English Language Unit 3 & 4 Notes

English Language Unit 3 & 4 Notes
INDEX
Overview……………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………….Page 2
Study design……………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………....Page 3
UNIT 3- Language variation and Social Purpose…………………………………………………………………....Page 5
Overview of Unit 3: Social Purpose…………………………………………………………………………..……………………...Page 5
Context…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….….Page 7
Formality…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….Page 11
Positive and Negative Face………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….Page 12
Coherence.………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………................Page 14
Cohesion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………................Page 15
AOS 1- Informal Language
Informal Language and Formal language..……………………………………………………………………………………...Page 17
Informal Patterning……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...Page 20
Informal Spoken Language……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..Page 25
AOS 2- Formal language
Formal written Language…………………..……………………………………………………………………………………..….Page 33
Passive voice……………….…………………………..……………………………………………………………………………..…..Page 38
Nominalisation………….…………………………………..………………………………………………………………………..….Page 39
Information flow ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...Page 40
Jargon……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………......................Page 44
Euphemism and Dysphemism……….……………………………………………………………………………………………..Page 45
Political correctness……….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...Page 46
UNIT 4- Language Variation and Identity……………………………………………………………………………....Page 47

AOS 1- Language Variation in Australian Society
Language, accents and dialects……………………………………………………………………………………….……………...Page 47
Australian English Features……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..Page 50
Variation of Australian English……………………………………………………………………………………………….……..Page 52
Aborignal English………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….Page 54
AOS 2- Individual and Group Identity

Identity.……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...Page 55
Teenspeak …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..Page 56
Gendered Language……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..Page 56
Idiolect……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……...Page 57
Technology………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... Page 58
Exam revision ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..Page 59
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OVERVIEW
UNIT 3: Language Variation and Social Purpose
Area of Study 1 – Informal Language
Outcome 1 – Identify and analyse distinctive features of informal language in written and
spoken texts
SAC 1a – Informal Texts (Written Language)
This SAC will be a Short Answer test sat under examination conditions (single lesson). 20%
SAC 1b – Informal Texts (Spoken Language)
This SAC will be an Analytical Commentary sat under examination conditions (double lesson). 30%
Area of Study 2 – Formal Language
Outcome 2 – Identify and analyse distinctive features of formal language in written and spoken
texts
SAC 2a – Formal Language (Written and Spoken)
This SAC will be a Short Answer and Extended Response Test sat under examination conditions (Double
period). 30%
SAC 2b – Formal Language (Written and Spoken)
This SAC will be an Analytical Commentary sat under examination conditions (Double period). 20%
UNIT 4: Language Variation and Identity
Area of Study 1 – Language Variation in Australian Society
Outcome 1 – Investigate and analyse varieties of Australian English and attitudes toward them
SAC 1 – Varieties of Australian English and attitudes towards them
This SAC will be an essay sat under examination conditions (60 mins). 50%
Area of Study 2 – Individual and Group Identity
Outcome 2 – Analyse how people’s choice of language reflects and constructs their identities
SAC 2b – The role of language in reflecting and constructing identity
This SAC will be an Analytical Commentary sat under examination conditions (60 mins). 50%
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Study design
Unit 3
AOS 1- Informal language

OUTCOME 1
Key knowledge
● the role of Standard and non-Standard English in creating formal and informal texts
● differences in the nature and functions of formal and informal texts
● the relationship between the context and the features of language in informal texts
● the role of discourse features and lexical choice in creating textual cohesion and coherence in
informal written texts
● stylistic features in informal speech and writing, including phonological patterning, syntactic
patterning, morphological patterning, and lexical choice and semantic patterning
● features of spoken discourse and major discourse strategies used by speakers and the ways in
which cooperation can be achieved
● the use of informal language for various social purposes, including:
○ encouraging intimacy, solidarity and equality
○ maintaining and challenging positive and negative face needs
○ promoting linguistic innovation
○ supporting in-group membership
● conventions for the transcription of spoken English texts, including symbols, legend, and line
numbers
● metalanguage to discuss informal language in texts.
AOS 2- Formal language

OUTCOME 2
Key knowledge
● the nature and functions of formal and informal texts
● the relationship between the context and the features of language in formal texts
● the features and functions of formal writing and formal speech as represented in a range of
texts from literature and the public domain
● the role of discourse features and lexical choice in creating textual cohesion and coherence in
formal spoken and written texts
● stylistic features in formal speech and writing, including phonological patterning, syntactic
patterning, morphological patterning, and lexical choice and semantic patterning
● the use of formal language for various social purposes, including:
○ maintaining and challenging positive and negative face needs
○ reinforcing social distance and authority
○ establishing expertise
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○ promoting social harmony, negotiating social taboos and building rapport
○ clarifying, manipulating or obfuscating
● metalanguage to discuss formal language in texts.
Unit 4
AOS 1- Language variation in Australian society.

OUTCOME 1
Key knowledge
● the role of Standard and non-Standard English in Australian society
● the ways in which a variety of Australian identities are constructed and re ected in a range of
texts
● the characteristics of Australian English in contrast to Englishes from other continents, in
phonological, morphological, lexical, and grammatical patterns
● the features of Broad, General and Cultivated Australian English accents
● how Australian English varies according to geography, including national and regional
variation
● how Australian English varies according to culture, including Aboriginal English and
ethnolects
● attitudes within society to different varieties of Australian English, including prescriptivism
and descriptivism
● the role of language in constructing national identity
● metalanguage to discuss varieties of Australian English.
AOS 2- Individual and Group identity

OUTCOME 2
Key knowledge
● social and personal variation in language according to factors such as age, gender, occupation,
interests, aspirations and education
● features of language that contribute to a sense of individual identity and group membership
● representations of individual and group identities in a range of texts
● the ways in which the language of individuals and the language of groups is shaped by social
expectations and community attitudes
● the ways in which people draw on their linguistic repertoire to gain power and prestige,
including exploiting overt and covert norms
● the relationship between social attitudes and language choices
● metalanguage to discuss representations of identity in texts.
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UNIT 3- Language variation and Social Purpose

Overview of Unit 3: Social Purpose
STUDY DESIGN: learn how language can be indicative of relationships, power structures and
purpose through the choice of a particular variety of language and through the ways in which
language varieties are used in processes of inclusion and exclusion.
Using repertoire:
Each person chooses from a range of language styles available to them. The styles of language that
people choose for a particular situation are socially mediated (social purpose). This means that for a
particular social context, social mores (unofficial rules) determine the language choices made by
individuals.
Features and functions of informal language:

Informal language has particular features of its own but uses standard functions that can be applied to
any communication.
Informal language is
formed in all three modes.
Written, spoken and
electronic (remember
electronic is essentially
considered a written mode
with spoken features)
Two parts of context:

Informal language choices will be made after considering both the situational and cultural context.
- Determine the language that will be used.
Formality continuum:
Texts sit in bands on a continuum & have element of formality and informality.
Subsystems of language:
Phonetics and Phonology
- Speech and sound production
- IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet)
- Prosodic features
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Morphology and Lexicology
- Morphemes (free and bound)
- Affixation
- Word classes
- Word formation processes
Syntax
- Phrases, clauses and sentences
- Sentence structures
- Sentence types
- Active and passive voice
Discourse
- Whole text as a unit
- Paralinguistic features
- Spoken discourse features
- Coherence and cohesion
Semantics
- Field and domain
- Semantic change processes
- Figurative language
A theory of Politeness, positive and negative face:

How you are being polite in society. They are
not opposite things. The faces are
completely different and cannot be swapped
in order to be face threatening. (more about
this in informal language)
The role of Standard and Non-Standard English:

Standard English is considered in more formal context while Non-Standard English is considered in
informal contexts.
Standard English= Prescriptivists
Non Standard English= Descriptivists
Coherence and Cohesion:

Cohesion binds a text together, keeping a
text in one domain. It is the linguistic
‘cement’ that connects clauses and sentences
in order.
Coherence is the understanding of a text.
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Context
STUDY DESIGN: Students consider how texts are influenced by situational and cultural contexts in
which they occur. They examine how function, field, mode, setting and the relationships between
participants all contribute to a person’s language choices, as do the values, attitudes and beliefs held
by participants and the wider community.
Situational and cultural context:

Situational and cultural context drive and influence the language choices being used.
Situational Context
Revisiting function:
Note: all texts have more than one function.
- One mentioned first is the primary function
- Alternative function. Secondary function
1) Informational/ Referential function

- key function is to inform
e.g. news article, dictionary, government papers, fact sheets.
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2) Transactional function
- key function is to represent action between two people.
e.g. receipts, contracts, legal documents.
3) Maintaining social relationships/ Phatic function

- key function to promote social interactions
e.g. communication, openings and closings
4) Expressive Function/ Expressing emotions

- function is to convey emotions, reflective function.
e.g. monologues, text messages, blog posts, biographies, documentaries.
5) Conative function/ Persuasive function

- function is to persuade people.
e.g. debates, blog posts, advertisements, letter to the editor
6) Entertainment function/ Aesthetic function

- key function s to promote enjoyment
e.g. stand up comedy, song lyrics, interviews, TV shows.
7) Other specialised function

- express specific function
e.g. instructional, record facts, personal, instrument of thought, narrative.
Revisiting mode:
Refers to the medium of communication: Spoken/ Written/Sign language
Spoken Written
Synchronous Asynchronous
Unplanned/ spontaneous Planned/ often reworked
Typically face-to-face No visual contact
Supported by non-verbal cues No verbal/ non-verbal cues (no prosody/

(prosody/paralinguistics) paralinguistics)
Composed in a group/ public discourse Solidarity/ private discourse
Informal / intimate Formal / public distance
Instant feedback Delayed feedback
Lower prestige Higher prestige

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Revisiting field:
When lexemes can be grouped by their interrelated meanings that is considered a field or domain. It
identifies a topic or focus. Texts always have more than one field. Field is considered a crossover
between lexicology and semantics, where the lexemes in a particular text interrelate to its semantic
meaning.
Revisiting setting:
Tw0 types of settings
- Time and place of interpretation
- Time and place of utterance.
Can be synchronous or asynchronous. Some texts need to consider the part of the text being
interpreted.
Revisiting relationships:
3 factors in relationships
- Social distance: how well participants know one another
- Power: how great the power gap is
- Solidarity: the seriousness of the topic. Discussing sensitive attitudes and values.
Connecting Context and Social purpose:

Social purpose involves how we build relationships and include, and how we distance people and
exclude.
Social purpose- the underlying reason of a text, tries to understand and explain the role the text
plays in wider society.
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Social Purpose
Informal Formal
- build and maintain rapport with other people - reinforce social distance and authority
- support in group membership - establish expertise
- encourage intimacy, solidarity and equality - Negotiate social taboo and build social
- maintaining and challenging positive and harmony
negative face needs - Maintaining and challenging positive and
- promote linguistic innovation negative face needs
- clarifying , manipulating and obfuscating
➔ The pathway to social purpose is to identify the key functions.

example. the social purpose of the text is to build rapport with the reader by expressing key feelings in
a humorous manner that entertains them. (this answer does NOT engage with the text)
- This answer needed clear indication of this text expressed and how or why it is
humorous.
- The publication details may have provided a secondary section/ part of the social
purpose writer ----------> reader / newspaper or website---------> consumer
Better example. the social purpose of Danny Katz’s article “An Ode to all the unfinished jobs around
my house” is to build rapport with the reader. Published in The Age a further social purpose is to
maintain loyal readers of the newspaper. The article builds rapport through the self deprecating
humor by referring to himself as “Half-Arsed” (line 17) Katz satirizes the concept of home
maintenance, thereby entertaining his audience.
Cultural context
- Values attitudes and beliefs.
- Held by individuals, as part of a community.
- Culture is something shared by a community.
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Formality
STUDY DESIGN: Students investigate English language in contemporary Australian social settings,
along a continuum of informal and formal registers.
Formality continuum:
Factors influencing formality:
- Situational context
- Social distance
- Relative power
Register varies from informal to
formal
Joos Styles (register)

Frozen: language that never changes
Highly formal to moderately formal: Standard English
Mixed register: less formal Standard English of a mix of formal and casual registers appropriate to
the context.
Casual/ Conversational tone: language between friends
Intimate: language between lovers, or other close family and friends
NOTE: BE CAREFUL IF THE REGISTER CHANGES, IN AC MAKE NOTE OF THIS
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Positive and Negative Face
STUDY DESIGN: Students investigate how informal language can be used to meet and challenge
others’ face needs, both positive (the need to be liked, respected and treated as a member of a group)
and negative (the need to be autonomous and act without imposition from others);
Goffman Key ideas

- Everyday interactions = dramatic performances
- Our goal in these performances is to promote our particular line or version of who we are and
what is going on.
- Most of the time this is a co-operative endeavour.
2 Factors influencing face strategies

- Social distance
- Social status
Positive face strategies Negative face strategies
- To establish and maintain contact with - To establish and maintain distance from
others others
- Reduce social distance - Correspond to fundamental need to be
- Correspond to fundamental need to be respected
liked - individual need to be able to choose for
- Establish social connections ourselves and not have actions or ideas
- Need to feel liked and a part of the group imposed on us.
- Maintain social status
When to use each
Distance close + status equal = positive face strategies

Distance distant + status equal = negative face strategies
Distance close + status unequal = Powerful person: positive
Less powerful person: negative
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Strategies to protect/ maintain/ appeal to Strategies to protect/ maintain/ appeal to
positive face negative face
- Using first names, nicknames, ones that - Using titles/ honorifics
are hypocostic or diminutives - Apologising
- Expressing interest in the other person - Admitting differences
- Claiming a common point of view, same - Using formal language
opinion - Being indirect/ using hedges, modals to
- Back channelling/ minimal responses lesson the imposition
- Using informal language - Being pessimistic
- Being direct - Being taciturn
- Being optimistic - Talking about you or things impersonally
- Being voluble rather than us
- Talking about ‘us’
Strategies to challenge positive face Strategies to challenge negative face

- More uses of formal openings and - Give a direct order to an individual
addressing individuals - Vocal effects (laugh at suggestions)
- Disagreeing with individual and using - Sighs
more formal language in the middle of
conversation
- Less back channelling
- Critiques/ ridiculing
- Don't complete adjacency pairs.
Example
Martin: happy birthday, or whatever it is- Positive face
Ollie: thank you, it was actually a while ago - Negative face
Martin: oh, eh - Positive face
Ollie: there’s Danish pastry over there if you’re interested - Negative face
Matin: thanks ahh… (talks about tape recorder) okay, well to cut a long story short Sam called, and
I’m not sure how busy you are or what you’re doing right now. - Negative face
General rule
Serious topic, could be embarrassing, lots of imposition= more negative face strategies
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Coherence
Coherence
Is the understandability of a text
Convention: is the shared habitual way of using a text type. What do you expect? Information type-
semantic field.
Consistency: is an overall theme underlying the whole structure. Lexical choices, from the same field,
dominant sentence type
Cohesion: linguistic features the bind the text.
Logical ordering: structured in a way that makes sense for the text type
Inference: relying on prior cultural/ situational knowledge for a text to make sense
Formatting:
➔ headings / subheadings
➔ Bullet Points, lists, boarders
➔ Images, graphics, charts
➔ Typography, font types, size
KEY TO ANSWERING COHERENCE

QUESTIONS:
1. Identify the coherence feature
2. Explain the function of the feature
3. Engage with the text (social purpose)
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Cohesion
STUDY DESIGN: Discourse features and lexical choices in creating cohesion in informal written and
spoken texts.
Cohesion
Is the linguistic features in the text that binds the text and sentences together
- Discourse feature
COHERENT ≠ COHESIVE- You can be coherent but not cohesive.
CRIES SHARC (cry shark)
Two types of cohesion

Grammatical Lexical
↓ ↓
Grammatical relationships Semantic relationship

↓ ↓
-Conjunctions -Synonymy
-Reference -Hyponymy
-Information flow -Antonymy
-Ellipses -Repetition
-Substitution -Collocation
Grammatical Cohesion
Conjunctions- connecting words
Additive- additional information
Contrastive- alternative to previous clause
Causative- reason to set up clause
Sequential- order events occur
Reference- refers to the other words in the text
Anaphoric- using words that point back to the word used before
Cataphoric- using words that point forward to a word not yet used
Deixis- use of expressions that can be traced to features of utterance. Referencing something
that is not referenced directly to the text at all. Used mainly in spoken texts. E.g. Can you get
that for me please.
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Ellipsis- elision of a word, without replacing it. Avoids unnecessary repetition of subjects.
e.g. “I went to eastland on Monday, and on Sunday”
Substitution- similar to reference, other words used. Avoids unnecessary repetition of certain words
connected to the semantic field.
e.g. “I never saw a purple cow, I hope I see one.”
Lexical Cohesion
Synonymy - When a lexical item is synonymous as a word that went before it in the text.
- Related by kind of thing
- Related as part of something
Hyponymy- Use words to designate membership of a broader class. Keeps the reader connected to the
topic of the text without unnecessary repetition of a single lexeme.
- More specific of umbrella term
Antonymy- Use words that are semantically opposite to one another
Repetition- when lexical items and variation of the word are repeated. Used to connect the audience
to the dominant semantic field and keeps them focused on the topic of the text.
Collocation- when lexical item occur and you expect another word to follow it.
Metonymy- something not directly related to the semantic field but based on close connection can
have the same meaning. E.g. canberra= government (not in sd)
Synecdoche- small element of something to represent the whole. E.g. bubbles to represent
champagne. (not in sd)
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UNIT 3: Language Variation and Social Purpose
AOS 1 Informal Language
Informal and Formal Language
STUDY DESIGN: Examine features that distinguish formal and informal language. Informal lacks
structure, builds rapport, users of informal language may be idiosyncratic. Understand colloquialisms
and Non Standard informal registers
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Informal Written Features – Things to look out for
How it contributes
Feature Name Explanation Example to register/ social
purpose
an ingroup variety used by people with Using slang terms
bye felicia,
Slang terms something in common that is bound by time promotes linguistic
extra, GOAT
or generation and is informal. innovation
a work or phrase that is not formal or literary G’day Helps to establish in
and is used in ordinary conversation. group membership
Colloquialism with people who
understand the
colloquials.
an expletive is a crude or obscene expression Fuck, shit, Promotes linguistic
Expletives dick innovation, supports
in group membership
Indicates smallness and usually expresses Darling, Reduces social
Diminutives affection. sweetheart, distance
hunny
Neologisms – A neologism is a newly-created word used in Promotes linguistic
blends, expressions, in both writing and speaking. Yeet innovation, supports
compound Blends- mixture of two words Cronut in group membership.
words, Shortenings- eclipsing parts of words to make Cause
shortenings them smaller
Means something different from its literal Kick the Figurative language
Idiom meaning but can be understood because of bucket= die usually makes things
their popular use more memorable
A personal pronoun is a short word we use as I, you, he, she, Reduces social
a simple substitute for the proper name of a it, we they, me, distances.
Greater use of
person. him, her, us,
personal
and them are
pronouns
all personal
pronouns.
Non-standard not conforming in pronunciation, grammar, ruler is a ruler Promotes linguistic
orthography/u vocabulary that is only innovation.
northodox eleven inches
spelling long.
a verb followed by an adverb. blow up, sit Reduces formality of
Phrasal Verbs on, call off a text, thus reducing
social distance
Involve squeezing two words into one. I’ll= I will, Reduces formality of
Contractions they’re= they a text thus reducing
are the social distance
shortening of words in order to make them adj, ANZAC, Promotes linguistic
Abbreviations/
easier to say or understand. rspca innovation
Acronyms/Initi
Initialism: pronounce letters
alisms
Acronyms: pronounce as word
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Ellipsis is a literary device that is used in fish’n’chips Reduces formality of
narratives to omit some parts of a sentence or text, which reduces
Ellipses event, which gives the reader a chance to fill social distance.
the gaps while acting or reading it out.
shows exaggerated emotions if you are THIS IS Expresses emotions
Unorthodox bolding or capitalising certain things. SHOUTING and supports
Capitalization/ expressive function
Bolding/Italics which builds rapport
with individuals
Greater use of suggests heightened emotions and allows no way!!, yeah Expresses emotions
exclamation people to portray emotions at a higher level nah!, wait and supports an
marks, than would usually be through just Standard what ya mean? expressive function
hyphens, English lexemes which can build a
question rapport with
marks and individuals
ellipses.
Using punctuation marks in places they are e.g. using two
not grammatically meant to go. This increases punctuation Reduces formality of
the informality of a text. marks ?! text, which reduces
Unorthodox
or using social distance.
punctuation
ellipses to
indicate
pauses
Using emoticons instead of lexemes in order
Use of to communicate emotions and feelings, often “love heart Reduces formality of
emoticons used by younger generations emoji” text, which reduces
social distance.
Greater use of a sentence fragment doesn’t make a statement Reduces formality of
sentence that can stand on its own. Can be used as an $2 potato text, which reduces
Fragments interjection which is informal. cakes social distance.
An interjection is a part of speech that Wow!, No! Expresses emotions
demonstrates the emotion or feeling of the and supports
Greater use of
author. These words or phrases can stand expressive function
interjections
alone, or be placed before or after a sentence. which builds rapport
with individuals
Using FANBOYS as a way of beginning a And… But... Reduces formality,
Beginning a sentence rather than as a subject predicate. social distance and
sentence with a Using words which are meant to be used to seriousness
conjunction connect sentences, as the beginning of a
sentence
Written Sounds made by humans that are not UHHH, Reduces formality,
versions of considered words. Ummm social distance and
vocalisations seriousness.
or filler words
Discourse markers are words or phrases like Reduces formality,
Use of written anyway, right, okay, as I say, to begin with. right, okay, so social distance and
discourse We use them to connect, organise and manage seriousness.
particles what we say or write or to express attitude
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Phonological patterning
STUDY DESIGN: Students understand stylistic features in informal speech and writing, including
phonological patterning, syntactic patterning, morphological patterning, and lexical choice and
semantic patterning.
Phonological patterning
Phonological patterns are particularly evocative (evoke a particular mood or tone)
RACORA
Rhythm: when a writer uses the beats (stressed and unstressed/ number of syllables gives a musical
quality) it makes the text more memorable. E.g. look at the night, it is so bright.
SOCIAL PURPOSE- The effect of this patterning is usually to make it memorable.
Assonance: repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds in a series of word phrases and/or syllables.
Creates a melody, which makes the reader re-read for meaning, and draws attention to the playfulness
the author is creating. E.g. the hat man
SOCIAL PURPOSE- It might be to draw attention in Informal texts to the playfulness and cleverness
of the author in creating the text.
Consonance: Repetition of the same consonant sounds in the middle or at the end or a word. Brings
melody to a text and draws attention to a line, this makes the reader re-read for meaning. Draws
attention to the playfulness the author is creating. E.g. the lumpy, bumpy road
Onomatopoeia: a word that makes the sound it represents. This draws attention to that particular line
that includes onomatopoeia. Makes what is being described more vivid and draws attention to the
humor of the situation. E.g. Bang! Crash! Pow!
SOCIAL PURPOSE-It might be to draw attention in informal texts to the humour of a situation.
Alliteration: repetition of consonant sound at the start of the series of words or phrases. This draws
attention to a line to re-read for meaning. This draws attention to the playfulness of the text. E.g. bear
in the big blue house
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Morphological and Lexical patterning/ change

Morphological patterning
A linguistic feature that is repeated for a particular effect. Morphological patterns are particularly
evocative.
Be A 6C SINBAD
Blending: part of two seperate words. E.g. cronut
SOCIAL PURPOSE- this draws attention to the playfulness of the text and can also help promote
linguistic innovation
Archaism: Using an old fashioned word that is no longer current. E.g. errant
SOCIAL PURPOSE- makes the reader stop and reread as it may include important information, or be
drawing attention to a particular feature of the text.
Compounding: two full words becoming one word. E.g. signpost

SOCIAL PURPOSE- reduces formality of text, thus reducing the social distance between participants.
Collocation: two words that frequently occur as part of a set phrase. E.g. bread and butter
SOCIAL PURPOSE- It helps you to express your ideas naturally and convincingly.
Conversion of classes: changing a lexeme from one word class to another. E.g. noun→ verb
SOCIAL PURPOSE- can be used to focus the reader's attention to the lexeme that has been converted
from one word class to another
Contractions: shortening of a word by ellipsing a letter and adding an abbreviation. E.g. shouldn’t, i’ll
Commonization: the formation from a proper noun into a common noun. E.g. Thermos → thermos
SOCIAL PURPOSE- reduces formality of a subject and reduces its importance.
Creative word formation: using words in uncommon ways as part of an idiolect. E.g. bluish, redish
SOCIAL PURPOSE- creates a playfulness within the text which entertains the reader
Shortening: reducing a word from a longer word. E.g. because → cause

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Initialism: beginning letters in a sequence of words, but said as letters. E.g. RSPCA, RACV
Neologism: newly coined words, expressions or usage. E.g. yeet, meme

SOCIAL PURPOSE- words may be apart of a social era, and can create a form of ingroup membership,
through their understanding of the word by their cultural/social understanding.
Acronym: the first letter in a series of words but unlike initialism said as a word of its own. E.g.
ANZAC, scuba
Diminutive: a word form or suffix that indicates smallness. E.g. sweetie, doggie, kitty
SOCIAL PURPOSE-words may be apart of a social era or culture, and can create a form of ingroup
membership, through their understanding of the word by their cultural/social understanding
Hypocorism: A hypocorism is a nickname that shows affection or closeness. A form of shortening. E.g.
servo, garbo, stevo
SOCIAL PURPOSE- words may be apart of a social era or culture, and can create a form of ingroup
membership, through their understanding of the word by their cultural/social understanding
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Syntactic patterning
Form of patterning relies on understanding of sentence structures. You must remember the key
sentence structures and clause structure. The basic structure for a clause is: subject + verb. One verb
usually indicates a simple sentence. Two or more verbs usually indicate compound or complex or
both. You need to examine the conjunctions to be able to determine what the structure is. Further to
this, you need to pay attention to phrases: particularly predispositional phrases and noun phrases in
order to understand syntactic patterning.
PAL
Parallelism: involves the repetition of a series of similar grammatical structures, most often for
stylistic reasons that underline the semantic structure of the text.
SOCIAL PURPOSE- emphasises the semantic meaning, thus creating a more imaginative text
Example:
Antithesis: is the technique of placing two words or ideas in opposition to create a contrary effect.
SOCIAL PURPOSE: generates a contrasting effect to the reader, for entertainment or for dramatic
purposes.
Example:
Listing: always has a cumulative effect and enables a writer or speaker to create a range of
impressions. A list can convey confusion and chaos or logic and reasoning, depending on its context.
Can group items together.
Example: ‘This weekend I have to do; twelve maths questions, eleven science questions, ten pages of
notes, nine novel summaries, eight practice SACs, seven essays, six powerpoints
SOCIAL PURPOSE: Listing creates a cumulative effect which almost creates a hyperbola. It also can
create a farcical nature. Increases cohesion as it avoids unnecessary repetition. Increase the
commonality between the lexemes, the Semantic Field.
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Semantic patterning

MAILPOPS:
Metaphor: A descriptive use of language in which one thing is directly seen in terms of another. E.g.
has a heart of gold
SOCIAL PURPOSE- creates vivid picture in the mind of the audience, to evoke more emotion, or
entertain.
Animation: Giving life to non-living objects – make sure you understand the difference between this
and personification. (personification= person qualities, animation= animals/living things). E.g. The
branch flew across the road
SOCIAL PURPOSE- creates vivid picture in the mind of the audience, to evoke more emotion
Irony:A way of writing or speaking in which what is meant is the opposite of what the words appears
to say. E.g. blind leading the blind
SOCIAL PURPOSE- creates humor for the reader, supporting the entertainment purpose of a text.
Lexical ambiguity: two or more possible meanings with a single word. Used deliberately to create
puns and other types of word play. E.g. we love hurting people
SOCIAL PURPOSE- can be used for humorous effect, or to confuse audience
Personification: the attribution of a personal or human characteristics to something non-human, or

the representation of an abstract quality in human form. E.g. the trees whispered
SOCIAL PURPOSE- creates vivid picture in the mind of the audience, evokes more emotion
Oxymoron: the use of apparently contradictory words in a phrase. E.g. delicious poison
SOCIAL PURPOSE- used to create drama in language, or can also make the reader stop and think.
Puns: a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for
an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. E.g. you wanna pizza me
SOCIAL PURPOSE: provides humor to the reader thus supporting the entertainment purpose of a
text.
Simile: a figure of speech involving the comparison of one thing with another thing of a different kind,
used to make a description more emphatic or vivid. E.g. swims like a fish
SOCIAL PURPOSE- makes an image more vivid for the reader to imagine.
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Informal Spoken Language
STUDY DESIGN: features of spoken discourse and major discourse strategies used by speakers and
the ways in which cooperation can be achieved.
Text
Linguists refer to a continuous stretch of spoken or written language as a text.
Transcript
Is the transformation of a spoken text into a written version and includes transcript conventions.
Utterance
An Individual string of speech that is said by a participant can be referred to as an utterance.
Interlocutors
People who are participating in a conversation can be called participants or interlocutors or
speakers.
Paralinguistic features
In VCE English Language, facial expressions, body gestures, body language and eye gaze are called
paralinguistic features.
Vocal effects
Laughter, coughs and audible intakes of breath are referred to as Vocal Effects in VCE English
Language.
Prosodic Features
Linguists refer to phonological features associated with pronunciation as Prosodic Features. These
include: stress, pitch, intonation, tempo and volume.
What do we use Prosody for

Express emotion – loud = angry, monotone = bored.
Mark the grammar – where a sentence or clause finishes, questions vs exclamations with tone (She’s
here, isn’t she).
Give shape and meaning to words – hot dog vs hot dog.
Draw attention to meaning.
Learn language – by breaking it up into meaningful units – children learn the shape and sound of
words
SPITV
Stress, Pitch, Intonation, Tempo, Volume.
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Transcript
Notation
Symbols:
Text type: texts can be monologue(1), dialogue(2), or conversation(3+). Often given in the context
blurb at the beginning of the text before the transcript begins.
Functions of spoken texts:

Phatic function- social/ chit chat
Referential function- convey information
Conative function- persuade someone
Transactional function- convey action between two people.
Expressive function- convey a range of emotions
Social purpose of informal spoken texts:

- Develop or encourage intimacy, solidarity, and equality
- Support in-group membership
- Promote linguistic innovation
- Maintain or challenge positive and negative face needs
Features of spoken texts to note

Cooperation
how the participants interact with one another, in a synchronous/asynchronous way.
Overlaps within text

- Interruptive
- Collaborative
- Timing error
Social distance- how close or far the interlocutors are socially
Taboo topic- is the topic something that will be euphemism or not talked about?
Status difference- is there a large or small power difference between participants.
Social norms related to informality and formality
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Speaker relationships
Dominant speakers are important to note as well, as they will maintain/ change the topic. (topic
management). Social factors that influence relationships, are social distance and relative social status.
- Influence face strategies.
- Level of formality.
- Use of overt or covert norms.
Scriptedness
Influences the formality of a text. Is the text more scripted or more spontaneously constructed? Does
the text seem to be more planned or unplanned? Notice the presence of non-fluency features, control
of the topic, turn taking, speaker dominance and sentence structure complexity.
Turn taking and floor holding (also discourse strategy)

Check for: Turn length – Balanced or not? Speaker dominance? Appropriate turn taking –Orderly
or not? Overlapping – cooperative or not? Turn Management?
Topic management (also discourse strategy)

Is the topic of a serious nature or is it more light-hearted? Does the topic develop – larger
conversation. Does the topic shift? E.g. Dogs to dog grooming. Does the topic change E.g. Dogs to
university. Does the topic loop – return to a prior topic. Is there any topic avoidance ie. incomplete
adjacency pair.

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Phonetics and phonology revised
STUDY DESIGN: to know about the international phonetic alphabet (IPA). Understand that speech
sound production is driven by voicing, place of articulation and manner of articulation.
The IPA
Linguistics use the IPA to write words out using special symbols for each sound.
Sounds
Voiced: sounds made with vocal cords ‘z’ ‘v’

Voiceless: sounds made without vocal cords ‘s’ ‘f’
Monophthongs: short vowel sounds made with 1 vowel sound.
Diphthongs: long vowel sounds. Mouth shape changes with the sound.
Stops: closure of oral cavity. ‘P’ ‘b’ ‘t’ ‘d’ ‘k’ ‘g’
Fricative: two speech organs come close to do a partial block. ‘Fine’ ‘vine’ ‘thin’ ‘then’ ‘soon’ ‘zoom’
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Prosodics
Phonology
How we organise words/ sound units into larger units, these strategies are called prosodics.
- We can make words more memorable
- We can convey attitudes, moods, levels of interest in subjects.
Prosodic features
Stress Pitch Intonation Tempo Volume. (SPITV)
Stress: deliberate emphasis.

- Content words: topic management, semantic field
- Function words: flow of ideas
- Unusual stresses
Intonation: relative change in pitch
- Final intonation: turn taking, ceding the floor
- High rising terminal: turn something into a question, floor holding technique
Tempo: relative speed at which one speaks
- Fast tempo: emotional emphasis, showing the importance of an idea. Floor holding technique,
ensures idea was expressed before turn is finished.
- Slow tempo: encourage minimal responses, ensures engagement with interlocutors. Lend
weight, highlight an important aspect of the topic. In synchronous discourse, gives the speaker
time to formulate utterances.
Volume: relative change in loudness
- Increase: highlights emotions. Reveals dominance of the speaker. Highlights the flow of ideas if
function words.
- Decrease: re focusess and re engages the listeners.
High rising terminal

Inflections added to the end of a sentence, which is common in Australian English. This turns a
statement into a question, but is also a floor holding technique.
Vocal fry
Lowest vocal register, where the vocal cords are closed for a very long time in a vibration pattern,
resulting in lower pitch. Lower pitch is perceived as having higher authority or greater status.
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Spoken discourse features
STUDY DESIGN: features of spoken discourse; pauses, false starts, repetition, repairs, openings,
closings, adjacency pairs, overlapping speech, interrogative tags and discourse particles.
Connected speech processes

Assimilation: a common phonological process by which one sound becomes more like a nearby sound.
e.g. handbag → hambag.
Elision: where the unstressed vowel is elided
e.g. me and yo me an’ you
Ellipsis: an international omission of a word, sentence or whole section from a text without altering
its original meaning, this aids with cohesion.
e.g. rub-a-dub-dub, three men (who are) in a tub.
Vowel reduction: changes in the vowel sounds, changes the stress and duration of sounds.
e.g. too → tuh, tu → tə
More features of spoken discourse

Adjacency pairs: adjacent turns by different speakers, which relate to each other, such as questions
and answers. When a question is answered it is called a completed adjacency pair.
Formats for adjacency pairs
- Apology acceptance
- Question- Answer
- Closing adjacency pair
- Complaint with excuse or remedy
- Offer - Acceptance
- Announcement - Reaction
- Compliment - Acceptance
- Summons - Answer
- Opening adjacency pair
Openings and closings:

adjacency pairs that begin
and/or end a discourse.
Often they have a phatic
function. The nature of the
vocatives being used relates
to the formality.
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Interrogative tags (tag questions): small expressions such as ‘isn’t it?’ or ‘will she?’ that can turn
statements into questions. These are syntactical devices that serve a number of different functions.
- Facilitate the entry of a new speaker
- Coax an answer to a question
- Confirms understanding
- Be about uncertainty
- Confrontational
- Reduce a criticism
Discourse particles: conjunctions or linking words/ phrases used in discourse which have a range
of functions.
- Change the topic or change the focus of the conversation
- Respond to something an interlocutor has said, express an attitude/ opinion/ social
relationship
- Turn taking strategy: a way to establish your turn
- Turn taking strategy: a way to end your turn
Hedges: are used to soften what we say or write. They are important in the maintaining of positive
face and politeness in speech. Most common forms are modals ‘might’, ‘could’ and adding suffixes to
words ‘soonish’.
Non fluency features

Overlapping speech: speakers copetee for a turn in a speech encounter, or when a speaker has
misjudged the end of a turn.
Pasues: used to show hesitation perhaps when the speaker is thinking of what to say next. The speaker
uses pauses to organise their thoughts.
Fillers: protect the speaker from interruptions while they think (hold the floor). “Um” and “like” are
commonly used.
False starts: a hesitation or change of mind once a speaker starts talking.
Repetition: refers to words being repeated due to hesitancy or a false start
Repairs: practical conventions to restore conventional form of corrections. Used when the speaker
uses the wrong word, and cannot correct self so they use a new word.
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Spoken discourse strategies
STUDY DESIGN: strategies in spoken discourse; topic management, turn taking, holding the floor
and minimal responses.
Minimal responses
A listener responds in a primarylity one-way communication. Verbal and non verbal phatic
expressions which serve as an acknowledgement and validation of what is being said.
e.g. “mmmm” “yeah” *head nodding*
Topic management
Strategies used to manage what is being talked about.
- Topic initiation: using discourse particle to begin a new topic.
- Topic maintenance: using discourse particles to stay on topic.
- Topic change: using tag questions or interrogatives unrelated to the current topic in order to
change the topic.
- Topic loop: discourse particles
Turn taking
3 active turn-taking processes/strategies
Signalling that you want the floor: paralinguistics/ linguistics
a. Accepting a turn→ completing an adjacency pair
b. Complete something said by another speaker by latching i.e. anticipating the next word, add
something just said, echo something.
c. Use interjections to gain the floor, signals need for a turn.
Holding the floor, communicating your ideas within your turn: paralinguistics/ linguistics
a. Use pause fillers- umm, err, no one can take the floor. More evident in spontaneous
conversation
b. Use of conjunctions or adverbial phrases to indicate more information is expressed. E.g. amd,
firstly, but ect..
Cede the floor to let the other speaker relinquish: paralinguistics/ linguistics
a. Ask a question/ formulate an interrogative. E.g. tag questions, it’s always been this way, hasn’t
it.
b. Final intonation. Downward pitch change to show finish.
c. Add a large pause.
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AOS 2- Formal Language
Formal language features

STUDY DESIGN: examine features that distinguish formal and informal language. Understanding that
informal language lacks the carefully planned structure of formal texts and may play an important role in
building rapport.
3 factors of informal and formal register

Participants: If the participants are closer in
relationship, the register is more likely to be
informal. If the participants are further in their
relationship, the register is more likely formal
Status: if there is a small status difference the

register is most likely informal. If there is a large
status difference the register is more likely
formal.
Topic: If the topic is everyday life topic of

popular topic, the register will be informal. If the topic is serious the register is going to be more
formal.
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Joos styles
Register Definition Example
Frozen Language that never changes Wedding vows, oaths, pledges
Highly formal to moderately Standard English Speeches, educational lessons

formal
Mixed register Less formal standard English, News castings, employees and
with a mix of formal and casual employers
registers appropriate to the
context.
Describing formality
Types of tone that can be used to describe formal registers:

- Highly formal ceremonial tone
- Formal, detached or educational tone
- Formal, authoritative tone
- Formal, earnest (serious) tone
- Formal, conciliatory (reduce hostility) tone
- Formal, strident (harsh) tone
NOTE: these types of describing lexemes are not very emotional words, as formal texts tend not to use
emotional tones, due to the authoritative tone being adopted.
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Features of formal language
How it contributes to
Feature Name Explanation Example
social purpose
using lexical items from french derivation
Elevated lexeme, acquaintance, Increases register,
which have the same meaning but are
Lexemes cordially builds rapport
considered more formal and
Affixation the addition or morphemes at the anarchy Increases register
using Greek beginning or end of words from latin or
and Latin greek etymology in order to elevate the
morphology lexis.
precise nouns and vivid verbs which help to “The legal documents” Removes any
Precise create a strong mental picture and void rather than “papers” ambiguity in language,
Language wordiness. attempt at being more specific builds rapport
in order to avoid ambiguity.
Jargon is specialized terminology used to medical jargon: Shows expertise of
Jargon define specific words and phrases used in a Coronary artery person, which builds
particular profession, trade, or group disease rapport
process of conversion from any type of Participation is Manipulates and
word class (particularly verbs) into a noun. encouraged. obfuscates sentences.
Nominalisation
used to create a more abstract prose. (participation instead
of to participate)
Complete verb a verb phrase comprised of a main verb Increases register
phrases plus any related words, which does not have Won’t → will not
without any contractions in it.
contraction
a clause where the conjunction is because, while, after, Creates complex
Subordinate
dependent on the first clause, and simply although, whether. sentences which
Clauses
adds more information to the main clause. increases formality
contain a single main clause and one or I brought three potato Increases formality
Complex
more subordinate clauses. cakes, because I was
Sentences
hungry.
moving a phrasal element out of its usual Focus reader on
Front-Focus
position to the front of a sentence, thereby To all of us, he seemed beginning of sentence
(LL page 16,
giving in prominence. to be acting
ELSS 100)
suspicious.
using the pronoun ‘there’ in place of a noun there was a large Focus reader on the
There
phrase at the beginning of a clause, in order package tied to its subject
Construction
to place the subject later, giving it more legs.
(LL page 17)
prominence.
Cleft dividing the sentence into two clauses by Can make the text
Construction moving phrases to different positions. This It was the cat that I lexically dense
(LL page 17, is done in order to focus the audience on a washed last night (increase register)
ELSS 99-100) particular point.
the subject becomes in-active in the the fisherman built Can place focus on
sentence or clause, the agent (main non the ship becomes: the object of the sentence
Passive Voice
phrase) is moved to the end of the sentence ship was built by the
fisherman.
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in order to take the focus away from the
subject.
sound patterns used in order to evoke Creates more vivid
Phonological certain emotions in an audience. RACORA picture. Increases
Patterning playfulness
lexical patterns to do with words and Can increase register.
Lexical/
phrases which evoke particular emotions in Be A 6C SINBAD May also manipulate
Morphological
an audience. they are linguistic features or obforsacate
Patterning
which are repeated for effect. language
patterns in the syntax of a text used in order Places emphasis on
Syntactic to convey emotions to the audience. This PAL certain things.
Patterning relies on the understanding of sentence
structure.
patterns involving the meanings of words, Creates more vivid
Semantic used to evoke particular emotions to the MAILPOPS picture. Increases
Patterning audience. playfulness
words or phrases that can be considered Negotiates social
Taboo inappropriate in certain contexts or c**t, racism, sexism taboos
situations.
an innocuous word or expression used in Negotiates social
place of one that may be found offensive or “were letting you go” taboos
Euphemism
suggest something unpleasant. as opposed to “you’re
fired”
an expression with connotations that are Negotiates social
offensive either about the subject matter or “the pisser” as taboos
Dysphemism
to the audience, or both opposed to “the
bathroom”
used by speakers who have command over a Increases the social
Overt Norms standard dialect, used to gain social status status of the speaker
in a wider community.
English that is composed of correct Ortodox punctuation Adheres to standard
Standard
grammatical and lexical features which is and spelling. English
English
understood in society.
punctuation within a text which is in its The weather in Adheres to standard
Orthodox
standard form and uses correct punctuation Melbourne is very English
Punctuation
for the correct part of the discourse. cold.
conventional Australian English spelling, in ‘sentence’ instead of Adheres to standard
Orthodox
its standard form. ‘sentance’ English
Orthography
describe language, policies, or measures using ‘intellectually Negotiate social
Political that are intended to avoid offense or impaired’ instead of taboos
Correctness disadvantage to members of particular ‘dumb’
groups in society.
a technique of using language effectively appeal to audiences: Manipulates the
and persuasively in spoken or written form. ethos(ethics), audience
Rhetoric pathos(empathy),
logos(logic)
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Formal English social purpose
Relate to the wider social purposes, not only in an ingroup membership, but relating to a large social
audience. More public language, trying to appeal to a wider social audience.
- Reinforces social distance
- Establishes expertise
- Promotes social harmony
- Negotiates social taboos
- Clarifies, manipulates, obfuscates (and/or)
Common to informal and formal English

- Maintain or challenge positive and negative face
- Build rapport
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Passive voice
STUDY DESIGN: metalanguage to discuss formal language SYNTAX: basic function in clause,
structure, subject, object. Active and passive voices including agentless passives.
Two voices of English

There are two types of voices
in English, active and passive.
The voice of the verb
determines whether the
subject does the action
(active) or whether something
is done to the subject.
Active voice
In active voice the subject directly does the action of the verb, and is considered active in the sentence.
This means the subject is actively participating in the action.
e.g. the mexican politician climbed the border wall.
Explanation: The verb ‘climbed’ is in the active voice, as the subject ‘the mexican politician’ did the
climbing
Passive voice
In the passive voice the subject is inactive and the action is done to it. The verb used is in the passive
voice and often consists of an auxiliary verb and a past participle. This means the subject is simply
receiving the action.
e.g. the border wall was climbed by the mexican politician.
Explanation: The object the border wall has been changed into the subject and is inactive. The
climbing is done to it.
KEY TO FINDING ACTIVE OR PASSIVE
1. Find the subject of the sentence
2. Look for relationship between subject and verb
a. If it’s doing the action of the verb= active
b. If it’s receiving the action of the verb= passive
The agentless passive

Within the passive voice an agentless passive can be used. This is where the agent (also known as the
subject of the sentence) is not directly mentioned within the passive sentence.
e.g. the border was climbed
Explanation: The object the border has been made inactive, and the subject ‘the mexican politician’
have been ellipsed.
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Nominalisation
STUDY DESIGN: Metalanguage to discuss formal language in texts. SYNTAX: Basic function in clause
structure: subject/object. Nominalisation
What is nominalisation
An example of the word process involved in conversion (part of morphological patterning).
Conversion is a process in which a lexeme of one word class is converted into another word class.
Nominalisation focuses on the conversion of verbs into nouns.
Purpose
The purpose of nominalisation is to convert basic verb processes into abstract nouns so that they can:
1: be modified by adjectives and adverbs, which can help specify number
2: process does the job that nouns do so that it can become the subject of a sentence, or the object.
Meaning it can be placed at the front of the sentence so that the reader can focus on this process.
e.g. The council fined many car owners for illegal parking.
Note: sentence in the active, focus is being placed on the council being the subject of the sentence.
Fines were issued by the council to many car owners for illegal parking.
Note: sentence in the passive, focus is placed on the fines, which is now the subject of the sentence.
Also notice the greater number of words used.
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Information flow
STUDY DESIGN: factors that contribute to a text’s cohesion: information flow including clefting,
front focus and end focus
Cohesion
Information flow is an element of cohesion (discourse feature) and is specifically an element of
grammatical cohesion. The three elements of information flow are:
- Cleft sentences
- Front focus
- End focus
Information flow
Information flow is used by writers and speakers where they package the information they want to
communicate in a way that enhances meaning.
Information flow is also known as the standard ways that

information flows such as:
● Subject + verb + object
● Old information before new information (for the
reader)
● Topic before the comment
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Clefting
Cleft sentences
This is an element of information flow where syntax and discourse are connected. The lexeme ‘cleft’ is
an old germanic word. Also known as a participle from the lexeme “cleave”, where the verb cleave
means to be split in two. Cleft sentences take a simple sentence which has one single clause, and it
adds an additional clause to make it a complex sentence.
Information flow patterns

Information flow is also known as the standard ways that information flows such as:
- Subject + verb + object
- Old information before new information (for the reader)
- Topic before the comment
A cleft can be classified as a disruption to normal information flow patterns.
Why writers use clefts

Writers want to emphasise or focus a reader on a particular part of a sentence. Clefts are used in
written language as writers do not have the intonation patterns available to speakers to emphasise
parts of the sentence, therefore they use clefting.
Two types of cleft sentences

- Pseudo cleft: using a relative pronoun (what, where, when, why, who). Involves a relative
clause.
e.g. what I want is a new car
Note: emphasis is placed on what is wanted.
- “It” cleft: use of the 3rd person single person pronoun “it was”. This is the only true cleft.
e.g. it was my brother who brought the car.
Note: emphasis is placed on who brought the car.
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Front focus
Front focus
Front focus is used within a text to give contrast and emphasis on particular elements of a text. Front
focus is achieved when any word that is normally placed after the verb, is placed at the beginning of a
sentence.
Front focus examples

Front focus can be used with anything within the predicate, after the verb:
Subject + verb + object

e.g. he gave her chocolate → chocolate is what he gave her
Subject + verb + complement noun

e.g. Jemima is a very smart girl → a very smart girl is Jemima.
Subject + verb + complement adjective

e.g. Jemima is happy → happy is jemima.
Subject + verb + adverb

e.g. jemima removed the lid carefully → carefully, jemima removed the lid.
Subject + verb + prepositional phrase acting as an adverb.

e.g. jemima waited in the dark hallway for the secret signal → in the dark hallway jemima
waited for the secret signal.
Note: all of these front focuses emphasises to the reader whatever has been fronted.
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End focus
End focus
End focus is the opposite to front focus in that it puts an emphasis on the elements at the end of a
sentence. While end focus is the stranded form of information flow, it becomes an important feature
used by writers when it is a ‘purposeful’ end focus. End focus is achieved when any phrasal element is
moved to the end of the sentence.
What can be placed there

Noun Phrases: noun phrases can be placed at the end of a sentence to emphasise the particular noun
within the sentence.
e.g. He’s a great umpire, John.
Note: emphasis is placed on who the umpire is, being john. Also renames (appositive) him from
umpire to John.
Verb phrase: Adverb: can be placed at the end of a sentence in order to emphasise the particular
action that is taking place within the sentence.
e.g. The game was finished, finally.
Note: emphasis is placed on the adverb which expresses the feelings of the writer/speaker
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Jargon
STUDY DESIGN: metalanguage not defined in a specific subsystem: jargon
What is Jargon
Jargon is defined as a language shared by those who belong to a profession, trade or some other
occupational group.
Function of Jargon
Jargon has two distinct functions
1. Serve as technical or specialist language
2. Promote in-group solidarity (unity)
Jargon social purpose

Jargon can be used in a wide range of social situations and depending on the situational context can
have a range of different social purposes including:
- Building rapport
- Providing experities
- Obforcate or manipulating individuals
- Provide in group membership, or exclude social groups
- Display status and power
Examples of jargon (2019 examples to use in essays)

Ambulance Australia “are you notoriously hard to cannulate”
NOTE: Social purpose, provides expertise in emergency situations in order to make the patient feel
safe and calm in the presence of a professional.
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Euphemism and Dysphemism
STUDY DESIGN: metalanguage not defined in a specific subsystem: euphemism and dysphemism.
Euphemism
Positive: A common way of making a harsh reality more palatable.
Negative: But it gives an unacceptable act an air of respectability.
Positive: Substitution of mind or vague language often to soften the harsh reality of an event
Negative: It can conceal the truth.
Example:
war → conflict dead body → body bags death → passing away
Why we use euphemisms

Euphemisms can also help to talk about difficult issues, or to avoid embarrassment. They also help to
avoid giving offence, when involving taboo topics. The more taboo there is around a particular topic,
the more euphemisms are used. Euphemisms can also be used in doublespeak (intentional ambiguity
of language intended to obscure or reverse the meanings of words)
Examples of Euphemism (2019 examples to use in essays)

The Age article on breaking period talk taboo- March 11, 2019 “Blood is represented by red liquid, not
blue as is often seen in adverts”
NOTE: On television advertisements, blue is used in tampon ads as a euphemism to avoid talking
about tampon blood on television.
Dysphemism
Magnifies an unpleasant meaning of something, for humorous effect or to cause offence or abuse.
Dysphemisms draw attention of the taboo, and can be used to shock.
Why we use dysphemisms

Dysphemisms are often used to cause offence to someone or to magnify the taboo of a specific topic.
They can also be used in order to create a humorous effect, or for shock value.
Examples of Dysphemism (2019 examples to use in essays)

“Dole bludger” to refer to people on pension or other types of centre link payment.
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Political correctness vs Inclusive language
STUDY DESIGN: term not connected to one particular subsystem of language: political correctness
What is political correctness

To be politically correct is to choose words (sometimes actions) that avoid disparaging, insulting or
offending people because they belong to oppressed groups. Oppressed groups are those who are
subject to prejudice, disrespect or discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation or physical disability.
Political correctness essay note

Being politically correct can be criticised when using particular language, when we should be
encouraged to use more ‘inclusive’ language.
Examples of Political correctness (2019 examples for essay)
Monash university: having guidelines for the language to be used at university. Saying that individuals
must use inclusive language, that people just use lazy language.
LGBTIQ+ Guide to inclusive language: (February 2019)
46
UNIT 4: Language Variation and Identity
AOS 1 – Language Variation in Australian Society

Language, dialects and accents: Overview
STUDY DESIGN: The role of Standard and non-Standard English in Australian society. The ways in
which a variety of Australian identities are constructed and reflected in a range of texts. How
Australian English varies according to geography, including national and regional variation. The role
of language in constructing national identity.
Australian English
The label ‘Australian English’ is used as an umbrella term for language, although this is not correct.
Language varieties are based on different contexts (informal conversations, interview, speech”
Australian Values/identity
- Mateship: as a concept with we share that is underpinned by a sense of loyalty.
- Egalitarianism: we share the concept of being equal with others- embedded in this is the ‘tall
poppy’ syndrome and cynicism towards authority figures
- Fair go: everyone deserves an opportunity to make their own choices about their lives- usually
related to work. Embedded is a sense that we all work together.
- Trust
- Honesty
- Laid back and friendly nature
47
Variations in Australian English
→ regional variation (geographical background)
→ social variation (age, gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic class, education)
→ personal variation (linguistic details of individual speakers, includes personality and physical
conditions)
Cultural variation and -lects in language

Dialect: a variety of language specific to a group/region. These include changes to vocabulary and
grammar.
Sociolect: a variety of language specific to a social group
Ethnolet: a variety of language specific to an ethnic group
Idiolect: a variety of language specific to an individual
Accent
(phonetics) the prominence given to a particular syllable in a word, or a word in a phrase. Changes in
the pronunciation of certain words or phrases.
Three broad categories of Australian accent- Mitchell and Delbridge

Category Explanation Features
Broad Working class, blocky classic → Nasally

Australian accent. 10% of the → Open vowels
population speaks with this accent → Consonant dropping
General Approachable friendly generally seen → General Austrlian accent features

accent in Australian. 80% of the
population speak with this accent
Cultivated Upperclass, snobby accent. People → No yod dropping

are judged for having this accent, as it → Fewer open vowels
classifies higher class. 10% of the → Proper enunciation (no flapping)
population speak with this accent.
→ early to mid 20th century:

- Received pronunciation
- General Australian Accent
- Broad Austraian Accent
→ mid to late 20th century
→ 21st century
- Regional Accent
48
Tall poppy syndrome
Due to Australia's egalitarianism, people do not like when other people step outside the norm and use
different accents or language features. People are often judged based on their language choices and it
can define their sense of Australian identity according to society. “… while posh accents index
‘intelligence’ and ‘success’ they are also considered ‘less friendly’ and ‘less trustworthy’ than
regionally marked or difficult-to-place accents.”- Howard Manns (26 June 2015, The Conversation)
General Australian English Features (non standard)

- Homogeneity across Australia (accent)
- Mobility of people in Australia
- Lexical feature in distinctive Australian slang
- Swearing is an important linguistic in-group marker to show membership and intimacy
- Morphologically= hypocorism ‘ie’, ‘y’, ‘o’
- High rising terminal
- Dislike for using ‘shall’ and ‘ought’
- Ending sentences in ‘but’ or ‘yeah nah’
Regional variation
Variation in lexmes/morphemes based upon the regions of Australia people are from. e.g. ‘potato
cake’ ‘potato scallop’. ‘Cozzies’ ‘swimmers’
Social variation
Within Australia people who use different Australian accents can be identified with a particular class
or social group in society.
Broad australian accent= bogan, lower social class
General australian accent= cultivated, urban, middle/upper class
Overt vs Covert prestige

Overt Prestige Covert Prestige
- standard english, used in formal speech - non-standard english, used in informal or

- superior by socially dominant groups mainstream english
- equals standard english - chosen by particular group of people and is
- written dialect, not many people speak it different to standard
- dialect which gives you social status - equals non-standard english
- taught in school - linguistic marker of membership
- apirational for socioeconomic status - gives speaker acceptance and respect within
the group
49
Features of Australian English
STUDY DESIGN: the characteristics of Australian English in contrast to Englishes from other
continents, in phonological, morphological, lexical, and grammatical patterns. The features of Broad,
General and Cultivated Australian English accents.
Phonological features
There are three Australian accents (broad, general, cultivated). These accents are all moving into a
general type of accent.
Features:
- Open vowels
- Non rhoticity [r] not being pronounced when it comes before a consonant e.g. father
- Intrusive [r] e.g. thaw
- Flapping, weak [t] tends to be flapped e.g. thirteen, city, get it
- Yod-dropping the palatal [j] dropped e.g. tune, dune, assume
- High rising terminal
- Vocalised L [l] e.g. milk
- Affrication [tr] and [str] e.g. tree pronounced ‘chree’
- H deletion, unstressed in function words
- Mixed fricatives; substitution of [f] for [θ] e.g. fink instead of think
- Shwa being unstressed
- Loss of dipthongs, pronunciation as a single vowel e.g. poor, moor, sure
- Connected speech processes: elision, assimilation, insertion, vowel reduction
Some issues with our accent: is our accent cringe worthy? Do we make judgements on people based
on their accents? Do we sound more american?
Lexical and Morphological features

Features:
- Borrowings from indegenous languages and foregin languages (toponyms)
- Colloquial iconic language e.g. how are you mate
- Distinctive Australian lexis e.g. yeah nah
- Idiomatic expressions
- Slang expressions
- Hypocorisms e.g. garbo
- Swearing as a marker of ingroup membership. Australians don’t like swearing when it’s done in
an abusive way at someone. e.g. f#@k oath
- Dislike for using ‘shall’ and ‘ought’
- Irreverent humour
Syntactic/grammatical features
Features:
Pronouns
- Plural second person pronoun (yous and you guys)
50
- Female gender marking in inanimate objects e.g. she’ll be right
- Decline of ‘whom’
- Preference to use object personal pronoun me instead of subject I
- Possessive me in place of my
- Us instead of me, after verbs of giving and receiving.
- Object forms in reflexive pronouns e.g. me and fred
- Youse and yous: does not separate plural and singular form
Verbs and verb phrases
- Greater use of -ing progressive e.g. I am enjoying myself
- Growing use of present perfect in simple or past context e.g. she’s broken her leg
- Have deletion
- Use of the double negative e.g. didn’t do nothing
- Using may or might modals to indicate possibility
- Modal use of better and gotta
- Growing use of get passive e.g. he got arrested
- Normalizing irregular verbs e.g. show, showed. Shine, shined
- Increased use of gotten e.g. she’s gotten really angry
- Final position of the hedge ‘but’
Spelling features
Features:
- Similar orthography to British English
- -re instead of -er e.g. centre, theatre
Semantic features
Features:
- Figurative sentences, which cannot be widely understood
51
Variations of Australian English
STUDY DESIGN: attitudes within society to different varieties of Australian English, including
prescriptivism and descriptivism. How Australian English varies according to culture, including
Aboriginal English and ethnolects.
Regional variation
Variations of language from state to state in phonetics, lexicon and some syntactic features.
Examples:
- Pronunciation of vowel sound [a:] or [æ] e.g. dance, chance
- Lexical variation for same lexemes e.g. simmers, cozzies, togs
E.g. example of parma, parmi, or parmo at the local pub.

This shows how the way you use the hypocorism of parmigiana says a lot about the region of Australia
that you are from.
Social variation (sociolect)

Variations of language based on social markers.
→ Markers of social variation
- Level of education
- Level of income
- Type of occupation
- Type of school attended
- Ethnic background
- Age
- Gender
- Sexuality
High rising terminal

A high rising contour on basic clauses, and is especially common in narratives and descriptions. It was
first thought to be a marker of insecurity but further studies have shown that it is an intonation
pattern used in the construction of extended turns. It is used more by females, teenagers, and lower
working class people.
Ethnic variation (ethnolects)

→ Australian born individuals use ethnolects to mark their ethnicity.
- Native speakers do not use ethnolect, they code switch
- Code switching is done by native speakers, 2 languages which are switched
- Ethnolect is a blend of two languages, spoken by a second generation speaker
- Often it can be hard to distinguish between code switching and ethnolects
52
- Native english speakers using their heritage accent
- Covert norms within an ethnic variation are powerful markers of identity
e.g. Greeklish- Blend of Greek and English, it can be understood as English, but it has a stereotypical
tone to it. Greek morphology on particular words. Often the ethnolect can be lost throughout the
generations, and the ethnolect can be lost and it becomes just an accent.
Prescriptivism
Prescriptivism is the linguistic idea that there is a right and a wrong way to use language. This is
based on Standard English. People who prescribe to using Standard English are considered highly
educated and hold higher overt prestige. Those who use Non-Standard varieties of English are
considered less educated and are considered to be using their language ‘incorrectly’. Its relation to
varieties of Australian English suggests that prescriptivists want only a certain type of language and
that variations of any kind are not ‘correct’ and should not be used.
Descriptivism
Descriptivism is the linguistic idea of considering ‘how’ and ‘why’ certain varieties of Enlgish are used
in different contexts and by different people. There is no correct way to use language and Standard
and Non-standard varieties of English both hold their own prestige, whether it be overt or covert. In
relation to varieties of Australian English, descriptivists support varieties of language choices in order
to develop identity whether that be an individual or group.
53
Aboriginal English
STUDY DESIGN: How Australian English varies according to culture, including Aboriginal English
and ethnolects
Aboriginal English
ABE is the first language, home language of many aboriginal children. In subtle ways this language a
distinctly aboriginal kind of English is a powerful vehicle of the expression of Aboriginal identity.
General information
There is a diverse scale of ABE there are a range of varieties of it. Older aboriginals who has spoken a
creole are harder for mainstream English speakers to understand.
Features of Aboriginal English

Syntax
- Don't have the ‘when, why, what, who’ at the start of questions. Inflection is used in order to
mark a question. Otherwise using the ‘eh’ is also a marker of a question
- ‘Do’ and ‘have’ don't appear in ABE
- Double negative “I didn’t see nothing”
Morphology
- Prepositions have different meanings in ABE
- Suffixation on the verb does not occur as much
- Plurals often signalled by context rather than being marked by a noun
Lexis
- Nouns
- aunty= female relative
- uncle= male relative
- cuz= any relative of same generation
- country= land/ friend
- mob= group
Pragmatics
- Gestures, eye contact and silence
Example: Baker Boy, using aboroginal language in the lyrics of his music in order to portray his
identity as a aboriginal musician.
54
AOS 2 –Individual and group identity
Identity
STUDY DESIGN: Social and personal variation in language according to factors such as age, gender,
occupation, interests, aspirations and education. Features of language that contribute to a sense of
individual identity and group membership. The relationship between social attitudes and language
choices
General identity
Australians reveal their identity through language. Accents can be recognised through this.
Why identity is important

- Humans are motivated to build relationships with others
- The best way to do this is through language
- Commonalities among language can assist in building rapport, and further build relationships
- Can cause issues though as some groups can be excluded
- This creates barriers for communication and diversity
Aussie VS Australian identity

Distinct difference between the Australian identity and the Aussie identity. There is not one big
Australian identity. The use of the stereotypical Aussie identity has qualities of warmth or endearment
designed to build rapport.
Linguistic identity
The linguistic language used by people reflects their own identity, and constructs their identity.
Language is the best way for a person to portray their identity, more than any other way.
Social variation in Australia

- Gender and sexual orientation
- Age
- Ethnicity

55
Teenspeak
STUDY DESIGN: Features of language that contribute to a sense of individual identity and group
membership. The relationship between social attitudes and language choices
Slang
An ingroup variety used by people who have something in common, it is often bound by time and
generation and is informal- usually spoken not written and it involves mainly vocabulary. A striking
features is also its playfulness.
Covert prestige
Young people may adhere to the language norms of teenspeak in order to have covert prestige among
their peers. COnformity to particular norms is crucial in gaining covert prestige.
Gendered Language vs Gender sociolect
STUDY DESIGN: Social and personal variation in language according to factors such as age, gender,
occupation, interests, aspirations and education
What is gendered language

Language that has a bias (power structure) towards a particular sex or social gender. It is embedded
within the language. This can be seen in terms which refer to specific professions or people such as
‘businessman’ or ‘waitress’. The bias in our society is the patriarchal hierarchy, which perpetuates the
bias towards males.
Where do we see gendered language?

The most obvious is the use of language that has a bias towards one of the sexes (usually male) for
gender-neutral concepts, as in my earlier example, where a gender-neutral subject (a doctor) is
assigned a masculine pronoun (his patients). This also includes job titles that are gender-specific such
as policeman/policewoman, when there is no need to specify the sex of the person.
What is a gender sociolect

Gender sociolect is about the different ways that men and women talk. This includes high rising
terminal, vocal fry, and other types of phonetic, lexical, syntactic and semantic choices people make in
their language.
Current example: Julie bishop “gender deafness” during her time in politics
56
Idiolect
STUDY DESIGN: The relationship between social attitudes and language choices
What is idiolect
A distinctive individual use of language. The thing that makes you, you are the combinations of the
varieties of language that people use and how they use them. Some people have more distinct idiolects
than other people. Personal individual unique way of speaking. Idio (own) lect (speak)
Broad areas of idiolect

- Personal demographic (age, gender)
- Cultural characteristics (cultural heritage)
- Personality style
- Professional and personal roles
Example
Michaelia Cash: Develops her own idiolect through her personal demographic (middle aged female),
cultural characteristics (being from WA), personality style (loud, bombastic personality), and
profession (politician).
These features all create her own language repotior, which influence the way people think about her
and her values as an Australian.
57
Technology and language
STUDY DESIGN: the ways in which the language of individuals and the language of groups is shaped
by social expectations and community attitudes
Importance of technology
45% of the world’s population are now social media users = 3.5 billion people. This makes it
important to develop and understand online language.
Features of online communication

- Often no careful organization or planning
- Little editing
- Loose construction – false starts, repetitions, digressions, comment clauses
- Slang
- Unorthodox Orthography Grammar
- Relies on contextual knowledge
Importance of semantics
By developing a wider dimension of semantics it can make the text closer to speech.
- Acronyms
- Initialisms
- Combinations
- Abbreviations
- Symbols (emojis)
- Gifs
- Memes
- Punctuation
58
Exam preparation
Writing an Analytical commentary: Written mode

Introduction
FFMCAT (RSP)
F- Field (semantic)
F- Function (purpose of the text)
M- Mode (spoken or written)
C- Context (cultural and situational, including publication dates)
A- Audience (who is the target audience?)
T- Text type
R- Register (level of formality)
SP- Social Purpose (why was the text made?)
In your response, you should comment on the

- contextual factors affecting/surrounding the text
- social purpose and register of the text
- stylistic and discourse features of the text.
The context
What is the mode of the text?
What is the locale of the text?
What is the text type of the text?
Who is the audience in this text?
The register
What is or are the registers of this text?
Often a shift of register can be noted, you must identify this?
Social purpose (deeper connection to the text)

What are the social purposes of the text?
- Building rapport
- Promoting linguistic innovation
- Reducing social distance
- Maintaining or challenging face needs
- Support in group membership
59
- Encourage intimacy, solidarity and equality
Question to ask yourself when first reading:

1. Why does this exist? (SP)
2. What makes someone want to compose this? (SP)
3. What do and don’t you understand about this text?
4. Who is this aimed at? (audience)
5. What features can you identify?
Technique ONE (subsystem approach)

Paragraph 1: Phonetics and Phonology
Paragraph 2: Lexical and Syntactic
Paragraph 3: Semantic and Discourse
Connect each feature to an element of the social purpose, function or register.
Technique TWO (big ideas approach)

Paragraph 1: Register
Paragraph 2: Function
Paragraph 3: Social Purpose
60
Writing an Analytical commentary: Spoken mode
Introduction
FFMCAT (RSP)
F- Field (semantic)
F- Function (purpose of the text)
M- Mode (spoken or written)
C- Context (cultural and situational, including publication dates)
A- Audience (who is the target audience?)/ participants/ interlocutors (everyone must be mentioned)
and dominant speaker mentioned
T- Text type
R- Register (level of formality)
SP- Social Purpose (why was the text made?)
C- Cultural context
S- Spontenatity and scriptdness of text
Body Paragraphs
Must have at least 2 subsystems in body paragraphs
Prosodic features
- Intonation
- Stress
- Elongated vowels
- Tempo
- Filled pauses or voiced hesitations
- Repetition
- Pauses
- Non fluency features
- Phonological patterning
Lexical features
- Domain and context
- Figurative language
- Lexical and morphological patterning
- Semantic patterning
Discourse strategies
- Topic management
- Minimal responses
- Turn taking
- Cohesion/ Coherence → connect to syntax
61
Writing EL essays
Topics / choices on exam
- Australian identity/ features

- Gendered language / political correctness
- Informal / formal
- Euphemism / dysphemism / jargon
- Taboo / overt / covert norms / profanity
- Standard vs non-standard english
- Language change
Stimulus
Examples will be given- You are expected to use one of those
Essay writing
Research topics that will be on the exam
Have notes on the key metalanguage
Linguist quote bank
Contemporary examples (1-2 well developed examples per body paragraph)
Introduction
Big broad issue, what are the different points of view
Linguist quote (any year)
Key definitions (if needed, not necessary)
Contention statement (one sentence-complex, concise answer to the question)
Signpost key arguments in support of contention
Body Paragraphs (x4)

Topic sentence: argument not a fact (do not just state facts in BP use the ‘why’)
Examples and explanation (one really detailed one or two reasonable ones)
Link sentence back to your original contention and link forward
Public example needs publication details (month + where)
Private example can be used once only on entire essay
Make clear the situational or cultural factor that influenced the stylistic choices
Use metalanguage to describe the example
Conclusion
Restate the thesis in different words
62
Making mileage out of your examples
How to go from level 1 to level 2 on the analysis of the language.
1. You can connect with another part of the course
2. You can analyse the contextual factors in the language used within the example
3. Recognise that language is socially mediated
e.g. Business jargon example- Punch the puppie

- (alliteration/assonance)
- Dramatic tone of the expression
Level 1: Inclusive for some and exclusive for others
Level 2: Jargon euphemistic in nature
An exploration of different types of business jargon (phatic, or technical function)
e.g. Medical jargon example - Ambulance Australia “are you notoriously hard to cannulate”
Level 1: example where medical people are using medical terminology where lay people do not
understand. Usually this is criticized.
Level 2: used on a person who was in medical distress. Jargon immediately reassure the patient, and
was appropriate in the circumstances.

63

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English Language Unit 3 & 4 Notes

UNIT 4- Language Variation and Identity​……………………………………………………………………………....Page 47

AOS 2- Individual and Group Identity

Exam revision ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..Page 59

UNIT 3: Language Variation and Social Purpose

Area of Study 1 – Informal Language

Area of Study 2 – Formal Language

UNIT 4: Language Variation and Identity

Area of Study 1 – Language Variation in Australian Society

Area of Study 2 – Individual and Group Identity

AOS 1- Informal language

AOS 2- Formal language

AOS 1- Language variation in Australian society.

AOS 2- Individual and Group identity

Features and functions of informal language:

Two parts of context:

A theory of Politeness, positive and negative face:

The role of Standard and Non-Standard English:

Coherence and Cohesion:

Situational and cultural context:

1) Informational/ Referential function

3) Maintaining social relationships/ Phatic function

4) Expressive Function/ Expressing emotions

5) Conative function/ Persuasive function

6) Entertainment function/ Aesthetic function

7) Other specialised function

Unplanned/ spontaneous Planned/ often reworked

Typically face-to-face No visual contact

Supported by non-verbal cues No verbal/ non-verbal cues (no prosody/

Composed in a group/ public discourse Solidarity/ private discourse

Informal / intimate Formal / public distance

Instant feedback Delayed feedback

Lower prestige Higher prestige

Connecting Context and Social purpose:

➔ The pathway to social purpose is to identify the key functions.

Joos Styles (register)

NOTE: BE CAREFUL IF THE REGISTER CHANGES, IN AC MAKE NOTE OF THIS

Goffman Key ideas

2 Factors influencing face strategies

Positive face strategies Negative face strategies

When to use each

Distance close + status equal = positive face strategies

Strategies to challenge positive face Strategies to challenge negative face

KEY TO ANSWERING COHERENCE

COHERENT ≠ COHESIVE- You can be coherent but not cohesive.

CRIES SHARC (cry shark)

Two types of cohesion

Grammatical relationships Semantic relationship

-Information flow -Antonymy

Informal and Formal Language

Compounding​: two full words becoming one word. ​E.g. signpost

Shortening​: reducing a word from a longer word. ​E.g. because → cause

Neologism​: newly coined words, expressions or usage. ​E.g. yeet, meme

Personification​: the attribution of a personal or human characteristics to something non-human, or

What do we use Prosody for

Functions of spoken texts:

Social purpose of informal spoken texts:

Features of spoken texts to note

Overlaps within text

Turn taking and floor holding (also discourse strategy)

Topic management (also discourse strategy)

Voiced: sounds made with vocal cords ‘z’ ‘v’

Stress: deliberate emphasis.

UNIT 4- Language Variation and Identity……………………………………………………………………………....Page 47

Compounding: two full words becoming one word. E.g. signpost

Shortening: reducing a word from a longer word. E.g. because → cause

Neologism: newly coined words, expressions or usage. E.g. yeet, meme

Personification: the attribution of a personal or human characteristics to something non-human, or

Status: if there is a small status difference the

Topic: If the topic is everyday life topic of

Subject + verb + object

Subject + verb + complement noun

Subject + verb + complement adjective

Subject + verb + adverb

Subject + verb + prepositional phrase acting as an adverb.

STUDY DESIGN: metalanguage not defined in a specific subsystem: jargon