (CCT)
• Colour Rendering Index (CRI)
• Spectral Power Distribution (watts/nm)
• Total Radiant Flux (Watts)
• Peak and Dominant Wavelength
• Spectral Purity
• Half-bandwidth
Fig 6.78 The basic construction of a Spectrophotometer. Spectrophotometers are used in a variety of
scientific fields; such as astronomy, biochemistry, chemistry, molecular biology, photometry and physics.
They are also widely used in many industries including printing, forensic examination or any applications
that help identify the chemical composition of materials by analysing the spectral bandwidth and linear
range of absorption.
111
Spectrophotometry
6.4.1 Simple Spectroscope
A very simple spectroscope can be built. The major difference between a Spectroscope and a
Spectrophotometer is that the spectrophotometer can measure the exact wavelength. A
spectroscope is a device that also enables us to analyse materials by taking light and splitting it up
into its component colours. Different elements make different colours when they glow. We can
make objects and gasses glow by heating them in a flame, or by passing electricity through them.
The spectroscope spreads out the colours of the light so that we can identify the elements by the
bright lines we see in the spectroscope.
Tube
CD
60o
Fig 6.79 The basic construction of a simple Spectroscope which uses a standard CD compact disk, and a
cardboard or plastic tube
A simple spectroscope can be constructed that utilises a compact disk (CD) and a cardboard tube
body 25 cm long or longer. A flat cardboard large enough to cover the end of the tube is fitted over
one end. A slit less than 1 mm wide is cut into the flat cardboard and taped onto one end of the
tube.
A viewing slot is cut or drilled on at the other end on top of the tube of approx. one centimetre
wide and two cm long. A slot is then cut into the tube at a 45-degree angle from the vertical and a
CD is inserted so that it reflects light coming through the slit onto your eye, or camera.
Look through the open hole at the light reflected off the compact disk inside the cardboard tube or
box. The music on compact disks is digitally recorded. Circular tracks of binary code in the form of
ones and zeros are recorded on the mirror surface of the disk. These circular tracks are so close
together, that they act as a diffraction grating for light.
The light is spread into a spectrum perpendicular to the tracks. This is why the slit and the viewing
hole are located at right angles. Each wavelength of colour bends at a particular angle.
This is why you have to adjust the angle of the tilt of the disk to bounce the spectrum into your eye.
To see the spectrum it must reflect and diffract off the disk into your eye. Therefore, you must look
at the disk at the right angle to see the spectrum.
112
Simple Spectroscope
Fig 6.80 The photographs above were made using a homemade spectroscope. The left image is light from a
fluorescent light source. These lines tell us that the element mercury is creating some of the light. The
Mercury is heated electrically until it glows. The blue-purple light from the mercury (and some invisible
ultraviolet light just beyond the blue-purple line) makes the white phosphor coating on the inside of the glass
tube fluoresce bright white. The image on the right is from an incandescent light and shows a simple
spectrum with no bright lines. This is because the light comes from a hot tungsten filament. Hot gasses will
produce light that is made up of only a few colours. The spectroscope will spread these colours out, so we
can see them individually.
Fig 6.81 The photo on the left shows the light from a neon light source. We can see that the hot neon gas is
made of several colours, but they are mostly in the red and orange parts of the spectrum. By comparison a
Red light-emitting-diode (LED), the right image also creates red light, but there are no hot gases, so therefore
a continuous spectrum is created.
Fig 6.82 Some green LEDs image right look very green. Others look more yellowish-green. By looking at their
spectrum we can see that the yellow-green LEDs have a lot of green, but also some yellow, orange, and red.
The LEDs shown have a broad spectrum as their light consists of many different wavelengths.
A red laser diode left image has a much narrower spectrum. It has only a few different wavelengths and is
said to be monochromatic, meaning one colour.
113
Simple Spectroscope
Fig 6.83 A white LED is a blue LED with a phosphor coating. It works similarly to a fluorescent light bulb,
where the blue light excites the phosphors to generate a white glow. We can see the broad spectrum in the
homemade spectroscope. The dark band in the photo is the bare spot on the CD close to the centre. The
spectrum is so broad that it covered the entire width of the CD.
Fig 6.84 The photo above was created with a DVD within the homemade spectroscope. A DVD has lines that
are closer together. The closer lines cause the spectrum to spread out a little more. The spectrum is not quite
spread enough to show the two orange lines as separate lines. A diffraction grating with finer lines would
show finer distinctions, allowing us to distinguish elements more thoroughly.
114
6.4.2 Spectral Measurements
The single largest application of the spectrophotometer is
for quantitative analysis. The prerequisite for such analysis
is a known absorption spectrum of the compound under
investigation.
Coloured filters and other materials such as solutions

absorb and or transmit light at certain visible wavelengths
responsible for the colour of the material we observe with
our eyes. If we look at a Copper Sulphate solution for
example, we can already make a qualitative judgement that
Fig 6.85 Shimadzu Spectrophotometer quantities of copper are present based on the beautiful
ultraviolet and visual range 220 to 1200 bright blue ‘trademark’ hue that copper sulphate is known
nm with Optical Rotary Dispersion Accessory for.
6.4.3 Spectrophotometric Procedure for Quantitative Analysis.

Before analysis, it is recommended that the spectrophotometer is warmed up to a stabilized
working condition, and the instrument is zeroed and checked for 100% transmittance (% T). This
procedure is repeated before each unknown sample is read.
For common spectrophotometric solution tests such as measurements of absorbing solutions

where the aim is to determine the percentage concentration, we require a prepared calibration
cuvette with demineralised or distilled water. A cuvette is a small tube usually of a square cross-
section with optically flat faces held perpendicular to the radiation beam, sealed at one end and
manufactured from plastic, glass, or fused quartz (for UV light) it is designed to be as clear as
possible, without impurities that might affect spectrophotometric readings.
Calculating the percentage concentration of an identifiable material is achieved by comparison to a

known concentration. The calibration cuvettes containing the known concentration of solutions
and sample cuvettes are placed within the spectrophotometer test or sample chamber, one at a
time, and the absorbance A % is recorded for each solution. After closing the chamber the
adjustable slit control knob is adjusted so that the absorbance scale reads zero. After adjusting each
end of the absorbance scale, the absorbance is recorded from the scale. The adjustments of the left
and right-hand ends of the scale are repeated, and then once again to determine the absorbance of
the samples under test. The absorbance (A) of all solutions is measured at the previously
determined wavelength. After zeroing the instrument at each test, the absorbance readings are
recorded for all solutions.
The data collected can then be used to create a plot of ‘Calibration solutions’ and an ‘Analyte’ plot
of absorbance (A) on the y-axis as a function of known concentration (C) over the–axis. The Plot of
Measured absorbances at selected wavelength versus volume of unknown solution on test and
calibration solutions.
115
Spectrophotometric procedure for Quantitative Analysis.
According to Beer's Law, refer to Eq. 6.74, absorbance is directly proportional to concentration and
so the resulting plot should be a straight line. This plotted graph or tabulation is used to determine
the unknown concentration of the solution or compound from known amounts, from this, we can
determine the percentage weight of the unknown material.
3.11 Graph of Absorbance vs. Concentration of Copper from

Aluminium alloys
0.3
0.25
0.2
ABSORBANCE
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.01 0.014 0.015 0.02 0.025
Concentration mol dm-3
Fig 6.86 From the Authors Test Report # 2.080221, report date 21-02-2008, showing measured absorbance’s Abs(obs),
calculated absorbance’s Abs(calc) are based on the line of best fit, from which the absolute difference for the known
dilution series can now be obtained. The purpose of this evaluation was to determine the copper content of a Masson
For Light “Mondo Blokx Maxi UP/down wall mount” luminaire marketed as suitable for exterior use. This test was
performed out of concerns about the luminaires suitability in harsh exterior environments. It is known that when
aluminium is alloyed with appreciable amounts of copper it becomes nobler. While many of the known aluminium
castings alloys exhibit acceptable corrosion resistance for moderately harsh environments, some aluminium alloys, are
not sufficiently resistant to corrosion for certain highly corrosive environments such as marine or industrial
atmospheres, or when totally immersed, an aluminium alloy suffers an accelerated attack when it is in good electrical
contact with another aluminium alloy that contains substantial amounts of copper. Since the corrosion behaviour of
alloyed aluminium is influenced by the physical conditions of the environment, contact with dissimilar metals and by
the presence of crevices, the design of equipment made with aluminium can have an appreciable influence on the
nature and rate of corrosion.
116
Spectrophotometric Procedure for Quantitative Analysis
The Beer-Lambert law (or Beer's law) is the linear relationship between absorbance and
concentration of an absorbing species, which states that the measured absorbance, A (), of a
P
specimen at a particular wavelength of electromagnetic radiation,  (no units, A= log  P  = =-
− al)
 0
refer Eq 6.79, is a coefficient that is proportional to the analyte concentration, C, of the compound
in solution (mol L-1) of the absorbing species.
The proportionality constant a () is a wavelength-dependent molar absorptivity of the species at

the wavelength, or extinction coefficient (L mol-1 cm-1), the length of the path of the
electromagnetic radiation through the sample containing the absorbing species, l, in cm, can be
written in the form:
A () = a () l C
(6.74)
When working in concentration units of molarity, where C = molar concentration then a molar
absorptivity is sometimes abbreviated as ℇ, the wavelength-dependent molar absorptivity
coefficient with units of M-1 cm-1. If the concentration ℇ () is measured in moles/litre], the
concentration is called molar absorptivity.
A () = ℇ () l C
(6.75) P
log   = −el
 P0 
where the terms are defined as A = absorbance (no units, A= ) Eq 6.79
ℇ= molar absorptivity or extinction coefficient (L mol cm )
-1 -1
.
l = path length of the sample (cm); and C = concentration of the compound in solution (mol L -1
It is common to use the energy carried by the radiation per unit area per unit time, which is the
intensity, І, to measure the "amount" of electromagnetic radiation impinging on a surface. For a
partially transparent sample, we can consider the fraction of the intensity that is permitted to pass
through the sample as a measure of the transmittance of the sample. We define the per cent
transmittance, %T, of a sample in terms of the intensity of the light incident on the sample, І 0, and
the light transmitted through the sample, І t, as:
%T = 100 І t / І 0 (6.76)
Experimental measurements are usually made in terms of transmittance (T), which is defined as:
. T = I / Io (6.77)
where I is the light intensity after it passes through the sample and Io is the initial light intensity.
The relation between A and T is:
117
A = -log T = - log (I / Io). (6.78)
Spectrophotometric Procedure for Quantitative

Analysis
Absorbing sample of
Concentration c І
І
Path length 𝒍
Fig 6.87 Absorption of light by a sample
Modern Spectrophotometers usually display the data as transmittance, %-transmittance, or

absorbance. An unknown concentration of an analyte is determined by measuring the amount of
light that a sample absorbs and applying Beer's law. If the absorptivity coefficient is not known, the
unknown concentration can be determined using a working curve of absorbance versus
concentration derived from standards.
For the very common case of solution measurements, the absorbing solution is held in a container
termed a cell or cuvette with optically flat faces held perpendicular to the radiation beam.
The radiant power of electromagnetic radiation before (P0) and after (P) their passages through an
absorber are thus connected by Beer-Lambert’s law.
Transmittance
P
log   = −el
al (6.79)
 P0 
Absorbance 𝒜λ
 
  = −
log  0  = −el
P
al (6.80)
 P0 
where log (P/P0) is called the transmittance [and log (P0/P) is called absorbance 𝒜λ and it is
often quoted in percentage, 𝒍 is the path length refer Fig 6.86 and the proportionality constant a is
characteristic of the solute.
118
The extinction coefficient for a certain solution can be determined as follows. Using solutions of
known concentration, a series of known dilutions were prepared called the calibration cuvettes and
the absorbance is measured.
The measured absorbance’s Abs(obs) and calculated absorbance’s Abs(calc) are based on the line of
best fit, and the absolute difference for the known dilution series can now be obtained, refer to
Figure 6.86. To determine the amount of material in an unknown solution, the relationship
between the concentration of the known material ions and the amount of light absorbed by the
samples is explored. The important relationship is that the absorbance (A) of the solution is
proportional to the concentration of the solution, C refer Eq. 6.74
A plot of absorbance vs. concentration (in molar) that should achieve a straight line, refer to Fig
6.85 example, the equation is given by the Lambert-Beer law, refer to Eq 6.74. The slope of the line
is the molar extinction coefficient. According to Beer's Law, absorbance is directly proportional to
concentration and so the resulting plot should be a straight line which will show adherence to the
law and to sound empirical and photometric procedure. The relation is then graphed, and a best-fit
line is found (usually linear).
There is a significant deviation from a linear relationship at high absorbances, so an exponential

relationship may be more sufficient in cases where high absorbances are measured. The
absorbances of the unknown solutions can be measured on the UV-Vis spectrophotometer
instrument and can be compared to the best-fit equation to find the unknown concentrations and,
thus, the distribution constant.
The reason for taking many measurements rather than just one is to reduce the possible errors in
dilution and measurement.
The equation for a straight line is:-
y = mx + b (6.81)
where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. If the line passes through the origin, then b is zero
and the equation simplifies.
The plotted graph gradient equation is equal to the molar extinction coefficient, where: -:
The slope of the line of best fit = (change in y-coordinate) / (change in x-coordinate) (6.82)
The residual (random error) can be calculated from
119
Σ(|Abs(calc)-Abs(obs)|)/Σ(Abs(obs)) (6.8)
A Plot of measured absorbance at the selected wavelength versus the molar absorptivity of ions in
an aqueous solution can be calculated as follows from the Beer-Lambert Law A () = ℇ ()l C, refer
Eq 6.75.
ℇ=A/l´C (6.84)
This should confirm that a compound with a high molar absorptivity is very effective at absorbing
light (of the appropriate wavelength), and hence low concentrations of a compound with a high
molar absorptivity can be easily detected.
Beer’s law defines the relationship between the concentration of a compound and its absorbance
at a specific wavelength as “ℇ” is a measure of the amount of light absorbed per unit
concentration".
Molar absorptivity is a constant for a particular substance, so if the concentration of the solution is
halved so is the absorbance, which is exactly what you would expect.
ℇ is a constant value that may be obtained from a reference source. l also tends to be constant,
usually 1 cm. As constants, they can be eliminated from the formula so that all that remains is the
concept that the absorbance is proportional to the concentration.
Au/Ak= Cu/Ck (6.85)
Where Ak is the absorbance of the known concentration (calibration cuvettes) and Au = absorbance
of the unknown concentration, Ck = the concentration of the known solution from the calibration
cuvette Cu is the unknown concentration. This formula can be used for determining the
concentration of an unknown sample compared to a known Ck.
Therefore from this deduced formula we can accurately determine and confirm the percentage
content of a material within a calculated residual random error calculated by taking many
measurements as the Empirical data is collected. Observation and experiment are prone to many
sources of errors which are at times unavoidable. An accurate slope of the graph would imply that
the absorbance of the unknown sample’s absorbance, compared to the calculated absorbance
would also achieve a calculation of material on test weight within an accurate margin error as the
observed absorbance corrects the concentration to the accurate slope of the line which is the molar
extinction coefficient.
It is also not a good idea to measure absorbances that are less than 0.01 or greater than 2, since
these values correspond to 99% and 1% transmittance respectively of the original light beam. Most
spectrophotometers have a sensitivity of this order, so the measurement error is large.
120
6.4.4 Spectral Measurement Example

Spectrometric Analysis requires some understanding of Chemistry and is probably best
demonstrated by the following example which has been edited to stay within the relevant
purpose of this guide as most of the description and method and some data were previously
given.
6.4.4.1.0 Aim/Purpose of the Test.

The purpose of this evaluation is to determine the copper
content of a system operated as the Masson For Light
“Mondo Blokx Maxi UP/down wall mount” luminaire Cat #
MBW70-2 This product is a luminaire designed for wall
mounting and is marketed as suitable for exterior use.
The luminaire consists of a main body that is mounted
vertically, which is square in section with a rectangular
profile; this body houses the light source and reflector
system of anodised sheet aluminium. The ends of the
extrusion are covered by tempered glass lenses that are
held firmly to the main body by die-cast aluminium cover
plates separated via a gasket and are held securely in place
via stainless steel Allen key screws that are also sealed with
small O ring gaskets.
The back plate which is designed to be mounted to the wall
is manufactured from die-cast aluminium.
All external aluminium surfaces of the carcass of the
luminaire are pre-treated with phosphate/chromate and
then powder coated for high corrosion resistance.
This test was requested by a client who has concerns about
the luminaire’s suitability in harsh exterior environments. It
is known that when aluminium is alloyed with appreciable
amounts of copper it becomes more noble. While many of
Fig 6.88 Masson For Light MBW70-2 the known aluminium castings alloys exhibit acceptable Sample
identification sticker corrosion resistance for moderately harsh environments some aluminium alloys,
are not sufficiently resistant to corrosion for certain highly corrosive environments such as marine
or industrial atmospheres, or when immersed, an aluminium alloy suffers an accelerated attack
when it is in good electrical contact with another aluminium alloy that contains substantial
amounts of copper.
Since the corrosion behaviour of alloyed aluminium is influenced by the physical conditions of the
environment, contact with dissimilar metals and the presence of crevices, the design of equipment
made with aluminium can have an appreciable influence on the nature and rate of corrosion.
The tests are designed to evaluate the percentage of copper in the above-mentioned device which
would then enable deemed recommendations for improvement and suitability in various
environments. As the luminaire on test comprises at least four different aluminium alloys, all will
be tested for copper concentration as copper in one aluminium component can influence the rate
of corrosion in another aluminium component.
121
Spectral Measurement
Example
6.4.4.2.0 Copper Test Procedure & Configuration

Report Date 21-02-2007
Copper Test #2.010022008
Chassis – Masson for Light Power- Mondo Blokx Maxi Up/down wall mount” luminaire Cat #
MBW70-2 consisting of:-
Sample#1: main chassis of extruded Aluminium: one piece.1645g
Sample#2: cover plates of cast aluminium alloy: two pieces. 188gx2=376g
Sample#3: fixing support and electrical junction housing of cast aluminium alloy: two
pieces.718g+588g=1306g
Sample#4: reflector system of folded construction anodised aluminium: two pieces. 49gx2=98g
122
Sample #1: main chassis of
Sample #4: reflector
extruded Aluminium total weight
Sample #2: cover plates System of folded
1645g construction anodised
of cast aluminium alloy
total weight 376g Aluminium total
weight 96g
Sample #3: fixing support and electrical junction

housing of cast aluminium alloy total weight
1306g
Total mass of Aluminium alloy=3423g
Fig 6.89 Masson For Light MBW70-2, the breakup of aluminium components .
123
Spectral Measurement Example
6.4.4.2.1 Test Equipment
Compound Microscope - Ordnance Melb. Aust Factory-0441
Chemistry equipment:-beakers, flasks, burette, liquid handling,
volumetric flasks & pipettes, laboratory balance, Büchner flask &
funnels, vacuum pump, laboratory scale, thermometer,
thermostat bath, ph meter etc.
Cu2+ (aqueous copper (II) sulphate solution) standards (5.00 g/L,
4.00 g/L, 3.00 g/L, 2.00 g/L, 1.00 g/L)
Hydrochloric Acid 32%, Sulphuric Acid 95.0-98.0 % and Sodium
Hydroxide 32%
Shimadzu QV-50 Spectrophotometer with 375VDC
(4.6/2.9VAC)Shimadzu # H300 005039 Deuterium lamp flying leads,
Tungsram # 1055 incandescent lamp BA15S based modified to P30s
base, Osram 16VAC 0.57A Pico base #Na10 FL 83977~2 sodium lamp
and Cuvettes.
Fig 6.90 Masson For Light MBW70-2
6.4.4.2.2 Test Process

The peripherals listed in section 6.4.4.2.0 & 6.4.4.2.1 is to be used in the following procedures.
6.4.4.2.3 Sample preparation
The various aluminium samples # 1 to 4 are cut into approx.30-gram pieces. Sample pieces #1, #2
& #3 which are pre-treated with chromate or phosphate and then powder coated during
manufacture, must be ground clean to expose the raw aluminium alloy which is carefully ground
down to a weight of exactly 25 grams for ease of measurement and consistency.
6.4.4.2.4 Microscopic visual inspection

The samples are then examined under a microscope to confirm the presence of silicon which is
used typically in the composition for casting alloy because it has the lowest possible melting
temperature. Al-12Si wt% alloys are common.
6.4.4.2.5 Reaction of aluminium alloy with Hydrochloric Acid.

The aluminium alloy samples are reacted with concentrated hydrochloric acid until no more
reaction is observed to take place i.e. solution stops producing hydrogen, and the solution cools
down to room temperature which is confirmed with a thermometer.
Aluminium has a reaction time delay that can be traced back to the passive corrosion of the
aluminium due to an impermeable protective layer composed of aluminium hydroxide/oxide,
which must first be dissolved by the hydrochloric acid, as per the following chemical equations-
Al (OH)3 + 3 H3O+ → Al3+ + 6 H2O

Or Al2O3 + 6 H3O+ → 2 Al3+ + 6 H2O
Al + 3 H3O+ → Al3+ + 3 H2O + 3/2 H2
124
As soon as the oxide/hydroxide coating is dissolved the aluminium alloy reacts with concentrated
hydrochloric acid as per the following chemical equation: -
2Al+ 6HCl→ 2AlCl3 + 3H2
Hydrochloric acid was selected because it is completely un-reactive with the copper concentration
we want to determine and will as a bonus react with most if not all the trace elements that may
interfere with the spectrophotometer copper concentration evaluation.
This can be explained by looking at its position in the electrochemical series of metals. Copper
belongs to the noble metals. These are positioned in the row after hydrogen and are not affected
by non-oxidizing acids, which is why the copper content we want to test is not dissolved by
hydrochloric acid as the d-bands of the electronic structure are filled. Taking this into account, only
copper, silver and gold are noble metals, as all d-like bands are filled and don't cross the Fermi
level.
As it is not within the scope of this test to determine the concentration of other elements within
the sample, from previous tests it is known that other metal elements such as 0.25% max.
Chromium, 0.1 to 0.7% max. Magnesium, 0.2 to 0.6% iron, 0.1 to 0.35% zinc, 0.1 to 1.5%
manganese and 0.2 to 0.4 % titanium may be present. These elements as the previous respective
concentration range list illustrate are usually of extremely low concentrations if at all present
within common aluminium alloys.
The concentration of these elements is irrelevant to our test requirement and therefore can be
eliminated from the test procedure as they will react with the hydrochloric acid creating aqueous
salts as the below chemical equations express.
Hydrochloric acid reacts with chromium to produce chromium chloride + hydrogen:
Cr + HCl → CrCl + H2
Hydrochloric acid reacts with Magnesium to produce magnesium chloride + hydrogen.
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Hydrochloric acid reacts with iron (II) to produce iron (II) chloride + hydrogen.
Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2
Hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc to produce Zinc chloride + hydrogen
Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
In the reaction between manganese dioxide and hydrochloric acid, HCl is oxidized to Chlorine gas &
Manganese chloride
MnO2 +4HCl → MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
125
6.4.4.2.6 Reaction of residue solid suspension of copper, silicon, and titanium.

After the aluminium alloy is completely dissolved in the hydrochloric acid the solution contains
metal aqueous salts as stated in the above chemical equations as well as a solid solution
suspension of un-reacted copper, silicon, and titanium if present.
This solid suspension is separated by stirring the waste solution long enough to form a sludge
having a particle size such that the sludge can be separated by a conventional means such as
filtration of at least 0.1 μm in pore diameter, through a Büchner flask & funnel which is accelerated
with a vacuum pump or by centrifugation or sedimentation.
The residue that is recovered in the filter, during filtration is composed of copper, silicon, and
titanium if present.
Silicon does not react with hydrochloric acids, nor with any other acids under normal conditions
but is only dissolved by hydrofluoric acid, HF, a reaction driven by the stability of the Si(IV) fluoride
complex [SiF6]2-.
Si + 6HF → [SiF6]2- + 2H+ + 2H2
Silicon is also attacked by bases such as aqueous sodium hydroxide to give silicates, highly complex
species containing the anion [SiO4]4-.
Si+ 4NaOH → [SiO4]4- + 4Na+ + 2H2
To our great benefit Sodium hydroxide does not react with iron or the copper that we are
interested in determining but as a bonus, it reacts rather rapidly with other metals such as
aluminium, zinc and titanium. Thus the recovered solid suspension will be further cleansed of not
only possible titanium, and silicon but will also double react with any remnants of aluminium or
zinc that may have survived enabling us to resolve the weight of the analyte residue of pure copper
to an acceptable accuracy.
The previously recovered solid suspension residue is reacted with Sodium hydroxide solution, to
form aqueous silicon oxide, from the remnant silicon and aqueous sodium hydrogen titanate from
titanium.
The resultant solution contains aqueous salts as stated above as well as a solid solution suspension
of only un-reacted copper.
This solid suspension is separated by a conventional means such as through a Büchner flask &
funnel which is accelerated with a vacuum pump or by centrifugation or sedimentation.
The residue recovered in the filter, after filtration should be composed of copper. Measuring the
weight of this copper will give a reasonably accurate concentration of copper in the aluminium
alloys tested.
A quick test to evaluate the presence of copper before further analysis is uselessly attempted is to
apply a static magnetic field from a strong rare earth magnet. The attraction of the residue would
indicate a ferrous species of metal which cannot be copper.
126
If on the other hand, an alternating magnetic field is applied to the residue such as an induction
motor with the rotor removed and the test tube residue sample can be seated in the rotor cavity.
The induced eddy currents generate an opposing magnetic field which will cause the residue to
rotate and or jiggle. If this occurs the residue must be copper as other non-ferrous metals such as
zinc or aluminium would have dissolved in the hydrochloric acid.
A further method for evaluating the copper contained in the aluminium alloy consists of using
titration in reactions with nitric acid, sulphuric acid or aqua regia.
6.4.4.2.7 Acid –Metal reaction- to determine the precise quantity of a

reactant.
The residue of copper collected is reacted with 98.0% Sulphuric Acid a burette is used to deliver the
acid reactant to the flask and an indicator or pH Meter is used to detect the endpoint of the
reaction. If the acid is in excess stoichiometry is used to confirm the volume of the acid and the
number of moles of reactant in the analyte solution. The molar mass of the copper sulphate
product can then be calculated. The acid metal reaction equation is: -
Cu + 2 H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2H2O+ SO2
This process is repeated with a known piece of copper of the same weight as the residue copper (or
ratio) and if the residue collected from the aluminium alloy was indeed pure copper the
concentration of the acid will achieve the same result.
A further refinement of a concentration of copper content can be achieved by spectrophotometric

analysis.
6.4.4.2.8 Method of Spectrophotometric Analysis of copper found within the

Aluminium Alloy Samples
Once we have empirically determined the copper concentration within the alloys based on copper
residue attained from acid-metal and base metal chemical reactions we can now accurately
confirm or reject the per cent weight of copper in the analyte solution previously determined by
acid-metal reactions by spectrophotometric analysis.
Before all spectrophotometric tests, all cuvettes used in the tests are cleaned and all traces of
moisture are evaporated dry with methyl ethyl alcohol the outsides are wiped off with a clean, dry
cloth and efforts are made to avoid fingerprints and extra care not to touch the transparent sides.
The cuvettes are always placed in the spectrophotometer in the same direction, and bubbles in the
solution should be avoided since they also scatter light. All small bubbles should be removed by
tapping the cuvette on the lab bench. When a series of concentrations is measured proceed from
the lowest to the highest concentration. This minimises the error due to the residual solution left in
the cuvette from the previous measurement. Ideally, the cuvette should be cleaned between each
measurement.
127
All solutions tested were also equilibrated at 25 degrees Celsius. This equilibration should be
completed by one hour of repeated steps consisting of several minutes of vigorous shaking
followed by several minutes of thermal equilibrium by placement in the thermostat bath (at 25
degrees Celsius).
The UV-Vis spectrophotometer is then used to measure the absorbance of a standard solution of
Cupric Sulphate Pentahydrate.
A dilute molar solution of copper sulphate is prepared initially by dissolving Cupric Sulphate
Pentahydrate commonly known as Copper Sulphate in demineralised water and then placed
within the spectrophotometer well to establish the parameters for further testing of the unknown
samples. A solution concentration must be selected so that it is within the range of the
determined concentration of the Cupric Sulphate Pentahydrate analyte solutions we want to test.
According to Molarity solution reaction calculations.
Where n=c/V, where n= number of Moles of a substance (symbol: mol) is the SI base unit that
measures an amount of a substance), c is the concentration and V is the Volume in dm3
Starting at a wavelength setting of 180 nm, the absorbance (A) of the initial calibration solution is
measured after zeroing the spectrophotometer at each different wavelength, the absorbance
readings are recorded for the solution at 50 nm increments from 180nm to at least 2000 nm. A
wavelength of maximum absorption is selected where the absorbance does not vary greatly with
the wavelength for copper sulphate solutions with a spectrophotometer. For UV-Visible
spectrophotometric analysis, the  max is commonly used. This is the wavelength that has the
maximum absorbance. If the Copper Sulphate absorbs too much light at  max another wavelength
is selected between 15 and 65%T and 36.8%T. This is 0.824 – 0.187 absorbance ( A = 2-%T).
Therefore, it should be at a maximum or minimum of the electronic spectra.
6.4.4.2.9 Calibration Curve solution preparation.

Next, a series of solutions of known concentration are prepared and their absorbance is measured
at the selected wavelength or λ max. An absorbance vs. concentration, calibration curve can be
plotted and then it can be determined to fit using linear regression (least-squares fit). The unknown
copper concentration is deduced by measuring absorbance at the absorption maximum and
comparing it to the standard curve with the caution that The Beer-Lambert Law is obeyed (the
standard curve is linear) for reasonably dilute solutions. Only those points in the linear range of the
standard curve can be used for accurate calculations.
As the absorbance of the solutions will increase linearly with the amount of copper sulphate added
we can now theorise a linear sequence using the unknown copper concentrations and prepare a
desired known concentration range of copper sulphate for the spectrophotometric measurement.
The required concentrations of Copper Sulphate can now be determined with mass volume
calculations. New calibration copper sulphate solutions are prepared of known Molarity that
completes and form a linear sequence with the empirically determined unknown solutions.
A standard plot of the concentration of copper vs. the absorbance of solutions having known
copper concentrations are constructed and can then be compared with the data series of the
copper content concentration we are testing.
128
The cuvettes are filled with known molar solutions of copper sulphate that are to be prepared and
with the analyte solutions that we want to determine.
6.4.4.3.0 Test solutions Spectrometric procedure
The spectrophotometer is warmed up to a stabilized working condition, the instrument is zeroed,

and checked for 100% transmittance, % T, using the prepared calibration Cuvette with
demineralised water. This is to be repeated before each sample is read. The calibration cuvettes
containing Cupric Sulphate Pentahydrate solutions and sample cuvettes are placed one at a time, in
the sample chamber, and the absorbance A % is recorded for each solution. After closing the
chamber, the adjustable slit control knob is adjusted so that the absorbance scale reads zero. After
adjusting each end of the absorbance scale, the absorbance is recorded from the scale.
The adjustments of the left- and right-hand ends of the scale are repeated, and then once again to
determine the absorbance of the samples under test. The absorbance (A) of all solutions is
measured at the previously determined wavelength. After zeroing the instrument at each test, the
absorbance readings are recorded for all solutions.
A Data table of Calibration solutions & Analyte plot of absorbance (A) y-axis as a function of known
concentration (C) x–axis is plotted.
According to Beer's Law, absorbance is directly proportional to concentration and so the resulting
plot should be a straight line. Refer Fig 6.86
This plotted graph or tabulation is used to determine the concentrations of solutions containing
known amounts of the unknown copper compound and from this, we can determine the weight
percent of copper.
A Plot of Measured absorbances at selected wavelength versus volume of Copper Sulphate test and
calibration solutions
The measured absorbance’s Abs(obs), calculated absorbance’s Abs(calc) based on the line of best
fit, and absolute difference for the following copper sulphate dilution series can now be obtained.
To determine the amount of copper in an unknown solution, the relationship between the
concentration of copper ions and the amount of light absorbed by the samples is explored. The
important relationship is that the absorbance (A) of the solution is proportional to the
concentration of the solution, c, refer to Eq.6.74.
129
6.4.4.3.1 Measurements of residue copper solid suspension recovered from

processes 6.4.4.2.5 & 6.4.4.2.6
After following the procedures in 6.4.4.2.5 Reaction of aluminium alloy

with Hydrochloric Acid) and 6.4.4.6 (Reaction of residue solid
suspension of copper, silicon and titanium), refer to samples #1, #2 &
#3 contained a residue that was recovered from the filter, and each of
the residue samples collected appeared to be a metallic composition
of copper particles.
Fig 6.91 Titration

Each sample was quickly subjected to a static magnetic field and then
to an alternating magnetic field to evaluate the presence of copper
before we subjected the sample to further analysis. All the samples
tested did not respond to the static magnetic field as expected but
responded to the alternating magnetic field indicating that copper was
present in the residue samples.
These copper samples were then weighed, and the data tabulated
Fig 6.92 AC Magnetic Field below shows reasonably accurate concentrations of copper in the
Test aluminium alloy samples tested.
Sample Number Static Alternating Total Weight ofApprox. Total Approximate percentage
& description Magnetic Magnetic aluminium alloyWeight of copper within the
Field test Field test before reaction Residue copperaluminium alloys tested
Recovered.
Sample #1: main chassisPass Pass 25g ≈0.05g ≈0.20 %
of extruded Aluminium
total weight 1645g
Sample#2: cover plates Pass Pass 25g ≈0.93g ≈3.72 %
total weight 376g
Sample#3: fixing supporPass Pass 25g ≈0.90g ≈3.60 %
and electrical junction
the housing of cast alumin
alloy total weight 1306g
Sample#4: reflector system- - 25g ≈0.00g ≈0%
of folded construction
anodised aluminium 96g
Total mass of Aluminium Total average Concentratio
Present of of copper based on total
luminaire mass of Aluminium presen
# MBW70-2 in luminaire 3.29g+13.98g
3423g 47.016g+0g =64.286g/342
x100 ≈ 1.88%
Tabulation 6.24 Copper concentration within alloy based on copper residue attained from acid metal
chemical reactions.
130
6.4.4.3.2 Recovered copper residue analysis by Acid metal reaction

determined by Volumetric analysis and mass-mass calculation of reactant and
the Molar Mass of Copper Sulphate product.
The residue of copper collected is reacted with 98.0%

Sulphuric Acid a burette is used to deliver the acid
reactant to the flask and an indicator or pH Meter is used
to detect the endpoint of the reaction. Stoichiometry is
used to confirm the volume of the acid and the number
of moles of reactant in the analyte solution. The molar
mass of the copper sulphate product can then be
Fig 6.93 Volumetric Analysis calculated. The acid metal reaction equation is: -
Cu + 2 H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2H2O+ SO2
This process is repeated with a known piece of copper of the same weight as the residue copper (or
ratio) and if the residue collected from the aluminium alloy was indeed pure copper the
concentration of the acid will achieve the same result providing further confirmation of copper
content.
Sample #1 main chassis of extruded Aluminium: one piece.1645g
Cu Relative atomic mass =63.55, copper recovered refer table #1:-0.05 grams,
H2SO4 Relative atomic mass =98.1, mass in grams? volume?
Mass-mass Calculation
n=m/M, (6.86)
where n= number of Moles of a substance (symbol: mol) is the SI base unit

Fig 6.94 Data Plot that measures an amount of a substance. A mole is a counting unit. One .
. mole contains Avogadro’s number (approximately 6.02214X1023 ) entities.
(atoms or molecules), m is the mass in grams and M is the Molar Mass (g/mol or g mol–1),
n(Cu) = 0.05/63.55 = 7.868x10-4 mol

n(2(2 H2SO4 )) = m / 2((1.02x2)+32.06+(16x4))
n 2(7.868x10-4) =m/196.2
n 1.5736x10-3 = m/196.2
= 0.3087 g of H2SO4
The density of 98% H2SO4 is about 1.96 kg/dm3, 0.3087 g/0.98=0.315g of solution that is in
0.315g/1.96=0.16 cm3 of 98% H2SO4
Molecular weight of sulphuric acid = 98.1 g, the density of 98% acid is 1.84 g/ml, no. of moles =
weight /mol.wt.,
no. of moles of 98% H2SO4=1840 g (the weight of 1 litre of acid)/98g =18.78 M
131
Volumetric analysis to check the volume calculated above.
n=cV (6.87)
where n=number of mol, c is concentration or number of moles of solute per cubic decimetre of
solution in mol dm-3 and V is volume in dm3- stoichiometry volumetric analysis
n(Cu)=n(2H2SO4)
n(Cu)=0.05g/63.55mol=7.867x10-4 mol
n(H+)=4n(Cu)
=4x7.867x10-4 mol
=.00315 mol
n(H2SO4)=n(H+)
=0.00315 mol
V(H2SO4)=n/c
=0.00315/18.78
=0.001677dm3
=0.16cm3 of 98% H2SO4
From the equation Cu + 2 H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2 H2O+ SO2 1 mole of Cu reacts with 2 Moles of
Sulphuric acid to produce 1 mole of CuSO4
:-n(CuSO4 )=n(Cu)
n(Cu)=m/M=0.05g/63.55 g/Mol
=7.867x10-4 mol of CuSO4
Sample #2 cover plates of cast aluminium alloy: two pieces. 188gx2=376g
Cu Relative atomic mass =63.55, copper recovered refer table #2:-0.93 grams, H2SO4 Relative
atomic mass =98.1, mass in grams? volume?
n(Cu)=0.93/63.55=0.01463 mol
n(2(2 H2SO4 ))=m/ 2((1.02x2)+32.06+(16x4))
n 2(0.01463)=m/196.2
n 0.02927= m/196.2
=5.74 g of H2SO4
The density of 98% H2SO4 is about 1.96 kg/dm3, 5.74 g/0.98=5.86g of solution that is in
5.86/1.96=3 cm3 of 98% H2SO4
The molecular weight of sulphuric acid = 98.1 g, the density of 98% acid is 1.84 g/ml, no. of moles =
weight /mol.wt.,
no. of moles of 98% H2SO4=1840 g (the weight of 1 litre of acid)/98g =18.78 M
132
From Eq. 6.87, n=cV, where n=number of mol, c is concentration in mol dm-3 and V is volume in
dm3- stoichiometry volumetric analysis
n(Cu)=n(2H2SO4)
n(Cu)=0.93g/63.55mol=0.01463 mol
n(H+)=4n(Cu)
=4x0.01463 mol
=0.0585 mol
n(H2SO4)=n(H+)
=0.0585 mol
V(H2SO4)=n/c
=0.0585/18.78
=0.3115dm3
=3.1cm3 of 98% H2SO4
From the equation Cu + 2 H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2 H2O + SO2 1 mole of Cu reacts with 2 Moles of
:-n(CuSO4 )=n(Cu)
n(Cu)=m/M=0.93g/63.55 g/Mol
=0.015 mol of CuSO4
Sample#3: fixing support and electrical junction housing of cast aluminium alloy: two
pieces.718g+588g=1306g
Cu Relative atomic mass =63.55, copper recovered refer to table #2:-0.90 grams, H2SO4 Relative
atomic mass =98.1, mass in grams? volume?
n(Cu) = 0.90/63.55 = 0.01463 mol

n(2(2 H2SO4 )) = m/ 2((1.02x2)+32.06+(16x4))
n 2(0.01416) = m/196.2
n 0.02832 = m/196.2
=5.56 g of H2SO4
The density of 98% H2SO4 is about 1.96 kg/dm3, 5.5.66 g/0.98=5.77g of solution that is in
5.77/1.96=2.9 cm3 of 98% H2SO4
The molecular weight of sulphuric acid = 98.1 g, the density of 98% acid is 1.84 g/ml, no. of moles =
weight /mol.wt.,
no. of moles of 98% H2SO4=1840 g (the weight of 1 litre of acid) / 98g =18.78 M
133

From Eq. 6.87, n=cV, where n=number of mol, c is concentration in mol dm-3 and V is volume in
dm3- stoichiometry volumetric analysis
n(Cu)=n(2H2SO4)
n(Cu)=0.90g/63.55mol=0.01462 mol
n(H+)=4n(Cu)
=4x0.01462 mol
=0.0566 mol
n(H2SO4)=n(H+)
=0.0566 mol
V(H2SO4)=n/c
=0.0566/18.78
=0.3109dm3
=3.0cm3 of 98% H2SO4
From the equation Cu + 2 H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2 1 mole of Cu reacts with 2 Moles of
:-n(CuSO4 )=n(Cu)
n(Cu)=m/M=0.90g/63.55 g/Mol
=0.014 mol of CuSO4
Sample Number Total Weight of Approx. AverageActual VolumeCalculated

& description Residue copper Calculated Of H2SO4 Molarity of
Recovered. Volume in cm3 In cm3Acid Copper sulphate
Of H2SO4 Acid Required to in mol dm-3
Required to React with
React with Cu
3
Cu cm
Sample #1: main chassis 0.05g 0.16cm3 0.2cm3 7.867x10-4 mol dm-3
total weight 1645g
Sample#2: cover plates 0.93g 3.05cm3 3.2cm3 0.015 mol dm-3
total weight 376g
Sample#3: fixing support 0.90g 2.95cm3 3.1cm3 0.014 mol dm-3
the housing of cast aluminiu
Sample#4: reflector system - - - -
Tabulation 6.25:-Summary of Recovered residue copper analysis by Acid metal reaction determined by
Volumetric analysis and mass-mass calculation of reactant and the Molar Mass of Copper Sulphate product
refer 6.4.4.3.2
134
6.4.4.3.3 Spectrophotometric analysis of copper found within the Aluminium

Alloy samples
We have already determined the copper concentration within the alloys based on copper residue
attained from acid-metal chemical reactions.
We can now accurately confirm or reject the weight per cent of copper in the analyte solution
previously determined by acid-metal reactions by spectrophotometric analysis.
6.4.4.3.4 UV/Visible Spectra of Copper Sulphate

Some solutions absorb light at certain visible wavelengths which give the solution a colour that can
be observed by the eye. We can already make a qualitative judgement that quantities of copper
have been extracted since all test solutions turned into a beautiful bright blue ‘trademark’ hue that
copper sulphate is known for.
A new molar solution of copper sulphate was prepared by dissolving Cupric Sulphate Pentahydrate
in demineralised water and then tested within the spectrophotometer to establish the parameters
for further testing of the unknown samples. A solution of 0.005 mol dm -3 was selected as it is
within the range of the determined concentration of the copper sulphate analyte solutions.
According to the following molarity solution reaction.
Calibration Cuvette range 0.005 mol dm -3

n=c/V, where n= number of Moles of a substance (symbol: mol) is the SI base unit that measures an
amount of a substance.), c is the concentration and V is the Volume in dm3
Cu Relative atomic mass =63.55, H =1.01, S = 32.06, O = 16
Relative atomic mass =249.71, CuSO4 .5H20 mass in grams? Is required to make a 50 c m3 volume of
H20 of 0.005 mol dm-3 Solution?
n(CuSO4 .5H20)=cV
=0.005x 0.05 mol
=2.5x10-4 mol
Therefore mass of CuSO4 .5H20 needed =2.5x10-4x 249.71 g
=0.062g
Starting at a wavelength setting of 180 nm, the absorbance (A) of the calibration solution and the
sample analyte solutions is measured after zeroing the spectrophotometer at each different
wavelength, the absorbance readings are recorded for both solutions at 50 nm increments from
180nm to at least 2000 nm.
The typical UV and Visible spectra of aqueous Copper Sulphate were plotted to refer 3.8 and show
consistency as theorised by the Lambert-Beer law, refer Eq 6.75
A=ℇlC
Where A is the absorbance the concentration (in molar), l is the light path length which the light
passes in cm and ℇ is the constant, known as the molar extinction coefficient.
135
UV/Visible spectra of Copper Sulphate Calibration & analyte sample solutions with a QV-50
Spectrophotometer Test Lamp Shimadzu Part No.H-300 Deuterium & tugsten incandescent
light source.
0.8
0.6
ABSORBANCE
0.4
0.2
0
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950
-0.2
-0.4
Wavelength (nm)
Absorbance of calibration Solution of 0.005 mol dm-3

Absorbance of sample #1
Fig 6.95 UV/Visible spectra of Copper Sulphate Calibration and analyte sample solutions.
The maximum absorption for the test copper sulphate

solutions we tested is 836.9nm. The test solution absorbs
strongly in the red regions of the visible spectrum, which
confirms the blue colour that we see as it transmits light of only
that colour or absorbs light of a complementary colour.
We can now select a wavelength where the absorbance does
not vary greatly with the wavelength. For UV-Visible
spectrophotometric analysis, usually the  max. is used. This is
the wavelength that has the maximum absorbance.
Fig 6.96 Authors Spectrophotometer Copper Sulphate will absorb too much light at  max. therefore
set up at his Bundoora lab. a compromised setting between 15 and 65%T and 36.8%T is
. found to be the most desirable setting. This is 0.824 – 0.187
absorbance (remember A = 2-%T). Therefore, it should be at a maximum or minimum of the
electronic spectra, so 650 nm was selected.
136
6.4.4.3.4 Calibration Curve solution preparation.

Next, a series of solutions of known concentration are prepared and their absorbance is measured
at a λ of 650nm. Looking at the range of the Calculated Molarity of Copper sulphate solution in mol
dm-3 from data table 3.5 we obtained 7.867x10-4 mol dm-3 from sample #1, 0.014 mol dm-3 for
sample #3 and 0.015 mol dm-3 for sample #3.
Plotting an absorbance vs. concentration, a calibration curve can be determined and fit using linear
regression (least-squares fit). The unknown copper concentration is deduced by measuring
absorbance at the absorption maximum and comparing it to the standard curve with the caution
that: The Beer-Lambert Law is only obeyed (the standard curve is linear) for reasonably dilute
solutions. Only those points in the linear range of the standard curve can be used for accurate
calculations.
As the absorbance of the solutions will increase linearly with the amount of copper sulphate added
we can now theorise a linear sequence using the unknown copper concentrations and prepare a
desired known concentration range of copper sulphate for the spectrophotometric measurement,
as follows:-
7.867x10-4 mol dm-3 or 0.000786 from sample #1 is rounded to 0.001; we prepare a solution of
0.002 mol dm-3,
0.005 mol dm-3, 0.010 mol dm-3, 0.014 mol dm-3 for sample #3 and 0.015 mol dm-3 for sample #3
and 0.020 mol dm-3 and 0.025 mol dm-3
The required concentrations of Copper Sulphate are determined with mass volume calculations
and prepared.
Mass-mass calculations to prepare calibration copper sulphate solutions of known molarity to

complete the linear sequence.
Calibration Cuvette #1 0.002 mol dm -3

From Eq. 6.87, n=c/V, where n= number of Moles of a
substance (symbol: mol) is the SI base unit that measures an
amount of a substance.), c is the concentration and V is the
Volume in dm3
Cu Relative atomic mass =63.55, H =1.01, S=32.06, O = 16
Relative atomic mass =249.71, CuSO4 .5H20 mass in grams? Is
required to make a 50 c m3 volume of H20 of 0.002 mol dm-3
Solution?
Fig 6.97 Calibration Cuvette
Preparation n(CuSO4 .5H20)=cV
=0.002x 0.05 mol
=1.0x10-4 mol
=0.025g
137
Calibration Cuvette #2 0.005 mol dm -3

From Eq. 6.87, n=c/V, where n= number of Moles of a substance (symbol: mol) is the SI base unit
that measures an amount of a substance.), c is the concentration and V is the Volume in dm3
n(CuSO4 .5H20)=cV
=0.005x 0.05 mol
=2.5x10-4 mol
=0.062g
Calibration Cuvette #3 0.010 mol dm-3

n(CuSO4 .5H20)=cV
=0.010x 0.05 mol
=5x10-4 mol
Therefore mass of CuSO4 .5H20 needed =5x10-4x 249.71 g
=0.125g

n(CuSO4 .5H20)=cV
=0.020x 0.05 mol
=1x10-3 mol
Therefore mass of CuSO4 .5H20 needed =1x10-3x 249.71 g
=0.250g
138

n(CuSO4 .5H20)=cV
=0.025x 0.05 mol
=1.25x10-3 mol
=0.312g
A linear regression line can now be calculated from the data series.
A standard plot of the concentration of copper vs. the absorbance of solutions having known
copper concentrations are constructed and can then be compared with the data series of the
copper content concentration we are testing.
A cuvette is filled with known molar solutions of CuSO4 that were prepared to refer to 3.9 and one
with the analyte solution that we want to determine copper concentration obtained from 3.4.
6.4.4.3.5 Test of solutions- Spectrometric procedure
The spectrophotometer is warmed up and stabilized to a working

condition, the instrument is zeroed and checked for 100%
transmittance, % T, using calibration Cuvette #6 with
demineralised water. This was repeated before each sample is
read. The calibration cuvettes containing Cupric Sulphate
Pentahydrate solutions 1 through 5, and sample cuvettes, 1
through 3, are placed one at a time, in the spectrophotometer well
the transmittance % T is recorded the for each solution. The
Fig 6.97 sample cuvettes absorbance (A) of all solutions is measured at 650 nm. After zeroing
placement in the sample the instrument at each test, the absorbance readings are “well”
chamber. recorded for all solutions.
6.4.4.3.6 Calibration solutions & Analyte plot of absorbance (A) y-axis as a

function of known concentration (C) x-axis
According to Beer's Law, absorbance is directly proportional to
concentration and so the resulting plot should be a straight line.
This plotted graph or tabulation is used to determine the
concentrations of solutions containing known amounts of the
unknown copper compound and from this, we can determine the
weight percent of copper.
Fig 6.96 Authors Spectrophotometer

set up.
139
Sample Number Total Weight Concentration Absorbance Absorbance A(0bs)-

& description of Residue (M) x Molarity of A(obs) y A(calc) A(calc)
copper Copper sulphate
observed Calculated
Recovered. solution
-3
in mol
dm
Sample #1: main chass 0.05g 7.867x10-4 mol dm-3 0.01 0.010 0.000
of extruded Aluminium  0.001 mol dm-3
total weight 1645g
Calibration Cuvette #- 0.002 mol dm-3 0.03 0.043 0.013
CuSO4.5H20
Calibration Cuvette - 0.005 mol dm-3 0.09 0.077 0.013
CuSO4.5H20
Calibration Cuvette- 0.010 mol dm-3 0.11 0.11 0.000
CuSO4.5H20
Sample #3: fixing supp0.90g 0.014 mol dm-3 0.14 0.146 0.006
housing of cast alumin
alloy total weight 1306
Sample #2: cover plates 0.93g 0.015 mol dm-3 0.19 0.180 0.010
total weight 376g
Calibration Cuvette - 0.020 mol dm-3 0.21 0.215 0.005
CuSO4.5H20
Calibration Cuvette- 0.025 mol dm-3 0.25 0.25 0.007
CuSO4.5H20
Calibration Cuvette - - -
Distilled H20
TOTAL 1.03 0.054
Tabulation 6.26:- Calibration solutions & Analyte plot of absorbance (A) y-axis as a function of known
concentration (C) x-axis
6.4.4.3.7 Plot of Measured absorbances at 650nm versus volume of Copper

Sulphate test and calibration solutions –Refer to fig 6.85.
The measured absorbances Abs(obs), calculated absorbances Abs(calc) based on the line of best fit,
and absolute difference for the following copper sulphate dilution series we obtained in 3.9 & 3.4:-
7.867x10-4 mol dm-3 or 0.000786 from sample #1, rounded to 0.001, we then prepare a solution of
0.002 mol dm-3, 0.005 mol dm-3, 0.010 mol dm-3, 0.014 mol dm-3 sample #2, 0.015 mol dm-3 sample
#3 than 0.020 mol dm-3 and finally 0.025 mol dm-3.
6.4.4.3.8 The molar extinction coefficient for copper sulphate at 650 nm and
the residual (random error) & molar absorptivity calculation
The extinction coefficient for a certain solution can be determined as follows. Using solutions of
known concentration, a series of known dilutions were prepared called the calibration cuvettes and
the absorbance was measured refer to Tabulation 6.26.
140
A plot of absorbance vs. concentration (in molar) gives a straight line whose equation is given by
the Lambert-Beer law. The slope of the line is the molar extinction coefficient.
The reason for taking many measurements rather than just one is to reduce the possible errors in
dilution and measurement.
Therefore from Tabulation 6.26 & Fig 6.85, the Plot of measured absorbance at 650 nm versus
volume copper sulphate, the molar extinction coefficient for copper sulphate at 650 nm can be
calculated as follows:
Concentration (M) x Molarity of Copper sulphate Absorbance A(calc) Calculated

solution in mol dm-3 Where y = 0.1044+0.027
0.001 mol dm-3 0.01
0.025 mol dm-3 0.25
Tabulation 6.27: Measured absorbance VS volume of copper sulphate.
The equation for a straight line, refer to Eq 6.81, is y = mx + b, where m is the slope and b is the y-
intercept.
If the line passes through the origin, then b is zero and the equation simplifies.
In this graph, the gradient of the line of best fit = (change in y-coordinate) / (change in x-
coordinate)
0.025-0.001/0.25-0.01
0.024/0.23=0.104
The best-fit line equation. Since the line crosses the y-axis when y = 0.01,
the equation of the graph is y = 0.104x + 0.01
Gradient of line = 0.25cm-1 (0.025 mol dm-3 CuSO4)-1

Corresponds to 0.025 mol dm-3 CuSO4
ε600 (CuSO4) = 0.025/0.25
Therefore the molar extinction coefficient = 0.1 M-1 cm-1
The residual (random error) is:
Σ(|Abs(calc)-Abs(obs)|)/Σ(Abs(obs)) = 0.054/1.03 = 0.05(5%)
From our results, we calculated a random error of 5%. These errors are due to many factors, but
the main reason is inconsistency in pipetting the solutions. An error of 5% is acceptable for this
experiment.
A molar extinction coefficient at 650nm for copper sulphate of 0.1M-1cm-1
According to Beer's Law, absorbance is directly proportional to concentration and so the resulting
plot that should be a straight line confirms adherence to the law and to sound empirical and
photometric procedure and results.
From Tabulation 6.26 & Fig 6.85, the Plot of measured absorbance at 650 nm versus volume copper
sulphate the molar absorptivity of Cu2+ ions in an aqueous solution of CuSO4 at 650 nm can be
calculated as follows:
141
Sample Number Concentration (M) x Molarity of Absorbance A(obs) y

& description Copper sulphate solution in mol observed
dm-3
Sample # 1: main chassis 7.867x10-4 mol dm-3 0.01

of extruded Aluminium  0.001 mol dm-3
total weight 1645g
Calibration Cuvette # 5 0.025 mol dm-3 0.25
CuSO4.5H20
Tabulation 6.28: Measured absorbance observed VS volume of copper sulphate.
The high-end value of molar absorptivity, at 0.025 mol dm-3, had a 0.5 cm path length cuvette and
gives an absorbance of 0.25.
From Beer-Lambert Law, refer to Eq. 6.84, ℇ = A / l ´ C
Therefore, ℇ = 0.25/0.5x 0.025 mol-1 cm-1 = 20 mol L-1
At the very low-end value of e,  0.001 mol dm-3 or 1 L mol-1 cm-1 which is in solution in a 0.5 cm
path length cuvette and gives an absorbance of 0.01.
Therefore, ℇ = 0.01 /0.5x0.001 mol-1 cm-1 = 20 mol L-1
This confirms that a compound with a high molar absorptivity is very effective at absorbing light (of
the appropriate wavelength), and hence low concentrations of a compound with a high molar
absorptivity can be easily detected.
6.4.4.3.9 EXPRESSION OF RESULTS AND CALIBRATION

Actual Copper (Cu2+) concentrations were determined from the calibration plot as per Tabulation
6.26.
Beer’s law defines the relationship between the concentration of a compound and its absorbance
at a specific wavelength as "” is a measure of the amount of light absorbed per unit
concentration".
Molar absorptivity is a constant for a particular substance, so if the concentration of the solution is
halved so is the absorbance, which is exactly what you would expect. Beer’s law refer Eq. 6.75 is
expressed as
A=ℇlC
where A is the absorbance; ℇ the Molar absorptivity also a constant; C is the concentration, and l is
the length of the light path through the sample.
 is a constant value that may be obtained from a reference source. l also tends to be constant,
usually 1 cm. As constants, they can be eliminated from the formula so that all that remains is the
concept that the absorbance is proportional to the concentration refer to Eq, 6.85.
142
Au/Ak= Cu/Ck
where Ak is the absorbance of the known concentration (calibration cuvette no’s 1to 5) and Au =
absorbance of the unknown concentration (samples no’s 1to3), Ck = the concentration of the
known solution from calibration cuvette no’s 1 to 5 and Cu is the unknown concentration. This
formula is for determining the concentration of an unknown sample compared to a known Ck.
Therefore from this deduced formula we can now accurately determine and confirm the copper
content within a 5% residual random error calculated previously by taking many measurements as
the Empirical data that was collected through observation and experiment, is prone to many
sources of errors which are at times unavoidable.
Sample NumberTotal Concentration Absorban Absorban

& description Weight (M) x Molarity of ce A(obs) ce Beer-Lambert
of Residue Copper sulphate y-axis- A(calc)y- Confirmation
copper solution in mol dots axis-trend Calculation
dm-3 line
Recovered
Observed Calculate A () =  () l C
empirically d therefore Au/Ak= Cu/Ck
grams = Ak
(calibration = Au
series of (sample
measuremen series of
t) measuremen
t)
Sample #1: main 0.05g 7.867x10-4 mol dm-30.01 0.010 0.01 / 0.043=Cu/ 0.002
Chassis of extruded  0.001 mol dm-3 =4.651x10-4 mol dm-3
Aluminium ( Cu) Relative atomic mass
=63.55
total weight 1645g
=Cu (63.55 x 4.651x10-4 )
=0.030g
Calibration CuvettNR 0.002 mol dm-3 0.03 0.043 NR
#1 CuSO4.5H20
Calibration NR 0.010 mol dm-3 0.09 0.11 NR
Cuvette #3
CuSO4.5H20
Sample#3: fixing 0.90g 0.014 mol dm-3 0.11 0.146 0.11 / 0.11= Cu / 0.010
Support and electrical =0.01 mol dm-3
junction ( Cu) Relative atomic mass
=63.55
housing of cast
Al alloy =Cu (63.55 x 0.01)
total weight 1306g =0.64g
Sample#2: cover 0.93g 0.015 mol dm-3 0.14 0.180 0.14 / 0.215= Cu / 0.020
plates of cast =0.01 mol dm-3
aluminium alloy ( Cu) Relative atomic mass
=63.55
total weight 376g
=Cu (63.55 x 0.013)
=0.83g
Calibration - 0.020 mol dm-3 0.21 0.215 0.005
Cuvette #4
CuSO4.5H20
Calibration - 0.025 mol dm-3 0.25 0.25 0.007
Cuvette #5
CuSO4.5H20
Tabulation 6.29:-EXPRESSION OF RESULTS AND CALIBRATION: Actual Copper (Cu2+) concentrations
determined from the calibration plot, Tabulation 6.26.
143
As the slope of our graph is accurate within 5% would imply that the absorbance of the unknown
samples absorbance, compared to the calculated absorbance would also achieve a calculation of
copper weight within a 5% error margin as the observed absorbance corrects the concentration to
the accurate slope of the line which is the molar extinction coefficient. Refer 6.4.4.3.8
Total Approx Approx Actual Actual percentage

Sample Number Weight of Total Percentage Weight of Of copper within
aluminium Weight of of copper Residue aluminium alloys
& description alloy Residue within the copper derived with
before copper aluminium Derived Spectrophotometric
empirical Recovered alloys tested with analysis
tests empirically empirically Spectro-
Photometric
analysis
Sample #1: main chassis 25g 0.05g+-60% 0.20 % 0.03g+-5% 0.12 %+-5%
total weight 1645g
Sample#2: cover plates 25g 0.93g+-45% 3.72 % 0.64g+-5% 2.56 %+-5%
total weight 376g
Sample#3: fixing support 25g 0.90g+-8% 3.60 % 0.83g+-5% 3.32 %+-5%
the housing of cast aluminium
Sample#4: reflector system 25g 0.00g 0% 0.00g 0%
Empirical Total average Actual Total average
Concentration of copper Concentration of copper
based on the total mass of Based on the total mass o
Total mass of Aluminium Aluminium present in Aluminium
Present of luminaire luminaire present in luminaire
# MBW70-2=3423g 3.29g+13.98g+ 47.016g+ 1.974g+9.63g+
0g =64.286g/3423g 43.36g+0g =5
x100=1.88% +-16% 4.96g/3423g
x100=1.61%+-5%
Tabulation 6.30 FINAL RESULTS TABLE of Actual Copper (Cu2+) concentrations within the sample aluminium
samples tested expressed in percentage.
6.4.4.4.0 EXPERIMENTAL CONCLUSION
The tests were designed to evaluate the percentage of copper in the Masson For Light “Mondo Blokx Maxi
UP/down wall mount” luminaire Cat # MBW70-2 the device on test comprises four different aluminium alloys;
all four were tested for copper concentration as copper in one aluminium component can influence the rate of
corrosion in another aluminium component.
The spectrometric analysis determined the percentage of copper within the device as: -
144
Sample #1: main chassis of extruded Aluminium total weight 1645g……………………………………Cu(II)= 0.12 %+-5%
Sample #2: cover plates total weight 376g of cast aluminium alloy……………………………………...Cu(II)= 2.56%+-5%
Sample #3: fixing support and electrical junction housing of Aluminium total weight 1306g. Cu(II)=3.32%+-5%
Sample #4: reflector System of folded construction anodised……………………………………………….Cu(II)= 0%
Actual Total average Concentration of copper based on the total mass of Aluminium present in
luminaire……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Cu(II)= 1.61%+-5%
From our results, we calculated a random error of 5%. These Errors are due to many factors, but
the main reason is inconsistency in pipetting the solutions. An error of 5% was acceptable for this
experiment. Other sources of errors are avoidable.
Our plot was a good result with a linear best-fit R-squared value of 0.9905. This is quite linear,
giving us the slope we needed to calculate fairly accurate percentages of copper in the aluminium
alloy we tested.
6.4.4.4.1 Summary/Recommendations
The purpose of this evaluation was to determine the copper content of a system operated as the
Masson For Light “Mondo Blokx Maxi UP/down wall mount” luminaire Cat # MBW70-2. This
product is a luminaire designed for wall mounting and is marketed as suitable for exterior use.
While many of the known aluminium castings alloys exhibit acceptable corrosion resistance for
moderately harsh environments, in particular, the known aluminium die-casting alloys, are not
sufficiently resistant to corrosion for certain highly corrosive environments.
For example, aluminium castings are used in highly corrosive exterior automotive applications in
which the castings are routinely exposed to temperature extremes, water, snow, ice and humidity,
as well as corrosion-inducing materials such as salt, dirt and road grime that can retain moisture
and salt eventually tend to exhibit significant corrosion.
Known aluminium die-casting alloys, such as the 380.0 alloys and other aluminium die-casting alloys
typically contain copper in an amount of 2 to about 4.5 percent. Copper is added to improve
strength and hardness, but generally reduces resistance to general corrosion. Thus, the 380.0
families of aluminium alloys do not exhibit high corrosion resistance and are unsuitable for certain
automotive applications, such as for exposed parts that are mounted in the engine compartment of
a vehicle. Copper is also used in casting for precipitation hardening.
Where better corrosion resistance is required, alloys low in copper, such as 360.0 and 413.0 are
typically used. These alloys still contain a significant amount of copper (0.6 and 1.0 percent by
weight, respectively) and consequently show visible signs of corrosion when exposed to a highly
corrosive environment for a prolonged period. Thus, the known aluminium die-casting alloys are
not especially well suited for those applications in which it is desired to use a die-cast aluminium
component that maintains a good, non-corroded appearance after prolonged exposure to a highly
corrosive environment.
145
The greatest errors were towards the lower percentages of copper tested where they are almost
unavoidable. The empirical to photometric results are fairly consistent.
Attempts to further improve corrosion resistance by lowering the copper content below 0.6 per
cent would be expected to result in unsatisfactory strength properties for most applications.
Therefore, it would be highly desirable to have an aluminium die-casting alloy that is highly
resistant to corrosion yet exhibits adequate strength for use in making automotive components
that are mounted in the engine compartment of a vehicle, and components for outdoor use such as
light fixtures, electronic housings, telephone cases, etc.
Sample #1: main chassis of

Sample #4: reflector
extruded Aluminium total weight
Sample #2: cover plates System of folded
1645g construction anodised
total weight 376g Aluminium total
weight 96g
Cu(II)= 2.56 %+-5%
Cu(II)= 0%
Sample #3: fixing support and electrical junction

1306g
Cu(II)=
Total mass of Aluminium alloy=3423g
Actual Total average Concentration of copper based on total m

Aluminium present in luminaire = 1.61%+-5%
Fig 6.97 Masson For Light MBW70-2, breakup of aluminium components showing percentage
`
of copper content in each component.
146
In our opinion, the design and copper content within the aluminium components “Blokx Maxi”
luminaire is a sensible choice and reflects good mechanical and electrical engineering design.
The back plate which is designed to be mounted to the wall is manufactured from die-cast
aluminium and contains the highest copper percentage of 3.32% which is highly necessary as this
component is designed to be mounted to walls and supports a relatively heavy fixture, as well as
the electrical junction box which necessitates the use of metals with high strength and excellent
toughness and the reason why the copper is added, by contrast, a lower copper content aluminium
alloy would cause safety concerns of both a mechanical and electrical nature which could have
legal implications if an aluminium alloy of a lesser copper content were used and failed.
Avoiding Galvanic Corrosion
Copper and aluminium have widely different electrochemical potentials, so when they are
combined galvanic corrosion is likely. Galvanic corrosion (also called dissimilar metal corrosion)
erodes metallic materials in electrochemical contact forming a galvanic cell, or battery. When two
metals with different electrical potentials are connected, there is a potential difference across
them. The metal with the higher electrical potential becomes the anode, and the lower, the
cathode. A current will flow from the anode to the cathode. The anode dissolves, or corrodes, to
form ions. These ions drift into the water where they either stay in solution or react with other ions
in the electrolyte. This process is known as galvanic corrosion. A galvanic cell requires three
elements:
• Two electrochemically dissimilar metals,

• An electrically conductive path between the two metals, and
• An electrolyte allows the flow of metal ions.
In the copper aluminium scenario, the aluminium is the anode; the copper is the cathode and when
an electrolyte is introduced such as a corrosive environment. Over time, the aluminium corrodes.
The galvanic corrosion rate depends on the electrical potential generated between the two metals.
To avoid galvanic corrosion, all external aluminium surfaces of the carcass of the luminaire are pre-
treated with phosphate /chromate and then powder coated for high corrosion resistance.
The main body which is mounted vertically is square in section with a rectangular profile; houses
the light source and reflector system of anodised sheet pure aluminium.
The ends of the extrusion are covered by tempered glass lenses that are held firmly to the main
body by die-cast aluminium cover plates separated via a gasket and are held securely in place via
stainless steel Allen key screws that are also sealed with small O ring gaskets, sealed to IP54.
According to standard EN 60598 and IEC 529/IP environmental ratings, this luminaire is protected
against the ingress of dust that will interfere with the satisfactory operation of the apparatus as
well as being protected against splashing water. This indicates that as long as the luminaire is used
in a suitable environment that it was designed for, according to its IP rating, no electrolyte in the
form of a solution will cause a galvanic cell to form therefore no corrosion.
147
If the luminaire was placed in a highly corrosive environment or immersed in a solution such that a
galvanic reaction occurred, the design of the luminaire is such that the order of corrosion i.e. from
lowest copper content to highest indicates that the least critical component from a safety
mechanical strength point of view will corrode first i.e. the aluminium reflector of pure aluminium,
followed by the outer extruded body, cover plates and lastly the back plates that house the critical
electrical junction box and wall fixings.
As the corrosion behaviour of alloyed aluminium is influenced by the physical conditions of the
environment, the Masson For Light Mondo Blokxs luminaire aluminium castings alloys exhibit
acceptable corrosion resistance for moderately harsh environments but are not sufficiently
resistant to corrosion for certain highly corrosive environments such as marine or industrial
atmospheres, or when immersed, which may cause the aluminium alloy to suffer an accelerated
attack.
The design of the Mondo Blokx luminaire provides excellent strength for various exterior/outdoor
applications and acceptable resistance in its design that limits the pooling of electrolytes which is
the cause of galvanic corrosion by the absence of crevices. Contact with dissimilar metals is also
limited as all alloy components are powder-coated before construction. The luminaire component
mating points also contain rubber or neoprene gaskets between them that also serve to provide
the IP rating.
Copper Free
The term “Copper Free” is used to describe aluminium alloys that contain less than 0.4% copper.
The actual concentration of copper present for extruded components in the tested luminaire is 0.12
+-5%, therefore considered “copper-free” and between 2.56 to 3.32+-5%, for die Castings,
therefore not “copper-free “and estimated at or less than .05% for aluminium reflector systems
that are also considered “copper-free”.
It is the reduction in the copper content which increases the natural corrosion-resistant properties
of aluminium. Copper Free aluminium is particularly resistant to salt atmospheres, sulphur gases
and ammonium nitrate. Above a level of 0.4% copper, the range of corrosion due to galvanic action
within the structure of the metal increases rapidly.
The aluminium alloys employed in The Masson For Light product are highly superior to most ferrous
materials. “Copper Free” aluminium products can provide optimum protection against galvanic
corrosion.
148
6.4.5 Spectrophotometer optical system, light source and filter analysis
Spectrophotometers are not only useful for the analysis of absorption spectrum of filters, but
extremely important for light source spectrums that require investigation. Spectral power
distribution graphs are commonly found in manufacturers' catalogues and are crucial for certain
design elements. Units such as the author's QV-50 and many others are manufactured to be
efficiently adapted to test other light sources. Other accessories and attachments are also available
for vacuum flow dichroism, vacuum circular dichroism, reflectance, flame photometry, optical
rotary dispersion and spectrofluorimetry.
6.4.5.1 Spectrophotometer Optical & Light source system

The optical system of a UV-visible spectrophotometer is shown in Fig. 6.98. UV-visible Spectroscopy
commonly utilises the radiation from a deuterium-discharge lamp. A plasma discharge in a low-
pressure deuterium gas that emits light over the 190 nm to approximately 800 nm wavelength
range for the ultraviolet (UV) wavelength range and a tungsten lamp for the visible and short wave
near-infrared (SWNIR) wavelength range. The tungsten lamp emits light over the 370 nm to 1100
nm wavelength range. Light from the light source chamber passes through the sample cell and
analyser and then enters the measuring unit of the spectrophotometer.
In some modern machines, the light from the two lamps can be combined optically. The result is a
fundamental increase in the rate at which spectra data can be acquired.
Fig 6.98. Optical System of a modern Spectrophotometer, the “Agilent 8453” UV-visible Spectroscopy System,
where the light from the two light sources is combined optically. The image of the filament of the tungsten
lamp is focused on the discharge aperture of the deuterium lamp employing a special rear-access lamp design
which allows both light sources to be optically combined and share a common axis with the source lens. The
source lens forms a single, collimated beam of light. The beam passes through the shutter/stray-light
correction filter area then through the sample to the spectrograph lens and slit. In the spectrograph, light is
dispersed onto the diode array by a holographic grating. This allows simultaneous access to all wavelength
information.
149
Spectrophotometer Optical & Light source system
Fig 6.99 The Light source chamber of the QV-50 is easily removable and can accommodate other light
sources, the standard unit came with a 375VDC
(4.6/2.9VAC)Shimadzu # H300 005039 Deuterium lamp with flying leads for the UV range, and an
incandescent P30s base spectral lamp for the IR spectrum. New replacement light sources are extremely
expensive. When the IR test light source failed, a far more economical Tungsram # 1055 automotive
incandescent lamp with BA15S base was substituted by soldering it within the old P30s base, careful
attention was observed to correctly position the new lamp to achieve an LCL (Light Centre Length) and
orientation that equalled the previous. A spare unused chamber for another light source was also present.
Fig 7.00 An Osram 16VAC 0.57A Pico base, Sodium spectral lamp cat. #Na10 FL 83977~2 was added by the
author to the unused chamber primarily for calibration. A new bracket, pico valve socket, and a 4-pin Cannon
“Amphenol” Chassis Mount, the male socket was used to modify appear authentically original! The author
calculated that a standard fluorescent ballast and starter would operate the Sodium lamp correctly. The
standard fluorescent starter and socket are seen below the Na light source shielded by the bracket /heat
shield. The Internal construction was spray painted matt black. The sodium spectrum is dominated by the
bright doublet known as the Sodium D- lines at 588.9950 and 589.5924 nanometres, perfect for checking if
the meter is calibrated. The three light sources can be moved along a rail and locked into position to test with
the desired light source. The light source chamber can also be removed entirely to test other larger sources
of light, including flames.
150
Spectrophotometric Light source and filter analysis
UV/Vis Spectra QV-50 Spectrophotometer Test Lamps-Hamamatsu Part No. 759A041B-1

Type L1636 Serial 04.10 Deuterium light source, Osram NAFL10 Sodium Spectral Light source &
Tungsram 1055~ K25734 Incandescent Light source Test Date ( 11-3-2008)
D-Deuterium
Relative Spectral Output
100
(mw/nm per Input W) %
W-Tungsten
80
Na-Sodium
60
40
20
0
160
290
420
550
680
810
940
1070
1200
1330
1460
1590
1720
1850
1980
2110
2240
2380
2510
2640
Wavelength (nm)
Fig 7.01 The Spectral power distribution graph of the Authors Shimadzu QV-50 Spectrophotometer, as
graphed and tested by him. The specified range is from 220 to 1200 nm. The testable wavelength is based on
limits of the detector and the range of light sources used, the following light sources are generally used to
test samples, a 375VDC (4.6/2.9VAC)Shimadzu # H300 005039 Deuterium lamp with flying leads for the UV
range, a Tungsram # 1055 incandescent lamp BA15S based modified to P30s base for the visible to IR
spectrum and an Osram 16VAC 0.57A Pico base #Na10 FL 83977~2 sodium lamp used for calibration. These
light sources can be removed to test other sources of light.
151
Spectrophotometric Light source and filter analysis
UV/Vis Spectra QV-50 Spectrophotometer Test Lamps-Hamamatsu Part No. 759A041B-1

Type L1636 Serial 04.10 Deuterium light source, Osram NAFL10 Sodium Spectral Light source &
Tungsram 1055~ K25734 Incandescent Light source Test Date ( 11-3-2008)
100 D-Deuterium
Relative Spectral Output
W-Tungsten
(mw/nm per Input W) %
80
Na-Sodium
60
He-Ne Laser
40 Red Laser diode
20
0
160
290
420
550
680
810
940
1070
1200
1330
1460
1590
1720
1850
1980
2110
2240
2380
2510
2640
Wavelength (nm)
Fig 7.01 The Spectral power distribution graph of a helium neon laser, a red laser diode compared to the test
light sources. Note that the most monochromatic source is the Helium Neon Laser, followed by the red laser
diode and then the Sodium spectral test lamp. Monochromatic light" refers to light of a narrow frequency,
while white light contains light of different colours and frequencies. The peaks of the sodium test lamp from
810nm are from the heater element within the sodium spectral test source. In physics, monochromatic refers
to electromagnetic radiation of a single frequency. In the physical sense, no source of electromagnetic
radiation is purely monochromatic since that would require a wave of infinite duration as a consequence of
the Fourier transform's localization property (cf. spectral coherence). Even very controlled sources such as
lasers operate in a range of frequencies (known as the spectral linewidth). In practice, filtered light,
diffraction grating separated light and laser light are all routinely referred to as monochromatic. Often light
sources can be compared, and one be labelled as “more monochromatic” (in a similar usage as
monodispersity).
152
RED DICHROIC FILTER - QV-50 Spectrophotometer Test With
Incandecent Lamp - Tungsram Part No. 1055 - Test Date (26-01-2001)
120
TRANSMITTANCE %
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
Wavelength (nm)
QV-50 Spectrophotometer Test -

Tea Light Candle & OSRAM LEDS
120 RED, YELLOW, BLUE, WHITE
CANDLE
29-07-2001 FLAME
100
RED LED
80
Relative Energy %
60 YELLOW LED
40
WHITE LED
20
0 EYE
SENSITIVITY
-20
WAVELENGTH (nm)
153
GREEN DICHROIC FILTER - QV-50 Spectrophotometer Test With
100
TRANSMITTANCE %
80
60
40
20
0
-20
Wavelength (nm)
YELLOW DICHROIC FILTER - QV-50 Spectrophotometer Test With

TRANSMITTANCE %
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Wavelength (nm)
QV-50 Spectrophotometer Test -UV LIGHT SOURCES OSRAM BLUE DULUX S

9W/67
HIGH FREQUENCY COMPARISON PHILIPS BLB PL-5 9W/08P
120 30KHz Solite Multifit electronic Ballast 27-08-2006
PHILIPS Germicidal TUV 9W
100
80
Relative Energy %
60
40
20
0
300 344 355 363 369 374 388 425 430 435 440 464 520 570 694 709 716 752 807 855 934
WAVELENGTH (nm)
154
QV-50 Spectrophotometer Test -TeaLight Candle
26-05-2001
Relative Energy %
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
515 566 667 940 1330
WAVELENGTH (nm)
155
7 SI Photometry & Radiometry units
Photometry and Illuminating Engineering are sciences involved with the measurement of visible light that is
perceived brightness by human vision.
Radiometry is the field that studies the measurement of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light.
In photometry, luminous flux or luminous power is the measure of the perceived power of light. It differs from
radiant flux, the measure of the total power of light emitted, in that luminous flux is adjusted to reflect the varying
sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light.
7.1 Candle Power /Foot-Candle

In the 19th century units of luminous intensity were based on the output from particular artificial light sources. The
term candlepower (abbreviated as cp) was originally defined in England by the Metropolitan Gas Act 1860 as the
light produced by a pure spermaceti candle, obtained from the head of a sperm whale. The French standard of light
at the time was based upon the illumination from a lamp burning pure colza oil obtained from the seed of the plant
Brassica campestris. Both had a defined fuel consumption rate.
156
In 1909 representatives of the Laboratoire Central de l’Electricité (France), the National Physical Laboratory (UK),
the Bureau of Standards (United States) redefined the candle in term of an electric lamp with a carbon filament. At
the same time, the Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt (Germany) defined the candle from the output of a
Hefner lamp.
By 1937 the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) and the CIPM, was redefined as the luminous intensity
of a blackbody at the freezing point of molten platinum.
Since 1948 the term candlepower was replaced by the international unit (SI) known as the candela. When it was
standardized, a defined value was selected that would approximate the older definition so that existing calculations
and equations would not differ. One old candlepower unit is about 0.981 candelas. Modern candlepower now
equates directly (1:1) to the number of candelas.
In 1977, the CIPM adopted a definition relating photometric and radiometric quantities: the spectral luminous
efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 hertz would, by definition, be 683 lumens per
watt. The modern definition of the candela still refers to radiation emitted from 1/60 of a single square centimetre
of platinum at its melting point.
The foot-candle, or footcandle, is an old non-standard measure of illuminance and is still in use in North America
and other parts of the world. It is defined as the quantity of light that strikes the inner surface of a sphere of one-
foot radius if it were lit by a single candlelight source in the centre of that sphere. The lux is the standard SI unit of
measure of illuminance and can be defined as the quantity of light that strikes a sphere of one meter in radius. The
two can be converted simply; there is 10.76 lux to one foot-candle or approx. 0.1 lux. Both the foot candle and the
lux measure luminous intensity values called the candela.
Photometry Concept Symbol Unit Abbr. Notes & Defining Equations
lumen –second lm·s Quantity of Light, units are sometimes called Talbots.
Luminous energy Qv
lumen-hour lm-h Q=∫ Φ dt
Luminous flux F or Φ lumen (= cd·sr) lm Also called luminous power Φ=dQ/dt = I·Ω=E·A
SI base unit also called candlepower I=d Φ /dA

Candela
Luminous intensity Iv cd = Φ/Ω =L·A (Ω=solid angle through which flux from
(= lm/sr)
point source is radiated)
Units are sometimes called "nits" L=dI/dA cosѲ= I/A

candela per
Luminance Lv cd/m 2
= E/Ω (Ѳ=angle between the line of sight and normal to
square metre
surface considered.
157
Illuminance Ev lux (=lm/m2) lx Light incident on a surface E=d Φ/dA=φ/A= L·Ω
The luminous flux per unit area emitted from a surface.

Luminous emittance Mv lux (= lm/m2) lx
Luminous emittance is also known as luminous exitance.
Luminous efficacy ŋ or K lumen per watt lm/W Ratio of luminous flux to radiant flux. K= φv/φe
Luminous efficiency V (percentage) % - V=K/Kmax
Scalar illuminance Esc lx Esc==∫E/4πdΩ
Light exposure H Lux-second lx.s H=d Q/dA
Relative Luminous
vλ lumen per lm/λ Relative Luminous efficacy per wavelength. f=v/ λ
efficacy
Visible transmittance, fractions of incident light from

Transmittance (numerical ratio) - the spectrum of visible light at a specified wavelength
that passes through a sample. = dΦt/dΦo*
(numerical ratio) Visible reflectivity is the fraction of incident radiation

Reflectance  flux reflected -
flux received reflected by a surface.  = dΦr/dΦo*
Visible Absorbance is fractions of incident light absorbed

Absorbance 𝒜λ (numerical ratio) -
by a sample at a specified wavelength. 𝒜λ= dΦa/dΦo*
Brightness Subjective Impression by which one surface (object) appears

Non Photometric
 - to emit more light than another. Human brightness
Term
perception (Luminosity)
*Φ = absorbed flux, Φ = reflected flux, Φ = transmitted flux, Φ = incident flux. Blue shaded area denotes SI Units
a r t o
158
Radiometry Concept Symbol Unit Abbr. Notes& Defining Equations
Radiant energy Q joule J Energy
watt
W Total radiant energy or radiant power per unit time,
Radiant flux Φ joule per
J/s of electromagnetic energy emitted or received. Φ
second
Power per unit solid angle- Light Radiating capacity

watt per a source in a given direction. I=d /Φ /dΩ
Radiant intensity I W/sr
steradian (Ω=solid angle through which flux from
radiated)
watt per Power per unit solid angle per unit projected source
called intensity in some other fields of study.
Radiance L steradian per W/sr·m2
cosѲ (Ѳ=angle between line of sight and
square metre to surface considered.
watt per Power incident on a surface. Sometimes confusingly

Irradiance E or I W/m2
square metre called "intensity".E= d Φ/dA
Radiant exitance / watt per

M W/m2 Power emitted from a surface. M=d Φ/dA
Radiant emittance square metre
watt per
Radiosity J or Jλ W/m2 Emitted plus reflected power leaving a surface
square metre
watt per
steradian
Lλ W/sr·m3
per meter3 or
Spectral radiance or watt per
or
Commonly measured in W·sr−1·m−2·nm−1
Lν steradian per 2
square meter per W/sr·m ·Hz
hertz
watt per metre3 W/m3

Spectral irradiance Eλor Eν or watt per square or Commonly measured in W·m−2·nm−1
metre per hertz W/m2·Hz
Transmittance  (numerical ratio) - Incident light passes through a sample. = dΦt/dΦo*
(numerical ratio)
flux reflected
Reflectance 𝝔 - Incident radiation reflected by a surface.𝝔 =dΦr/dΦo*
flux
received
Absorbance  (numerical ratio) - Incident light absorbed by a sample. = dΦa/dΦo*
159
Radiant exposure Joule per square
meter &watt-second J/m2
 H=d Q/dA
per square Ws/m2
meter
*Φa = absorbed flux, Φr = reflected flux, Φt = transmitted flux, Φo= incident flux. Blue shaded area denotes SI Units
160
7.2 Colour Rendering Index (CRI)
The colour rendering index (CRI) or colour rendition index is a quantitative measure of a light source's
ability to reproduce the colours of various objects faithfully in comparison with an “ideal” or “natural”
light source. It is also a method used to describe a light source’s effect on the colour appearance of
objects, compared to a reference source of the same colour temperature (CCT), on a scale of up to 100,
with 100 being identical to the reference source.
Colour rendering is therefore an index of measure used to describe the quality distinction between light
sources emitting light of the same colour. Light sources with a high CRI are desirable in colour-critical
applications such as photography, electronics and medical industry, and cinematography, and highly
desirable in other areas such as art galleries, retail, or display lighting. The highest CRI is attainable is 100
and can be obtained by using halogen or incandescent light sources, mainly because they have a
continuous uniform spectrum, like the sun.
The International Commission on Illumination defines it as follows:

Colour rendering: Effect of an illuminant on the colour appearance of objects by conscious or
subconscious comparison with their colour appearance under a reference illuminant.6
Fig 7.1 Objects Illuminated with a CRI of 96, the same object illuminated with a CRI of 65
The eight original CIE test colours were used for assessing the colour rendering index (Ra) of a light
source.
The colour rendering index (Ra for Rendition absolute) is given below for a selection of much-used lamp
types:
161
7.3 Colour Temperature (CCT)
Colour rendering index (CRI) is a system derived from visual experiments that assess the impact of
different light sources on the perceived colour of objects and surfaces. The CRI does not indicate the
colour temperature of the reference light source; therefore, it is customary to also cite the correlated
colour temperature (CCT). CCT indicates the relative colour appearance of a light source from yellowish-
white or ‘warm’ (2700K-3000K) to white or ‘cool’ (3500-4000K) to bluish-white (5000K+).
The colour temperature of a light source is a numerical measurement of its colour appearance. It is based
on the principle that any object will emit light if it is heated to a high enough temperature, and that the
colour of that light will shift predictably as the temperature is increased. The system is based on the
colour changes of a theoretical “blackbody radiator” as it is heated from a cold black to a white-hot state,
refer to Chapter 4. With increased temperature,
the blackbody colour shifts gradually from red to orange to yellow to white and, finally, to blue-white. A
light source’s colour temperature is, therefore, the temperature, measured in degrees Kelvin, expressed
in Kelvin (K), at which the colour of the blackbody would exactly match the colour of the light source.
For many light sources, an exact match cannot be achieved. In such cases, the closest possible match is
made, and the colour is described as correlated colour temperature. A fluorescent lamp with a colour
temperature rating of 4100K, for example, has a colour appearance like that of a blackbody heated to
4,100 Kelvin (3827°Celsius)
7.3.1 Colour Temperature and CRI–Useful References
These two systems of measurement are commonly used to describe the colour properties of a light
source, the “colour rendering index” (CRI), suggests how an object illuminated by that light will appear in
relation to its appearance under other common light sources and “colour temperature,” which expresses
the colour appearance of the light itself.
A light source is usually evaluated by illuminating eight standard colour samples. Initially by the light
source on test and then by the light from a blackbody matched to the same colour temperature. If none
of the samples changes in colour appearance, the light source is given a CRI rating of 100. Any changes in
colour appearance which do occur result in a lower rating. The CRI decreases as the average change in
the colour appearance of the eight samples increases. Any CRI rating of 80 or above is normally
considered high and indicates that the source has good colour properties.
Both CRI and CCT are extremely valuable in evaluating and specifying light sources, but it is also
important to understand their limitations or their effects on objects.
Colour temperature and CRI provide some helpful information, but they are not perfect. Colour
temperature, for instance, cannot indicate anything about how a given light source will render colours.
For example, if two “cool” light sources we will call them “A” and “B” have similar colour temperature
and colour appearances. A produces uniform energy, and light source B produces a similar spectrum
except with almost no electromagnetic radiation in the red region. Red objects which appear natural
under light source A will look dull and colourless under light source B even though both lights have the
same colour temperature.
6
CIE 17.4, International Lighting Vocabulary, (Schanda 2002)
162
Colour Temperature (CCT)
In general, a high CRI figure indicates that a light source will render colours well. However, since CRI
figures are calculated for light sources of a specific colour temperature, it is not valid to compare a
2700K, 82 CRI light source to one of 3500K, 85 CRI. In addition, it is important to note that CRI is an
average of eight different colours. This means that a light source with a high CRI will tend to render the
broad range of colours well, but it is not a guarantee that any specific colour will appear natural. Used in
conjunction, however, colour temperature and CRI can provide excellent benchmarks for the comparison
of light sources.
According to (Schanda & Sándor 2005), CRI is being deprecated in favour of measures based on colour
appearance models, such as CIECAM02 and, for daylight simulators, the CIE Metamerism Index. (Guo &
Houser 20044) and (CIE 19955) note that CRI is not a good indicator for use in visual assessment,
especially for sources below 5000 Kelvin (K).
A newer version of the CRI has been developed (R96a), but it has not replaced the better-known Ra
(general colour rendering index).
7.3.2 Warm vs. Cool–the Psychology of Light

Some people find it confusing that low colour temperature light sources are called “warm” while those
with higher temperatures are referred to as “cool.” These descriptions have nothing to do with the
temperature of the blackbody radiator but refer to the way colour groups are perceived—the
psychological impact of lighting. Colours and light sources from the blue end of the spectrum are referred
to as cool, and those toward the red/ orange/yellow side of the spectrum are described as warm.
Typical cool white fluorescent lamps have a CRI of 62. Fluorescent lamps that contain rare-earth
phosphors also called tri-phosphors are available with a CRI of 80 and as high as 96 at a compromise of a
lumen reduction in the order of 50% when compared to a fluorescent lamp with a CRI of 80.
163
Fig 7.2 Spectral characteristic of the sun, as it appears in earth’s daylight, in comparison to various
common light sources, from the lowest efficacy to highest. From top right: - Incandescent, Mercury
fluorescent, Metal Halide, High-Pressure Sodium and Low-Pressure Sodium Sox.
164
COMPARISON OF LIGHT SOURCES
(Lumens per watt or Energy efficiency)
Low Pressure Sodium(SOX)

160
180
140
135 High Pressure Sodium (SON)
Efficacy l/W --- (Inc. standard gear losses)
Plot Figures Indicate Lam p Wattage

1000
120
90
400
250
55 150
100 36
1000 Quartz
58
100 1500 Metal Halide
30 35 2000
(MBI)
80 70 400
18 18 70 100 150 250
175
Mercury Vapor
85 Fluorescent
60 125 (HQL)
50 50
700 1000
35 400
250
40 125
80
50 Tungsten Halogen
750 1000 1500 2000
150 200 400 500
100 300
20
300 500 1000 Incandescent (GLS)
200
40 100
0
0 1 2 3 5 7 9 14 21 33 48 170
Light Output klm ---
165
Warm vs. Cool–the Psychology of Light
7.3.3 How Light Affects the Colours of Objects
Fig 7.2 shows spectral distributions of various light sources in comparison to sunlight spectra which are
generated by hydrogen nuclear fusion reactions and therefore the only absolute “natural” spectra that
exist! All other spectra produced by other light sources that are non-nuclear can therefore only duplicate
various aspects of the solar spectra, at best, not one light source currently on the market is a direct
match, and therefore any claim of high colour rendering “ideal” or “natural light” or “daylight” requires
elaboration of what the claim is trying to define.
Some people believe that a standard incandescent lamp is more natural because it produces a
continuous spectrum, like the sun. Others believe that the bluish light produced by a fluorescent daylight
light source is more natural because the light is bluish-white (5000K+) and resembles daylight.
Where art is concerned most favour the 100% colour rendering that only a continuous spectrum light
source can offer such as the incandescent or Halogen light source, which also approximates a point
source of light similar to our sun.
If you examine the spectra of Fig 7.2, the incandescent light source produces a constant and continuous
spectrum like the sun but lacks the relative intensity peaks towards the blue part of the visible spectrum,
the fluorescent light source spectra are closer match intensity-wise, but lack symmetry and is not
constant or continuous. The Metal halide light source has improved since they were first invented in 1962
and appears to be the best compromise to date, as it now has a spectral distribution that is like the
fluorescent with the added advantage of being able to offer a clear glass envelope that achieves a point
source distribution from the arc tube similar to the incandescent light source or the sun.
Insufficient colour rendering has been a major challenge standing in the way of LED technology’s
adoption in mass markets such as medical, general, retail or display lighting.
Which leads to an interesting dilemma, how is it that a heated piece of a single chemical element in a
solid form, such as a tungsten wire emits a continuous spectrum (light and invisible infrared), in
contradiction to the quantum version of the emission mechanism, whereby the discrete energy levels in
the tungsten’s atoms should only generate a handful of specific spectral frequencies/lines characteristic
to the elements specific spectrum in which all wavelengths are present between certain limits?
The continuous spectrum is produced by electrons undergoing free-bound transitions in hot gas. White
light for example can be dispersed by a prism to give a continuous spectrum in the optical region of the
spectrum from red to violet. Dark absorption lines crossing a continuous spectrum are caused by the
absorption of radiation at specific wavelengths.
Is it therefore possible to create a continuous spectrum lamp that has all the attributes of our sun in
terms of a continuous spectrum colour, a point source emission and a colour temperature that resembles
daylight, with a perfect colour rendering index?
166
7.3.3 “Ideal” & Natural Light source experiments
A series of experiments by the author and his brother that began more than 20 years ago, led to an
invention coined the “MCL” * (Mono-polar Cyclic Light source), from the results of these
experiments the author believes it is possible to produce a true ‘natural’ or “ideal” daylight light
source which operates on what is called “nuclear bombardment”.
Other key aspects of ‘MCL’s technology are the coupling of incandescence, induction and
fluorescent lamp technology. The key to its operation is nuclear bombardment reactions that
involve the nucleus of the atom being bombarded with particles.
A particle accelerator is another example where particles move toward each other at great
velocities, to overcome repulsive forces generated by high voltages. The light generated can be
extremely bright such as in the case of a shooting star’s light where a tiny particle invisible to the
naked eye or smaller than a grain of sand can cause a light so bright that it can be seen over
distances of hundreds of kilometres. This light is created by the recombination of ionised atoms
and molecules, bombarding the gaseous atmosphere at velocities of 32 to 56 km per second that
also leave bright glowing trails, which may persist between several seconds or even minutes.
The MCL’s source of incandescence is marginally larger compared to a grain of sand and made to
cycle continually via a chemical cyclic reaction that repeats the bombardment event producing a
constant and highly efficient light output at velocities far over a shooting star’s velocity.
Fig 7.3 A series of images of the author’s experiments with “natural” light sources, coined the MCL (Monopolar Cyclic
Light source) and is an example of a “nuclear bombardment” light source. The last image on the very bottom right-hand
side shows a Microwave light source experiment.
The MCL is an excellent example of a light source that can achieve the desired “natural” daylight
that would also be “green” environmentally. This is generally because the central bead of tungsten
can be raised to the boiling point temperature of 5825K which equates to an efficacy of 83 lumens
per watt, as there is no physical filament structure to maintain as in an ordinary halogen or
incandescent light source.
*Provisional Patent specification No. PN.3346 , applied for and allocated:- 8 June 1995
167
Experiments with an “ideal” Light source
The spectra shown for the incandescent light source refer to Fig7.2, would result in a major relative
intensity shift towards the blue region, therefore, creating a ‘perfect’ replication of the sun's
spectra, and as a bonus be a perfect point source of light highly desirable to photometry also
allowing simple optical control in luminaire design or reflector systems.
As the character of the gas discharge critically depends on the frequency or modulation of the
current, my experiments confirm that the colour temperature and therefore the colour
temperature of the MCL and any discharge light source for that matter can be intelligently
controlled in such a way as to keep a constant colour rendition of the emitted light.
Control is achieved by operating the selected light source with alternating currents or dc pulses of a
particular frequency that achieves the desired colour temperature based on the ionising gas mix
within. A modulated pulse or separate pulse can be supplied with sufficient energy to keep the
light source ionised, if the frequency of the selected colour is insufficient to keep the light source
ionised, this will also achieve ultimate energy savings.
This is achieved by using an intelligent controllable frequency and power oscillator via an LC
network which controls the colour temperature and selected colour rendering of illuminated
objects as desired.
Fig7.4 A Nuclear Fusion experiment by the author is a ‘star in a Jar’.
It is also possible to create Nuclear Fusion in a Jar! The authors experiments in 2005 with a device
that could technically be called a convergent focus spherical electrostatic confined fusion diode.
Various images at different vacuum to gas mixtures, the last image shows the ‘star mode’ effect which
occurs when deuterium was used within, at low pressure. Nuclear Fusion is characterized by the so-called
"star mode" effect.
168
Experiments with an “ideal” Light source
Deuterium also called heavy hydrogen has no electrons therefore allows the electron flow to
continue past the grid and collide with the streams from opposing grids. A mini atom smasher in a
jar and generates a fusion reaction just like the sun. With the following reactions: -
1. D + D → T(1.01 MeV) + p(3.02 MeV)
2. D + D → He3(0.82 MeV) + n(2.45 MeV)
It may sound like a lot of energy but 1 eV (electron volt) = 4.45X10-23 Wh (watt hours) or 1 MeV =
4.45X10-17 Wh (watt hours) the reaction involves the mass defect E=mc2, but because the
transmuting atoms are of very tiny masses, not several kg as in a nuclear bomb or fission reactor, it
is relatively safe and be controlled by maintaining a certain vacuum pressure and voltage.
169
8 Light Source & Luminaire Data
There are three basic methods used by various light sources, luminaire and flashlight manufacturers to
rate the light output of their products.
8.1
1/Luminous Flux Output in
lumens. This is a measure of the
entire light output of a bare light
source regardless of any optical
control such as is provided within
a luminaire, reflector or lens. It is
almost solely a function of the
bare lamp, as such any light
source without a reflector or
some other form of optical
control would usually be specified
in “lumens”
8.2
8.1 Osram Data sheet for a 12V 50W Halogen cat#64440 ECO, luminous flux is highlighted.
2/ Luminous Intensity in Candela, this isFigusually provided as soon as the light source has an attached
reflector or some other form of
optical control such as a lens or
diffuser and for practical purposes,
this is equal to the lamp output
which some lamp manufacturers’
rate as Mean Spherical Candela
(Sometimes called Mean Spherical
Candlepower in America, which is
not the same as peak beam
candlepower).
Using the formula:-F=I Ω multiply

the candela by the Steradian which
is a value of 12.57 to convert to
lumens. For example, the CMLI 12V
117W CM448X12V is rated at
207MSCP, F=IΩ
F=207 x4π=2601 lm
Fig 8.2 CMLI Data sheet for a 12V 117W Halogen cat. # CM449X12V, luminous Intensity Data is
highlighted.
170
Light Source & Luminaire Data
8.2.1 Peak Beam Candlepower is a measure of the brightest spot in the focused beam. It is a function of
both the output of the lamp and the efficiency of the reflector. The focused spot of light has the same
intensity that a bare source of unfocused light of the same candlepower would produce on the same area
from the same distance. For example, a flashlight of 20,000 beam candlepower would project, within its
"hot spot," the same amount of light on a wall as would a bare lamp of 20,000 candelas at the same
distance. Typical values of beam candlepower will run into the tens of thousands for powerful
rechargeable flashlights.
Since the Total Output system does not take into account the focusing efficiency of the reflector, there is
no way to convert between peak beam candlepower and lumens. 7 Conversions between differing
geometry-based measurement units should only be attempted if you understand what each of the
measurement geometries implicitly assumes before a conversion is attempted. The biggest source of
confusion regarding intensity measurement involves the difference between Mean Spherical Candela and
Beam Candela both of which use the candela unit (lumens per steradian). Mean spherical measurements
are made in an integrating sphere, and represent the total output in lumens divided by 4p sr in a sphere.
Thus, a one-candela isotropic lamp produces one lumen per steradian. Beam candela, on the other hand,
samples a very narrow-angle and is only representative of the lumens per steradian at the peak intensity
of the beam. This measurement is frequently misleading since the sampling angle need not be defined.
Radiant Intensity is a measure of radiometric power per unit solid angle,

expressed in watts per steradian. Similarly, luminous intensity is a measure
of visible power per solid angle, expressed in candela (lumens per steradian).
Intensity is related to irradiance by the inverse square law, shown below in an
alternate form:
I = E * d2
If you are wondering how the units cancel to get flux/sr from flux/area
times distance squared, remember that steradians are a dimensionless quantity.
Since the solid angle equals the area divided by the square of the radius,
d2=A/W, and substitution yields:
I=E*A/W
The biggest source of confusion regarding intensity measurements
involves the difference between Mean Spherical Candela and Beam Candela,
both of which use the candela unit (lumens per steradian). Mean spherical
measurements are made in an integrating sphere, and represent the total output
in lumens divided by 4 sr in a sphere. Thus, a one-candela isotropic lamp
produces one lumen per steradian.
Beam candela, on the other hand, samples a very narrow-angle and is
only representative of the lumens per steradian at the peak intensity of the
beam. This measurement is frequently misleading since the sampling angle
need not be defined.
37
Light Measurement Handbook © 1998 by Alex Ryer, International Light Inc.
Suppose that two LEDs each emit 0.1 lm total in a narrow beam: One
has a 10° solid angle and the other a 5° angle. The 10° LED has an intensity
of 4.2 cd, and the 5° LED has an intensity of 16.7 cd. They both output the same
total amount of light, however - 0.1 lm.
A flashlight with a million-candela beam sounds very bright, but if its
beam is only as wide as a laser beam, then it won’t be of much use. Be wary
of specifications given in beam candela, because they often misrepresent the
total output power of a lamp.
Units Conversion: Intensity
171
8.3 3/ Illuminance in Lux is presented particularly by
LED manufacturers and describes the quantity of
luminous flux falling on a surface. This light
decreases by the square of the distance (inverse
square law). Refer to Fig 6.2 example on page 17,
using the formula F=E Ω d2. Where an illuminance
of 25 lux was tested at a distance of 2m.
F=25x4π22=1256 lm
Fig 8.3 Typical “Cone” diagram of a light

source, which shows Illuminance in Lux
and beam width over distance.
7 Action-lights
contributors, 'Light Measurement', Action-Lights, 25 April 2010, 18:30 UTC, < http://www.action-lights.com/browse-117631/Light-
Measurement.html> [accessed 1 May 2010]
172
Light Source & Luminaire Data
8.4 Other Factors Affecting Rating Systems
Additionally, all light rating systems depend on the perception of the human eye and are therefore
subjective. Another important factor besides absolute intensity is the whiteness (technically the Colour
Temperature) of the light source. If two equally intense light sources differ in colour temperature, the
eye will perceive the whiter source (higher colour temperature) to be brighter than the more yellow one.
Colour temperature is expressed in degrees on the Kelvin scale. A very white flashlight lamp will be rated
around 3200 K.
8.5 Sourcing Light Output Data
It is possible to obtain Light output data values from several sources: -
1/ Your photometric bench tests.
2/ Light source manufacturer IES or LDT files contain the total radiant flux value in lumens, as the average
intensity multiplied by each zone factor, the total sum is equal to the total luminous flux.
3/ Some manufacturers give you the efficacy which multiplied by wattage gives total lumens.
4/ Manufacturers usually manufacture bare lamps that are identical to other configurations within a
reflector, for example, a bare burner IRC of which lumens are provided, is the same lamp they use within
a Dichroic IRC, the same applies for many metal halides.
5/One lux is equal to one lumen per square meter, where 4π lumens is the total luminous flux of a light
source of one candela of luminous intensity.
1 lx = 1 lm·m-2 = 1 Ω.sr.m–2
Therefore multiply the candela intensity value x 4 π. Although this formula is usually only accurate if you
take the reflector off and measure the intensity with a lux meter convert it to the intensity with E=I/d2
and then multiply by 4 π. The intensity value given by a manufacturer from a reflector will usually contain
a focused intensity value, i.e. the formula can only work with a point source uniform radiator.
As they say ‘There are many ways to skin a cat’.
173
9 Simple Design Formulae
9.1 Intensity Method

Calculating Light Level at a Point using the “Inverse Square Law”
For planes perpendicular to the direction of Intensity (Inverse Square Law):
E =. I .
. d2
where I = Intensity in candelas (cd)
d = Direct distance between the lamp and the point where the light level is calculated
Fig 9.1 Inverse-square Law

I
Light source Intensity information data is usually supplied by the light source or luminaire manufacturers.
100cd
2m
Fig 9.2 Example 100cd /2m2=25 lux
If Light hits a surface at an Angle- (Lamberts’ Cosine Law)
E = І CosA (9.1)
. d2
d
A
174
Intensity Method
Fig 9.3 Inverse-square Law & Cosine Law
100cd
2.8m
2m
45o
2m
Fig 9.4 Example: - E = I /d2 CosA
=100/2.82 Cos45
=9 Lux
9.2 Luminaire Spacing & Beam Width Calculations
Fig 9.5 A typical “cone diagram” from an example of a Luminaire Data Sheet from a manufacturer, refer
to Fig page 35
We can use this data to determine the average intensity using

the inverse square formula, quite simply from our original
definition of a lumen as 1(lm) = 1(cd) x 1(sr) @ 1m
E =. I
. . d2
@ 1m E= 149.12 lux =149.12 cd
The vertical beam spread is quoted as 110.6o so half the beam width is 110.6/2=55.3 o
SOHCAHTOA
1m H
55.3 o
A
Fig 9.6 Use the all-important Triangle Formula:

Sin() = Opposite / Hypotenuse
Cos() = Adjacent / Hypotenuse
Tan() = Opposite / Adjacent Tan 55.3=O =1.44m x2=2.9m
1
175
Luminaire Spacing & Beam Width Calculations
Therefore @ a distance of 3 meters.
SOHCAHTOA
3m 55.3 o H
A 0
Fig 9.7 Example calculating the illuminance at 3 meters

Triangle Formula:
Sin() = Opposite / Hypotenuse
Cos() = Adjacent / Hypotenuse
Tan() = Opposite / Adjacent Tan 55.3=O =4.33m x2=8.7m
3
And the illuminance @ 3m
E =. I .
d2
@ 6m I=149.12 cd/32=16.57 lux
All figures we calculated agree with the manufactures data presented refer to Fig 9.5
Fig 9.8 Therefore if we desired a relatively uniform illuminance of 16.57 lux @ a height of 3m we can
space the luminaires every 3m.
3m
3m 3m
3m
Fig 9.9 If we desired to

double the illuminance to 33.14 lux @ a height of 3m we can space the luminaires every 1.5m.
1.5m 1.5m
176
Luminaire Spacing & Beam Width Calculations
9.3 Luminaire Beam Widths

There are generally four categories of the luminaire (light fittings, fixtures) classification, Spots, Medium
Beam, Flood and Wide Floods.
Spot
Medium Beam
Flood
Wide Flood
Fig 9.10 Example of common beam width classification.
Photometric charts such as the above also known as ‘cone diagrams’ (also refer to Fig 8.3) are an
excellent guide for lighting contractors and a source of extra precision and guidance for Lighting
Engineers. Fig 9.10 is an example that relates beam spread angle to resulting beam radii at various
heights. In other words, according to this graphic, to cover a tree canopy with a radius of 10 feet (3
meters) at a height of 45 feet (13.7 meters), an uplight luminaire with a beam spread of 24 degrees
would adequately illuminate the tree canopy end to end.
177
9.4 Lumen Method
Typically How Many Luminaires?
Rule of thumb Lumen Formula
N = A(m2) x Eav NUMBER OF LIGHTS = AREA(m2) xAVERAGE LUX

F x0.45 LAMP LUMENS X0.45
Calculating Light Levels using the “Coefficients of utilization” C of U or CU also known as the Zonal
Cavity Method
Coefficient of utilization refers to the ratio of luminous flux in lumens that reach the work plane to the
total luminous flux in lumens generated by the light source. C of U or sometimes known as CU, figures are
necessary for hand-calculating average illuminance levels and are provided in one of two ways: a CU
table or a utilization curve. A utilization curve is usually provided for luminaires intended for outdoor use
or luminaires with a distribution that is radically asymmetric. A CU or Zonal Cavity Table is provided for
luminaires that are used primarily indoors. The use of CU data will be discussed below.
Average Maintained Illuminance
Lux = Total Lumens ÷ Area in Square Meters
First Determine Room Index Kr or sometimes known as RI or RCR
RI(Kr or RCR )= LXW

Hm(L+W)
where: L is the length of the room, W is the width of the room; and Hm is the height that the fitting is
mounted above the work surface sometimes known as the work plane, which is usually the task area
height such as a table or desk. The calculated illuminance is at the work plane height, on average a figure
between 0.75 to 1.0m.
Match the Corresponding value on the chart, coordinate with ceiling, floor and wall Reflectivity,
Ceiling-Pc (RC)
Floor Pf (RF)
And Wall Pw (RW)
178
Lumen Method
Fig 9.11
Eav = N x F x C of U x MF
A
Eav = No of Lamps/Fixture x Lumens/Lamp x Coefficient of Utilization x Light Loss Factor

Area in Square meters
Lighting Calculations
How Many Fittings Are Required for a Room

The utilisation factor table and a few simple formulas allow us to calculate the number of fittings
required for any room.
Step 1: Understand the utilisation factor table that is available on most fittings.
UTILISATION FACTOR TABLE (for 2x36 bare batten)

LOR: 88.1% SHR NOM 1.75: 1.0 Disregard SHR MAX.
Reflectance Room Index (K)
Ceiling Wall Floor 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.5 2.0 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.00
0.50 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.37 0.42 0.46 0.52 0.56 0.59 0.63 0.66
Across the Top of the Table
179
Name Description
LOR Light output ratio for this fitting. Not required in a simple calculation.
Nominal Spacing to Height ratio. For a given mounting height we can see the
nominal spacing between fittings. Eg. 1.75 to 1 means that for every 1 metre of
SHR NOM
mounting height (above the work plane) we should have a maximum of 1.75 metr
between fittings.
SHR MAX Used by lighting design software and not needed for manual calculations.
Reflectance Select a horizontal line for the reflectance values that best describe the room.
Typical Reflectance Values are:
Ceiling Walls Floor
Air Conditioned Office 0.7 0.5 0.2

Industrial 0.5 0.3 0.2
Utilisation Factor (body of the table)

This is a value between 0 and 1 that represents the percentage of total lamp lumens in the room
that fall on the work plane. It takes into account the room reflectance, room shape, polar
distribution and light output ratio of the fitting.
Step 2: Calculate Room Index (K)
Room Index:
A room index is a number that describes the ratios of the room’s length, width, and height.
Formula: K=LxW
Hm (L+W)
Where: L = Room Length

W = Room Width
Hm = Mounting Height of Fitting (from a working plane)
Work Plane = Desk or Bench Height
The result of this calculation will be a number usually between 0.75 and 5.
Note: This formula for K is only valid when the room length is less than 4 times the width or when
the K value is greater than 0.75.
Step 3: Using the room index and reflectance values in the utilisation factor table.
For the horizontal row select the reflectance that best describes the room.
180
For the vertical column select the room index value K as calculated above.
The utilisation factor for this fitting in this room is where the row and column intersect.
Step 4: To calculate the number of fittings required use the following formula:
Formula: N= ExA
F x uF x LLF
Where: N = Number of Fittings

E = Lux Level Required on Working Plane
A = Area of Room (L x W)
F = Total Flux (Lumens) from all the Lamps in one Fitting
UF = Utilisation Factor from the Table for the Fitting to be Used
LLF = Light Loss Factor. This takes account of the depreciation over time of lamp
output and dirt accumulation on the fitting and walls of the building.
Typical LLF Values
Air Conditioned Off0.8

Clean Industrial 0.7
Dirty Industrial 0.6
Standard Triphos
Lumen outputs of fluorescent lamps 18 Watt / 1150 Lumens 1300 Lumens

36 Watt / 3000 Lumens 3350 Lumens
Lumen output of PL lamps 18 Watt / 1200 Lumens
36 Watt / 2900 Lumens
Step 5: Space the number of fittings uniformly around the room drawing and check the SHR
nominal for the fitting has not been exceeded. If it has been exceeded re space the fittings to get
back to SHR nom.
Step 6: Work out the number of fittings required in each axis of the room:
Number in Length =
181
Number in Width =
Light Loss Factors (Maintenance Factors)
Examples of “light loss” or “Maintenance” Factors include the following: -Light Loss Factor (LLF) = Ballast
Factor x Fixture Ambient Temperature Factor x Supply Voltage Variation Factor x Lamp Position Factor x
Optical Factor x Fixture Surface Depreciation Factor x Lamp Burnouts Factor x Lamp Lumen Depreciation
Factor x Fixture Dirt Depreciation Factor x Room Surface Dirt Depreciation Factor
Lamp Burnout Factor = 1 - Percentage of Lamps Allowed to Fail Without Being Replaced
The standard maintenance factor rule of thumb is 0.75 for a clean room such as an office, 0.5 for a dustier
area such as a warehouse and 0.3 or less for a factory.
Example: - A lighting designer has selected that an office area of 10m x 10m should have a quantity of
50 x CVM118 luminaires, refer example of a Luminaire Data Sheet from a manufacturer on page 15, the
light sources are quoted on the data sheet as 1200 lumens per luminaire. The mounting height of
luminaires is 3m. The area is an office that is considered clean.
Ceiling, floor and wall Reflectivity,
Ceiling-Pc=30 %
Floor Pf = 20%
And Wall Pw = 50%
182
Lumen Method
First Determine the “Room Index Factor”.
RI(Kr)= LXW
Hm(L+W)
RI= 10mx10m/ 3m (ceiling height) – 0.75m (work plane height) (10m+10m)

=100/ (2.25(10+10))
=2.22 which rounds off to approx. 2
Match the Corresponding value on the chart, and coordinate with ceiling, floor and wall Reflectivity,
which corresponds to a C of U factor of 43 which is a factor of 0.43
Fig 9.12
Therefore plugging in all the known values
Eav = N x F x C of U x MF
A
Eav =50x1200 lm x 0.43 x 0.75

10mx10m
Eav=193.5 Lux
As this is an Office area, BCA J6 state8:-

AS 1680 recommended Maximum illumination po
Location Lumens/Watt
illuminance, Lux density W/m2
Office – artificially lit to an

160 7 23
ambient level of <200 lux
8 Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage Australian Greenhouse Office, (2006) BCA Volume One,
Part J6-Artificial Lighting and Power, Developed by the Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB), SYDNEY NSW: SAI GLOBAL, Fig
11.5, 238: Relationship of maximum Illumination power density to AS 1680
183
Lumen Method
Fig 9.13 Example of a Luminaire Data Sheet from a manufacturer, figures used in the example are
highlighted.
184
9.5 Building Code Vs Australian Standards
BCA Part J6 Artificial Lighting and Power refers to AS 1680 recommended illuminance therefore it
means that both have to be satisfied.
Therefore the design fulfils the recommendation of AS 1680 but does it also comply with BCA J6?
Lamp Power Density LPD

Unit of measurement: Lamp Power/ Area [W/m2].
LPD is a measure of performance, it is calculated by dividing the Electrical Lamp Power consumed in
Watts (W) over the Illuminated area (m2).
BCA definition
• The amount of energy just used by the lamps of the artificial lighting (excluding lighting ballast
etc) in a room i.e. the total energy of the lighting is arrived at by adding the nominal wattage of
all of the lamps and then dividing this by the floor area of the room.
• Again, lamps plugged into a general power outlet are not covered by this definition. However, a
lamp hardwired must comply.7
To check if it complies with BCA J6, refer to the example of a Luminaire Data Sheet from a
manufacturer, we can see that the input wattage is 21 Watts
Therefore 21Watts x 50 luminaires = 1050 Watts/100m2= 10.50 W/m2
It doesn’t appear that the design complies with BCA J6, as it only allows a maximum illumination
power density of 7W/m2 for an Office – artificially lit to an ambient level of <200 lux
First, we can work out how many luminaires are required to achieve the minimum AS 1680
recommendation of 160Lux. From the Formula:-
160lxav =Nx1200 lm x 0.43 x 0.75

10mx10m
= 41.34 which rounds off to 42 luminaires.
Therefore 21Watts x 42 luminaires = 882 Watts/100m2= 8.82 W/m2
Which complies with AS 1680 but not BCA J6 as it is greater than the minimum requirement of 7 W/m2
7Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage Australian Greenhouse Office, (2006) BCA Volume
One, Part J6-Artificial Lighting and Power, Developed by the Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB), SYDNEY NSW: SAI
GLOBAL, 4.2, 230: Important terminology a. BCA definitions
185
Building Code Vs Australian Standards
Fig 9.14 BCA J6 Table J6.2c9, BCA J6 also allows various power density adjustment factors.
Illumination power
Item Description
density adjustment fa
Daylight sensor and dynamic lighting (a) Lights within the space adjacent to windows fo
control device in accordance with distance from the window equal to the depth0.5 (Note 5)
Specification J6 – dimmed or stepped the floor to window head height.
switching of lights adjacent windows (b) Where the total area of the roof lights is less
0.6 (Note 5)
than 10% of the floor area.
We require an adjustment factor of at least 7/8.82= 0.79 or less to comply.
So if we go with Item A and incorporate Daylight sensors as described BCA J6 allows an adjustment
factor of 0.5, which is 7W LPD/0.5= 14W/m2
Therefore we can go back to our original design of 50 Luminaires as 21 watts x 50 luminaires = 1050
Watts/100m2= 10.50 W/m2 and does not exceed the 14 W/m2 Max LPD. The Illuminance is less than
200 lux so therefore the design now complies with BCA J6 and AS 1680 as the design achieves an
illuminance of greater than 160 lux.
9Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage Australian Greenhouse Office, (2006) BCA Volume
One, Part J6-Artificial Lighting and Power, Developed by the Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB), SYDNEY NSW: SAI
GLOBAL, Table J6.2C
186
9.6 Floodlighting hints
S=2H
Spacing (S) between floodlights is typically 2.0 (must not exceed 3.0) x mounting height (H).
Aim typically two-thirds across the area to be lit, however elevation should not be more than 70 o above vertical.
Fig 9.15 Area Lighting Fig 9.16 Single Floodlight Approximate Lit Area
70o 70o 70o

Max Max Max
H H H
2xH
3xH
Fig 9.17 Sign or Wall Lighting
D<=0.25H, S<=2.5D
Distance (D) from the sign or wall must not be less than 0.25 x Height (H) of the sign or wall. Spacing (S) between
floodlights must not exceed 2.5 x distance (D).
S
D
Typically How Many Floodlights?Lumen Formula
N = A(m2) x Eav NUMBER OF FLOODLIGHTS = AREA(m2) xAVERAGE LUX

F x0.3 LAMP LUMENS X0.3
187
Floodlighting hints
Fig 555 Port Pirie's famous land mark - the “Tall Stack”, was built in 1979 to overcome air pollution in the town. At 205 metres tall it is still one o
highest stacks in the Southern Hemisphere and the tallest structure in South Australia. It was designed to disperse gases (mainly sulphur dioxide
atmosphere high above the town to ensure a constant air quality! In 1991 the Author was asked to illuminate the structure in accordance with aviati
regulations. Some of the hand calculations of the design are shown. Obstacle lights and 1000W Metal Halide Cariboni ‘Folgore’ projector floodlS
#3: fixing support and electrical junction
1306g
188
9.7 Uniformity
According to the book “Visual Perception” by T.W Cornsweet-Providing, there are no discontinuities the
“eye cannot detect the change in illuminance E of less than 5”
I.e. Emin: Eav < 5

1:5 ratio. For example 100 lux: 500 lux
According to AS1680, uniformity in a general building must not be less than 0.8
Emin: Eav <0.8 For example 80 lux:100 lux
RULE OF THUMB-for lighting design effects
Emin: Eav < 3
1:3 is not noticeable
For example 100 lux: 300 lux

A human eye can barely perceive the difference between 100 to 300 lux but will start to notice 400 lux if
the base illuminance is 100 lux.
Fig 9.18 This ratio can be used to create modelling effects for stage, theatre; shop merchandise displays,
gallery spaces etc to create impact, as long as the ambient or base illuminance conforms to AS1680
recommendations for illuminance, uniformity i.e. not less than 0.8, and not exceed the recommended
glare index as well not exceeding the BCA required power density.
189
9.8 PAR16 Style Light Source Comparisons
Fig 9.19 Revised comparisons of various MR16 style retrofits based on data evaluation & photometric
tests by John Iwaszko and the latest manufacturing test data from suppliers.
12V 7W MR16 Compact Fluro 120 DEG (210

lumens) life 20,000 hr, Dimmable with leading or
trailing edge dimmers AVAILABLE IN 2010
240V GU10 Megaman 11W PAR16 compact fluro

120 DEG (345 lumens) life 10,000 hr 4 step switch
dim
12V 4W LED retrofit MR16 Philips, 22 DEG (110

lumens) life 45,000 hr 2 step dimming
240V 35W GU10 OSRAM HALOPAR PAR16 35

DEG (230 lumens) life 2,000 hr Dimmable with most of leading
or Trailing edge dimmers
240V 7W GU10 PHILIPS MASTERLED PAR16 40

DEG (290 lumens) life 45,000 hr
240V
7W GU10 PHILIPS MASTERLED PAR16 25
DEG (300 lumens) life 45,000 hr Dimmable with
most leading-edge Dimmers.
12V 35W MR 16 halogen 38 Deg Energy saver

IRC (900 lumens) life 4000 hr Dimmable with
leading or trailing edge dimmers
240V (electronic ballast required) CDMR16 35W

38 Deg Metal Halide GU10 (3300 lumens) Life
12,000 hr Not dimmer able
False Colour Rendering Key
Lux
190
PAR16 Style Light Source Comparisons
All light sources tested are considered energy-saving and can be manufactured to retrofit within most
luminaires.
For example, the standard Low voltage luminaire can accommodate MR16 Compact fluro, MR16
Halogen, MR16 energy saver IRC Halogen, and 12V LED (many types available).
With 240V GU10 Luminaires you may have the option of 240V GU10 Halogen, GU10 compact fluro, GU10
LED or Metal Halide.
Most light sources such as compact fluro LED and metal halide are available in 3000K -warm white to
match halogen colour and 4000K to match standard white fluorescents, 2700K and 5000K is also available
in various models.
As for dimming, the GU10 led is dimmable with the most leading-edge dimmers on the market. The GU10
megaman compact fluro is a step dim, (flick switch on and off), IRC halogen are dimmer able as per the
standard halogen range, Metal Halides are difficult and or expensive to dim.
As for MASTER LED MR 16 this has a two-step dimming function available when used in combination with
various leading-edge dimmers on dimmable Halogen transformers.
191
10 Lighting Design Programs
10.1 A Brief History of Radiosity
Radiosity in computer graphics is often thought of as a relatively recent innovation. After all, it was
introduced by Cindy Goral et al. in 1984 at Cornell University, who derived it from a thermal
engineering technique of the same name that was popular in the 1960s. It is one of the
cornerstones of global illumination techniques for physically realistic image rendering.
Change the name to "radiative transfer theory," however, and radiosity appears in the illumination
engineering literature as early as 1926. Ziro Yamauti presented radiosity in terms of Fredholm
integrals of the second kind, a mathematical formalism that did not appear in the computer
graphics radiosity literature until its rediscovery by Paul Heckbert in 1991. Yamauti also proposed
using finite difference equations to solve the discrete form of these integral equations.
Yamauti's discussion was mostly theoretical. However, it was quickly transformed into a formal
engineering tool by H. H. Higbie, who published a practical technique in his 1934 book, Lighting
Calculations. Unfortunately, it was an idea before its time. With only hand-cranked calculators to
assist them, this precursor to today's radiosity algorithms was not widely practised by illumination
engineers.
One exception was the work done by Parry Moon and Domina Eberle Spencer at MIT in the 1940s.
They used Higbie's technique (which they called the inter-reflection method) to study lighting in
empty rooms. Credit for the first photorealistic images created using radiosity methods must go to
Moon and Spencer -- they exhibited synthetic images of empty rooms with luminous ceilings at the
1946 National Technical Conference of the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. They
calculated the luminance of each surface patch by hand, cut out paper squares from Munsell colour
charts, and pasted them together to form their images. These were then photographed for
presentation.
One of these synthetic colour images

(shown below) was reproduced in their
1948 book, Lighting Design (Addison-
Wesley). The famous Cornell Box
notwithstanding, this is the very first
radiosity image. (The lack of shadows can be
attributed to the soft lighting from the
luminous ceiling, and possibly the limited
patience of graduate students with hand-
cranked calculators!)
Fig 10.1 Moon & Spencer (1948) - The first

known Radiosity Image
192
193
Most commonly used in Australia:-
Figs 10.2 AGi32- Free to trial for non-commercial use, some functions are disabled and show a
watermark in most documentation. It was developed in America and was until approximately 3 years ago
the most commonly used Lighting program used by professionals in Australia. A one-year subscription to
the program is roughly AU$1200 in Australia – similar to a subscription whereby you pay a yearly fee for
technical support as well as updates whenever they are released. AGI32 has a selection of powerful
calculations as well as decent modelling and 3D rendering capabilities
Refer http://www.agi32.com/
194
Lighting Design Programs
Figs 10.3 DIAlux- Is free for commercial use. It is simpler to use than AGI and can generate faster designs
but not to the degree or complexity of AGI. For architecturally complicated buildings AGI is superior,
although DIAlux can usually achieve a simulated architectural design but in my opinion, requires much
more effort to make it exact. The most desirable aspect of the program is its “export to pov-ray” option,
which achieves photo-realistic 3D renderings. The output options of DIALux are also excellent. Once you
have finished a design with DIALux you can print out a report at the end which is worth handing to the
client or included with other documentation. With AGI32 you must try and use their page manager which
isn’t intuitive or export the design as a DXF and set up something in AutoCAD.
DIALux also seems to accept more luminaire formats and is far less fussy than AGI32 in this respect.
195
196
Lighting Design Programs
Refer http://www.dial.de/CMS/English/Articles/DIALux/Download/Download_d_e_fr_it_es_cn.html
How real can the design be? Refer to some of the authors' designs, the answer is based on how much
time you spend doing the design!
197
198
10.4 Other Lighting Programs
There are quite a few other programs I’ve come across such as Relux (http://www.relux.biz/) which I think
is available as a free version. Calculux (www.lightingsoftware.philips.com/) comes in a few different
versions depending on the application. ECOTECT (www.ecotect.com/) is an architectural planning tool for
energy efficiency, I haven’t had a proper look at this one yet, but I think the lighting component of the
software is more focused on calculating daylight than artificial light.
199
mnemonic
200
A common use of mnemonics is to remember facts and relationships in trigonometry. For
example, the sine, cosine, and tangent ratios in a right triangle can be remembered by
representing them as strings of letters, as in SOH-CAH-TOA.
Sine = Opposite ÷ Hypotenuse
Cosine = Adjacent ÷ Hypotenuse
Tangent = Opposite ÷ Adjacent
The memorization of this mnemonic can be aided by expanding it into a phrase, such as
"Some Officers Have Curly Auburn Hair Till Old Age".
Periodicity of trig functions. Sine, cosine, secant, and cosecant have period 2 while
tangent and cotangent have period .
360 cos =1
180cos=-1
Cos 330=0.8660
Cos165=-0.9659
GREEK Alphabet
(Note: AS1680.3-1991 requires "Test Report" values to be expressed in candelas per 1000 total lamp
lumens [2 x 500 in this case], as this file is an "associated electronic data file" specifically an "ies file", the
definition of which is specified by the North American Illuminating Engineering Society
201
202
Further Reading
Cayless, M. A & Marsden A. M (1983) Lamps and Lighting, Great Britain: Edward Arnold.
DeCusatis, Casimer (1998) Handbook of applied photometry, New York: Springer-Verlag.
Williams, Graham (circa 1991) Thorn Lighting Technical Handbook, UK: Studio Print Press Group
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (2000), IESNA Lighting Handbook, Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America
N.V Philips’ Globeilampenfabrieken Lighting Staff (1986) Lighting Manual, Netherlands: N.V Philips’
Globeilampenfabrieken
Ryer, Alex (1997) Light Measurement Handbook, Newburyport USA: Technical Publications Dept.
International Light, Inc.
Cotton, Harry (1960) Principles of illumination, New York: Wiley
Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage Australian Greenhouse

Office, (2006) BCA Volume One, Part J6-Artificial Lighting and Power, Developed by the Australian
Building Codes Board (ABCB), SYDNEY NSW: SAI GLOBAL.
Committee LG/1, Interior Lighting, approved in 1990 on behalf of the Council of Standards (2006)
Australian Standard ®-Interior lighting Part 2.0: Recommendations for specific tasks and interiors
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, Homebush, NSW, STANDARDS ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA.
203
Bibliography
Cayless, M. A & Marsden A. M (1983) Lamps and Lighting, Great Britain: Edward Arnold.
DeCusatis, Casimer (1998) Handbook of applied photometry, New York: Springer-Verlag.
Williams, Graham (circa 1991) Thorn Lighting Technical Handbook, UK: Studio Print Press Group
Lighting Council Australia Official News No. 8, Changing Australian Lighting Standards
Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage Australian Greenhouse

Office, (2006) BCA Volume One, Part J6-Artificial Lighting and Power, Developed by the Australian
Building Codes Board (ABCB), SYDNEY NSW: SAI GLOBAL.
Committee LG/1, Interior Lighting, approved in 1990 on behalf of the Council of Standards (2006)
Australian Standard ®-Interior lighting Part 2.0: Recommendations for specific tasks and interiors
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, Homebush, NSW, STANDARDS ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA.
Sybil P. Parker, editor in chief, (1997) McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, fifth
edition, New York: McGraw-Hill
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204
Colophon
The original form of this Guide was created with Microsoft Word 2007, and then printed with Acrobat
Distiller 5.0; images were sourced /modified and or created from the following sources:-
Front Cover- Left, A Nuclear Fusion experiment Picture 126.jpg Thursday, 7 September 2006, 10:05:32 AM
And right, levitating 240V 25W BC incandescent GLS lamp, illuminated wirelessly by the high-frequency field
from an Electrical transmitter, a receiving coil is looped around the lamp, receives energy wirelessly through
space, levitation is achieved by Electromagnetic Suspension-repulsion and attraction with feedback loop
control, from original super 8 videos, 8th of August 1996, image from Antigravity Method 10 of 15
Electromagnetic suspension with feedback Group IIIA.mpg uploaded by the author, Monday, 30 March 2009,
2:02:50 AM, refer http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zgt1DBYR9GE
Fig 1.00 Scanned, restored and enhanced by the author from, Philips Lighting, (circa 1989), Light: Sight-
Science-Sources, Brochure, Philips Lighting
Fig 1.01 Dicklyon, at the Wikipedia project. Retrieved Friday, 9 January 2009, 2:51:58 PM. From
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Luminosity.png
Fig 2.00 Retrieved Tuesday, 19 December 2000, 8:51:16 AM from an unknown webpage.
Fig 4.00 cartage.org. Retrieved 02.45:27, April 14, 2010. From

http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/physics/quantumphysics/Quantumtheory/Theorylight/T
heorylight.htm. Modified by the author with the addition of Wein’s displacement law data plot and
labelled with Microsoft Word 2007.
Fig 4.01 Drphysics, from the Wikipedia Commons. Retrieved 04:27, April 14, 2010, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blackbody-lg.png.
Fig 4.02 PAR, from the Wikipedia Commons. Retrieved 04:29, April 14, 2010, from
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/PlanckianLocus.png
5.00a,5.00b, Ch’s 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 & 5.4 Created with Microsoft Word 2007, by the Author, Fig 5.00a,
steradian image of a circle by Jynus, licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0
Retrieved 04:50, April 14, 2010, from
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Steradian.svg and image of cone by Inductive
load. Retrieved 04:55, April 14, 2010, from
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Steradian_cone_and_cap.svg, Steradian sphere
and cone images Fig 5.00a from Ryer, Alex (1997) Light Measurement Handbook, Newburyport USA:
Technical Publications Dept. International Light, Inc. Pg 29 Measurement Geometries Fig 7.1 & 7.2,
modified, the colour changed with Adobe PhotoDeluxe 2.0
Fig 5.01 Modified, contrast-enhanced, blended, extra A’s added to area with Adobe PhotoDeluxe 2.0 &
cropped, distorted labels added with Microsoft Word 2007, by the Author from original images,
Retrieved 04:44, April 14, 2010 PM, Borb, licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike
1.0 Generic from GNU Free Documentation License, from
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Inverse_square_law.svg
205
Colophon
Fig 5.02 Modified, contrast-enhanced with Adobe PhotoDeluxe 2.0, by the Author from original images,
retrieved 04:24 PM, May 1, 2010, from http://bsche.blogspot.com/2009/09/inverse-square-law-of-heat-
unit.html
Fig 5.03 Jynus, licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0 Retrieved 04:50, April 14,
2010, from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Steradian.svg
Fig 5.04 Inductive load. Retrieved 04:55, April 14, 2010, from
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Steradian_cone_and_cap.svg
Fig 6.01, 6.02 & 6.03 were created with Microsoft Word 2007, from drawings originally hand drawn by
the author in the form of a submitted prac. - Laboratory Instruments-experiment 3a RMIT Lighting 1 H,
March 1990.
Fig 6.04 DeCusatis, Casimer (1998) Handbook of applied photometry, New York: Springer-Verlag,
from Pg 134 fig 5.1
Fig 6.05 Scanned restored and enhanced by the author, from the original image, Light Measurement and
control, Precision light Meters, (circa. 1970s), IES Lighting Fundamentals Course notes, plot redrawn and
colourised, Ѳ angle and arrows added.
Fig 6.06 V (λ) corrected Photovoltaic cell and uncorrected and corrected selenium cell plot created with
Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author, data from Colour correction for light cells plot, Light Measurement
and control, (circa. the 1970s), IES Lighting Fundamentals Course notes, plot redrawn and colourised, and
arrows added, to original plot from Dicklyon, at the Wikipedia project. Retrieved 02:21, April 14, 2010.
From http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Luminosity.png.
Fig 6.07 Plots created with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author, from Cosine correction for Type 213
meter, GE Type 213 light meter, General Electric Co., Measurement Of Light, (circa. the 1970s), IES
Lighting Fundamentals Course notes, plots redrawn and colourised, newly updated labels added and
updated from original figures in foot-candles.
Fig 6.08 created with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author
Fig 6.09 Digital photo IMG_1815.JPG, Sunday, 23 November 2008, 7:46:56 PM, enhanced with Adobe
PhotoDeluxe 2.0 and labelled with Microsoft Word, from light meter calibration test report, Monday, 24
November 2008 4:16 AM by the Author.
Tabulation 6.01 Calibration Test & Tabulation by Author, test date 23-11-2008, created with Microsoft
Word 2007 and Excel 2007, light source image, Halostar©IRC Pg 2.16, Osram Indoor and Outdoor Lighting
Catalogue 2006/2007, Germany: Osram.
Fig. 6.10 created with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author, from notes from the Royal Melbourne
Institute of Technology, Lighting 1H an Associate Diploma of Engineering in Electrical, March 1990
Table 6.01 created with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author, from notes from the Royal Melbourne
Institute of Technology, Lighting 1H an Associate Diploma of Engineering in Electrical, March 1990
Fig 6.11 was created with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author.
206
Colophon
Fig. 6.12 right image, Retrieved 012:55, May 28, 2010, from
http://www.sinclairbrook.com.au/projects/queenscliff-harbour, bottom right image, Digital photo by the
Author, DSCF3355.JPG, Thursday, 29 October 2009, 10:37:58 AM, cropped with Microsoft word. Centre
image, ‘Tender issue, Restaurant Stair 1 elevation and Details, Queenscliff Harbour Redeveleptment’
dated 23 Sept. 2008, rev A DWG No. AR 313-1, by Conti Architects PTY LTD. Top Left image Retrieved
01:10, May 28, 2010, from http://www.millsgorman.com.au/, Bottom Left image, from the datasheet: -
MS718xx LED DIMMING CONVERTOR.pdf created Saturday, 13 June 2009, 12:12:47 AM by the author.
Fig. 6.13 was created with Microsoft Word 2007 and Excel 2007, from notes & drawings originally hand
drawn by the author in the form of a submitted prac. Laboratory Instruments Experiment 3b, Integrating
Sphere, from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Lighting 1H an Associate Diploma of
Engineering in Electrical, April 1990.
Fig 6.14, a centre image created with Microsoft Word 2007 from notes & drawings originally hand drawn
by the author in the form of a submitted prac. Laboratory Instruments Experiment 3b, Integrating
Sphere, from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Lighting 1H, April 1990, top left image,
Lighting Sciences Inc, Retrieved 03.14:21, July 11, 2010, from http://www.lightingsciences.com/wp-
content/themes/lightingsciences/pdf/Integrating_Sphere_3-2010.pdf, bottom left image, Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory-Lighting Research Group, Retrieved 03.52:28, July 7, 2010, From
http://lighting.lbl.gov/l_facilities_integ.html, top right image from Olis, Inc, Retrieved 02.35:19, July 6,
2010. from http://olisweb.com/products/accessories/integratingsphere.php, the bottom right image,
electro-optical Industries, Retrieved 02.26:10, July 6, 2010. from http://www.electro-
optical.com/eoi_page.asp?h=ISV%20Integrating%20Spheres,
Table 6.02 was created with Microsoft Word 2007, modified, by adding RA row and AS1680.3 column,
from notes by the author in the form of a submitted prac. Laboratory Instruments Experiment 3b,
Integrating Sphere, from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Lighting 1H an Associate Diploma
of Engineering in Electrical.
Fig 6.15, a centre image created with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author, from notes & drawings
originally hand drawn by the author in the form of a submitted prac. Laboratory Instruments Experiment
3b, Integrating Sphere, from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Lighting 1H an Associate
Diploma of Engineering in Electrical, left image, Newport Corporation, Retrieved 04.52:55, July 6, 2010.
from http://www.newport.com/Oriel-Integrating-Spheres/378467/1033/catalog.aspx#, right image,
Digital photo IMG_1836.JPG, Sunday, 23 November 2008, 11:14:22 PM by Author enhanced with Adobe
PhotoDeluxe 2.0.
Tabulation 6.02 was created with Microsoft Word 2007 and Excel 2007, from notes by the author in the
form of a submitted prac. Laboratory Instruments Experiment 3b, Integrating Sphere, from the Royal
Melbourne Institute of Technology, Lighting 1H an Associate Diploma of Engineering in Electrical, April
1990
Fig 6.16 Committee LG/1, Interior Lighting, approved in 1990 on behalf of the Council of Standards
(2006) Australian Standard ®-Interior lighting Part 2.0: Interior lighting Part 3:Measurement, calculation
and presentation o photometric data, STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, Homebush, NSW, STANDARDS
ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA, Fig 1.1 Pg 10 and Fig 1.2 (b) pg 11, using Adobe Reader 9 snapshot tool.
Fig 6.17 Cayless, M. A & Marsden A. M (1983) Lamps and Lighting, Great Britain: Edward Arnold, Fig 4.3
pg75, digital scan by author and enhanced using Adobe PhotoDeluxe 2.0
207
Colophon
Fig 6.18 CIBS National Lighting Conference (1980), Three Systems of Measurement, digital scan by the
author and enhanced using Adobe PhotoDeluxe 2.0
Fig 6.19 From Engineering Validation Report Date 21-03-2008 PHOTOMETRIC Test Report
#17032008-1 Model: Masson for Light Cat No CM118IP65EL 18W "Casta Mini IP65" Horizontal
compact fluorescent Recessed Downlight, document, by Author, centre drawing images refer, Fig
6.18 labels added with Microsoft word 2007.
Fig 6.20 & 6.21 From Engineering Validation Report Date 21-03-2008 PHOTOMETRIC Test Report
compact fluorescent Recessed Downlight, document, digital images by the author.
Fig 6.22 The Polar Curve was plotted, in Microsoft Excel and Word 2007, using the chart and
selecting radar, from Engineering Validation Report Date 08-04-2008 PHOTOMETRIC Test Report
#04042008 Model: Masson for Light Cat No CVM118EL 18W "Casta Mini Round" Horizontal
compact fluorescent Recessed Downlight, document.
#04042008 Model: Masson for Light Cat No CVM118EL 18W "Casta Mini Round" Horizontal
compact fluorescent Recessed Downlight, document, digital images by the author.
Fig 6.24 Dr Ohno, Yoshihiro (1996) OSA Handbook of Applied Photometry, retrieved 10:53:56 PM March
7, 2010, from Fig 16 page 27, http://www.ecse.rpi.edu/~schubert/More-
reprints/1996%20Ohno%20(OSA%20handbook%20of%20applied%20photometry)%20Photometric%20st
andards.pdf
Fig 6.25 created with Microsoft Word 2007, from various notes & drawings originally hand drawn by the
author on’ Luminous Exitance’ from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Lighting 1H an
Associate Diploma of Engineering in Electrical, 05-03-1990, modified and combined into one image,
elementary band added, complete sphere from the original hemisphere, labels of radians added, etc.
Fig 6.26 created with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author
Table 6.03 by the Author, created with Microsoft Word 2007 and Excel 2007 calculated from example, pg
44.
Fig 6.27 Print screen capture from Excel 2007 of Table 6.03 by the Author.
Fig 6.28 created with Microsoft Word and Excel 2007, centre image from drawings originally hand drawn
by the author in the form of a submitted prac. -Experiment #2, Zonal Flux of a Luminaire, RMIT Lighting 1
H, March 1990, Bottom Left, redrawn and modified by the author from, Committee LG/1, Interior
Lighting, approved in 1990 on behalf of the Council of Standards (2006) Australian Standard ®-Interior
lighting Part 2.0: Interior lighting Part 3: Measurement, calculation and presentation o photometric data,
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, Homebush, NSW, STANDARDS ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA, Fig F1 (a) type 1 Pg
47. Right image, rendered with IES Viewer v2.99n Andrey Legotin L.A.L@rambler.ru, from an IES File,
created with Lumdat 2.10
208
Colophon
Tabulations 6.03 & 6.04 were created with Microsoft Word and Excel 2007, by the author from data
collected from a submitted prac. -Experiment #2, Zonal Flux of a Luminaire, RMIT Lighting 1 H, March
1990, modified by ‘moving’ E𝜽 values to start at 0o rather than 5o as per the original as most lighting
programs require an IES file to have an E𝜽 value at 0o to function correctly.
Fig 6.29 The left Polar Curve was plotted, in Microsoft Excel and Word 2007, using a chart and selecting
radar. The one on the right was created from calculated Tabulation 6.04, an IES File was created with
Lumdat 2.10, and a polar curve was generated with DIALux 4.7.
Fig 6.30 left three images, Retrieved Thursday, 22 July 2010, 11:47:27 AM, from
http://walkwalkmelbourne.blogspot.com/2009/11/laguna-oriental-supermarket-melbourne.html, right
three images retrieved Thursday, 22 July 2010, 12:01:40 PM, from the internet, unknown source most
likely https://www.littlecreatures.com.au/Melbourne/melbourne/menu-id-67.html
Fig 6.31 centre image, created with Microsoft Word and Excel 2007, redrawn and modified by the
author from, Committee LG/1, Interior Lighting, approved in 1990 on behalf of the Council of
Standards (2006) Australian Standard ®-Interior lighting Part 2.0: Interior lighting Part 3:
Measurement, calculation and presentation o photometric data, STANDARDS AUSTRALIA,
Homebush, NSW, STANDARDS ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA, Fig F1 (h) type 9 Pg 50. Left & Right
images from Masson For Light, CM118IP65EL 18W Casta Mini IP65.pdf, 2010 & 2009 data Sheets,
respectively. Original image properties: - IMG_0277.JPG Friday, 14 March 2008, 9:16:20 PM.
Fig 6.32, Tabulation 6.05 & 6.06, From Engineering Validation Report Date 21-03-2008
PHOTOMETRIC Test Report #17032008-1 Model: Masson for Light Cat No CM118IP65EL 18W
"Casta Mini IP65" Horizontal compact fluorescent Recessed Downlight document, digital images
and report by the Author.
compact fluorescent Recessed Downlight, document The Polar Curve was plotted, in Microsoft
Excel and Word 2007, using a chart and selecting radar from calculated Tabulation 6.06 by the
Author.
Fig 6.34 Luminous Report Summary for the Masson For Light CM118IP65EL created from an IES file
and the report was generated by Protometrics Pro report program, from Engineering Validation
Report Date 21-03-2008 PHOTOMETRIC Test Report #17032008-1 Model: Masson for Light Cat No
CM118IP65EL 18W "Casta Mini IP65" Horizontal compact fluorescent Recessed Downlight,
document by the Author.
Fig 6.35 Lighting Sciences Inc, Retrieved 03.14:21, July 11, 2010, from
http://www.lightingsciences.com/wp-
content/themes/lightingsciences/pdf/High_Speed_Mirror_Goniophotometer_3-2010.pdf
209
Colophon
Fig 6.36 Right image digitally scanned from a hand-drawn image by the author from of a submitted prac. -
Experiment #9, Polar Curves of a Luminaire, RMIT Lighting 1 H, September 1990, enhanced with Adobe
PhotoDeluxe 2.0 and labelled with Microsoft Word, from light meter calibration test report, top left image
generic troffer image, Tradercity.com Retrieved 02.15:32, July 12, 2010, from
http://www.traderscity.com/board/userpix46/18152-T8-Hospital-Operation-Theatre-Fluorescent-Fittings-
T8-Dustproof-Lighting-Fixture-Sealed-Troffer-1.jpg
Fig 6.37 redrawn and modified by the author with Microsoft Word 2007 Committee LG/1, Interior
Lighting, approved in 1990 on behalf of the Council of Standards (2006) Australian Standard ®-Interior
lighting Part 2.0: Interior lighting Part 3: Measurement, calculation and presentation o photometric data,
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, Homebush, NSW, STANDARDS ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA, Fig F1 (f) type 6 Pg
47.
Fig 6.38, 6.39 & 6.40 were redrawn and modified with Microsoft Word 2007 from a submitted prac. that
was originally hand drawn by the author-Experiment #9, Polar Curves of a Luminaire, RMIT Lighting 1 H,
September 1990, respectively Fig A page 1, Fig B &C page 2.
Tabulation 6.07 redrawn and modified with Microsoft Word 2007 from a submitted prac. by the
author-Experiment #9, Polar Curves of a Luminaire, RMIT Lighting 1 H, September 1990.
Fig 6.41 Print screen capture from Excel 2007 of Tabulation 6.07 by the Author.
Fig 6.42 The left Polar Curve and the right 3D distribution were created from the calculated Tabulation
6.07, an IES File was created with Lumdat 2.10, and a polar curve was generated with AGI Photometric
Toolbox PE.
Fig 6.43 redrawn and modified with Microsoft Word 2007 from a submitted prac. that was originally hand
drawn by the author-Experiment #9, Polar Curves of a Luminaire, RMIT Lighting 1 H, September 1990.
Tabulations 6.09 & 6.10 were redrawn and modified with Microsoft Word 2007 from a submitted
prac. by the author-Experiment #9, Polar Curves of a Luminaire, RMIT Lighting 1 H, September
1990.
Fig 6.44. Print screen capture from Excel 2007 of Tabulation 6.09 by the Author.
Fig 6.45 The left Polar Curve and the right 3D distribution were created from the calculated
Tabulation 6.11, an IES File was created with Lumdat 2.10, and a polar curve was generated with
AGI Photometric Toolbox PE.
210
Colophon
Tabulations 6.12, 6.13 & 6.14 were redrawn and modified with Microsoft Word 2007 from a
submitted prac. by the author-Experiment #9, Polar Curves of a Luminaire, RMIT Lighting 1 H,
September 1990.
Fig 6.46 left and right images redrawn and modified with Microsoft Word 2007 from a submitted
prac. by the author-Experiment #9, Polar Curves of a Luminaire, RMIT Lighting 1 H, September
1990. Centre image, Clark &Mackinney’s Tests Of Various Globes and a PERFECT UNIFORM
DIFFUSER from….
Fig 6.47 was created with DIALux 4.7 by the Author. An IES file was created from Tabulation 6.15, with
Lumdat 2.0, which was then used to create the 3D rendering, and labelling with Microsoft Word 2007
Fig 6. 47 & Tabulation 6.15 created with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author
Fig 6. 49 IES file created from Tabulation 6.15 with Lumdat 2.0, the photometric polar curve was created
with DIALux 4.7 by the Author, cut-off angle label with Microsoft Word 2007
Fig 6.50 Imaged digitally scanned enhanced and restored from Fig 7.13, Pg 133 and Fig 7.14 Pg 134,
Fig 6. 51 The photometric polar curve was created with DIALux 4.7 by the Author from the original IES file
“F79197.IES” Rham Test No. SO01A003/100 created 22-05-1997 by Famco/Rham. This IES file was
modified and re-rated from 100W MH to 35W MH using Lumdat 2.0 and a new IES File was created
“F79197A-35WMH. IES”. Famco “Broadlight” image Retrieved 06:54, April 16, 2010 PM, from
http://www.famco.com.au/cat_view.php?id=130
Fig 6. 52 & Tabulation 6.16 the photometric Isoline drawings and illuminance averages were created with
DIALux 4.7 by the Author from Left to Right, Fig 6.52 and Top to bottom Tabulation 6.16, respectively:
Left & Top, an IES file was created from Tabulation 6.15, with Lumdat 2.0, Middle, an IES file was created
from Fig 6.50 Polar curve with Lumdat 2.0, Right & Bottom, the original IES file “F79197.IES” Rham Test
No. SO01A003/100 created 22-05-1997 by Famco/Rham. This IES file was modified and re-rated from
100W MH to 35W MH using Lumdat 2.0 and a new IES File was created “F79197A-35WMH. IES”
Fig 6.53 The 3D rendering was created with DIALux 4.7 by the Author from an IES file that was
created from Fig 6.50 Polar curve with Lumdat 2.0.
Fig 6. 54 The 3D rendering was created with DIALux 4.7 by the Author from an IES file that was created
from the original IES file “F79197.IES” Rham Test No. SO01A003/100 created 22-05-1997 by
Famco/Rham. This IES file was modified and re-rated from 100W MH to 35W MH using Lumdat 2.0 and a
new IES File was created “F79197A-35WMH. IES”.
Fig 6. 55 Digital photo 105-0539_IMG.JPG, Monday, 6 November 2006, 10:12:19 AM by Author enhanced
with Adobe PhotoDeluxe 2.0.
Fig 6. 56 & 6.57 were created with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author
211
Colophon
Cotton, Harry (1960) Principles of illumination, New York: Wiley, the image was then re-rendered in ‘blue
ink’ with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author.
Tabulations 6.17 & 6.18 were created with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author.
Fig 6.59 The Polar Curve was plotted, in Microsoft Excel and Word 2007, using a chart and selecting radar
from Tabulation 6.04 data the rest of the Rousseau diagram graph was created with Microsoft Word by
the Author.
Tabulation 6.19 was created with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author.
Fig 6.29 The Polar Curve was plotted from calculated Tabulation 6.04, an IES File was created with
Lumdat 2.10, and a polar curve was generated with DIALux 4.7.
Tabulation 6.61, The Polar Curve was plotted, in Microsoft Excel and Word 2007, using a chart and
selecting radar from Tabulation 6.04 data the rest of the diagram was labelled with Microsoft Word by
the Author.
Fig 6.62 Imaged digitally scanned enhanced and restored from Fig 58, Pg 131, Olin, Jerome Ferguson
(1920) Electric Lighting, New York: McGraw-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC, the image was then partly re-
rendered in ‘blue ink’ with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author.
Fig 6.63 & 6.64 were created with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author.
Cotton, Harry (1960) Principles of illumination, New York: Wiley, the image was then re-rendered in ‘blue
ink’ with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author.
Fig 6.66 Composite of Digital photos: - top left, Picture 085 to 086. JPG, centre image DSC03691 to
DSC03759, Friday, 6 August 2010, 2:35:45 AM by Author combined to create final images, respectively
Picture 096 and DSC03734g with Adobe PhotoDeluxe 2.0.
Fig 6.67 Composite of Digital photos: DSC03697 to DSC03709, Wednesday, 28 July 2010, 4:54:31 AM by
Author combined to create final images DSC03709d with Adobe PhotoDeluxe 2.0.
Fig 6.68 Left image Retrieved 02:25, May 28, 2010, from http://www.millsgorman.com.au/, Centre image
by author, Digital photo 16-02-09_1308.jpg, Friday, 6 March 2009, 1:01:26 PM, right image Digital photo
composite of New Flask ELV Pendant 002-005.jpg and Spherical Lobster Lights 009.JPG, Tuesday, 27 July
2010, 10:46:33 PM by Author combined to create final image New Flask ELV Pendant 006.jpg with Adobe
PhotoDeluxe 2.0.
Fig 6.69 Imaged digitally scanned enhanced and restored from Fig 20, Pg 43, Wickenden, E William (1910)
Illumination and Photometry, New York: McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC, the image was re-
212
Colophon
Fig 6.70 Imaged digitally scanned enhanced and restored from Fig 21, Pg 45, Wickenden, E William (1910)
Illumination and Photometry, New York: McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC, the image was re-
Fig 6.71 The Polar Curve was rendered with IES Viewer v2.99n Andrey Legotin L.A.L@rambler.ru, from an
IES File, created with Lumdat 2.10 from Engineering Validation Report Date 21-03-2008 PHOTOMETRIC
Test Report #17032008-1 Model: Masson for Light Cat No CM118IP65EL 18W "Casta Mini IP65"
Horizontal compact fluorescent Recessed Downlight. Additional blue dashed lines with Microsoft Word
2007 by the Author.
Fig 6.72 The Polar Curve was plotted, in Microsoft Excel and Word 2007, using the chart and selecting
radar from Tabulation 6.04 data the additional “𝑛” zones divisions and angle labels were created with
Microsoft Word by the Author.
Fig 6.73 & Table 6.05. Print screen capture from Excel 2007 document by the Author ‘Russell angles
Method-zones 27-06-2010G.xls’ Monday, 28 June 2010, 9:33:37 AM
Fig 6.75 The Polar Curve was rendered with IES Viewer v2.99n Andrey Legotin L.A.L@rambler.ru, from an
IES File, created with Lumdat 2.10 from Tabulation 6.04 data the rest of the Rousseau diagram graph was
created with Microsoft Word by the Author.
Fig 6.77 Image 3.10 Data table 3, page22, from Engineering Validation Report ‘COPPER CONTENT
TEST REPORT MASSON MONDO BLOKX MAXI CAT# MBW70-2 20-02-2008.pdf’ by the Author.
Fig 6.78 Image: Single Beam Spectrophotometer, from the Wikipedia Commons. Retrieved 02:32, April
14, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spetrophotometer-en.svg
Fig 6.79 created with Microsoft Word 2007 by the Author, candle image from Clipart ETC, An online
service of Florida’s Educational Technology Clearinghouse- Free Clipart for students and teachers.
Retrieved 02:32, November 11, 2010, from http://etc.usf.edu/clipart/20100/20106/candle_20106.htm
213

LIGHTING BASICS Practical Application Gu 2

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A handy compendium of useful information on Illuminating Engineering practice, based on actual

GMT Agencies-now GMT Lighting, Hilux International-now Advanced Lighting-Venture Lighting,

John Iwaszko April 2010

Preface & Acknowledgements.................................................................................................1

1 Light and Radiation..............................................................................................................5

2 Lighting Standards & the Building Code of Australia.............................................................6

3 General Lighting Definitions.................................................................................................8

4 Perfect Radiator-History & Derivation..................................................................................10

5 Basic Lighting Parameters.....................................................................................................12

5.1 Luminous flux.............................................................................13

6.1 Photometric Bench....................................................................18

6.2 Integrating Sphere......................................................................29

7 SI Photometry & Radiometry units....................................................................................157

7.1 Foot-Candle / Candle Power..............................................................................157

8 Light Source & Luminaire Data..........................................................................................171

8.1 Luminous Flux Output in lumens ..............................................171

9 Simple Design Formulae....................................................................................................175

9.1 Intensity Method........................................................................175

10 Lighting Design Programs................................................................................................193

Fig 1.00 The electromagnetic spectrum and applications

The eye has different responses as a function of

Illuminating Engineering and Photometry are typically

Fig 1.01 Photopic (black) and scotopic (green) luminosity functions.

Lighting Designers have a Duty of care to comply.

Main Australian Standard is: -

Other Standards include: -

AS/NZS 4051 -> AS/NZS CISPR 15

"Obtrusive Effects of Outdoor Lighting",

Minimum Energy Performance Standards for lamps.

1 Newsletter: Building code of Australia, March 09 2010, SAI GLOBAL

AS 3771 -> AS/NZS 1158.6

Emergency lighting standard

Building Code of Australia

BCA 2005–ENFORCED BY LAW: -“mandatory compliance”

BCA Referenced Standards

λmax =b/T (4.00)

Wein’s At ordinary temperatures this radiation is in the infrared region of the

This type of radiation has two important characteristics. Firstly, the

Fig 4.01 As temperature decreases, the peak of the black-body

Fig 5.00b Simplified “Important

5.1 Luminous flux

It is a measure of a light source's economic efficiency.

Φ=ІΩ, (5.00), Φ=EA (5.01) Basic

5.2 Luminous Intensity

concept Luminous Intensity І

E(lx)=luminous flux (lm)

unit Candela/area (Nits) cd/m2

L = І/A (5.04) L = E/Ω (5.05)

5.5 Newton’s Inverse Square Law

Illuminance E(lx) =І. d

The SI base unit for luminous intensity is the candela.

Fig 5.02 Intensity at the surface of a sphere

A Light Source of C Photometer Reference Plane B Light Source of

Metric Rule mm)

The sum of these measurements divided by 16 determines the mean.

d1= 1553mm d2= 747mm

1653mm Mean from experiment.

At “Balance” luminous intensities are then in the ratio of distances squared.

From Eq. 5.9 Φ= І 4π

From “Balance” formula Eq 6.1 Іu = Іs d22

Substituting known values,

From Eq. 5.9 Φu= Іu 4π