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768
Highway Road Project
Management
Structural Engineering / By David Jr / Civil Engineering

Highway Road Project

Management
Highway road project management can be defined as the
discipline of planning, organizing, securing, and managing
resources to bring about the successful completion of road
project goals and objectives.

The road project manager is the person who will apply their
road project management skills to the construction of roads.
His or her tasks are to make sure the completion of road
project is not delayed, is successful, and meets the requirement
stated by AASHTO’s guidelines and standards for road
construction.
Image Source: National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH)

Required Skills for Road

Project Managers
The following are skills that are required for a road project
manager handling road construction.

Having Good Communication Skills and Proper Written

English

Proficiency in communication and writing is important for a

road project manager, especially when dealing with local
authorities. Road project manager will deal not only with local
authorities, but construction workers as well. Thus, he or she
must have the ability to communicate effectively at all levels
both in writing and orally.

Knowledge about Road Design (Geometric

Design/Pavement Design)

A good road project manager must be able to read

construction drawings very well, and that includes
understanding the geometric and pavement design of roads.
Whenever there is some discrepancy or errors in the
construction drawings, the road project manager should reach
out to the road design engineer, discuss the problems
thoroughly, and a find a good solution for it.

Experience in Supervision of Road Construction

Experience can be defined as taking part in activities where

knowledge and skills are gained. In the engineering world, it is
one of the measuring sticks of a person’s ability. This concept
applies to the road project manager as well, because with
experience he or she learns what is good or bad and the effects
of certain implementations or methods on the road project.
Working knowledge of AASHTO

AASHTO’s standard guidelines must be followed whenever road

construction is going to be made. AASHTO’s guidelines on road
construction cover from road and pavement design to soil
investigation and testing, which is called the “AASHTO Soil
Classification System." Thus a working knowledge of AASHTO’s
guidelines are important for the road project manager, and he
or she should refer to the guidelines whenever there is doubt
about certain implementations or methods that are going to be
used.

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Job Activities for Road Project

Managers
The job activities for a road project manager consists of:

 Material Management – The ability of a road project

manager to manage construction materials that will be
used on site, and coordinate the progress of road’s
construction to it, is crucial to the efficiency and
 smoothness of the construction progress. Road
construction is done phase by phase. For example, the
road’s subbase must be done first, before the base course
materials are poured onto the subbase. Before that can
happen, the material for the subbase should be provided a
few months early, because you will never know when the
hardware store has ran out of base course materials.
 Labor Management – A good road project manager is
one who can utilize labor efficiently and at the same time,
improve the productivity of the labor.
 Dealing with Local Authorities – Water sources for road
construction must be supplied to the road construction
site at a reasonable distance, but this water source cannot
be simply connected to the existing main water supply at
any convenient time. Instead, the road project manager
must deal with local authorities over this matter before
connecting a pipe from the existing main water supply.

Conclusion
Being a good project manager requires years of experience. It is
a continuous process of study and research. Even though this
article provides job activities and skills required for a road
project manager, the problems in road building are varied and
there is usually no right answer to particular problems. With this
in mind, road project manager should always continue learning
and developing their management skills, so that the decisions
that they are going to make are accurate as possible.

References

1. Project Management for Construction by Tung Au Chris

Hendrickson

2. Author’s Experience

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_management

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 Quation two 2.HOW VEHICLE LOADS AFFECT
PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE
Why keep roads in good condition? The economy of any area depends on shipping and receiving products
and materials; trucks are the most common form of transport. The condition of area roads directly affects
the speed, efficiency, and ultimately the costs of transportation. Considering the huge cost of maintaining
and rebuilding roads, local governments have great incentive to protect pavements. Three elements work to
cause road deterioration: traffic loads, the environment, and aging. While we have little or no control over
the environment and aging, we can control traffic loads. This bulletin describes pavement fatigue and
discusses how wheel loads, number of truck axles, number of truck tires, quality of subgrade, pavement
thickness and changing seasons contribute to pavement fatigue.


 Record URL:

Effect Of Vehicle Axle Loads On Pavement Performance

B.M. Sharma, K. Sitaramanjaneyuiu, and P.K. Kanchan Central Road

Research Institute of New Delhi. India

ABSTRACT The ever increasing vehicle population and heavy axle loads
has caused substantial damage to Indian roads. Trucks carry loads much
in excess of legal lLmits and are largely responsible for poor road
conditions in addition to the inadequate structural capacity of pavements
and diminishing allocation of funds year after year for maintenance and
rehabilitation. Very huge capital investments are now needed to upgrade
and rehabilitate the existing road network to make it capable to withstand
high stresses and tyre pressures caused by heavy wheel loads. In view of
very remote possibility of such large magnitude of funds ever becoming
available in the near future, one of the best course to remedy the situation
would be to strictly enforce the legal axle limits. Pavement performance
data base generated and pavement deterioration models developed from
the Pavement Performance Study, recently completed in the country, has
been used/applied for the present analyses. An attempt has been made in
this paper to evaluate the effects of heavy axle loads on pavement
performance in terms of increase in service life if overloading is restricted
through strict enforcement. Further detailed analyses is planned to be done
for obtaining reliable and accurate results.

INTRODUCTION

Transportation is a vital sector to the economy of a nation. India is a fast

developing country and has got one of

the largest rail and road transportation network in the world. The share of
road transport to rail transport has increased to 80 % and 60 % in 1993
from 26% and 11% in 1951 for passenger and goods transport
respectively. The road length has correspondingly increased from about 0.4
mi1liom km. to 2 million km. during the last four decades. Due to
industrialisation and increased economy, the vehicle population has
increased from 0.3 million in 1951 to about 21 million during the same
period, thus registering a 70 fold increase. The growth of passenger and
frieght traffic is also phenominal and it is about 10% per annum at present.
The passenger traffic has risen to 1200 billion passenger km. (bp km) in
1991 from 31 bp km in 1951 and the freight traffic has gone to 295 billion
tonne km (bt km) in 1991 from 5.5 bt km in 1951. It is expected that
passenger and freight traffic would be about 3 tLmes and 4 tLmes
respectively than the present traffic in the next 15 years, calling for heavy
demand for additional vehicles and better roads etc. Not only the traffic
volume has increased but the tendency of most of the vehicle drivers is to
overload also heavy their vehicles in order to save operation cost. Most of
the goods vehicles in India are two-axle rigid chassis and constitute about
98.5 % of the total fleet. OVerloading of trucks is a common scene on
Indian roads and it is not surprising to find heavy vehicles with high tyre
pressures than normal values and carrying as high as 18 to 20 tonnes axle
loads against the legally

Road transport technology-4. University of Michigan Transportation

Research Institute. Ann Arbor. 1995. 263

ROAD TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY--4

permissible axle load of 10.2 tonnes. The arterial road system comprising
National Highways (NH) and State Highways (SH) is just about 2% and 6%
of the total road length respectively but is responsible of carrying as high as
two-third of the total road traffic. The funds allocated for road development
purposes is about 30-40% short for NH system and is short by about 50-
60% for SH system than the actual needs.

Several research studies have been completed and some are in progress
for the purpose of understanding pavement behaviour (performance) under
different conditions of traffic volume and loading, climate, subgrade,
structural composition etc. One such study recently completed is the
Pavement Performance Study. The data base and models available
through this study has been made use of in conducting analyses presented
herein, to evaluate the vehicle loading effects (overloading) on pavement
performance.

The paper presented describes an overview of the present status and road
developmental policies and practices in . India; importance and implication
of vehicle loads; studies conducted towards modernisation of vehicle fleet
and development of efficient road infrastructure. The paper discusses in
detail the analyses/procedures adopted to evaluate the effects of vehicle
loads on pavement performance and the results obtained therefrom.
Further work in this direction is also suggested towards achieving reliable
results.

AN OVERVIEW OF PRESENT STATUS AND ROAD DEVELOPMENTAL

POLICIES/PRACTICES IN INDIA

The unanticipated increase in vehicle population and heavy axle loads has
brought the road network to a crumbling stage. The network is grossly short
of its structural capacity, highly distressed and has started showing signs of
premature failure. The road network is unable and incapable to sustain high
stresses caused due to

264

heavy wheel loads and increased tyre pressures. It has been indicated that
the condition of NH system is not very satisfactory and encouraging and
that 3 Km. out of every 5 km. of state highways are in bad shape needing
immediate attention.

The assets built at huge capital costs are ageing due to continuous shortfall
in investments on road maintenance in addition to excessive utilization of
roads. It has been estimated that the country is loosing about Rs. 150,000
million ($ US 5,000 million) on account of excess vehicle operation cost
due to poor road conditions. The public investment on road sector need to
be stepped up by 2.7 times the present level of funds allocation for road
maintenance and upgradation. Huge investments are needed for removal
of deficiencies which have built up because of the reason that timely
preventive maintenance treatments could not be . undertaken due to
paucity of funds. A broad estimate about the requirement of funds for the
horizon year 2001 for building expressways and upgradation, improvement
and rehabilitation of the NH system is about Rs. 600,000 million ($ US
20,000 million).

Pavement design in India is empirical and based on subgrade strength

CBR (4 days soaking) and cumulative standard axles over a design life.
The design stipulates the materials and specifications alongwith their
thicknesses in different pavement layers. very recently, design guidelines
have been brought out based on mechanistic (analytical) design methods.
As regards maintenance of roads, norms and guidelines available are
tentative and not based on the results of any scientific study. The decisions
taken for implementation of various maintenance tasks are subjective in
nature and depend largely on Engineer's judgement and personal
experience. Rehabilitation / strengthening requirements are based on the
Benkelman beam rebound deflection data. Pavement Management studies
are now finding great

applications in India towards efficient, effective and coordinated

management of road network, within the funds constraints. The
Government of India is now encouraging private enterpreneures to invest in
road sector so as to provide good roads for comfortable, speedy and fuel-
efficient road transport in the country.

VEHICLE LOADING - ITS IMPORTANCE AND IMPLICATION

As emphasied earlier in the paper, trucks in India carry loads in excess of

their capacity. There are standards available in India of size, weights and
dimensions of the truck body but these are, in general, not largely followed.
The vehicle owners make changes and have wider and higher bodies so
that a truck can carry more goods than permissible, thus producing a
considerable reduction in haulage charges. It is not very strange that newly
constructed flexible pavements, particularly those with unbound bases,
frequently show signs of distress shortly after they are opened to traffic.
The immediate effects of overloading are less obvious on pavements with
bound bases but their service lives are significantly reduced than normally
expected. Heavy traffic loading produce rapid differential compact ion in the
upper layers of pavement in addition to fracture of the asphalt surfacing.
Implications of overloading on overall transport costs have been examined
worldwide and it is evident that vehicle overloading seriously affects the
improvements of road network in many developing countries including India
largely because of increased demands for maintenance and rehabilitation
due to pavement's damage caused by heavy axles.

The dimension of the overloading problem is such that specific precautions

need to be adopted to minimise its affects. One way is to make sure that
pavements are designed using a realistic assessment of the expected
traffic loading because incorrect estimates of vehicle loading would

PAVEMENTPERFO~CE

seriously affect its behaviour. The other option is to strictly enforce the legal
axle limits and thus obtain increased pavement's service life and
performance.

It has been established that structural damage to road pavements is

caused largely by commerCial traffic and that the pavement damage
increases very steeply with the axle loadings. The damage which a heavy
commercial vehicle does is a function of the degree to which the various
axles are loaded. The damaging effect of traffic is expressed as the number
of standard axles per 100 .commercial vehicles and is termed as Vehicle
Damage Factor (VDF).

To design pavements, it is necessary to know the distribution of axle loads

to which the pavement will be subjected during the design life. The
distribution is generally referred to as the axle load spectrum. The axle load
surveys have been conducted in India from time to time on various roads
and the VDFS' which" is a multiplier for converting of axle-load repetition,
have been determined. The indicative VDF values recommended by Indian
Roads Congress (IRe), for different range of traffic volume (commercial
vehicles per day) and the terrain, are given in Table-1. These are the VDF
values used for design of pavements in India, if specific VDF is not
available/assessed for a given road. The results of axle load surveys
conducted in India in the recent past have brought out the following;

i) Damaging effects of heavy commercial vehicles have increased

alarmingly particularly on more heavily trafficked corridors and highways.
ii) overloading beyond the legal axle limits is very frequent and is of very
large magnitude which, as a matter of fact, has led to the belief/conclusion
that overloaded vehicles are responsible for pavement damage and thus
poor road conditions.

265

ROAD TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY-4

Table. 1 Indicative VDF Values

Initial traffic intensity in terms of number of commercial vehicles/day

Less then 150

150-1500

More then 1500

Terrain

Hilly Rolling Plain

Hilly Rolling Plain

Hilly Rolling Plain

The legal limit for axle loads in India has increased from 8.16 tonnes to
10.2 tonnes in the last decade or so. The Motor Vehicle Act stipulates
maximum axle and vehicle weights as under:

single axle with two tyres 6.0 tonnes Single axle with four tyres 10.2 tonnes
Tandem axle with eight tyres 19.0 tonnes

Very little attempt is generally made to enforce the law in this respect. The
increase in axle limits has been effected but the economic justification for
changes in these limits has not been examined very closely and accurately
in India because of non-availability of data which would enable evaluation
of vehicle operating costs and the estimation of additional pavement
damage caused by the heavier axle loads. ·In developed countries, several
major studies have been conducted which have identified factors
influencing the cost of operating vehicles and it is now possible to conduct
incremental analyses to show the economic effects of increases in axle
loads. It has also been concluded through these studies that increases in
legal axle load limits are justified under a wide variety of conditions.
266

VDF values (standard axles of 8.16 tonnes per commercial vehicle)

Unsurfaced

0.50 1.50 2.00

Thin Bituminous Surfacing

0.75 1. 75 2.25

1.00 2.00 2.50

1.25 2.25 2.75

Thick Bituminous Surfacing

1.25 2.25 2.75

1.50 2.50 3.00

The cost of operating a road transport system consists of two main

componel)~,s, namely the operating cost of vehicles fleet using the facility
and the cost of con~tructing and maintaining the roads. It is now a well
known fact that the transport cost of a particular freight tonnage decreases
quite rapidly with increase in amount of freight carried by vehicles and also
that the cost of providing and maintaining the roads increases as the
vehicle axle load increases. The magnitude of these component costs
varies with extent of axle loads carried by vehicles. India spends a large
proportion of her scare resources on road transportation and it is therefore
desirable that the road transport system should operate under conditions
which minimises the total cost.

The most widely used relationship between vehicle loading and pavement
performance was derived from the AASHO Road· Test in early sixties. An
axle load carrying a load of 8.16 ton was defined as a standard axle, with a
damaging effect of unity. The damaging effects of lighter and heavier axles
were expressed as equivalency factors. The structural damage to a
pavement caused by wheel

loads is given by an empirical equation of the following form:

Pavement damage (Axle load)n

The results .have revealed that value of exponent, n, can vary from 2.4 to
6.6 under extreme conditions. It was concluded that for heavy wheel loads
on roads of medium or high strength, as measured by structural number,
the value of n is in the range of 3.2 to 5.6. The conclusion emerged from
the AASHO Road Test was that the relative damage to both flexible and
rigid pavements varied approximately as the fourth power of the applied
wheel loads. It is this relationship that provides the basis for assessing the
effects of vehicle loading in most current methods of pavement design
globally. The relationship enables converting the estimated spectrum of
axle loadings into an equivalent number of repetitions of a standard axle
load of 8.16 tonnes. The factors for this conversion to Equivalent Standard
Axles (ESAL s ) were derived based on this relationship. In India, the value
of exponent n is taken as 4 and the traffic is defined by the Equivalent
Standard Axles (ESAL s ) which is calculated by multiplying the number of
commercial vehicles and Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF) derived from axle
load spectrum using standard "Fourth Power Law".

STUDIES CONDUCTED IN INDIA TOWARDS DEVELOPMENT,

IMPROVEMENT AND MODERNISATION OF ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE
AND VEHICLE FLEET

PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE STUDY

This is a long term research study of national importance, sponsored by the

Ministry of Surface Transport , Govt. of India, and was commenced in the
year 1986. The study is a sequal to the already completed Road User Cost
study in India, which had, earlier in 1982, successfully brought out road
user . cost models for different roadway and traffic situations. The
Pavement Performance Study is planned to evolve road cost

PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE

models, compr~s~ng initial construction cost and subsequent maintenance

cost during the design / service life, and which in conjunction with road user
costs, would develop information/data for total transportation cost models
under Indian conditions. The study Objectives are proposed to be achieved
through the following:

i) Development of pavement performance data for pavement materials

normally used in the country
ii) Based on the performance data, to attempt development of layer
equivalencies, as feasible

iii) Limited studies on the effect of maintenance level on pavement

performance

iv) Generation of data on the construction and maintenance inputs of

different pavements

The study consists of two parts:

a) Study on Existing Pavement Sections

b) Study on New Pavement Sections

stUdy On Existing Pavement Sections

This part of study has recently been completed on in-service road sections.
A total of 113 road sections on arterial road network, each 500 meter
length, in the states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat
were monitered for their performance, at every half year interval, over a
period of 3 to 5 years. The various observations/ measurements taken on
these test sections included the.following:

i) Pavement structural details (materials/specifications and their

thicknesses in different layers)

ii) Surface defects cracking, patching, potholes, ravelling, shoving,

depression etc.)

267

ROAD TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY-4

iii) Roughness by Fifth integrator

iv) Rebound deflection by beam

wheel bump

Benkelman

v) Subgrade moisture content

vi) Traffic volume surveys (on representative sites)

vii) Axle load surveys (on representative sites, annually)

viii)Lateral placement of vehicles (during sixth and tenth series of
observations)

ix) Transverse profile

Modified Structural Number (MSN) is an indicator of pavement's structural

strength and has been used for this study. It is calculated using the
following equation developed during Kenya study

MSN:: SN+ SN

SG

where

SM :: Structural Number

a 1, a2 , a3, ..... an are the strength coefficients of different materials in

various pavement courses and

t 1 , t 2 , t 3' ....•••. t

are the thicknesses of various pavement layers in inches.

SNSG::structural support due to subgrade

=3.51(10910 CBR)-0.S5(lo910 CBR)2 -1.43 where

CBR ::California moisture density

Bearing Ratio at Field content and Field dry

The voluminous time-series pavement performance and traffic - related

data was analysed and incremental models developed for prediction of
various

268

modes of distress for pavements with surfacings of Premix carpet (PC),

SemiDense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC) and Bituminous Concrete (BC) •
The various models developed (available ) are :

a) Initiation of Cracking b) Progression of Cracking c) Initiation of Ravelling

(for pr·emix carpet surfa~e only) d) Progression of Ravelling (for premix
carpet surface only) e) Initiation of Potholes f) Progression of Potholes g)
Progression of Roughness

These models are capable of predicting the state of health (various defects)
of the pavements, over a passage of time and traffic applications, which
would assist and. enable highway planners, professionals and policy
makers in deciding upon optimal and rational maintenance strategies
models may following and for road also be rehabilitation

i)

network. used for

These the

To evaluate the structural strength performance (pavement

effect of on pavement deterioration)

ii) To evaluate the effect of traffic loading on pavement performance

iii) To evaluate the existing pavement design

iv) To support the analytical pavement design methods

v) Pavement maintenance system development

management

For the work reported in this paper, the pavement deterioration models
discussed above have been applied to evaluate the effects of increased
axle loads (overloading) on pavement performance.

Study On New Pavement Sections

This part of study has recently launched and is in progress. The

been study

is to be conducted on specially designed and constructed experimental

road sections, for detailed and comprehensive coverage of various
parameters, in order to obtain reliable and refined pavement deterioration
models for a variety of applications.

VEHICLE FLEET MODERNISATION AND ROAD USE CHARGES STUDY

This study undertaken with the World Bank assistance has been completed
and was taken up to determine the optimal future composition of the motor
vehicle fleet and appropriate levels of road use charges. The study
estimated future demand for road transport and the analyses of the
changing scenario of the freight market. It involved assesment of the
appropriateness of the present state of the road infrastructure and transport
industry. The study established the need for modernising India's truck fleet
and road infrastructure, along with identification of areas and level of
modernisation required and the policy framework desired to achieve them.

The following major rcommendations concerning to the part of vehicle fleet

modernisation study emerged from the results of this study are:

i) In order to meet the future transport demand and to reduce the total
transportation cost, it is necessary to improve the existing road network and
modernise the vehicle fleet.

ii) Old and obsolete vehicles should be phased out and economically more
efficient multi-axle vehicles should be introduced. iii) There is an urgent
undertake various measures promotion of technological in vehicle design to
safety, fuel efficiency reduce road damage. need to such as progress
improve and to

iv) Two- axle rigid vehicles are paying their fair share proportion to the road

not in cost

inflicted by them by way of road use and road damage.

EVALUATIOH OF EFFECT OF VEHICLE AXLE LOADS OH PAVEMEHT

PERFORMAHCE

The pavement performance data base generated under the Pavement

Performance Study-Study on Existing Pavement sections (PPS-EPS), was
utilised for evaluating the effects of increased axle loads (overloading) on
pavement performance. The road sections (sites) selected for the present
analyses were selected in a manner that they represent the most prevailing
practices of constructing and maintaining the National highways and would
largely cover the varying operating conditions of traffic volume and loading,
pavement's structural strength, different materials and specifications in
constituent layers and surface types etc. The test sections included in the
analyses can be regarded as window representation of National highway
system of the country. The analyse.s is carried out in the following two ..
steps.

DETERMINATION OVERLOADING

OF DAMAGE DUE TO

As stated earlier, the majority of commercial vehicles (trucks) in India are

two-axle rigid body. From the large axle load data available for these
vehicles, it is observed that

i) The Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) is normally about 16 tonnes

ii) The unladen weight (empty weight) of such trucks is normally about 5.5
tonnes

Based on the earlier results available from different studies and as per the
general loading norms on the two axles of a truck in the ratio of· 1:2 (front
axle versus rear axle ), it is assumed that front axle weight should be
limited to 5.5 tonnes and the rear axle weight to 10.5 tonnes which would
lead to the presumption that a vehicle having GVW in excess of 16 tonnes
(5.5 tonnes

269

ROAD TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY-4

front axle and 10.5 tonnes rear axle) is a vehicle carrying loads beyond
legal axle limits and is referred to as overloaded vehicle for the purpose of
present analyses. The axle load data for different sites is analysed to obtain
VDF at the actual loads and the same is denoted by VDFA. The same data
is reanalysed to obtain the restricted VDF by limiting the individual axle
loads to the ones discussed above. The VDF so derived is expressed as
VDF R . ESAL s based on VDFA is represented by ESALA and are the
ones for actual traffic repetitions. ESALS based on VDFR represent the
load repetitions if strict enforcement of axle limits is employed and no
overloading is allowed on pavements. The results obtained from the
analyses carried out indicate that there is a substantial reduction in vehicle
damage factor when the load in excess of legal axle limits is removed.

EVALUATION OF DAMAGING (OVERLOADING) EFFECTS ON

PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE
Having established the reduction in vehicle damaging effects due to
exclusion 'of excess loads carried by the vehicles in comparision to legal
axle load limits, the subsequent analyses was conducted to
quantify/evaluate the effect of vehicle overloading on pavement
performance. Various deterioration relationships developed for pavements
with surfacing of PC, SDBC and BC towards prediction of initiation and
progression of various distress modes were applied to the different road
sections included in the present analyses. In view of any threshold I
intervention levels not being available for Indian conditions, it is considered
that resurfacing should be needed in the following two cases.

a)

b)

270

The has

cracking level of a reached 25 % of the surface area and I or

The roughness level has 5000, 4500 and 4000 mm/km surface type is PC,
SDBC respectively

pavement total

reached when and BC

The above levels have been fixed based on past experience and existing
maintenance standards for providing resurfacing / renewal coat etc. These
levels are regarded as critical / terminal level and it is at this time that the
resurfacing is assumed to be applied on a pavement if otherwise the road
is structurally adequate. Extensive measurements of roughness conducted
in India on newly constructed I rehabilitated pavements have indicated that
initial roughness for pavements with surfacing of PC, SDBC and BC are
normally of the order of 2500, 2000 and 1500 mm/Km respectively when
the construction quality is good. These values of initial roughness have
been used for the present analyses. With these assumptions and
considerations in mind, the time to reach the above defined critical levels
(based on cracking and roughness separately) is determined through
application of various pavement deterioration models, for the two situations
viz. i) when the actual loads are plying and ii) when the overloading has
been excluded and the vehicles are carrying legal axle loads. The time so
obtained is the service life· for that particular surfacing because another
resurfacing would be needed after the pavement has reached pre-defined
intervention levels as above. Such treatments are applied primarily for the
purpose of providing better rideability and retarding further deterioration of
pavement structure. Based on the comparision of service lives obtained for
actual loads and restricted loads, the percent increase in service life is
calculated for the two criterias separately viz. cracking and roughness
levels. The results obtained from the analyses discussed above are
presented in Table-2. It is seen that there is an increase of about 30 - 40 %
in service life for surfacings of PC and BC and upto about 20 % for SDBC
when cracking level is considered as the critical criteria. The increase in
service life is about 10 - 20 % for PC, upto about 20% for BC and upto
about 10 % for SOBC when roughness level is regarded as critical criteria.
The low

Table. 2 Increase in service life due to removal of excess axle loads

(overloading) on different pavements subjected to varying degree of traffic
volume and loadings

Site Surf- Modified Comme- VDF at VDF at ESALs ESALs Percent

increase No. ace Struct- rcial actual restri (x 106 ) (x 106 ) in service life
Type ural vehicles loads -cted per year per year due to removal of Number
per day (VDF A ) loads at actual at restr excess axle loads (MSN) (CVPD)
(VDFR) loads -icted -----------------(ESALA) loads Cracking Roughness
(ESALR) level level -------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------1 PC 3.72 920 6.18 2.75 2 PC 3.06 587 5.61 3.00 3 PC 3.81 4449
4.49 3.00 4 PC 4.35 889 5.53 2.75 5 PC 3.67 2484 5.53 3.00

6 BC 4.08 3623 6.01 3.00 7 BC 4.20 4886 6.18 3.00 8 BC 4.14 6101 4.92
3.00 9 BC 5.02 5832 6.29 3.00

10 SDBC 4.48 1552 4.17 2.75 11 SDBC . 5.01 2316 5.13 3.00

increase in service life at roughness level as compared to high increase in

service life at cracking level can be said to be probably due to differences
in pavement's surface texture, other (associated) surface defects
influencing roughness, variability in construction quality and seasonal/
climatic changes etc.The increase in service life for different pavements
would depend on the traffic repetitions (ESALs / year), structural strength of
the pavement (MSN) , materials/ specifications in pavement structure,
construction and maintenance standards and environmental conditions etc.
In the ultimate analyses, it can rightly be concluded that there would be
considerable improvement in service life when strict compliance of legal
axle limits are enforced.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Based on the analyses the results obtained,

conducted it can

and be

2.08 0.92 40 10 1.20 0.64 30 9 7.29 4.87 33 10 1. 79 0.89 31 6 5.01 2.72

38 20

7.94 3.97 40 21 11.02 5.35 44 21 10.95 6.68 29 20 13.38 6.39 42 16

2.36 1.56 13 6 4.23 2.54 18 10

concluded that there is a significant improvement in service life when strict

enforcement of legal axle limits is done. The various benefits arising from
strict enforcement of legal limits are as given below:

i) Reduction in maintenance and rehabilitation cost of roads

ii) More funds would be available for upkeep of pavements

iii) The road pavements maintained at desired/ serviciability levels

Based on the limited work results available, it will be and premature to

quantify and the saving in maintenance account of load restrictions.

can be minimum

done and too early estimate cost It however, expected and believed that on
is, the savings in maintenance cost on rough basis should at least be of the
order of 20-25% of what is presently spent if

271

ROAD TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY--4

legal axle limits are enforced and no vehicle is allowed to carry loads
beyond the permissible one. Savings of such magnitude would certainly
help road organisations in providing better roads to its users.

The work presented here

3.Construction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
For other uses, see Construction (disambiguation).
"Construction site" redirects here. For the British children's TV series, see Construction Site
(TV series).

In large construction projects, such as this skyscraper in Melbourne, Australia, cranes are
essential

Construction site and equipment prepared for start of work in Cologne, Germany (2017)

Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure.[1] Construction

differs from manufacturing in that manufacturing typically involves mass production of
similar items without a designated purchaser, while construction typically takes place on
location for a known client.[2] Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the
gross domestic product of developed countries.[3] Construction starts with planning, design,
and financing; it continues until the project is built and ready for use.

Large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. A project

manager normally manages the budget on the job, and a construction manager, design
engineer, construction engineer or architect supervises it. Those involved with the design and
execution must consider zoning requirements, environmental impact of the job, scheduling,
budgeting, construction-site safety, availability and transportation of building materials,
logistics, inconvenience to the public caused by construction delays and bidding. Large
construction projects are sometimes referred to as megaprojects.

Contents
 1Etymology
 2Types
o 2.1Industry sectors
o 2.2Building construction
o 2.3Residential construction
 3Processes
o 3.1Design team
o 3.2Financial advisors
o 3.3Legal aspects
o 3.4Interaction of expertise
o 3.5Procurement
 3.5.1Traditional
 3.5.2Design-build
 3.5.3Management procurement systems
o 3.6Sustainability in construction
 4Authority having jurisdiction
 5Industry characteristics
o 5.1Careers
 6Safety
 7History
 8Construction output by country
 9See also
 10References

Etymology[edit]
Construction is a general term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or
organizations,[4] and comes from Latin constructio (from com- "together" and struere "to pile
up") and Old French construction.[5] To construct is the verb: the act of building, and the noun
construction: how a building was built, the nature of its structure.
Types[edit]

Industrial assemblage of a thermal oxidizer in the United States of America

In general, there are three sectors of construction: buildings, infrastructure and industrial.[6]
Building construction is usually further divided into residential and non-residential
(commercial/institutional). Infrastructure is often called heavy civil or heavy engineering that
includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, railways, water or wastewater and
utility distribution. Industrial construction includes refineries, process chemical, power
generation, mills and manufacturing plants. There are also other ways to break the industry
into sectors or markets.[7]

Industry sectors[edit]

Military residential unit construction by U.S. Navy personnel in Afghanistan

Construction workers working on a residential building in Tijuana, Mexico

Engineering News-Record (ENR), a trade magazine for the construction industry, each year
compiles and reports data about the size of design and construction companies. In 2014, ENR
compiled the data in nine market segments divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings,
power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste and a tenth
category for other projects.[8] In their reporting, they used data on transportation, sewer,
hazardous waste and water to rank firms as heavy contractors.[9]

The Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification
System have a classification system for companies that perform or engage in construction. To
recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into three subsectors:
building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade
contractors. There are also categories for construction service firms (e.g., engineering,
architecture) and construction managers (firms engaged in managing construction projects
without assuming direct financial responsibility for completion of the construction
project).[10][11]

Building construction[edit]
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Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of

buildings. The majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition
of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer,
paymaster, and design team for the entire project.[12] Although building construction projects
consist of common elements such as design, financial, estimating and legal considerations,
projects of varying sizes may reach undesirable end results, such as structural collapse, cost
overruns, and/or litigation. For this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed
plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome.

The National Cement Share Company of Ethiopia's new plant in Dire Dawa

Commercial building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing various delivery

methodologies, including cost estimating, hard bid, negotiated price, traditional, management
contracting, construction management-at-risk, design & build and design-build bridging.

Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local

building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area
generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus timber). Cost
of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary
dramatically based on site conditions, local regulations, economies of scale (custom designed
homes are often more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradesmen.
Residential construction as well as other types of construction can generate waste such that
planning is required.

According to McKinsey research, productivity growth per worker in construction has lagged
behind many other industries across different countries including in the United States and in
European countries. In the United States, construction productivity per worker has declined
by half since the 1960s.[13]

Residential construction[edit]

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Framing

The most popular method of residential construction in North America is wood-framed

construction. Typical construction steps for a single-family or small multi-family house are:

 Obtain an engineered soil test of lot where construction is planned. From an engineer
or company specializing in soil testing.
 Develop floor plans and obtain a materials list for estimations (more recently
performed with estimating software)
 Obtain structural engineered plans for foundation and structure. To be completed by
either a licensed engineer or architect. To include both a foundation and framing plan.
 Obtain lot survey
 Obtain government building approval if necessary
 If required obtain approval from HOA (homeowners association) or ARC
(architectural review committee)
 Clear the building site (demolition of existing home if necessary)
 Survey to stake out for the foundation
 Excavate the foundation and dig footers (Scope of work is dependent of foundation
designed by engineer)
 Install plumbing grounds
 Pour a foundation and footers with concrete
 Build the main load-bearing structure out of thick pieces of wood and possibly metal
I-beams for large spans with few supports. See framing (construction)
 Add floor and ceiling joists and install subfloor panels
 Cover outer walls and roof in OSB or plywood and a water-resistive barrier.
 Install roof shingles or other covering for flat roof
 Cover the walls with siding, typically vinyl, wood, or brick veneer but possibly stone
or other materials
 Install windows
 Frame interior walls with wooden 2×4s
 Add internal plumbing, HVAC, electrical, and natural gas utilities
 Building inspector visits if necessary to approve utilities and framing
 Install insulation and interior drywall panels (cementboard for wet areas) and to
complete walls and ceilings
 Install bathroom fixtures
 Spackle, prime, and paint interior walls and ceilings
 Additional tiling on top of cementboard for wet areas, such as the bathroom and
kitchen backsplash
  Installation of final floor covering, such as floor tile, carpet, or wood flooring
 Installation of major appliances
 Unless the original owners are building the house, at this point it is typically sold or
rented.

Processes[edit]

Shasta Dam under construction in June 1942

Design team[edit]

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citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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In the industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of designs into
reality. A formal design team may be assembled to plan the physical proceedings, and to
integrate those proceedings with the other parts. The design usually consists of drawings and
specifications, usually prepared by a design team including architect, civil engineers,
mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, structural engineers, fire protection engineers,
planning consultants, architectural consultants, and archaeological consultants. The design
team is most commonly employed by (i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Under this
system, once the design is completed by the design team, a number of construction
companies or construction management companies may then be asked to make a bid for the
work, either based directly on the design, or on the basis of drawings and a bill of quantities
provided by a quantity surveyor. Following evaluation of bids, the owner typically awards a
contract to the most cost efficient bidder.

The best modern trend in design is toward integration of previously separated specialties,
especially among large firms. In the past, architects, interior designers, engineers, developers,
construction managers, and general contractors were more likely to be entirely separate
companies, even in the larger firms. Presently, a firm that is nominally an "architecture" or
"construction management" firm may have experts from all related fields as employees, or to
have an associated company that provides each necessary skill. Thus, each such firm may
offer itself as "one-stop shopping" for a construction project, from beginning to end. This is
designated as a "design build" contract where the contractor is given a performance
specification and must undertake the project from design to construction, while adhering to
the performance specifications.[14]
Several project structures can assist the owner in this integration, including design-build,
partnering and construction management. In general, each of these project structures allows
the owner to integrate the services of architects, interior designers, engineers and constructors
throughout design and construction. In response, many companies are growing beyond
traditional offerings of design or construction services alone and are placing more emphasis
on establishing relationships with other necessary participants through the design-build
process.

The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design professionals
trained in all phases of the project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the building as
an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their
individual components, including sustainability. Building engineering is an emerging
discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge.

Financial advisors[edit]

Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago)

May 23, 2006

September 14, 2007 (3 months before completion)

Construction projects can suffer from preventable financial problems. Underbids happen
when builders ask for too little money to complete the project. Cash flow problems exist
when the present amount of funding cannot cover the current costs for labour and materials,
and because they are a matter of having sufficient funds at a specific time, can arise even
when the overall total is enough. Fraud is a problem in many fields, but is notoriously
prevalent in the construction field.[15] Financial planning for the project is intended to ensure
that a solid plan with adequate safeguards and contingency plans are in place before the
project is started and is required to ensure that the plan is properly executed over the life of
the project.
Mortgage bankers, accountants, and cost engineers are likely participants in creating an
overall plan for the financial management of the building construction project. The presence
of the mortgage banker is highly likely, even in relatively small projects since the owner's
equity in the property is the most obvious source of funding for a building project.
Accountants act to study the expected monetary flow over the life of the project and to
monitor the payouts throughout the process. Cost engineers and estimators apply expertise to
relate the work and materials involved to a proper valuation. Cost overruns with government
projects have occurred when the contractor identified change orders or project changes that
increased costs, which are not subject to competition from other firms as they have already
been eliminated from consideration after the initial bid.[16]

Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans and often start with a conceptual
estimate performed by a building estimator. As portions of a project are completed, they may
be sold, supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the logistical requirements of
having the right trades and materials available for each stage of the building construction
project carries forward. In many English-speaking countries, but not the United States,
projects typically use quantity surveyors.

Legal aspects[edit]

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citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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(Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: Construction law

Construction along Ontario Highway 401, widening the road from six to twelve travel lanes

A construction project must fit into the legal framework governing the property. These
include governmental regulations on the use of property, and obligations that are created in
the process of construction.

When applicable, the project must adhere to zoning and building code requirements.
Constructing a project that fails to adhere to codes does not benefit the owner. Some legal
requirements come from malum in se considerations, or the desire to prevent indisputably bad
phenomena, e.g. explosions or bridge collapses. Other legal requirements come from malum
prohibitum considerations, or factors that are a matter of custom or expectation, such as
isolating businesses from a business district or residences from a residential district. An
attorney may seek changes or exemptions in the law that governs the land where the building
will be built, either by arguing that a rule is inapplicable (the bridge design will not cause a
collapse), or that the custom is no longer needed (acceptance of live-work spaces has grown
in the community).[17]

A construction project is a complex net of contracts and other legal obligations, each of
which all parties must carefully consider. A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations
between two or more parties, but it is not so simple a matter as trying to get the other side to
agree to as much as possible in exchange for as little as possible. The time element in
construction means that a delay costs money, and in cases of bottlenecks, the delay can be
extremely expensive. Thus, the contracts must be designed to ensure that each side is capable
of performing the obligations set out. Contracts that set out clear expectations and clear paths
to accomplishing those expectations are far more likely to result in the project flowing
smoothly, whereas poorly drafted contracts lead to confusion and collapse.

Legal advisors in the beginning of a construction project seek to identify ambiguities and
other potential sources of trouble in the contract structure, and to present options for
preventing problems. Throughout the process of the project, they work to avoid and resolve
conflicts that arise. In each case, the lawyer facilitates an exchange of obligations that
matches the reality of the project.

Interaction of expertise[edit]

Apartment complex under construction in Daegu, South Korea

Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only
structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must also be financially
possible to build, and legal to use. The financial structure must accommodate the need for
building the design provided, and must pay amounts that are legally owed. The legal structure
must integrate the design into the surrounding legal framework, and enforce the financial
consequences of the construction process.

Procurement[edit]

Procurement describes the merging of activities undertaken by the client to obtain a building.
There are many different methods of construction procurement; however, the three most
common types of procurement are traditional (design–bid–build), design-build and
management contracting.[18]

There is also a growing number of new forms of procurement that involve relationship
contracting where the emphasis is on a co-operative relationship among the principal, the
contractor, and other stakeholders within a construction project. New forms include
partnering such as Public-Private Partnering (PPPs) aka private finance initiatives (PFIs) and
alliances such as "pure" or "project" alliances and "impure" or "strategic" alliances. The focus
on co-operation is to ameliorate the many problems that arise from the often highly
competitive and adversarial practices within the construction industry.

Traditional[edit]

Main article: Design–bid–build

This is the most common method of construction procurement, and it is well-established and
recognized. In this arrangement, the architect or engineer acts as the project coordinator. His
or her role is to design the works, prepare the specifications and produce construction
drawings, administer the contract, tender the works, and manage the works from inception to
completion. There are direct contractual links between the architect's client and the main
contractor. Any subcontractor has a direct contractual relationship with the main contractor.
The procedure continues until the building is ready to occupy.

Design-build[edit]

Main article: Design-build

Construction of the Phase-1 (first two towers) of the

Havelock City Project, Sri Lanka

This approach has become more common in recent years, and also involves the client
contracting a single entity that both provides a design and builds it. In some cases, the design-
build package can also include finding the site, arranging funding and applying for all
necessary statutory consents.

The owner produces a list of requirements for a project, giving an overall view of the
project's goals. Several D&B contractors present different ideas about how to accomplish
these goals. The owner selects the ideas they like best and hires the appropriate contractor.
Often, it is not just one contractor, but a consortium of several contractors working together.
Once these have been hired, they begin building the first phase of the project. As they build
phase 1, they design phase 2. This is in contrast to a design-bid-build contract, where the
project is completely designed by the owner, then bid on, then completed.
Kent Hansen pointed out that state departments of transportation usually use design build
contracts as a way of progressing projects when states lack the skills-resources. In such
departments, design build contracts are usually employed for very large projects.[19]

Management procurement systems[edit]

Main article: Construction management

In this arrangement the client plays an active role in the procurement system by entering into
separate contracts with the designer (architect or engineer), the construction manager, and
individual trade contractors. The client takes on the contractual role, while the construction or
project manager provides the active role of managing the separate trade contracts, and
ensuring that they complete all work smoothly and effectively together.

Management procurement systems are often used to speed up the procurement processes,
allow the client greater flexibility in design variation throughout the contract, give the ability
to appoint individual work contractors, separate contractual responsibility on each individual
throughout the contract, and to provide greater client control.

In recent time, construction software starts to get traction—as it digitizes construction

industry. Among solutions, there are for example: Procore, GenieBelt, PlanGrid, bouw7, etc.

Sustainability in construction[edit]

Main article: Sustainability in construction

Sustainability during the construction phase is one of the aspects of “green building," defined
by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as "the practice of creating
structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient
throughout a building's life-cycle from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance,
renovation and deconstruction."[20]

Authority having jurisdiction[edit]

See also: Planning permission

Digging the foundation for a building construction in Jakarta, Indonesia

In construction, the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) is the governmental agency or sub-
agency that regulates the construction process. In most cases, this is the municipality where
the building is located. However, construction performed for supra-municipal authorities are
usually regulated directly by the owning authority, which becomes the AHJ.

Construction on the Federal Reserve building in Kansas City, Missouri

Before the foundation can be dug, contractors are typically required to verify and have
existing utility lines marked, either by the utilities themselves or through a company
specializing in such services. This lessens the likelihood of damage to the existing electrical,
water, sewage, phone, and cable facilities, which could cause outages and potentially
hazardous situations. During the construction of a building, the municipal building inspector
inspects the building periodically to ensure that the construction adheres to the approved
plans and the local building code. Once construction is complete and a final inspection has
been passed, an occupancy permit may be issued.

An operating building must remain in compliance with the fire code. The fire code is
enforced by the local fire department or a municipal code enforcement office.

Changes made to a building that affect safety, including its use, expansion, structural
integrity, and fire protection items, usually require approval of the AHJ for review
concerning the building code.

Industry characteristics[edit]
In the United States, the industry in 2014 has around $960 billion in annual revenue
according to statistics tracked by the Census Bureau, of which $680 billion is private (split
evenly between residential and nonresidential) and the remainder is government.[21] In 2005,
there were about 667,000 firms employing 1 million contractors (200,000 general contractors,
38,000 heavy, and 432,000 specialty); the average contractor employed fewer than 10
employees.[22] As a whole, the industry employed an estimated 5.8 million in April 2013, with
a 13.2% unemployment rate.[23] In the United States, approximately 828,000 women were
employed in the construction industry as of 2011.[24]

Careers[edit]
Helicopter view of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Operations
Support Facility (OSF) construction site

Ironworkers erecting the steel frame of a new building at Massachusetts General Hospital in
Boston

A truck operator at Al Gamil, the largest construction company in Djibouti.

There are many routes to the different careers within the construction industry. These three
main tiers are based on educational background and training, which vary by country:

 Unskilled and semi-skilled – General site labor with little or no construction

qualifications.
 Skilled – Tradesmen who've served apprenticeships, typically in labor unions, and on-
site managers who possess extensive knowledge and experience in their craft or
profession.
 Technical and management – Personnel with the greatest educational qualifications,
usually graduate degrees, trained to design, manage and instruct the construction
process.
Skilled occupations include carpenters, electricians, plumbers, ironworkers, masons, and
many other manual crafts, as well as those involved in project management. In the UK these
require further education qualifications, often in vocational subject areas. These qualifications
are either obtained directly after the completion of compulsory education or through "on the
job" apprenticeship training.[25] In the UK, 8500 construction-related apprenticeships were
commenced in 2007.[26]

Technical and specialized occupations require more training as a greater technical knowledge
is required. These professions also hold more legal responsibility. A short list of the main
careers with an outline of the educational requirements are given below:

 Architect – Typically holds 1, undergraduate 3-year degree in architecture + 1, post-

graduate 2-year degree (DipArch or BArch) in architecture plus 24 months'
experience within the industry. To use the title "architect" the individual must be
registered on the Architects Registration Board register of Architects.
 Civil engineer – Typically holds a degree in a related subject. The Chartered Engineer
qualification is controlled by the Engineering Council, and is often achieved through
membership of the Institution of Civil Engineers. A new university graduate must
hold a master's degree to become chartered; persons with bachelor's degrees may
become an Incorporated Engineer.
 Building services engineer – Often referred to as an "M&E Engineer" typically holds
a degree in mechanical or electrical engineering. Chartered Engineer status is
governed by the Engineering Council, mainly through the Chartered Institution of
Building Services Engineers.
 Project manager – Typically holds a 4-year or greater higher education qualification,
but are often also qualified in another field such as architecture, civil engineering or
quantity surveying.
 Structural engineer – Typically holds a bachelor's or master's degree in structural
engineering. A P.ENG is required from the Professional Engineers Ontario (Canada).
New university graduates must hold a master's degree to gain chartered status from
the Engineering Council, mainly through the Institution of Structural Engineers (UK).
 Quantity surveyor – Typically holds a bachelor's degree in quantity surveying.
Chartered status is gained from the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors.
 Civil estimators are professionals who typically have a background in civil
engineering, construction project management, or construction supervision.

In 2010 a salary survey revealed the differences in remuneration between different roles,
sectors and locations in the construction and built environment industry.[27] The results
showed that areas of particularly strong growth in the construction industry, such as the
Middle East, yield higher average salaries than in the UK, for example. The average earning
for a professional in the construction industry in the Middle East, across all sectors, job types
and levels of experience, is £42,090, compared to £26,719 in the UK.[28] This trend is not
necessarily due to the fact that more affluent roles are available; however, as architects with
14 or more years' experience working in the Middle East earn on average £43,389 per annum,
compared to £40,000 in the UK.[28] Some construction workers in the US/Canada have made
more than $100,000 annually, depending on their trade.[29]

Safety[edit]
See also: Construction site safety
At-risk workers without appropriate safety equipment

Construction is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring more
occupational fatalities than any other sector in both the United States and in the European
Union.[30][31] In 2009, the fatal occupational injury rate among construction workers in the
United States was nearly three times that for all workers, with Falls being one of the most
common causes of fatal and non-fatal injuries among construction workers.[30] Proper safety
equipment such as harnesses, hard hats and guardrails and procedures such as securing
ladders and inspecting scaffolding can curtail the risk of occupational injuries in the
construction industry.[32] Other major causes of fatalities in the construction industry include
electrocution, transportation accidents, and trench cave-ins.[33]

Roofing requires a very high level of safety

Other safety risks for workers in construction include hearing loss due to high noise
exposure, musculoskeletal injury, chemical exposure, and high levels of stress.[24] Besides
that, the high turnover of workers in construction industry imposes a huge challenge of
accomplishing the restructuring of work practices in individual workplaces or with individual
workers.[citation needed] Construction has been identified by the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational
Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding
occupational health and safety issues.[34][35]

History[edit]
Main article: History of construction
See also: History of architecture

The first huts and shelters were constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew
during the Bronze Age, a class of professional craftsmen, like bricklayers and carpenters,
appeared. Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work. In the Middle Ages, the
artisan craftsmen were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery
appeared, and, later, diesel- and electric-powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators and
bulldozers.

Fast-track construction has been increasingly popular in the 21st century. Some estimates
suggest that 40% of construction projects are now fast-track construction.[36]

Construction output by country[edit]

List of countries with the largest construction output in 2015
Construction output in 2015 (billions in
Economy
USD)
(01) China 1,849
(02) United States 599
(03) Japan 569
(04) India 333
(05) France 147
(06) Germany 143
(07) Singapore 131
(08) Canada 131
(09) Australia 115
(10) Russia 111
(11) Brazil 109
(12) Italy 107
(13) Spain 104
(14) Indonesia 93
(15) Mexico 92
(16) South Korea 58
(17) Turkey 35
(18) United Arab Emirates 34
(19) Venezuela 34
(20) Netherlands 34
(21) Poland 34
(22) Switzerland 33
(23) Saudi Arabia 32
(24) Iran 29
(25) Colombia 29
The twenty-five largest countries in the world by construction output (2012)[37]

See also[edit]
 Look up construction in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

 Agile construction
 Index of construction articles
 List of construction trades
 Outline of construction
 Real estate development
 Site analysis
 Site survey
 Structural robustness
 Umarell
 Construction of a highway
 July 12, 2019

 Print
 Email

If a highway authority built a highway, it is highway maintainable at public expense.

Matthew White reports on a significant High Court ruling for local authorities.

I represented the successful claimant/appellant in Barlow v Wigan Council [2019] EWHC 1546
(QB). I also represent a lot of highway authorities and I have had a number of calls/emails from
people concerned that this case will have a big impact on local authorities. Don’t panic. The case
does nothing surprising. I explain below what it does and how highway authority defendants can
avoid the same problem.

The basic message is that Highways Act 1980 s.36(2)(a) does what it says on the tin: a highway
constructed by a highway authority is highway maintainable at public expense (“hm@pe”). The
vital questions in any case are (a) was it a highway at the time of the accident?; and (b) was it
constructed by a highway authority? It doesn’t matter when it was constructed, or what the
highway authority’s intention was when they constructed it. Nor does it matter whether it was
constructed by a council exercising a highway (as against any other) function. If it is a highway
and if it was constructed by a highway authority, it is hm@pe and a duty is owed under s.41 of
the Highways Act 1980. The risk that the case highlights for highway authorities is that there
might be highways in their area that were constructed by them or their predecessor highway
authorities which they have not realised are highways (and therefore hm@pe).

The facts

Mrs Barlow was walking on a metalled path through a public park in Abram, Wigan. The park
was owned by the Council. Mrs Barlow tripped and fell on a tree root growing through the path.
The trial judge determined that it was a dangerous defect, but found that the path was highway
but not hm@pe such that Mrs Barlow’s claim failed at first instance.

The position taken by the parties

The Council took the position that this path in a park was a highway and they deployed the rule in
Gautret v Egerton (more recently re-stated in McGeown v Northern Ireland Housing Executive
[1995]1 AC 233). That rule is that a person on a highway is there as of right, so is owed no duty
of care by the occupier in respect of non-feasance; the occupier only owes a duty of care to
visitors. Thus someone injured on a highway can be left without a remedy.

Mrs Barlow accepted the Council’s position that the path was a highway. Accordingly the claim
was fought on the basis that the path was a highway.

Note the first point of significance for councils/ highway authorities: paths through parks are not
necessarily highways. The Council contended that the path was a highway. The issue was not
properly looked at in this case because the parties were both content to work on the basis of this
contention. Highway authority defendants should be very careful. Whilst Mathew understands a
desire to spring the McGeown trap, (a) it might backfire; and (b) councils should be mindful of
their public authority duty and only assert things which they believe to be accurate. The Council
in this case might, of course, have genuinely believed that this path was a highway. Councils
should always be comfortable that they are dealing with an accident on a highway before
asserting as much. They should resist any desire to assert that a way which might (or
might not) be a highway is a highway merely to spring the McGeown trap.

The legal issue

Given that all were working on the basis that this path was a highway, the claim would fail (no
duty owed) unless the path was hm@pe. The focus of the case was s.36(2)(a) of the Highways
Act 1980 which says that hm@pe includes “a highway constructed by a highway authority,
otherwise than on behalf of some other person who is not a highway authority”. There was never
any suggestion that this path was constructed on behalf of someone else, so the question in the
case was whether the path was “constructed by a highway authority”.

Highway constructed by a highway authority?

It was common ground that the path was built by Abram Urban District Council (a predecessor of
the Council defendant). The Council had resisted attempts to make them set out their case in
advance of trial, but at trial asserted that Abram UDC was not a highway authority. That was
wrong, and the Council conceded as much at the appeal. So, the path had been constructed by a
highway authority. Looking back at s.36(2)(a) the question is whether Mrs Barlow fell on a
“highway constructed by a highway authority”.

Mrs Barlow’s case was simple: what she fell on was a highway (common ground), and it was
constructed by a highway authority (also common ground by the time of the appeal). Thus the
requirements of s.36(2)(a) were met and this was hm@pe.

The Council’s suggestion was that it was not “a highway constructed by a highway authority”
because:
(1) whilst Abram UDC was a highway authority, they did not construct the path wearing their
highway authority “hat” (rather they were wearing a “parks” or some other hat – not performing
the function of highway authority);

(2) whatever hat they were wearing, when they built the path there was no intention to dedicate it
as a highway, thus it was not constructed as a highway and cannot have been a highway
constructed by a highway authority; and

(3) even if they were wearing the highway authority hat and did mean to construct a highway,
since they did so before the 1980 Act they cannot have constructed a hm@pe because the 1980
Act only applies to highways constructed after 1980, otherwise it is retrospective and that cannot
be right.

As for the first argument (that Abram was not wearing its highway authority “hat”), the Council
faced the problem that this argument was rejected (albeit obiter) at paragraph 18 of the judgment
of Sedley LJ in Gulliksen v Pembrokeshire County Council [2003] QB 123 where he said that a
council is a “single body corporate”. In other words, if it has a highway authority function, then
when it constructs a highway it is a highway authority constructing the highway regardless of the
“hat” that it is wearing (i.e. the function that it is performing).

As for the second argument Waksman J determined that intention at the time of construction did
not matter. If it was dedicated as a highway later (and therefore became highway later), then if
constructed by a highway authority it was “a highway constructed by a highway authority” and
fitted within s.36(2)(a). If that were wrong it would mean that a highway authority could construct
a highway, not dedicate it for 6 months, then dedicate, thereby creating a highway that was not
hm@pe and in respect of which no duty of care was owed. That would be surprising. Notice out
of interest that the judge could have taken an easier route to this conclusion which would have
been to determine that absent any facts from which there could be doubt as to intention to
dedicate the court ought to infer that Abram UDC had intended to dedicate from the outset. He
rejected that argument.

The third argument is a matter of statutory construction. The forerunner of the Highways Act
1980 was the Highways Act 1959. Its equivalent of HA 1980 s.36(2)(a) was HA 1959 s.38(2)(b)
which said that hm@pe included “a highway constructed by a highway authority after the
commencement of this Act other than on behalf of some other person not being a highway
authority”. Note that the 1959 Act includes the words “after the construction of this Act”. Thus the
1959 Act made highways constructed by highway authorities after 1959 into hm@pe. The effect
of the 1980 Act was to make all highways constructed by highway authorities hm@pe, whenever
they were created (before or after 1980 or 1959). That this is so can be seen from the different
words used in the two acts (why change the wording if the 1980 Act was only intended to apply
to highways constructed after 1980?). The Council’s objection to this construction of the 1980 Act
was to say that statutes should be taken not to have retrospective effect and if the 1980 Act were
to make hm@pe of all highways constructed by highway authorities, whenever so constructed, it
would have retrospective effect. Such argument was found to be wrong with the simple
observation that the 1980 Act does not have retrospective effect. It does not make past (lawful)
things unlawful. Rather the 1980 Act is entirely prospective. From 1980 highway authorities
acquired a new duty, for the future only, to maintain (as hm@pe) highways constructed by
highway authorities, whenever they were constructed. Will this mean that highway authorities will
make mistakes, not realising that they (or their predecessors) built a path which is a highway
such that it is hm@pe? Probably, but we already know that highway authorities make mistakes
about what hm@pe they are supposed to look after (for example the path in Gulliksen).

Do notice that the relevant part of the Act is s.36(2)(a) (highway constructed by a highway
authority). If it was constructed by someone else, it cannot fit within that sub-section. This
case is not saying that paths in parks are hm@pe. All that it is saying is that if a path in a
park is a highway, then if it was constructed by a highway authority, it is hm@pe,
regardless of when it was constructed and regardless of whether or not there was an
intention to dedicate at the outset.

Conclusion and thoughts for the future

Highway authorities need not panic. There is nothing new in this decision that goes beyond what
I have been lecturing highway authorities on for years. I do not foresee a flood of claims (unless
arising from the fact that claimants are thinking about these issues harder than they used to).
The law has not changed. If claims arise, remember that for the issue in this case to arise, it first
has to be highway, and often paths in parks probably are not. It also has to have been
constructed by a highway authority if a Barlow v Wigan situation is to arise.

Many highway authorities already have a register of highways (and I mean merely “highways” –
public rights of way – rather than hm@pe), and might wish to check that there are not highways
that they constructed which are being treated as highways but not hm@pe. Highway authorities
do have a statutory obligation under s.36(6) of the 1980 Act to maintain a list of hm@pe in their
area. It might be a good time to check that they are compliant with that obligation.

I suspect that many of the relevant highways (i.e. constructed by a highway authority but not
formally adopted as part of the network of hm@pe) will be little used paths of the type that many
highway authorities treat as part of a PROW network (with reactive inspection only, or perhaps
with a very long inspection cycle). That has potential to give rise to an interesting issue in the
future. Suppose a highway authority has a highway that they constructed but did not realise was
hm@pe and if they had realised, they would have treated it as a PROW and dealt with it on a
reactive basis only (and supposing that a reactive system is reasonable). That is, if the highway
 authority had realised it was hm@pe they would have done exactly the same thing that they in
fact did when they did not realise that it was hm@pe. Is that a defence under s.58 of the
Highways Act 1980? This is another topic that I have lectured on a lot over the years, and the
authorities appear to give contradictory answers. It will be an interesting case when it arises.

As for claimants, they need (as before) to be alive to the fact that just because a highway
authority asserts that a way is a highway does not make it so. Similarly the fact that the highway
authority asserts that it is not hm@pe does not determine that issue either. It is very common for
loss adjusters instructed by highway authorities to assert that a highway is not hm@pe “because
it has not been adopted”. It is worth checking who built it: if it was a highway authority then
assuming that it is highway it is hm@pe, and you might want to hoist a highway authority by their
own petard: if they assert that it is highway then if you can show that it was constructed by a
highway authority the HA 1980 s.41 duty is owed (rather than merely the OLA 1957 duty).

Construction of a highway
 July 12, 2019
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If a highway authority built a highway, it is highway maintainable at public expense.

Matthew White reports on a significant High Court ruling for local authorities.

I represented the successful claimant/appellant in Barlow v Wigan Council [2019] EWHC 1546
(QB). I also represent a lot of highway authorities and I have had a number of calls/emails from
people concerned that this case will have a big impact on local authorities. Don’t panic. The case
does nothing surprising. I explain below what it does and how highway authority defendants can
avoid the same problem.

The basic message is that Highways Act 1980 s.36(2)(a) does what it says on the tin: a highway
constructed by a highway authority is highway maintainable at public expense (“hm@pe”). The
vital questions in any case are (a) was it a highway at the time of the accident?; and (b) was it
constructed by a highway authority? It doesn’t matter when it was constructed, or what the
highway authority’s intention was when they constructed it. Nor does it matter whether it was
constructed by a council exercising a highway (as against any other) function. If it is a highway
and if it was constructed by a highway authority, it is hm@pe and a duty is owed under s.41 of
the Highways Act 1980. The risk that the case highlights for highway authorities is that there
might be highways in their area that were constructed by them or their predecessor highway
authorities which they have not realised are highways (and therefore hm@pe).
The facts

Mrs Barlow was walking on a metalled path through a public park in Abram, Wigan. The park
was owned by the Council. Mrs Barlow tripped and fell on a tree root growing through the path.
The trial judge determined that it was a dangerous defect, but found that the path was highway
but not hm@pe such that Mrs Barlow’s claim failed at first instance.

The position taken by the parties

The Council took the position that this path in a park was a highway and they deployed the rule in
Gautret v Egerton (more recently re-stated in McGeown v Northern Ireland Housing Executive
[1995]1 AC 233). That rule is that a person on a highway is there as of right, so is owed no duty
of care by the occupier in respect of non-feasance; the occupier only owes a duty of care to
visitors. Thus someone injured on a highway can be left without a remedy.

Mrs Barlow accepted the Council’s position that the path was a highway. Accordingly the claim
was fought on the basis that the path was a highway.

Note the first point of significance for councils/ highway authorities: paths through parks are not
necessarily highways. The Council contended that the path was a highway. The issue was not
properly looked at in this case because the parties were both content to work on the basis of this
contention. Highway authority defendants should be very careful. Whilst Mathew understands a
desire to spring the McGeown trap, (a) it might backfire; and (b) councils should be mindful of
their public authority duty and only assert things which they believe to be accurate. The Council
in this case might, of course, have genuinely believed that this path was a highway. Councils
should always be comfortable that they are dealing with an accident on a highway before
asserting as much. They should resist any desire to assert that a way which might (or
might not) be a highway is a highway merely to spring the McGeown trap.

The legal issue

Given that all were working on the basis that this path was a highway, the claim would fail (no
duty owed) unless the path was hm@pe. The focus of the case was s.36(2)(a) of the Highways
Act 1980 which says that hm@pe includes “a highway constructed by a highway authority,
otherwise than on behalf of some other person who is not a highway authority”. There was never
any suggestion that this path was constructed on behalf of someone else, so the question in the
case was whether the path was “constructed by a highway authority”.

Highway constructed by a highway authority?

It was common ground that the path was built by Abram Urban District Council (a predecessor of
the Council defendant). The Council had resisted attempts to make them set out their case in
advance of trial, but at trial asserted that Abram UDC was not a highway authority. That was
wrong, and the Council conceded as much at the appeal. So, the path had been constructed by a
highway authority. Looking back at s.36(2)(a) the question is whether Mrs Barlow fell on a
“highway constructed by a highway authority”.

Mrs Barlow’s case was simple: what she fell on was a highway (common ground), and it was
constructed by a highway authority (also common ground by the time of the appeal). Thus the
requirements of s.36(2)(a) were met and this was hm@pe.

The Council’s suggestion was that it was not “a highway constructed by a highway authority”
because:

(1) whilst Abram UDC was a highway authority, they did not construct the path wearing their
highway authority “hat” (rather they were wearing a “parks” or some other hat – not performing
the function of highway authority);

(2) whatever hat they were wearing, when they built the path there was no intention to dedicate it
as a highway, thus it was not constructed as a highway and cannot have been a highway
constructed by a highway authority; and

(3) even if they were wearing the highway authority hat and did mean to construct a highway,
since they did so before the 1980 Act they cannot have constructed a hm@pe because the 1980
Act only applies to highways constructed after 1980, otherwise it is retrospective and that cannot
be right.

As for the first argument (that Abram was not wearing its highway authority “hat”), the Council
faced the problem that this argument was rejected (albeit obiter) at paragraph 18 of the judgment
of Sedley LJ in Gulliksen v Pembrokeshire County Council [2003] QB 123 where he said that a
council is a “single body corporate”. In other words, if it has a highway authority function, then
when it constructs a highway it is a highway authority constructing the highway regardless of the
“hat” that it is wearing (i.e. the function that it is performing).

As for the second argument Waksman J determined that intention at the time of construction did
not matter. If it was dedicated as a highway later (and therefore became highway later), then if
constructed by a highway authority it was “a highway constructed by a highway authority” and
fitted within s.36(2)(a). If that were wrong it would mean that a highway authority could construct
a highway, not dedicate it for 6 months, then dedicate, thereby creating a highway that was not
hm@pe and in respect of which no duty of care was owed. That would be surprising. Notice out
of interest that the judge could have taken an easier route to this conclusion which would have
been to determine that absent any facts from which there could be doubt as to intention to
dedicate the court ought to infer that Abram UDC had intended to dedicate from the outset. He
rejected that argument.

The third argument is a matter of statutory construction. The forerunner of the Highways Act
1980 was the Highways Act 1959. Its equivalent of HA 1980 s.36(2)(a) was HA 1959 s.38(2)(b)
which said that hm@pe included “a highway constructed by a highway authority after the
commencement of this Act other than on behalf of some other person not being a highway
authority”. Note that the 1959 Act includes the words “after the construction of this Act”. Thus the
1959 Act made highways constructed by highway authorities after 1959 into hm@pe. The effect
of the 1980 Act was to make all highways constructed by highway authorities hm@pe, whenever
they were created (before or after 1980 or 1959). That this is so can be seen from the different
words used in the two acts (why change the wording if the 1980 Act was only intended to apply
to highways constructed after 1980?). The Council’s objection to this construction of the 1980 Act
was to say that statutes should be taken not to have retrospective effect and if the 1980 Act were
to make hm@pe of all highways constructed by highway authorities, whenever so constructed, it
would have retrospective effect. Such argument was found to be wrong with the simple
observation that the 1980 Act does not have retrospective effect. It does not make past (lawful)
things unlawful. Rather the 1980 Act is entirely prospective. From 1980 highway authorities
acquired a new duty, for the future only, to maintain (as hm@pe) highways constructed by
highway authorities, whenever they were constructed. Will this mean that highway authorities will
make mistakes, not realising that they (or their predecessors) built a path which is a highway
such that it is hm@pe? Probably, but we already know that highway authorities make mistakes
about what hm@pe they are supposed to look after (for example the path in Gulliksen).

Do notice that the relevant part of the Act is s.36(2)(a) (highway constructed by a highway
authority). If it was constructed by someone else, it cannot fit within that sub-section. This
case is not saying that paths in parks are hm@pe. All that it is saying is that if a path in a
park is a highway, then if it was constructed by a highway authority, it is hm@pe,
regardless of when it was constructed and regardless of whether or not there was an
intention to dedicate at the outset.

Conclusion and thoughts for the future

Highway authorities need not panic. There is nothing new in this decision that goes beyond what
I have been lecturing highway authorities on for years. I do not foresee a flood of claims (unless
arising from the fact that claimants are thinking about these issues harder than they used to).
The law has not changed. If claims arise, remember that for the issue in this case to arise, it first
has to be highway, and often paths in parks probably are not. It also has to have been
constructed by a highway authority if a Barlow v Wigan situation is to arise.
Many highway authorities already have a register of highways (and I mean merely “highways” –
public rights of way – rather than hm@pe), and might wish to check that there are not highways
that they constructed which are being treated as highways but not hm@pe. Highway authorities
do have a statutory obligation under s.36(6) of the 1980 Act to maintain a list of hm@pe in their
area. It might be a good time to check that they are compliant with that obligation.

I suspect that many of the relevant highways (i.e. constructed by a highway authority but not
formally adopted as part of the network of hm@pe) will be little used paths of the type that many
highway authorities treat as part of a PROW network (with reactive inspection only, or perhaps
with a very long inspection cycle). That has potential to give rise to an interesting issue in the
future. Suppose a highway authority has a highway that they constructed but did not realise was
hm@pe and if they had realised, they would have treated it as a PROW and dealt with it on a
reactive basis only (and supposing that a reactive system is reasonable). That is, if the highway
authority had realised it was hm@pe they would have done exactly the same thing that they in
fact did when they did not realise that it was hm@pe. Is that a defence under s.58 of the
Highways Act 1980? This is another topic that I have lectured on a lot over the years, and the
authorities appear to give contradictory answers. It will be an interesting case when it arises.
As for claimants, they need (as before) to be alive to the fact that just because a highway
authority asserts that a way is a highway does not make it so. Similarly the fact that the highway
authority asserts that it is not hm@pe does not determine that issue either. It is very common for
loss adjusters instructed by highway authorities to assert that a highway is not hm@pe “because
it has not been adopted”. It is worth checking who built it: if it was a highway authority then
assuming that it is highway it is hm@pe, and you might want to hoist a highway authority by their
own petard: if they assert that it is highway then if you can show that it was constructed by a
highway Print

Parties Involved In The Project

Completion Construction Essay
3756 words (15 pages) Essay in Construction

5/12/16 Construction Reference this

Disclaimer: This work has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the
work produced by our Essay Writing Service. You can view samples of our
professional work here.

Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material

are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays.

In a construction project there are several parties involved in the completion of the
project. These parties can be from either the public sector or the private sector. The
key parties are the owner/client, the architect/engineer and the general contractor.
Between these parties there are business agreements in the form of contracts to
complete the work in the project, such as: design, engineering, construction,
management and maintenance.

A construction project is ready for execution after the client/owner accumulates the
required funds and has obtained the necessary approvals from the relevant
authorities. Upon meeting the above mentioned criteria for establishing a project,
the client will approach a general contractor or an architect to complete the project.

In medium to large size projects the client can execute the work by employing the
work force directly (trade contract), entrusting a select portion of the work to general
contractors and executing the remaining work directly (main contract) or entrusting
the entire work to general contractors (turnkey contract).

In a main contract, the client contracts with an architect whom is responsible for the
design of the project and a general contractor who is responsible for the
construction, which results in two separate contracts: the client-architect contract and
the client-contractor contract. Subject to the client’s involvement in decision making,
the architect is able to act as the client’s representative.

In a turnkey contract the general contractor is responsible for both the design and
construction of the project; there is a single contract between the two parties: the
client-contractor contract.

The client-contractor contract maintains the contractual relationship between the

two parties in both main and turnkey contracts. Theoretically speaking, the turnkey
contractor is responsible for a main contractor’s and consultant’s (architect/engineer)
work within a project, in other words the turnkey contractor is also acting as the main
contractor. It is important to consider the potential for change in this contractual
relationship, it is important to consider the idea that a main contractor can also act as
a turnkey contractor within the project.

Problem Statement
How can a general contractor act as both a main contractor and a turnkey contractor
within a single project?

Research Questions

What form of project will allow the general contractor to change their role in the
project’s organisational structure?

How is the general contractor allowed to change roles?

Delimitation
This study will be written from a practical perspective, not from a legal perspective.
This study will focus on the relationship between the client and general contractor in
a building construction project to identify the parameters in which the general
contractor is able to be both a main contractor and a turnkey contractor within a
single project. This study will not cover the legal issues pertaining to liability,
insurance, and risk management etc.

Research Method
The research conducted is through qualitative and analytical methods, to answer the
research questions raised in this study. The research will be from primary and
secondary sources such as: interviews, articles, books, websites, published documents
from websites (electronic books, archived documents etc.), reports, publicly available
legal documents (sample contracts).

Chapter 1 – Section 1
Prior to analysing how a general contractor acts as both a main and turnkey
contractor, there is necessary to outline what their contractual roles and
responsibilities are within a project. By identifying their contractual responsibilities, it
allows for a more accurate analysis to answer the research questions presented in the
problem statement section of this study.

What is a Main Contract?

In the initial stage of the project, the client awards an architect with a consultant
contract, where the architect is responsible for preparing drawings, specifications,
and contract documents for general contractors to bid on. The winning general
contractor is awarded the main contract for the project.

The main contract is a business agreement between the general contractor and the
client, where the general contractor agrees to carry out the main construction works
in the project. The general contractor (now main contractor) may subcontract one or
more trade contractors to carry out specific works in the main contract.

The main contract is a result of the Design-Bid-Build (DBB) project delivery system.
The DBB project delivery system is the method the client gets the project from start
to finish. DBB consists of three parties: the design party, the construction party and
the client.
The design party includes the architect, specification writers (consultants), engineers
(structural, services, mechanical), interior designers, quantity surveyors and other
participants the architect considers necessary for completing the project. Depending
on the client’s involvement in the decision making, the architect is able to act as the
client’s representative and also for reviewing contract documents.

The construction party consists of the main contractor who is responsible for
providing the labour, material, equipment, machinery and professional expertise to
complete the project in accordance with the contractual documents which are
provided by the architects.

The client is responsible for providing the location of a project (the site) and the
contract documents to the main contractor, providing the architect with the budget,
and funding the project (paying the main contractor and the architect). The budget is
an important part of the project as it allows the architect to design a building that
meets the client’s requirements and it determines the scope of the project.

What is a Turnkey Contract?

A turnkey contract is a business arrangement between the client and the general
contractor. To commence the project, a client awards the general contractor a
turnkey contract, where the general contractor (now turnkey contractor) is
responsible for the design, engineering, construction and management of the
project. The construction industry refers to the turnkey contractor as a ‘single point
of responsibility’, a phrase that reflects the turnkey contractor’s contractual
obligations.

Note: The client can award the turnkey contract to either the architect or a general
contractor, however the researcher will continue on the premise that the contractor is
awarded the turnkey contract to remain consistent with the research for this part of
the study.

The turnkey contract is a product of the Design-Build (DB) project delivery system i.e.
it is another method the client gets the project from start to finish. In a DB project,
the turnkey contractor may award an architect/engineer a consultant contract to
perform the design work. The turnkey contractor is also able to subcontract trade
contractors to perform specific works in the turnkey contract.

A turnkey contract can also be used in a Design-Build-Operate (DBO) project delivery

strategy. In DBO the client awards a general contractor a turnkey contract, and the
general contractor (now turnkey contractor) is again responsible for providing
design, engineering, construction and management services, however with ‘Operate’
the turnkey contractor is obligated to also provide the building to the client once it is
fully operational.
The purpose of DBO is to manage the client and general contractor “in a
multidisciplinary contract: to design, build and operate as opposed to individual
agreements to govern the different facets of a project” (Sunna, 2009).

In a DBB project the client has a direct relationship with the architect and the main
contractor (where the architect and contractor have an indirect relationship) shown in
Figure 1, whereas in the DB project the client has a direct relationship with the
turnkey contractor.

Figure
Section 2
Based on the research on project delivery systems and procurement methods, the
‘private finance initiative’ involves both the public sector and the private sector
working in collaboration to develop a project. This section focuses on the private
finance initiative in an effort to answer the first research question: What form of
project will allow the general contractor to change their role in the project’s
organisational structure?

What is the Private Finance Initiative?

The private finance initiative (PFI) is a procurement method where a private party or
private parties provide funds to finance public services or projects; to partially
privatise the service or project. The objective of a PFI project is to provide
infrastructure to the public sector with additional services like maintenance (with PFI
the private sector both operates and finances the project).

Theoretically, the government (public sector) bids on a project, which includes

construction work, services and maintenance. Because these projects require a variety
of skills, in PFI – the government and a group of private companies place a combined
bid on the project, and work in collaboration to execute the project. The concept of
PFI is to involve the private sector in public sector services or projects, because
private companies are considered to be better at project management and
budgeting/finance management.

When a project is awarded, the public and private parties (in this case the
government and private companies) create a new private company to manage and
exchange funds for the project. These funds are used to initiate and run the project.
For a construction project after the building is fully operational, if the private
companies made an agreement for the maintenance of the building over a period of
for example, 25 years; the government will reimburse the cost of the project
(including interest) over time.
Contract Process
A public party (government) signs a contract with a private party (a company or a
group of companies) creating a public-private partnership (PPP). A PPP is a contract
between a public party and a private party.

Before the PPP is created a private company creates a new company in collaboration
with other private companies, this is referred to as a ‘Special Purpose Vehicle’ (SPV).
The SPV is made up of private investors, a construction company, a maintenance
company and a bank lender/s. SPV contracts with the government creating a PPP,
and also with general contractors responsible for constructing and maintaining the
building.

The banks funding PFI projects are repaid by SPV, from payments received from the
government over the duration of the PFI contract. The repayments are based on the
SPV’s ability to meet the requirements specified in the contract.

PFI Project Organisation Structure

Refer to Figure 2; the SPV is divided into subgroups: A holding company (Com A),
private investors/bank lenders (Com B) and a services or operating company (Com
C). The primary contract is between the government and the SPV, and the
requirements in the specification transmit from the SPV to Com A, Com B and Com C
through secondary contracts, and then filter down to the trade contractors.

Figure
What form of project will allow the
general contractor to change their role in
the project’s organisational structure?
According to the concept of PFI procurement, once a PPP contract is signed a new
company is formed to finance the project. Referring to Figure 2, the SPV is
considered as the client in this project because the government requires additional
funding for the service or building project and is allowing the private party (Com A,
Com B and Com C) to partially privatise the project. However, the government is still
part owner; the SPV can also be a general contractor.

In Figure 2 the SPV is both financing and operating the project, depending on how
the SPV wants deliver the project, Figure 2 assumes that the general contractor (in
the project environment) is a main contractor, therefore the SPV will have a client-
contractor relationship. But the government is still a part client to the project
therefore the SPV is also considered as the turnkey contractor to the project.

A PFI project created through the partnership of the government and the SPV allows
for a general contractor to change their role in the project’s organisation structure.
As shown in Figure 2, the SPV is a part client, turnkey contractor from the
government’s perspective and main contractor from the SPV’s perspective.

Section 3
According to research regarding contracts and contractual relationships, ‘Novation’
allows the parties involved in the project to change the project organisational
structure by transferring their rights and responsibilities to the works specified in the
contracts. The purpose of this section is to identify ‘Novation’ in an effort to answer
the second research question: How is the general contractor allowed to change
roles?

What is Novation?
The business dictionary defines novation as the “substitution of an original party to a
contract with a new party, or substitution of an original contract with a new contract.”

To expand on that definition, novation is the process of replacing the original

contract with a new contract between the original parties involved. Alternatively
novation is also used to replace an original party with a new party under the original
contract.

Once the original party is replaced, the original party’s obligations are discharged,
and the new party is responsible for the replaced party’s obligations. Novation can
only occur when all the parties involved agree to replacing a party or replacing a
contract.

By replacing the obligations of the original party – the main contractor – all the
parties involved (client, architect/engineer, and main contractor) in the original
contract must agree for the replacing to take place. If the agreement to replace
comes into effect, the new party will take over the responsibilities and obligations of
the replaced party, i.e. the new general contractor will become a replacement to the
original main contractor.

Novation is used “when the parties find that payments or performance are
impossible under the terms of the original agreement, or the debtor will be forced to
default or go into bankruptcy unless the debt is restructured.” (Sahil, 2010)
According to Rowlinson (2010), if the main contractor is being replaced with a new
general contractor the client’s role in the project remains unchanged (the client
being the contracting party).

Figure 3 illustrates how novation affects the project’s organisation. The Client (A)
awards a consultant contract with an architect (B) and a construction contract with a
general contractor (C). However, the client wants to create a single point of
responsibility for both design and construction. For this to occur, the client (A) can
novate their rights and obligations (under the consultant contract) to the contractor.

Figure
In the pre novation phase; the client will first award an architect/engineer the
consultant contract to conduct the design work for the project, through which the
potential general contractor will place their bid.

In the post novation phase; the consultant contract between the client and the
architect/engineer is novated to the general contractor (after the general contractor
is employed). This novation results in the original consultant contract between the
client and architect/engineer being completely replaced with a new consultant
contract between the general contractor and the architect/engineer.

By novating the contract, the client transferred the architect/engineer’s rights and
responsibilities to the general contractor, therefore the general contractor is now
responsible for both the design and construction works of the project.

How is the general contractor allowed to

change roles?
Based on the concept of novation presented in section 3, the client is able to contract
with an architect/engineer making them responsible for the design work in the
project. After this stage the client awards a general contractor with a main contract
for the construction work in the project.

If the client wants to make the general contractor (now main contractor) responsible
for the post tender design work, and all the parties agree to this contract change,
then the client novates the contract thus making the main contractor a turnkey
contractor.

Through novation a general contractor is allowed to change roles, however all parties
must be in agreement. Alternatively, novation can also be used to change a turnkey
contractor into a main contractor, on the basis that all parties agree.
Chapter 2 – Empirical Data
The purpose of the empirical data section of this study is to verify the practice of the
PFI procurement method as well as identify the relationship of the parties involved.

An article published in The Observer section of the Guardian newspaper in the

United Kingdom (UK), by Graham Norwood (2010) titled “Self-build homes face a
new set of obstacles” is about the UK government’s planning and housing policy. The
article’s primary focus is the effect of the policy on self-builders (owner-builders) and
rural authorities, with emphasis on financing. It appears that the article is part of a
debate regarding the positive and negative effects, from the owner-builder’s
perspective as it depicts the UK government in a negative context.

Extract 1

Housing minister Grant Shapps says the coalition will instruct councils to create
registers of potential self-builders and allocate them land, including some private
plots “donated” by volume house-builders, as a condition of receiving planning
consent to construct large schemes. In return, at least some self-builders, chiefly in
high-priced rural areas, would have to agree that their completed homes would be
classified as local social housing and not be sold-on privately.

Extract 1 outlines the policy and the government’s intentions to provide owner-
builders with properties to construct dwellings to increase housing in the UK’s rural
regions (by “coalition” the author is referring to the government).

Extract 2

Orme is also critical of the abolition of house-building targets, which are to be

replaced with more power for councils and community groups to decide on schemes
for local homes. In some cases, 90% of locals may have to support a proposal before
it can go ahead, a level of support currently achieved by very few planning
applications.

“Orme” is a reference to Jason Orme, an owner-builder and editor of Homebuilding

& Renovating magazine. According to Extract 2 an owner-builder requires the
approval of both the local authorities and the community for the design of the
building.

Extract 3

The fear of many, including volume developers, surveyors and planners, is that by
devolving decision-making to communities, most plans for homes will be thrown out.
Until now, self-builders have been treated benevolently by planners. Before the
recession there were 20,000 self-built homes in the UK annually, about 12.5% of the
total, compared with 40% in Scandinavia and central Europe.

Extract 3 summarises the possible issues that can slow or stop the progress of the
project. Based on the first sentence “by devolving decision making to communities,
most plans…will be thrown out” the author is saying the potential effect of including
local communities in the design approval process, from the consultant’s perspective.

In this portion of the empirical section scrutinizes extracts from the UK government’s
Planning Policy Statement 3: Housing June 2010 discussed in the article by Norwood
(2010).

Extract 4 – Paragraph 11 of Planning Policy Statement 3: Housing June 2010

Collaborative Working – Key to the success of this new approach will be collaborative
working between Local Planning Authorities and Regional Planning Bodies, as well as
early engagement with local communities, stakeholders and infrastructure providers.
Local Planning Authorities will need to work closely with the private sector,
particularly developers and housebuilders, to achieve the Government’s strategic
housing objectives.

In Extract 4, “private sector” in refers to the private party that the government will
provide properties to. Through this information the researcher is able to confirm the
relationship between the public and private parties.

Extract 5 – Paragraph 29 of Planning Policy Statement 3: Housing June 2010

Set out the approach to seeking developer contributions to facilitate the provision of
affordable housing. In seeking developer contributions, the presumption is that
affordable housing will be provided on the application site so that it contributes
towards creating a mix of housing.

Extract 6 – Paragraph 36 of Planning Policy Statement 3: Housing June 2010

In support of its objective of creating mixed and sustainable communities, the

Government’s policy is to ensure that housing is developed in suitable locations
which offer a range of community facilities and with good access to jobs, key services
and infrastructure. This should be achieved by making effective use of land, existing
infrastructure and available public and private investment, and include consideration
of the opportunity for housing provision on surplus public sector land (including land
owned by Central Government and its bodies or Local Authorities) to create mixed
use developments.

The statement in Extract 5: “approach to seeking developer contributions to facilitate

the provision of affordable housing”, and Extract 6: “making effective use of land,
existing infrastructure and available public and private investment”, together both
these statements confirm that the government (public party) is going to work in
collaboration with the owner-builder (private party), because the ‘developer’ refers to
the general contractor, and “public and private investment” refers to the combined
funds of both the public and private parties.

When the government is going to work with the owner-builder, the government is
entering a PPP with the owner-builder. In Extract 1 Norwood (2010) writes “their
completed homes would be classified as local social housing and not be sold-on
privately.” The government is going to allow the owner-builder to partially privatise
the completed building, particularly at the end “classified as local social housing”
refers to a public service.

The PPP between the government and the owner-builder is not the same as the PFI
procurement discussed in Chapter 1, Section 2. According to that discussion, the
government collaborates with a private party to jointly bid on a project and
exchange funds to develop the project, here the government is providing the
property/site for construction without financing the project.

By comparing both the discussion of PFI in Chapter 1, Section 2, and extracts 1 to 6,

the following information has been verified: the government is the public party; the
owner-builder is the private party and the SPV.

The relationship between the two parties is a public-private relationship, in other

words the public sector is involving the private sector in public service or projects,
which (as discussed previously) the concept of PFI.

authority the HA 1980 s.41 duty is owed (rather than merely the OLA 1957 duty).

Types of Construction
Projects – What are They and
Why You Should Care
Last Updated on May 29, 2019 | Reading Time: 3 minutes
 What type of construction project are you working on? This is an important
question for a whole host of construction payment-related issues. In fact,
determining the project type is an essential question that is asked of you every time
you enter a new project.

Table of Contents
 Construction Project Types: 3 Main Categories
o 1) Private Construction Projects

o 2) State Construction Projects

 o 3) Federal Construction Projects

o Infographic – What’s My Project Type?

 Why It’s Important to Know the Different Construction Project Types

 Talk to Us

Construction Project Types: 3 Main Categories

Since levelset‘s inception, we’ve published a number of articles discussing the
different types of construction projects that exist in the United States.

Generally speaking, however, you can separate construction project types into 3
categories:

 (1) Private construction;

 (2) State construction; and
 (3) Federal construction.

Author’s Note: For many folks in the construction industry, the “type” of construction
refers to the character of the actual facility being constructed and not the party
underwriting the costs. Their different construction types, therefore, are simply:

 residential building construction

 industrial construction
 commercial building construction
 heavy civil construction.
This is okay and a good reference, but I disagree with the framework.

1) Private Construction Projects

The first type of construction project is the Private Construction Project. Put
simply, private projects are projects of every type that are owned, controlled or
commissioned by a private party. Private parties include individuals, homeowners,
corporations, other business entities, non-profit associations, privately funded
schools, hospitals, publicly traded companies, etc. Anything, in other words, that
is not the government.

Private construction projects come in all different shapes and sizes, and this is
when it’s useful to look at the character of the work performed to segment private
construction into different subcategories. These subcategories would include:

Residential Construction
Whenever construction work is being performed to a single-family residence or a
residential facility with (usually) less than 3 or 4 units. If you are working on an
apartment complex this would more likely be considered a commercial project
instead of a residential project. Similarly, if you are working at a condominium, the
work would be residential if upon a single unit, but if on the entire complex or the
common elements, the work would more likely be considered commercial.

Commercial Construction
Commercial construction is the construction of any buildings or similar structures
for commercial purposes. Commercial construction includes a huge variety of
projects including building restaurants, grocery stores, skyscrapers, shopping
centers, sports facilities, hospitals, private schools and universities, etc.

Industrial Construction
This is a relatively small segment of the construction industry. These projects
include power plants, manufacturing plants, solar wind farms, refineries, etc. While
termed “industrial construction,” it is pretty interchangeable with “commercial
construction.”

2) State Construction Projects

Some people get confused by the term “state” when talking about state
construction projects because the term “state” can refer to projects commissioned
by a county, city, municipality, government board, public school board or any
other state-funded entity. The term “state construction” means, therefore, any
government-funded construction that is not “federal” – which is discussed in the
next section.

State construction projects can take a variety of forms.

They can be pretty traditional projects like the construction of a public school or
government building (like a court room). These projects can also be pretty
sophisticated, such as the construction of a bridge, sewer line, highways, etc.

3) Federal Construction Projects

Federal construction projects are very similar to state projects. Just like state
projects they can take on a variety of forms: very simple and traditional, and very
complex. And the stuff being constructed can be pretty similar to the stuff
constructed by state authority: courthouses, government buildings, flood control
projects, etc.

The difference between state and federal projects simply depends on who owns or
controls the underlying project site. The difference is not which entity funds the
project, because federal funds are all over state (and even private) projects. The
difference is in who owns and controls the project.

If work is done on a state courthouse using federally provided funds, it is a state

project. If work is done on a federal courthouse, however, it’s a federal
project. Work done on a federally funded interstate is usually a state project
because the states control the highways. Work done through the US Army Corps of
Engineers, however, even on state land such as the levees, is always a federal
project because it is federally controlled.

Learn how FAR – the Federal Acquisition Regulation – impacts

Federal construction projects

Infographic – What’s My Project Type?

Why It’s Important to Know the Different Construction
Project Types
Why does this all matter? The differences are very important because the laws
governing your construction project are significantly different depending on the
type of construction project.

First of all, mechanics lien and bond claim laws are drastically different depending
on your project type. But, that is not the only laws that are different. Labor laws
and contracting rules are different depending on your project type, and more.

These legal differences are why I disagree with the classification system that so
much of the construction industry uses. While the character of the underlying work
is important to some degree, the big legal differences
4.Types of Pavements
There are two types of pavements based on design considerations i.e. flexible
pavement and rigid pavement. Difference between flexible and rigid pavements is
based on the manner in which the loads are distributed to the subgrade.

Before we differentiate between flexible pavements and rigid pavements, it is better to

first know about them. Details of these two are presented below:

Flexible Pavements
Flexible pavement can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of asphaltic or
bituminous material and aggregates placed on a bed of compacted granular material of
appropriate quality in layers over the subgrade. Water bound macadam roads and
stabilized soil roads with or without asphaltic toppings are examples of flexible
pavements.

The design of flexible pavement is based on the principle that for a load of any
magnitude, the intensity of a load diminishes as the load is transmitted downwards
from the surface by virtue of spreading over an increasingly larger area, by carrying it
deep enough into the ground through successive layers of granular material.

Fig: Flexible Pavement Cross-section

Thus for flexible pavement, there can be grading in the quality of materials used, the
materials with high degree of strength is used at or near the surface. Thus the strength
of subgrade primarily influences the thickness of the flexible pavement.

Rigid Pavements
A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete slabs.
Grouted concrete roads are in the category of semi-rigid pavements.

The design of rigid pavement is based on providing a structural cement concrete slab
of sufficient strength to resists the loads from traffic. The rigid pavement has rigidity
and high modulus of elasticity to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of soil.

Fig: Rigid Pavement Cross-Section

Minor variations in subgrade strength have little influence on the structural capacity of
a rigid pavement. In the design of a rigid pavement, the flexural strength of concrete is
the major factor and not the strength of subgrade. Due to this property of pavement,
when the subgrade deflects beneath the rigid pavement, the concrete slab is able to
bridge over the localized failures and areas of inadequate support from subgrade
because of slab action.

Difference between Flexible Pavements and Rigid

Pavements
Sl.
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
No.

It consists of a series of layers with the highest It consists of one layer Portland cement concrete
1.
quality materials at or near the surface of slab or relatively high flexural strength.
 pavement.

It reflects the deformations of subgrade and It is able to bridge over localized failures and
2.
subsequent layers on the surface. area of inadequate support.

Its stability depends upon the aggregate Its structural strength is provided by the
3.
interlock, particle friction and cohesion. pavement slab itself by its beam action.

Pavement design is greatly influenced by the Flexural strength of concrete is a major factor for
4.
subgrade strength. design.

It distributes load over a wide area of subgrade

It functions by a way of load distribution
5. because of its rigidity and high modulus of
through the component layers
elasticity.

Temperature variations due to change in

Temperature changes induce heavy stresses in
6. atmospheric conditions do not produce stresses
rigid pavements.
in flexible pavements.

Flexible pavements have self healing Any excessive deformations occurring due to
7. properties due to heavier wheel loads are heavier wheel loads are not recoverable, i.e.
recoverable due to some extent. settlements are permanent.
Rigid pavements are those which posses note worthy flexural strength or flexural rigidity. In rigid
pavement the stresses are not transferred from the grain to grain to the lower layers. The rigid
pavements are made of Portland cement concrete either plain, reinforced or pre-stressed concrete.
The plain cement concrete slabs are expected to take up about 45kg/cm2 flexural stress. The rigid
pavement has a slab action and is capable of transmitting the wheel load stresses through a wider
area below. The rigid pavement slab as tensile strength , tensile stresses are developed due to the
bending of the slab under the wheel load temperature variations Providing a good base at sub base
course layer under the cement concrete slab increase the pavement life considerably and there for
workout more economical in the long run The rigid pavements are usually designed and the stress
are analysed using the elastic theory EASE OF USE A. COMPONENTS OF RIGID PAVEMENT AND
THERE FUNCTIONS: 1. Prepared soil subgrade. 2. Granular sub-base (GSB) or drainage layer. 3. Base
course/ (DLC-Dry lean concrete). 4. CC pavement slab using PQC (paving quality concrete). 1

Construction of rigid pavement

1. 1. Guided by : Prepared by: Prof. Jain sir Saurabh P. V.
2. 2. RIGID PAVEMENTS : Pavements usually constructed using plain or unreinforced cement concrete
slabs having high flexural strength. It serves as good and durable wearing surface as well as an
effective and strong base course of highway pavements.
3. 3. WHERE ARE RIGID PAVEMENT PROVIDED ? Rigid pavements are usually provided when road
stretch is subjected to adverse conditions: 1. Very heavy rainfall. 2. Poor soil conditions 3. Poor
drainage 4. Extreme climatic conditions 5. Combinations of some of these conditions which may lead
to development of cracks in pavements.
4. 4. MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION OF CC PAVEMENTS : Portland cement : --OPC of grade
43. --OPC of grade 53. --Portland pozzolona cement with fly ash (20 per cent) Portland slag cement. 2.
Coarse aggregates : Los angeles abration value < 35 % Combined flakiness and Elongation index
<35% Water absorption <3% soundness For Na2So4 <12% For MgSo4 <18%
5. 5. Fine aggregates : clean natural sand / crushed stones /combination of both. It should be free of clay
,coal and ignite. Well graded with 100% passing 10 mm sieve. WATER: Water used for mixing and
curing of concrete shall be clean and free from injurious amount of oil, salt, acid, vegetable matter or
other substances harmful to the finished concrete. It shall meet the requirements stipulated in IS:456.
Chemical Admixtures : conforming to IS:9103 and IS:6925 shall be permitted to improve workability
of the concrete and/or extension of setting time, on satisfactory evidence that they will not have of any
adverse effect on the properties of concrete with respect to strength, volume change, durability and
have no deleterious effect on steel bars.
6. 6. Reinforcement:  steel dowel bars (rounded) with yield strength 240 MPa are used for the load
transfer across in expansion and construction joints.  Plain or twisted steel bars are used as tie bars are
used as tie bars at longitudinal joints.
7. 7. Basic Components of CC Pavements:  --soil subgrade.  --drainage layer.  --sub-base course
generally constructed using lean cement concrete or ‘dry lean concrete’  --separation membrane laid
on top of base course.  --CC pavement slabs Using ‘ paving quality concrete’ (PQC)  --construction
of different types of joints in CC pavements.
8. 8.  DIFFERENT TYPES OF CC PAVEMENTS:  Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)  – does
not use any reinforcing steel  Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)  – Reinforcing steel
placed at mid height and discontinued at the joints.  Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
(CRCP)  – This method is very costly and generally not used in India.  Pre-stressed Concrete
Pavement (PCP)  – Comprises new and innovative construction methods Among these Plain CC
pavements are most commonly used.
9. 9. Equipments required for the different phases of concrete road construction:  Three wheeled or
vibratory roller for compaction purpose  Shovels, spades and Sieving screens  Concrete mixer for
mixing of concrete  Formwork and iron stakes  Watering devices - Water Lorries, water carriers or
watering cans  Wooden hand tampers for concrete compaction  Cycle pump/pneumatic air blower
for cleaning of joint  Mild steel sections and blocks for making joint grooves for finishing purpose
10. 10.  METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION OF CC PAVEMENTS : 1. Construction by Slip Form Paver
2. Construction by Fixed Form Paver. 3. Construction by Fixed Form and labour oriented method of
paving.  Basically different operation involved in construction of CC pavements slabs are : a)
spreading prepared concrete mix to desired thickness, grade and cross profiles. b) Compacting. c)
 Finishing the surface to desired surface profile. d) Texturing. e) Curing f) Cutting of construction joints
and longitudinal joints.
11. 11. Site Preparation  Before construction begins, the construction site must be carefully prepared, This
includes preparing the grade or road base, sub grade and sub base-  First the site is graded to cut high
points and fill low areas to the desired roadway profile elevations.  Generally, cut material can be
used as embankment fill.  A course of material is placed on the sub grade to provide drainage and
stability.  A course of fairly rigid material, sometimes cement- or asphalt- treated, that is placed on
the sub base to provide a stable platform for the concrete pavement slab.
12. 12. CONSTRUCTION BY SLIP FORM PAVER 1. The slip form paving train spreads, compacts and
finishes the concrete in a continuous operation, by internal vibration and shape it between the side
forms with either a conforming plate or by vibrating and oscillating finishing beams. 2. The concrete
gets deposited without segregation in front of slip form paver across the whole width and to a height
which at all times is in excess of the required surcharge. 3. The deposited concrete is struck off to the
necessary average and differential surcharge by means of the strike off plate or a screw auger device
extending across the whole width of the slab.
13. 13.  The alignment of the paver shall be controlled automatically from the guide wire with vertical
tolerance of +/- 2mm, and lateral tolerance +/- 10mm.  Paver moves forward at speed of 1.5m per
minute and concreting ,compaction, floating and finishing are completed. As stiff mix is fed into
machine, paver moves forward, edges of slip- formed slab remains in position and does not slump. 
Surface is textured using rectangular steel wire brush .  Then resin-based aluminized liquid is sprayed
on surface and sides and left to cure for 8 to 12 hours.  Contraction and longitudinal joints are cut and
marked.  Curing is further continued by covering pavement surface and sides by 2 to 3 layers of moist
hessian for about 3 hours. The hessian is kept moist for a minimum curing period of 14 days.
14. 14. VIDEO OF SLIP FORM PAVER 01
15. 15. Construction by Fixed Form Paver  The fixed form paving train shall consist of separate powered
machines which spread, compact and finish the concrete in a continuous operation.  The concrete is
discharged without segregation into a hopper spreader which is equipped with means for controlling its
rate of deposition on to the sub-base.  The spreader is operated to strike off concrete up to a level
requiring a small amount of cutting down by the distributor of the spreader.  The distributor of
spreader strikes off the concrete to the surcharge adequate to ensure that the vibratory compactor
thoroughly compacts the layer. If necessary, poker vibrators shall be used adjacent to the side forms
and edges of the previously constructed slab.
16. 16.  The vibratory compactor is set to strike off the surface slightly high so that it is cut down to the
required level by the oscillating beam.  The machine rapidly adjusts changes in average and
differential surcharge necessitated by changes in slab thickness or cross fall.  The final finisher
finishes the surface to the required level and smoothness as specified, care being taken to avoid
bringing up of excessive mortar to the surface by over working.  Narrow grooves of specified width
and depth are cut using diamond saw machine to provide transverse contraction joints and longitudinal
joints  Further curing is done by covering the pavement surface and sides by 2 to 3 layers of moist
hessian for about 3 hours. The hessian is kept moist for a minimum curing period of 14 days.
17. 17. ( video no 2 : fix form)
18. 18. Construction by Fixed Form and labour oriented method of paving.  This method is used when
CC pavements is to be constructed in short stretches of narrow road using small machinery.  Steel
side forms are fixed in position and exact position of dowel and tie bars marked.  Concrete is placed
between side forms with surcharge and compaction and levelling is done by vibrating screeds resting
on side forms.  Irregularities are corrected by adding or removing concrete , followed by compaction
and finishing.  Then surface is textured manually using steel brush with long handle .Curing
compound is sprayed by hand using a pressure sprayer.
19. 19.  After CC is set , side forms are removed and shifted forward; curing compound is applied on
sides of slab. Location of Contraction and longitudinal joints are cut and marked.  Further curing is
done by covering the pavement surface and sides by 2 to 3 layers of moist hessian for about 3 hours.
The hessian is kept moist for a minimum curing period of 14 days  ( video no 3 )
20. 20. TYPES OF JOINTS IN CC PAVEMENTS: A) Longitudinal joints ( parallel to traffic flow). B)
Transverse joints ( perpendicular to traffic flow) -- Contraction joints -- Expansion joints. --
construction joints.
21. 21.  Longitudinal joints  During initial period of curing ,shrinkage cracks usually develops in CC
pavements ,when length or width of the slabs exceeds 4.5 to 5 m width or more.  Hence longitudinal
joints are provided whose spacing depends on width of traffic lane . For instance if width is 3.5 or3.75 ,
then spacing of longitudinal joints is also 3.5 or 3.75m respectively.
22. 22. CONTRACTION JOINTS : • These are purposely made weakened planes which relieve the tensile
stresses in the concrete Caused due to changes in the moisture content (Drying shrinkage) and/or
temperature and • Prevent the formation of irregular cracks due to restraint in free contraction of
concrete . Purpose of joints in Concrete Roads 1. To absorb expansion & contraction due to variation in
temperature. 2. To avoid warping of slab edges 3. To grant facility in construction .
23. 23. Construction of contraction joints : • They are formed initially by sawing a groove of 3-5 mm with
up to about one-fourth to one- third the slab which facilitates the formation of a natural crack at this
location extending to the full depth. Two methods of construction of contraction joints: 1. As ‘plain
joints without dowel bars’. 2. With dowel bars.
24. 24.  1) AS ‘PLAIN JOINTS WITHOUT DOWEL BARS’. Markings are made to indicate exact
location where grooves of contraction joints r to be cut using diamond saw cutting machines and then
temporary seal is inserted to block entrance of grit and soil. After cc pavement is cured for 14 days ,
hessian cloth covers are removed, and then temporary seal is removed and cleaned by blowing air.
Sealant is applied which can be cold sealant( polysulphide or silicon formation) or hot sealant(
rubberized bitumen).
25. 25. 2)Construction of contraction joints with dowel bars. 1. Location of contraction joints are marked .
If slip form paver is used then dowel bars are cut to specified length and appropriately placed. 2. Dowel
inserting plate of paver reaches marked location , the inserter switch is activated which inserts the bars
at mid depth of slab , maintaining their correct alignment and position. 3. In fixed form method dowel
bar supports (cradles/chairs) are placed along marked lines depending on their spacing and it alignment
and position is rechecked before concreting work. 4. And then groove cutting work and application of
sealant are carried out. ( video no 4 )
26. 26. Expansion joints • There are full-depth joints provided transversely into which pavement can
expand, thus relieving compressive stresses due to expansion of concrete slabs, and preventing any
tendency towards distortion and buckling. • They are allows expansion of slabs due to temperature. • A
joint filler board of compressible material is used to fill the gap between the adjacent slabs at the joint. •
The height of the filler board is such that its top is 23-25mm below the surface of the pavement. • The
joint groove is filled by a sealant .
27. 27. CONSTRUCTION OF EXPANSION JOINT WITH LOAD TRANSFER DOWEL BARS 1. A
steel bulk head with drilled holes at desired intervals is provided to support end of slabs adjoining
expansion joint such that dowel bar can be inserted up to mid- length and held in correct position. 2.
Concreting is done , filler board is inserted through gap of expansion joint ,so that dowel bars are
properly placed in position . 3. Now filler board will be 25mm below the surface of slab. 4. Wooden
strips of 20x25 size and 25 mm depth are placed on top of filler to fill gap during concreting . 5. After
concrete is cured for a period of 14 days ,wooden strips are removed and gap is thoroughly cleaned . 6.
The sealant is heated ,poured in gap of joint, above filler board. Top of sealant shall be at same level as

Construction of rigid pavement

1. 1. Guided by : Prepared by: Prof. Jain sir Saurabh P. V.
2. 2. RIGID PAVEMENTS : Pavements usually constructed using plain or unreinforced cement concrete
slabs having high flexural strength. It serves as good and durable wearing surface as well as an
effective and strong base course of highway pavements.
3. 3. WHERE ARE RIGID PAVEMENT PROVIDED ? Rigid pavements are usually provided when road
stretch is subjected to adverse conditions: 1. Very heavy rainfall. 2. Poor soil conditions 3. Poor
drainage 4. Extreme climatic conditions 5. Combinations of some of these conditions which may lead
to development of cracks in pavements.
4. 4. MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION OF CC PAVEMENTS : Portland cement : --OPC of grade
43. --OPC of grade 53. --Portland pozzolona cement with fly ash (20 per cent) Portland slag cement. 2.
Coarse aggregates : Los angeles abration value < 35 % Combined flakiness and Elongation index
<35% Water absorption <3% soundness For Na2So4 <12% For MgSo4 <18%
5. 5. Fine aggregates : clean natural sand / crushed stones /combination of both. It should be free of clay
,coal and ignite. Well graded with 100% passing 10 mm sieve. WATER: Water used for mixing and
curing of concrete shall be clean and free from injurious amount of oil, salt, acid, vegetable matter or
other substances harmful to the finished concrete. It shall meet the requirements stipulated in IS:456.
Chemical Admixtures : conforming to IS:9103 and IS:6925 shall be permitted to improve workability
of the concrete and/or extension of setting time, on satisfactory evidence that they will not have of any
adverse effect on the properties of concrete with respect to strength, volume change, durability and
have no deleterious effect on steel bars.
6. 6. Reinforcement:  steel dowel bars (rounded) with yield strength 240 MPa are used for the load
transfer across in expansion and construction joints.  Plain or twisted steel bars are used as tie bars are
used as tie bars at longitudinal joints.
7. 7. Basic Components of CC Pavements:  --soil subgrade.  --drainage layer.  --sub-base course
generally constructed using lean cement concrete or ‘dry lean concrete’  --separation membrane laid
 on top of base course.  --CC pavement slabs Using ‘ paving quality concrete’ (PQC)  --construction
of different types of joints in CC pavements.
8. 8.  DIFFERENT TYPES OF CC PAVEMENTS:  Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)  – does
not use any reinforcing steel  Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)  – Reinforcing steel
placed at mid height and discontinued at the joints.  Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
(CRCP)  – This method is very costly and generally not used in India.  Pre-stressed Concrete
Pavement (PCP)  – Comprises new and innovative construction methods Among these Plain CC
pavements are most commonly used.
9. 9. Equipments required for the different phases of concrete road construction:  Three wheeled or
vibratory roller for compaction purpose  Shovels, spades and Sieving screens  Concrete mixer for
mixing of concrete  Formwork and iron stakes  Watering devices - Water Lorries, water carriers or
watering cans  Wooden hand tampers for concrete compaction  Cycle pump/pneumatic air blower
for cleaning of joint  Mild steel sections and blocks for making joint grooves for finishing purpose
10. 10.  METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION OF CC PAVEMENTS : 1. Construction by Slip Form Paver
2. Construction by Fixed Form Paver. 3. Construction by Fixed Form and labour oriented method of
paving.  Basically different operation involved in construction of CC pavements slabs are : a)
spreading prepared concrete mix to desired thickness, grade and cross profiles. b) Compacting. c)
Finishing the surface to desired surface profile. d) Texturing. e) Curing f) Cutting of construction joints
and longitudinal joints.
11. 11. Site Preparation  Before construction begins, the construction site must be carefully prepared, This
includes preparing the grade or road base, sub grade and sub base-  First the site is graded to cut high
points and fill low areas to the desired roadway profile elevations.  Generally, cut material can be
used as embankment fill.  A course of material is placed on the sub grade to provide drainage and
stability.  A course of fairly rigid material, sometimes cement- or asphalt- treated, that is placed on
the sub base to provide a stable platform for the concrete pavement slab.
12. 12. CONSTRUCTION BY SLIP FORM PAVER 1. The slip form paving train spreads, compacts and
finishes the concrete in a continuous operation, by internal vibration and shape it between the side
forms with either a conforming plate or by vibrating and oscillating finishing beams. 2. The concrete
gets deposited without segregation in front of slip form paver across the whole width and to a height
which at all times is in excess of the required surcharge. 3. The deposited concrete is struck off to the
necessary average and differential surcharge by means of the strike off plate or a screw auger device
extending across the whole width of the slab.
13. 13.  The alignment of the paver shall be controlled automatically from the guide wire with vertical
tolerance of +/- 2mm, and lateral tolerance +/- 10mm.  Paver moves forward at speed of 1.5m per
minute and concreting ,compaction, floating and finishing are completed. As stiff mix is fed into
machine, paver moves forward, edges of slip- formed slab remains in position and does not slump. 
Surface is textured using rectangular steel wire brush .  Then resin-based aluminized liquid is sprayed
on surface and sides and left to cure for 8 to 12 hours.  Contraction and longitudinal joints are cut and
marked.  Curing is further continued by covering pavement surface and sides by 2 to 3 layers of moist
hessian for about 3 hours. The hessian is kept moist for a minimum curing period of 14 days.
14. 14. VIDEO OF SLIP FORM PAVER 01
15. 15. Construction by Fixed Form Paver  The fixed form paving train shall consist of separate powered
machines which spread, compact and finish the concrete in a continuous operation.  The concrete is
discharged without segregation into a hopper spreader which is equipped with means for controlling its
rate of deposition on to the sub-base.  The spreader is operated to strike off concrete up to a level
requiring a small amount of cutting down by the distributor of the spreader.  The distributor of
spreader strikes off the concrete to the surcharge adequate to ensure that the vibratory compactor
thoroughly compacts the layer. If necessary, poker vibrators shall be used adjacent to the side forms
and edges of the previously constructed slab.
16. 16.  The vibratory compactor is set to strike off the surface slightly high so that it is cut down to the
required level by the oscillating beam.  The machine rapidly adjusts changes in average and
differential surcharge necessitated by changes in slab thickness or cross fall.  The final finisher
finishes the surface to the required level and smoothness as specified, care being taken to avoid
bringing up of excessive mortar to the surface by over working.  Narrow grooves of specified width
and depth are cut using diamond saw machine to provide transverse contraction joints and longitudinal
joints  Further curing is done by covering the pavement surface and sides by 2 to 3 layers of moist
hessian for about 3 hours. The hessian is kept moist for a minimum curing period of 14 days.
17. 17. ( video no 2 : fix form)
18. 18. Construction by Fixed Form and labour oriented method of paving.  This method is used when
CC pavements is to be constructed in short stretches of narrow road using small machinery.  Steel
side forms are fixed in position and exact position of dowel and tie bars marked.  Concrete is placed
between side forms with surcharge and compaction and levelling is done by vibrating screeds resting
on side forms.  Irregularities are corrected by adding or removing concrete , followed by compaction
and finishing.  Then surface is textured manually using steel brush with long handle .Curing
compound is sprayed by hand using a pressure sprayer.
19. 19.  After CC is set , side forms are removed and shifted forward; curing compound is applied on
sides of slab. Location of Contraction and longitudinal joints are cut and marked.  Further curing is
done by covering the pavement surface and sides by 2 to 3 layers of moist hessian for about 3 hours.
The hessian is kept moist for a minimum curing period of 14 days  ( video no 3 )
20. 20. TYPES OF JOINTS IN CC PAVEMENTS: A) Longitudinal joints ( parallel to traffic flow). B)
Transverse joints ( perpendicular to traffic flow) -- Contraction joints -- Expansion joints. --
construction joints.
21. 21.  Longitudinal joints  During initial period of curing ,shrinkage cracks usually develops in CC
pavements ,when length or width of the slabs exceeds 4.5 to 5 m width or more.  Hence longitudinal
joints are provided whose spacing depends on width of traffic lane . For instance if width is 3.5 or3.75 ,
then spacing of longitudinal joints is also 3.5 or 3.75m respectively.
22. 22. CONTRACTION JOINTS : • These are purposely made weakened planes which relieve the tensile
stresses in the concrete Caused due to changes in the moisture content (Drying shrinkage) and/or
temperature and • Prevent the formation of irregular cracks due to restraint in free contraction of
concrete . Purpose of joints in Concrete Roads 1. To absorb expansion & contraction due to variation in
temperature. 2. To avoid warping of slab edges 3. To grant facility in construction .
23. 23. Construction of contraction joints : • They are formed initially by sawing a groove of 3-5 mm with
up to about one-fourth to one- third the slab which facilitates the formation of a natural crack at this
location extending to the full depth. Two methods of construction of contraction joints: 1. As ‘plain
joints without dowel bars’. 2. With dowel bars.
24. 24.  1) AS ‘PLAIN JOINTS WITHOUT DOWEL BARS’. Markings are made to indicate exact
location where grooves of contraction joints r to be cut using diamond saw cutting machines and then
temporary seal is inserted to block entrance of grit and soil. After cc pavement is cured for 14 days ,
hessian cloth covers are removed, and then temporary seal is removed and cleaned by blowing air.
Sealant is applied which can be cold sealant( polysulphide or silicon formation) or hot sealant(
rubberized bitumen).
25. 25. 2)Construction of contraction joints with dowel bars. 1. Location of contraction joints are marked .
If slip form paver is used then dowel bars are cut to specified length and appropriately placed. 2. Dowel
inserting plate of paver reaches marked location , the inserter switch is activated which inserts the bars
at mid depth of slab , maintaining their correct alignment and position. 3. In fixed form method dowel
bar supports (cradles/chairs) are placed along marked lines depending on their spacing and it alignment
and position is rechecked before concreting work. 4. And then groove cutting work and application of
sealant are carried out. ( video no 4 )
26. 26. Expansion joints • There are full-depth joints provided transversely into which pavement can
expand, thus relieving compressive stresses due to expansion of concrete slabs, and preventing any
tendency towards distortion and buckling. • They are allows expansion of slabs due to temperature. • A
joint filler board of compressible material is used to fill the gap between the adjacent slabs at the joint. •
The height of the filler board is such that its top is 23-25mm below the surface of the pavement. • The
joint groove is filled by a sealant .
27. 27. CONSTRUCTION OF EXPANSION JOINT WITH LOAD TRANSFER DOWEL BARS 1. A
steel bulk head with drilled holes at desired intervals is provided to support end of slabs adjoining
expansion joint such that dowel bar can be inserted up to mid- length and held in correct position. 2.
Concreting is done , filler board is inserted through gap of expansion joint ,so that dowel bars are
properly placed in position . 3. Now filler board will be 25mm below the surface of slab. 4. Wooden
strips of 20x25 size and 25 mm depth are placed on top of filler to fill gap during concreting . 5. After
concrete is cured for a period of 14 days ,wooden strips are removed and gap is thoroughly cleaned . 6.
The sealant is heated ,poured in gap of joint, above filler board. Top of sealant shall be at same level as
adjoining pavement surface.
28. 28. EFFECT OF REINFORCEMENT IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
29. 29. WORKING OF EXPANSION JOINTS :  During hot climate CC slab expands towards the gap
provided at expansion joint, due to which filler board and joint sealer gets compressed and pushed up.
 Dowel bars also move along with the slab, occupying the space in the metal cap attached at the end
of each dowel bar.
30. 30.  AND, During cold climate slabs contracts and gap increases and dowel bars also move along with
slab.  The compressed filler board may partly recover and joint sealer moves down.
31. 31. JOINT SEALER Top portion of gap at expansion joint above the joint filler is sealed to prevent
entry of water and grit into pavement through expansion joint The sealer should be impermeable and
 flexible to accommodate slab movements , sealant should not flow in hot season or become brittle in
winter. Rubberized bitumen is commonly used. Hence, for effective sealing of joint for a long period, it
is essential that sealing compounds posses these properties : 1. Adhesion to cement concrete edges. 2.
Extensibility without fracture. 3. Resistance to ingress of grit. 4. Durability. Some sealants are:  Hot
poured rubberized Asphalts (Thermoplastic type)  • Cold applied poly sulphide sealants( performs
well for 5 to 7 years). • Cold silicone Sealants(performs well for 10 years.)
32. 32. QUALITY CONTROL DURING CONSTRUCTION: 1. CA samples collected should be tested to
specified tests in the laboratory to decide suitability. 2. Grading of CA and FA for mix is checked and
compared with specified gradation. 3. Samples of fresh CC mix are collected ,cube and beam specimen
prepared and tested according to standard test and checked with acceptance criteria. 4. Side slabs of
pavements is checked to find hungry/honeycombed surface such surfaces are finished with cement
mortar. 5. Regularity of finished pavements is checked with a 3m straight edge, 6 to 12 hours after
laying , maximum permissible number of irregularities of 4 mm and 7 mm sizes in a 300 m stretch are
20 and 2mm.
33. 33.  Unevenness index or roughness index is measured using bump indicator, along the wheel path of
each lane; the average value of unevenness index shall not exceed 2200 mm/Km length of highway.
34. 34. OPENING TO TRAFFIC The entire surface of newly laid pavement is carefully examined for : 1.
Fine cracks have developed on surface 2. Non-uniform settlements of CC slabs has taken place near
abutments or along high embankments. If any such defect is noticed ,then corrective measures may be
taken up. A newly constructed CC pavement stretch shall be opened to traffic only after a minimum
curing of 28 days.

5.Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road

Construction and Usage in Ethiopia:
Impact and Implications
Progress Report
MetaMeta, The Netherlands Mekelle University, Ethiopia

ReCAP ETH2044E

March 2017

Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road Construction and Usage in Ethiopia: Progress Report

Page 2

The views in this document are those of the authors and they do not necessarily reflect the views of the
Research for Community Access Partnership (ReCAP), or Cardno Emerging Markets (UK) Ltd for whom
the document was prepared
Cover Photo:

Debre Tuchale, a resident of Kebele 028 in Kobo Woreda (Amhara state, Ethiopia) photographing a Bajaj
three-wheeler on a dry river-bed along its route. Ms. Tuchale was participating in a participatory
photography exercise (March 06, 2017). Image courtesy: MetaMeta Research and Mekelle University.

Quality assurance and review table Version Author(s) Reviewer(s) Date 1 Cecilia Borgia, Abraham
Abhishek, Letty Fajardo Vera, Kebede Manjur Annabel Bradbury 15/03/17

2 Cecilia Borgia, Abraham Abhishek, Letty Fajardo Vera, Kebede Manjur Annabel Bradbury 21/03/17 3
Cecilia Borgia, Abraham Abhishek, Letty Fajardo Vera, Kebede Manjur Paul Starkey (PMU) 29/03/17 4
Cecilia Borgia, Abraham Abhishek, Letty Fajardo Vera, Kebede Manjur Jasper Cook (PMU) 17/09/17

AfCAP Database Details: Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road Construction and Usage in Ethiopia:
Impacts and Implications

Reference No: ETH2044E Location Ethiopia

Source of Proposal

MetaMeta Procurement Method

Open Tender

Theme Transport Services Sub-Theme Gender Mainstreaming

Lead Implementation Organisation

MetaMeta Research B.V., The Netherlands

Partner Organisation

Mekelle University, Ethiopia

Total Approved Budget

GBP 47,200 Total Used Budget

GBP 28,649.68

Start Date 19/09/2016 End Date 30/08/2017

Report Due Date 19/03/2017 Date Received

ReCAP Project Management Unit Cardno Emerging Market (UK) Ltd Oxford House, Oxford Road
Thame OX9 2AH United Kingdom

Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road Construction and Usage in Ethiopia: Progress Report

Page 3

Abstract This progress report marks the completion of a significant part of data collection during the
reporting period January-March 2017. Provisional results were validated at two stakeholder workshops in
Tigray and Amhara. They highlighted that women accord a higher value to feeder roads than men; that due
to the scarcity of rural transport options, unsuitable three wheeler vehicles and buses service the feeder
roads; and the spread of Intermediate Means of Transport (IMT) is limited by high running costs and poor
road condition. Some key themes have emerged from the research, which will form a basis for the policy
outputs. They include how Women Spouses, Women Heads of Household and men participate in feeder
road planning and construction; variations in accessibility to rural transport options; and features of IMTs
available in the region. There was largely consensus between men and women interviewed on the benefits
of upgrading feeder roads, although men focused on compensation for loss of land to road construction,
and women articulated safety of road users as a primary concern. Dissemination activities have been
carried out throughout the project period through blogs, videos, and workshops; and will continue,
culminating in a webinar towards the end of the research.

Key words Feeder roads, PSNP, rural, Women Spouses, Women Heads of Households, Planning,
Participation, Gender, IMTs, Construction

AFRICA COMMUNITY ACCESS PARTNERSHIP (AfCAP) Safe and sustainable transport for rural
communities AfCAP is a research programme, funded by UK Aid, with the aim of promoting safe and
sustainable transport for rural communities in Africa. The AfCAP partnership supports knowledge sharing
between participating countries in order to enhance the uptake of low cost, proven solutions for rural
access that maximise the use of local resources. The programme follows on from the AFCAP1 programme
that ran from 2008 to 2014. AfCAP is brought together with the Asia Community Access Partnership
(AsCAP) under the Research for Community Access Partnership (ReCAP), managed by Cardno Emerging
Markets (UK) Ltd. See www.research4cap.org

Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road Construction and Usage in Ethiopia: Progress Report

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Acronyms, Units and Currencies $ / USD United States Dollar (US$ 1.00 ≈ ETB 22.1) £ / GBP Pound
Sterling (£ 1.00 ≈ ETB 27.6 ) ADB Asian Development Bank AfCAP Africa Community Access
Partnership AsCAP Asia Community Access Partnership ERA Ethiopian Roads Authority ETB Ethiopian
Birr (£ 1.00 ≈ ETB 27; US$ 1.00 ≈ ETB 22) FGD Focus-Group Discussion FHH Female-Headed
Households FIIDCA Federal Integrated Infrastructure Development Coordinating Agency GPS Global
positioning system IMT Intermediate Means of Transport KII Key Informant Interview Km Kilometre
MHH MOU Male-Headed Households Memorandum of Understanding PSNP Productive Safety Net
Programme PWD People with Disabilities RECAP Research for Community Access Partnership SSI
Semi-Structured Interview UK United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) UKAid United
Kingdom Aid (Department for International Development, UK) URRAP Universal Rural Roads Access
Program WHH Women Heads of Households WS Women Spouses

Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road Construction and Usage in Ethiopia: Progress Report

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Contents Abstract 3 Key words 3 Acronyms, Units and Currencies 4 1. Executive Summary
........................................................................................................6 2. Introduction
...................................................................................................................7 2.1. Project Objectives 7 2.2.
Location of the Intervention 7 2.3. Key Dates 8 3. Background
....................................................................................................................8 4. Activity Progress
.............................................................................................................9 4.1. Data Collection and Analysis 9
4.1.1. Field Research 9 4.1.2. Data Analysis and Validation 10 4.1.3. Preparation of Recommendations and
Guidelines 11 4.1.4. Dissemination and Outreach 11 4.2. Preliminary Findings 11 4.2.1. Engagement in
Rural Road Development Planning and Implementation 11 4.2.2. Gender, transport and mobility 13 4.2.3.
Intermediate Means of Transport 14 5. Next
Steps........................................................................................................................ 15 6. Lessons Learnt
.................................................................................................................. 16 7. Interim Conclusions and
Recommendations ...................................................................... 17 8. References
....................................................................................................................... 18 Annex A: Budget and Inputs
................................................................................................. 19 Annex B: Results Achieved in Reporting
Period ..................................................................... 21 Annex C: Participant Data
.................................................................................................... 24 Annex D: Steps for Next Reporting
Period ............................................................................. 27 Annex E: Updated Workplan
................................................................................................ 30 Annex F: Progress towards ReCAP
logframe outputs ............................................................. 32 Annex G: Partner Contribution
............................................................................................. 39 Annex H: Presentation at Multi-stakeholder
Workshops ....................................................... 40

Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road Construction and Usage in Ethiopia: Progress Report

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1. Executive Summary The main objective of this report is to present progress made in the project during
the period January-March 2017. A significant proportion of the field research (around 85%) has been
completed and data analysis has begun. In the beginning of March, some of the preliminary findings were
shared with stakeholders at two multi-stakeholder workshops (one in Tigray and one in Amhara State).
Their feedback served to validate the provisional findings and refine the remainder of the research process.
This report is based on preliminary findings emerging from the research process as well as the inputs
received by participants at the stakeholder workshops.
Preliminary analysis of the data collected so far has led to the identification of key findings that can be
validated and refined further, and will form the basis of research and policy outputs. In terms of planning
of rural roads, Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and Semi-Structured Interviews (SSI) with men, Women
Heads of Households (WHH) and Women Spouses (WS) revealed that women exhibit a greater demand
for feeder roads than men across the study area. Women have less access to available transport options as
compared to men and greater time poverty. Therefore, they are affected more by remoteness and low
access to transport. Women especially highly value ambulance services that they can access along the
roads, during pregnancy and childbirth.

During road work implementation the most valued benefit of the Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP)
by women is the 17-month paid maternity leave from obligations to participate in the program. Within the
theme of gender, transport, and mobility, field observations, data, focus group discussions and interviews
reinforced the scoping study finding that rural Ethiopia is an overwhelmingly walking world, with the
feeder roads being used mainly to walk on. This is common to both Amhara and Tigray regions, and due to
infrequent and unaffordable rural transport options. Transport operators are mostly private entrepreneurs
who operate mini-buses and midi-buses in urban centres. They go on rural routes only on market days
(usually twice a week) when demand for their services is the highest. The mini and midi-buses are not
suited for plying on unpaved, rural roads. The transport authorities allow them to do so, on account of a
general lack of Intermediate Means of Transport (IMTs) available in rural Ethiopia. The spread of IMTs is
limited, among other factors, by the quality of feeder roads and challenging terrain; and reliance of the
automotive sector on imports which drives up IMT prices and limits their adaptability to local needs.

The phased manner in which field research was implemented in the project allowed for multiple
opportunities to take stock of, analyse and validate data, and draw lessons for subsequent phases. A key
lesson was the importance of validating and triangulating data across various sources and respondents as
well as understanding the wider institutional, policy, and socio-economic context. In earlier rounds of field
research, it was noted that more time was required to explain new research tools such as Photo-Voice in
terms of both clarifying the purpose and relevance of participatory photography, and the exercise needed to
be timed in accordance with women’s daily chores.

The fieldwork has led to commencement of work on a chapter disseminating the research findings in a
policy report to be published by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) later in
2017. Preliminary key findings have also been captured through a number of blog posts and videos, which
have been disseminated through TheWaterChannel. The remainder of the field research will focus on
engaging private transport operators in interviews and validating the data already collected.

Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road Construction and Usage in Ethiopia: Progress Report

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2. Introduction

2.1. Project Objectives Implemented by Mekelle University and MetaMeta, this project seeks to improve
on the current understanding of the engagement of women (WS and WHH) and men with PSNP in the area
of rural road development. It will investigate and add to the current understanding of rural transport and
mobility in Ethiopia, especially the differences between opportunities and experiences available to men,
Women Spouses, and Women Heads of Households. It will provide actionable recommendations, practical
solutions, and tools for gender mainstreaming at the levels of planning and implementation of road works;
and with respect to rural transport options available to women. The project will also identify high-impact
themes for further action and research. Provisionally, topics emerging as potential high-impact themes
include: • Women’s participation in rural road planning • First Mile Connectivity • IMTs: Potential and
Limiting Factors

2.2. Location of the Intervention The research is being carried out in Kilte Awlaelo Woreda1 in Ethiopia’s
northern Tigray state, and Kobo Woreda in Amhara state lying south of Tigray. Twelve sections of feeder
roads have already been investigated, a further three sections will be explored to conclude the field
research. The selection of the feeder roads was undertaken in consultation with representatives of the
district administrations in Kobo and Kilte Awlaelo, to capture a diversity of situations with respect to
topography, physical condition of roads, and agricultural potential. Along the feeder roads, study villages
were selected randomly at various distances from the nearest urban centre to reflect various levels of
remoteness. For the same reason, the study comprised of villages located along feeder roads, as well as
others located at a distance and connected to the feeder road through a community pathway. The sites for
the interviews and focus group discussions were selected using a random transect along and away from the
chosen road sections.

Figure 1: Project Locations

1 Woreda: An administrative unit in Ethiopia, akin to a district

Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road Construction and Usage in Ethiopia: Progress Report

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2.3. Key Dates The project started in November 2016 and will be completed in September 2017. This
report documents project progress until March 2017. At this juncture, approximately 85% of the field
research has been completed.

Key dates for subsequent phases of the project are as follows:

Phase 3: Data analysis; generation of actionable recommendations, practical solutions, and tools for gender
mainstreaming in planning and implementation of road development and transport systems,
discussion/validation workshops with stakeholders

April - June 2017

Phase 4: Development of Guidance Note July-September 2017 Phase 5: Drafting and revision of research
outputs and final report and draft academic paper August-September 2017

The total cost of the project is GBP 47,200. A table showing budget against actual expenditure is
provided in Annex A.
3. Background This research seeks to address knowledge gaps in the understanding of Gender, Transport,
and Mobility in Rural Ethiopia, specifically related to the development and use of low volume rural roads
(LVRR) implemented under the Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP) and Universal Rural Roads
Access Program (URRAP). These roads are categorised as low volume on account of their average traffic
volume being less than three vehicles per hour (BoCRT Tigray, 2016).

As of February 2016, 39,000 km of low volume roads have been constructed in Ethiopia under the PSNP
(World Bank, 2016). These roads are being built by members of targeted households within the PNSP
(under cash/ food for work arrangements) and with community contributions. An estimated USD 200
million is spent annually under PSNP on LVRR; comprising mostly inter-village (Kebele)2 roads
connecting villages to smaller towns. The URRAP provides LVRRs with drainage infrastructure such as
fords, bridges and culverts. Works implemented under URRAP rely on both paid labour drawn from the
road-adjacent communities, and skilled labour provided by URRAP itself.

The construction of these LVRRs has several impacts on women in terms of employment (during
construction and maintenance), creation of business opportunities, mobility and access to services, as well
as in terms of land lost or damaged due to road construction. Importantly, there are significant, well-
recognised differentials between the nature and magnitude of these impacts on Women Heads of
Household (WHH)3, Women Spouses (WS) in Male Headed Households (MHH), and men.

To take these differentials into account, PSNP has provisions to maximise employment opportunities for
women such as quotas, equal wage guarantees, maternity leave and flexible working hours; as well as
specific provisions to maximise the participation of WHH and WS in decision-making and

2 Kebele: an administrative unit in Ethiopia; a ‘sub-district’, usually a cluster of villages 3 WHH –

‘Women Heads of Households’ refers to the individual (woman) who is head of the household MHH –
‘Male-Headed Households’ refers to all members of a household that have a male head FHH – ‘Female-
Headed Households’ refers to all members of a household that have a female head

Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road Construction and Usage in Ethiopia: Progress Report

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planning of the works. However, widely recognised gaps continue to exist between the provision of gender
mainstreaming policies and their implementation in practice (MOFED, 2002). A provision that is
implemented fairly widely and valued by women is the paid leave from PSNP obligations during
pregnancy and after childbirth (a period of 12-17 months). In contrast, the implementation of childcare
provision (crèches) for women and men working on PSNP works is highly variable.

According to the scoping study conducted by MetaMeta and Mekelle University, the development of a
rural road network, though a necessary condition for rural transport services to operate and expand, is not
sufficient to improve access to transport, particularly for women. Trip making in rural Ethiopia continues
to be overwhelmingly undertaken by walking (80% of trips are undertaken on foot). Motorised public
transport accounts for only 16% of all trips (for detailed data, refer to the Inception Report, 2016).
This project will contribute towards filling the knowledge gaps in gender mainstreaming in PSNP and rural
transport, as well as providing suitable policy approaches and solutions, by working with rural
communities and public/private stakeholders in the sector. It will contribute to ReCAP’s immediate focus
on strengthening the evidence base around cost effective and reliable low-volume transport services for
women in particular, by influencing policy and practice.

4. Activity Progress During the reporting period, it was expected that the bulk of the field research would
be completed and a number of blogs and videos would be published as part of the dissemination and
outreach activities. Expected activities have been carried out as planned and no significant delays or issues
were encountered. Additionally, some of the activities for the second quarter were carried out ahead of
schedule, for instance the multi-stakeholder workshop (see Annex B for details).

Figure 2: Focus Group Discussion in Kebele 022, Kobo Woreda (Amhara state)

4.1. Data Collection and Analysis

4.1.1. Field Research In January 2017, Phase I of the fieldwork was carried out in Amhara region in five
settlements located along five different low volume roads in Raya Kobo Woreda. Focus group discussions
(FGDs) and semi-structured interviews (SSIs) were held with 71 women (comprising WS and WHH), and
117 men. The higher number of men participants compared to women is partly due to the fact that

Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road Construction and Usage in Ethiopia: Progress Report

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women have to attend a variety of activities during the day and were therefore less available to participate
in the research. In subsequent phases, there was a greater focus on women participants. During Phase II of
the fieldwork (March 2017) in Kilte Awlaelo Woreda, (Tigray state) and Raya Kobo Woreda (Amhara
state), FGDs and photo voice (PV) sessions were finalised with 46 men and 87 women in six settlements
located along six different low volume roads. The field research helped gain a better understanding of
gender-based differences in engagement in rural road planning and construction under PSNP and URRAP,
and women and men’s access to rural transport and mobility.

Additional SSIs were held with 60 WHH and 60 WS to assess the diffusion of rural transport options,
including IMTs, and to delineate needs and priorities regarding rural transport services of both women and
men. The fieldwork will be finalised before the end of March 2017. During the reporting period, and
including the fieldwork carried out in November 2016, a total of 181 women (comprising 85 WHH and 77
WS) and 163 men have been reached through FGDs, SSIs, and PV. Questionnaires and survey forms that
guided the SSIs and FGDs will be provided in the Final Report.

Figure 3: Photo Voice in Action, Kebele 028 in Kobo Woreda (Amhara state)
Key informant interviews (KII) with representatives of the Woreda-level Road Construction and Transport
Authorities provided information and insights into the provision of transport services along the LVRRs in
the study areas. An understanding of how operators organise the scheduling and distribution of transport
and tariffs was obtained. This constitutes a starting point for the exploration of alternative transport options
that will be explored in the Final Report.

4.1.2. Data Analysis and Validation Analysis of the collected data has already begun using the software
NVivo to organise and analyse the qualitative material from the field research. Preliminary findings of
Phase I of the fieldwork were presented and validated in two multi-stakeholder workshops held in Mekelle
(Tigray) on 1 March 2017 and Bahir Dar (Amhara) on 10 March 2017. Participants included
representatives of the Road Construction and Transport Authority, the Regional Bureau of Agriculture,
Ethiopian Roads Authority, Federal Integrated Infrastructure Development Coordinating Agency
(FIIDCA), as well as other PSNP stakeholders such as The World Bank (see Annex C for participant data).

Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road Construction and Usage in Ethiopia: Progress Report

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4.1.3. Preparation of Recommendations and Guidelines Main preliminary findings of Phase I and Phase II
of the research have been condensed into a policy chapter of a book to be published by NWO (Netherlands
Organisation for Scientific Research). The highlighted themes addressed in the policy report are: i. Access
to rural transport services and mobility, emphasizing the differences between men, WS and WHH and
other vulnerable groups such as elderly and People with Disabilities (PWDs) and ii. Needs and priorities
regarding rural transport services of both women and men, including IMTs.

In the upcoming phases of the project, key research outcomes will also be built upon to produce a
Guidance Note, which shall comprise a compendium of key policy issues, practices, and solutions targeted
at policymakers and sector professionals.

4.1.4. Dissemination and Outreach As mentioned earlier, multi-stakeholder workshops were organised in
Bahir Dar (Amhara) and Mekelle (Tigray), the workshops were attended by representatives of government
organisations in the two regions responsible for the implementation of PSNP, road development, and
transport services (bureaus of agriculture, road, and transport). Also present were representatives of
federallevel organisations such as the Ethiopian Roads Authority, Federal Integrated Infrastructure
Development Coordination Agency (FIIDCA), and the World Bank. There were in total 15 participants in
Mekelle and 10 in Bahir Dar.

The workshops were used as forums to disseminate preliminary findings and analysis among the
stakeholders. The participants validated the findings and provided comments and suggestions that helped
fine-tune remainder of the field research. The events were also used to make contacts and set up interviews
with key informants that were carried out subsequently.

Additionally, a number of blogs and videos have been published on TheWaterChannel (TheWaterChannel,
2016-17). They can be viewed at www.thewaterchannel.tv/genderroads.

4.2. Preliminary Findings

 4.2.1. Engagement in Rural Road Development Planning and Implementation Women exhibit a greater
demand for roads than men FGDs and SSIs with WS, WHH, and men, as well as interviews with key
informants from government departments suggest that due to the different levels of access to available
transport and greater time poverty, women are affected more by remoteness and low access to transport as
well as education, healthcare and markets. Women therefore exhibit a stronger demand for feeder roads;
and for improvements to existing feeder roads to enable a higher proportion of transport provision. They
also participate more actively in the planning of the roads, as evidenced by their engagement with Kebele
Steering Committees, whose role is to represent the community and present their demands before the
Woreda administration.

Of the several effects of roads valued by rural women, two were cited most widely across the study area:
1. Rural roads enable ambulance services for safe childbirth to reach villages (this has led to a significant
reduction in maternal and child mortality) 2. Women are usually responsible for purchasing household
supplies on a regular basis and selling farm produce, and the presence of a road reduces their hardship in
undertaking these activities significantly. Even when means of transport are not available, the upgrading of
a

Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road Construction and Usage in Ethiopia: Progress Report

Page 12

community path to a feeder road reduces the distance to destination; and improves walking conditions and
safety.

Men’s demand for roads, on the other hand, is tempered by a greater concern for potential loss of land
resulting from new road construction. This provisional finding, if corroborated by the full data analysis,
would be significant as it would strengthen the argument for gender mainstreaming provisions in road
planning (such as those in PSNP).

Gender mainstreaming provisions: What women value most There are several provisions in the PSNP
policy designed to increase the participation of and benefits to women. Responses from women surveyed
indicate that the most widely implemented policies are: • Paid maternity leave of up to 17 months from
PSNP targets and obligations • Lower daily work targets for WS and WHH, compared to men • Exemption
of women from hard physical work • Exemption of elderly, sick, and disabled from PSNP activities

The literature review, as well as comparison of responses to interviews shows that implementation of
provisions like the childcare system and flexible working hours for women is highly variable, across
different Kebeles, Woredas, and regional states.

Further data collection and analysis may support these interim findings or reveal new findings. Eventually,
an understanding of the gender mainstreaming provisions available and how implementing agencies are
applying them will help identify which ones are most effective, and why they are particularly
transformative in the Ethiopia context.
Figure 4: (Clockwise from top-left) Women at a planning meeting; site of road being constructed under
PSNP; Bajajs plying on a rural road; and a midi-bus

Gender Mainstreaming in Rural Road Construction and Usage in Ethiopia: Progress Report

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4.2.2. Gender, transport and mobility Rural transport: Private enterprise fails to cater to rural demand
According to scoping studies carried out during the inception phase of the project, 80% of the trips in the
region are carried out on foot. FGDs and SSIs in Tigray and Amhara reveal that access to motorised
transport services remains low along rural roads connecting dispersed villages or villages to small towns.

In March 2017, transport authorities that operate bus stations in urban centres were interviewed. According
to them, the key reason for the low supply of transport services is that transport operators (almost all
private entrepreneurs) do not find it profitable to ply on rural roads, except on market days. Prices set by
bus drivers are often unaffordable especially for women who have generally less disposable income than
men. While women and men both participate in agricultural activities in Ethiopia, FHH tend to be
disadvantaged because they may lack access to labour and oxen. For this reason FHH often engage in
sharecropping agreements, which halves their potential farming income. Both midi and mini-bus operators
charge on average 0.35 GBP per km for passengers; and 0.87 GBP per km for freight up to 50 kg.

Sometimes, the transport authority at the bus stations in market towns can ask bus operators to go to
certain rural areas if enough passengers come forward with such a request. The authority then has to allow
operators to charge a 50% surcharge, as an incentive to compensate for an empty return trip. Consequently,
trips made on rural roads are more expensive per km than trips made over the same distance on urban
roads. FGD and SSI respondents said they recognised this, and found it unfair and unaffordable, and the
cost of transport was cited as a cause of school dropout after primary school. In some areas, a group of
children jointly rent rooms for the week close to the secondary school, but this appears to be the exception
rather than the norm.

To make the trip profitable, buses often take extra passengers, well beyond their capacity. So midibuses
often carry up to 60 people (against a carrying capacity of 20-25) and mini-buses often operate with 35
passengers on board (against a carrying capacity of 10-12). Crowded buses are discouraging and
threatening to women, especially to those who are pregnant and/or carrying small babies. In Photo Voice
exercises, women often explained that “if they were men, they could elbow their way through the crowd
and grab empty seats.” The result is that women have to wait for many hours for less crowded buses. In
some villages, the uncertainty of being able to find transport discourages women from undertaking the trip,
which, in turn, limits their mobility and access to goods, services, and social relations.

Construction in Ethiopia Alem Tesfahunegn Civil engineer (MSc) Building Design Enterprise – Ethiopia

Alem Tesfahunegn

2
self-building sector. The construction industry consists of deferent types and size of firms. These operate in
the deferent sub-markets characterising the construction industry. Construction firms must be registered
and licensed in order to undertake any construction work in Ethiopia. The firms are classified according to
size, expertise and financial capability by the ministry of work and urban development (MWUD). The self-
building sector is characterised by an informal sector, consisting of informal groups that supply materials
and labour. These informal groups are not licensed or registered. However, they employ a great number of
people. The professional services sector consists of architects, civil engineers, electrical engineers, sanitary
engineers, and mechanical engineers, quantity surveyors and surveyors who provided the design expertise.
The services of these consultants are not utilised in the informal and self-build sectors. There exists a great
separation between the design consultants and the contractors. This generates conflict in the construction
process and results in project delays and cost escalations due to claims. It is important that methods for
conflict mitigation are developed for the industry.

Design of buildings The design process The design process in building design enterprise (BDE) and other
consultants of the design of buildings in the formal sector is a co-operative effort between the client and
various consultants. The client provides a set of requirements and constraints that the consultants attempt
satisfy during the design process. To satisfy the client brief, a design team is constituted which consist of
all the consultants. The team in most cases is headed by the architect or by the consultant in recent times.
The consultant is appointed by the client and takes care of the client’s interests according to the general
condition of construction. The contributions of each consultant in the design process can be summarised as
follows:

• Brief Stage Client provides the design brief that consists of the requirements and constraints to the design
team. • Sketch Design Stage Architect prepares a preliminary sketch to satisfy the designs brief and
possibly provides alternative proposal. Quantity surveyor prepares preliminary cost estimates based on the
Architect’s design sketch. Quantity surveyor provides the initial cost plan that forms the basis of cost
control and budgeting. Client approves sketch and cost estimates. • Scheme Design Stage Architect
designs to a greater detail to meet the submission requirements of the local authority. Quantity surveyor
undertakes various costs, checks and ensures that the budget is not exceeded. Architect provides scheme
designs to the civil (structural), mechanical and electrical engineers for the engineering design of the
project. Archi

tect submits scheme design for approval to the local authority. • Detail Design Stage Architects proceed to
detail design the elements and components of various spaces and prepares specification for the project.
Quantity surveyor prepares bills of quantities and final cost check. Engineers finalise their drawings and
specifications.

Climatic Design of Buildings The decision to incorporate climatic design criteria is based on the climatic
conditions prevailing in a given area. The most common design parameters employed in passive design of
buildings in Ethiopia include orientation, shading, ventilation, glazing and terminal properties of materials.

Building materials In Ethiopia the major problem is building materials, especially the roofing materials. As
a common practise round tree (usually Eucalyptus tree) and corrugated iron sheets are widely used. Today,
these materials have become very expensive so that low-income people are almost unable to build their
houses. Reinforced concrete slabs were tried, but they were found out to be difficult to make water tight in
most constructions. This in fact could be improved if proper management and good quality control of
materials were available. But for low cost houses, a rather cheap roofing material should be introduced.
Several research works are still on the way to find a replacement for the corrugated iron sheet. Even
though concrete results are not yet obtained.
Earthquake safety Since the Great Rift Valley pass through Ethiopia, some cities are categorised under the
seismic zone of Ethiopia. Now days due to this, every building is designed considering the expected
maximum earthquake loads. According to the Ethiopian standard code of practise, comparisons Between
wind loads and earthquake loads are considered and every building is designed based on the worst
condition.

Building regulations The building code sets out building regulations and requirements. It is a legal
document and it confers powers to all the local authorities to over see that the building code and building
by-laws are maintained in the areas of their jurisdiction. But since the housing policy of Ethiopia was not
strong in the past, several disorganised urban plans, designs, construction methods are visible. To
overcome these problems, research works on up grading lowincome housing, proposing new low-cost
housing projects, introducing new sanitation methods, use of local building materials and transfer of
construction technology are still in progress. It is my belief that the out come will be beneficial and
applicable in the country to somehow overcome the housing problems of the country.

Construction in Ethiopia

Standardisation Standardisation in building is a process of creating various elements in building to a

certain specification size and quality. Standardisation is an important principle of rationalisation and
requires that buildings be built of standardised components. The other benefits of standardisation include
reduced Construction time, improved quality and reduced costs. In Ethiopia there has been standardisation
programs in the industry, and also major manufacturers have been offering standardised product range.
Standardised materials available to the industry include roofing materials, pre-cast concrete materials, steel
windows, doors and electrical fittings.

Energy conservation Ethiopia’s main sources of energy are wood fuel, petroleum and hydro electricity.
Alternative sources of energy like biogas; solar energy is being developed. Ethiopia is currently facing
energy crisis. For example even though housing problems exist, the growth in demand for electricity is
more than expected and the situation is more serious for fuel wood, where the shortages have led to rise in
prices of charcoal. Use of fuel wood is also an important cause of deforestation. Energy conservation
guideline for buildings does not exist and energy use is not regarded as major design criteria in buildings.
The designers are designing more and more energy incentive buildings that relay more on air-conditioning,
artificial lighting and mechanical ventilation systems. There is a need for research studies on energy use in
buildings and the possibilities of energy conservation.

Low-income housing The provision of adequate shelter for every family has been the long-term objective
of the government. In urban areas there is a high population growth that has led to development of squatter
settlements. The situation is characterised by reduced access to basic infrastructure like water sanitation,
building and planing regulations that discourage development of low-income housing and weakening
municipal authorities. The projected housing need, taking in to account the population growth rate is about
100,000,000 up to the year 2010. The Ethiopian government has developed several strategies and
programmes aimed at alleviating housing shortage. These include settlement up grading, site and service
schemes, tenant purchase, encouraging owner building and institutional provision of housing to employees.
To meet this need the government should revise the national housing policy and encourage development of
lowcost materials technology and it’s dissemination. The government should ensure the housing finance is
made available to developers and homebuilders. The government should provide land infrastructure for
housing development. To reduce speculation on land, the government should introduce direct tax on idle
land. The role of the NGO’s, in the provision of shelter should be encouraged.

Construction and management

Project organisation Most common form of project organisation practised in Ethiopia is the line staff
organisation; figure below shows Construction organisation structure. Deferent organisations have deferent
levels depending on the magnitude of project and staff available.

Table 1 Project Organisation table

There are various stages involved in the construction process. • Construction activities: effective building
activities require the co-operation of experts of various disciplines i.e., to construct within the agreed limits
of cost and time. • To construct within a specified quality and according to the contract documents. • To
control function includes feed back and belongs principally to the client although all other functions should
have their Own control activities. The building project management function is best, if performed by
specialised professional management or organisation. The project management has control over the entire
process, co-ordinates it and has authority to make decision on any problems that may arise. Its authority is
exercised continuously rather than intermittently. The project management is able to detect and resolve
conflicts between quality and cost or between cost and time.

Consultant

Project Engineer

Finance Purchasing

Labourer

Client

Contract admini stration and supervision

Inspection

Contractor

Project engineer

Design Material test

Alem Tesfahunegn

Project financing Building and financing within the country: There are various forms of financing building
projects in Ethiopia. Depending on the type and the nature of the project. To minimise the housing problem
in the country, especially in densely populated cities, the government as well as privet owners are
constructing many new rental apartments. For the private sector, there is a special loan arrangement from
housing and saving bank of Ethiopia. To minimise the housing problem and having owned house each
person, the agricultural and industrial development bank of Ethiopia is giving loans for house builders. To
be eligible to get a loan from the bank, it is a requirement that the client should manage to have at least
35% of the total estimated cost of the building. Then he could obtain the rest 65% from the respective
banks. The combined interest per year is 10.5% since the government through the country owns land. It
should be noted that it could be obtained from the government by leasing. Usually the lease will last for
about 99 years. But due to shorter loan term and the higher interest value, very few have used the
opportunity, in addition the average incomes of the middle class are too low to cover the payment of their
loans to the banks regularly. Therefore, the main problems encountered by the sector should be clearly
identified and studied.

Budget and budget control Cost estimates are prepared at end of the design stage to establish the project
budget. Consultant Quantity Surveyor appointed undertakes preparations of the cost estimates of the
project by the client. The Quantity Surveyor uses several methods to prepare cost estimates depending on
type of project. This estimate is normally used as a yardstick for cost control during design, tendering and
Construction process. The main objective for establishing a cost estimate is to be used as a basis for cost
control during execution of the construction project, to establish target budget for the given project, to
determine the scope of the project and to establish cash flow and cost forecasting.

Quality and construction control Quality control is the responsibility of the contractor. However it could be
categorised into two parts i.e. • The quality of workmanship • The construction materials. Concerning the
workmanship, it is usual to have experienced Foreman to be on the Construction Site continuously until the
project is completed. Apart from this, the building materials are tested to ensure the qualify i.e. since the
Ethiopian standard code of practise sets minimum quality requirements, the materials should fulfil the
standards specified by the code before using them in the construction project. These qualitative tests are
mostly done according to the Ethiopian standards institution, by building design enterprise, as well as by
the university and other firms.

Tendering documents Tendering documents are important guide to the bidders and should therefore
contain enough and unambiguous information regarding obligation of the parties involved. Tendering
document must contain • Information on the kind and quality of materials, • Information on the required
quality of the finished work, • Information on administration and legal matters usually the descriptions are
referred to existing general documents as far as possible. In Ethiopia, some of the references are • national
or international standards, • general conditions, • Regulations laws and by laws. After all the above
descriptions are stated in the specifications, the contractor submits his prices mainly depending on the
estimated quantities of the Project. For variations further negotiations will be made between the client and
the contractor. The transfer technology is best undertaken through joint ventures between local and foreign
contractors.

Information technology The Ethiopian socio-economic development is based on local and traditional
technologies, which have evolved over centuries in response to the subsistence needs of the people.
However, recent appropriate technologies, such as computer for design, latest machinery for construction
etc. is nevertheless taking ground in all sectors of the National economy. Especially, in the housing sector
where, over the past few years, thousands of housing units have been constructed utilising not only locally
available building materials, but also designed and executed Ethiopian national tool and equipment.

Experiences to use in future projects As far as I have the access with designers and quantity surveyors,
based on the experiences of the Lund University short course of international construction management, I
will work with concerned parts • First of all any project before design starting must have a briefing stage,
sketch design stage, scheme design stage and detail design stage. • Design should include the climatic
design of building materials, earthquake safety and energy conservation for low-cost housing as well as for
complex buildings. • As far as quality is needed for construction of buildings, quality control is expected to
make periodic quality checks and ensure that the contractor complies with all the quality controls.

Conclusions It is important that training extends beyond the academic training, the professional disciplines
should ensure continuos professional developments of its various members.

Construction in Ethiopia

In order to properly plan, implement and manage our urban development activities, inter disciplinarily
trained manpower is prerequisite. In this regard proper use of the existing staff and the training of new
professionals are very essential.

Production process
Tendering and contract In Ethiopia, several forms of contract agreements are available. One form of
contract is (with or without quantities) and the fidic form of agreement. The government has its own form
of contract known as ministry of works and urban development (MWUD) form of contract (with or
without quantities). For the donor-funded projects, the donor agencies might suggest their own form of
contract. Concerning tendering the tender documents have to be of such a nature that contains the relevant
information for the contractor to calculate the cost of the project. In Ethiopia this menace that the general
drawings and the drawings of essential details, specifications and quantities as well as description of the
project should be available.

Management education To fulfil management needs of various aspects of construction it is clear that, good
management is required. This immediately implies that staff with good management education is required.
In Ethiopia, one of the problems that made the construction industry very costly is lack of enough trained
staff on this particular field. How ever, higher education of Ethiopia continuously training professionals
with their maximum capacities and it is recommended that farther effort should be made to strengthen the
institution for higher education al and vocational schools to achieve the desire goals.

Production planning It is of fundamental importance that projects are completed within the required time.
It provides the basis for Project control and this is the only simplification of the real situation. The most
common method of time scheduling is the Gantt chart. It is a condition in the contract that a contractor
must provide and maintain a programme of work. This is done using Gantt charts. The forms of project
time scheduling i. e. the critical path method and PERT are rarely used due to lack of qualified personnel.
The use of computers by contractor is limited to accounts, preparation of payrolls and word processing
only.

Quality assurance In order to achieve safety and quality of construction works the following action could
be relevant to the stakeholders:

• Building material producers and users should take measures to avoid the production of hazardous
materials and ensure the safety and protection of works. • Architects and engineers should specify safe
materials and should design the in-door environment in a way that concentrations of hazardous of materials
do not accumulate. • The responsible parties should ensure that they use safer materials and processes in
construction in order to avoid accidents, they should also ensure safety of on site construction workers by
offering them protective cloth and other safety materials. • The government should play a crucial role in
controlling the health and safety hazards of construction adopting and enforcing regulatory measures and
applying non-regulatory incentives.

Economic control-budget review and reconciliation As efficient of management demands that my control
the organisations work towards distinctive goals. Naturally these objectives must be shaped differently
types of owners. It is important that the objectives are carefully design and are continuous updated to the
current market situation. In Ethiopia, property management is a constantly proceeding process and it is
continuously needed to cheek stated goals. To be able to guide the organisations work, it is often necessary
to create a set of measurable conceptions. It is possible to do analyses on different levels in the
organisation. The individual real estate is normally a part in a larger unit of organisation. It is not possible
to fully separate the individual real estates from the organisation it is a part of. It is necessarily to start
analysing each separate real estate and then determine how the organisations total economy is affected of
and influenced by subordinated units. Through these measurements of the economical flows in the
company, from bottom to top, it is possible to identify units, or divisions with problems. As in all
management, the decision-maker must consider the factors of insecurity that are current on the studied
market, at the given time. The properties economic prerequisites are continuously influenced by a whole
set of external and internal factors. Examples of external factors are changes in tax regulations or changes
of subsidise. Internal factors could be a change in use or the wear and tear of a component. The operations
in the organisation are also controlled over different length of period. The basis of managing a property
should be a carefully worked out long-term plan. From this plan, the strategic plan, it is possible to make
several budgets, with shorter perspective, to guide the daily work, operational plans.

Experiences to use in future projects In my country the main problem during construction period is lack of
proper management, technology, and lack of skilled manpower. Therefore based on the experiences that I
obtained I will do my best to increase application of cleaner technology in building construction to offer a
sound management and leadership. Management in the

Alem Tesfahunegn

construction process includes overall project planing and scheduling, on-site material handling, effective
use of resources i.e., labour, energy, equipment and machinery as well as by improving methods of
construction activities.

Conclusion The government must strengthen local training institution by provision of enough facilities and
additional trainers to take in to account the changing technologies of the construction industry. In the
features of construction technology local materials, labour intensive, self-help evolutionary housing
designs should be promoted in urban areas. Professional and technical training opportunities at Ethiopia
and abroad must be increased and made available to all. This will enable them to increase the level of
technology and the existing curricula in centuries of technology and professional education must be
reviewed, upgraded, monitored closely and co-ordinated.

Property management Research, professional training and technology transfer Research in the construction
industry is undertaken at the university, mostly as academic research with little or no practical relevance to
the industry. In Ethiopia building research is done at the housing and building research institute at the
University of Addis Ababa. Also some of these research works are performed in collaboration with foreign
aid institutions like SIDA, urban social service development (USSD) etc. Even though several research
works are on progress, it is obvious that a lot has to be done in the future and further more a lot is needed
to be done in research and development to introduce and develop new construction technologies.

Life cycle cost Even though in Ethiopia the life cycle cost system is not yet developed to high levels, it is
necessary to use it. Because cycle cost is the economy of a property in contrast to most other investments
controlled by the time. Therefor a property must be analysed with methods that takes this dominating
factor into consideration. Methods like payback method do not consider the effect of depreciation and
methods like present valve method or internal rate of return method tends to be complicated. Projects can
generally seen in life cycle of the objective, which starts when the project is constructed and ends when it
is demolished. In another way the life cycle of the object that is depending the property to the owner.
Therefor different owners can have deferent objectives for owning the property and deferent knowledge
and this gives deferent views of investment during the life of the property.

Maintenance planning Buildings are big investments. At the same times maintenance is the management of
this resources. It is a requirement to have preventive, routine periodic maintenance. The concepts and cost
effectiveness of routine maintenance of facilities imported on building sectors. As the house is maintained
longer will be its life span, hence remains to be good investment. In Ethiopia many buildings after
completion the budgeted amount of maintenance cost is allocated with insufficient funds to maintain the
building. Maintenance costs are sometimes incorrect and lack of feeling responsibility. Preventive
maintenance can be used to avoid damages to a building and is the most economical alternative, e.g.,
checking and provision of preventive measures; rain gutters and down pipe must be maintained before
rainy seasons. Experts should inspect any structural damages. Maintenance earns money. It reduces or
eliminates costly repairs. It is recommended to use materials available in the area for maintenance. In
addition my opinion is the following programmes are required to be implement by the government

• The best way to prevent is that, job description should be well defined from the beginning of the project
decide who would be responsible, use materials available in that locality, educate people through means of
media, communication, workshops and seminars. • The concepts and cost effectiveness of routine
maintenance of facilities will be imported to all sectors agencies and public bodies in particular, and to the
peoples of Ethiopia in general. • Guidelines should be issued to all relevant bodies on the planing
execution and budgeting of maintenance requirements. • Maintenance programmes will be established for
all public facilities and their implementation financed Montreal and enforced.

Connection to the design stage: feedback The design of building s in the formal sector is cooperative effort
between the client and various consultants. The client provides a set of requirements and constraints that
the consultants attempt to satisfy during the design process. To satisfy the client’s brief, job description
should be well defined and should clear, who would be decide and take responsible for the project.
Guidelines should be issued to all relevant bodies on the planing execution budgeting of maintenance
requirements the suppliers shall establish and maintain documented procedures to control and verify, the
design of product in order to ensure that the specified requirements are met and of cores a design team is
constituted which consist of all the consultants. The consultant or the project manager heads this in most
cases in recent times. The project manager or the consultant is appointed by the client and takes care of the
client’s interest from preliminary design up to the working drawings, tendering and supervising the project
con

Construction in Ethiopia

struction to ensure that the quality work and the final cost of the project does not exceed the budget.

Experiences to use in future projects In order to improve the quality of property management in Ethiopia,
the Ethiopian government and all parties concerned should • Make a special training programme on the
property management architects, engineers and other specialists concerned to deepen on their knowledge
of this aspect. • Include in the government-housing programme, the importance attached new entire
construction repairing and upgrading of existing buildings. The architects, designers and engineers at the
appropriate level should have a competence to: • Use a model of analysis for property management in the
design stage of any project. • Undertake the life cycle economy for the economic control during the
designing of building.

Conclusion In Ethiopia even though the government and the people are deeply involved and have started
reconstructing the country, the housing construction activities are limited. As such this sector has not yet
developed General recommendations could however be proposed with respect to housing, design of
building and management of construction. One of the priorities would be to develop public and privet
sector institutions that can contribute to this end. Institutional capacity needs to be strengthened through
continuos training of the existing manpower and impute of qualified professionals. Programs for creating a
national capacity in management of construction need to be introduction. Special emphasis should be put
on strengthening the capacity of small and medium scale contractors. Labour force in rural areas must be
utilised by labour intensive method of construction. Housing policy, planing legislation and building codes
should aim at health, safety and preservation of the environment
28.
29. adjoining pavement surface.
30. 28. EFFECT OF REINFORCEMENT IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
31. 29. WORKING OF EXPANSION JOINTS :  During hot climate CC slab expands towards the gap
provided at expansion joint, due to which filler board and joint sealer gets compressed and pushed up.
 Dowel bars also move along with the slab, occupying the space in the metal cap attached at the end
of each dowel bar.
32. 30.  AND, During cold climate slabs contracts and gap increases and dowel bars also move along with
slab.  The compressed filler board may partly recover and joint sealer moves down.
33. 31. JOINT SEALER Top portion of gap at expansion joint above the joint filler is sealed to prevent
entry of water and grit into pavement through expansion joint The sealer should be impermeable and
flexible to accommodate slab movements , sealant should not flow in hot season or become brittle in
winter. Rubberized bitumen is commonly used. Hence, for effective sealing of joint for a long period, it
is essential that sealing compounds posses these properties : 1. Adhesion to cement concrete edges. 2.
Extensibility without fracture. 3. Resistance to ingress of grit. 4. Durability. Some sealants are:  Hot
poured rubberized Asphalts (Thermoplastic type)  • Cold applied poly sulphide sealants( performs
well for 5 to 7 years). • Cold silicone Sealants(performs well for 10 years.)
34. 32. QUALITY CONTROL DURING CONSTRUCTION: 1. CA samples collected should be tested to
specified tests in the laboratory to decide suitability. 2. Grading of CA and FA for mix is checked and
compared with specified gradation. 3. Samples of fresh CC mix are collected ,cube and beam specimen
prepared and tested according to standard test and checked with acceptance criteria. 4. Side slabs of
pavements is checked to find hungry/honeycombed surface such surfaces are finished with cement
mortar. 5. Regularity of finished pavements is checked with a 3m straight edge, 6 to 12 hours after
laying , maximum permissible number of irregularities of 4 mm and 7 mm sizes in a 300 m stretch are
20 and 2mm.
35. 33.  Unevenness index or roughness index is measured using bump indicator, along the wheel path of
each lane; the average value of unevenness index shall not exceed 2200 mm/Km length of highway.
36. 34. OPENING TO TRAFFIC The entire surface of newly laid pavement is carefully examined for : 1.
Fine cracks have developed on surface 2. Non-uniform settlements of CC slabs has taken place near
abutments or along high embankments. If any such defect is noticed ,then corrective measures may be
taken up. A newly constructed CC pavement stretch shall be opened to traffic only after a minimum
curing of 28 days.

Advantages and disadvantages of Different modes of

transport
By kpcuser4 | May 28, 2010
5 Comments
Transportation plays a major role in the economy. It increases the
production efficiency and it links to the logistics system. Vehicle should
have some characteristics which are used for easy transport of goods and
services.

Transportation is generally of two types. They are public transport and

transport for non generic-use. Public transport is nothing but which is
used for meeting the needs of all sectors of the people for transportation
of goods and services. Transport non-generic will be for the plant
operations here the transportation means may be by the non-transport
enterprises.

Coming to the different types of transport which are usage generally are:
1. Rail:
Advantages:
 Ability of loading and unloading goods and services is more.
 Frequency of delivering the goods over long distances is more.
 Climatic conditions have no effect
 No traffic or congestion easy movement of the vehicle.
Disadvantages:
 Capital and initial investments are more.
 High material usage for the construction and even the fuel
consumption
 The above are some of the advantages and disadvantages of using
the rail.
2. Road:
Advantages:
 High flexibity and ability to move the vehicles fastly.
 Uses different routes to reach the destination quickly.
 Does door to door service
 High safety for the cargo.
 Chance to select the carrier which is suitable for carrying the goods.
Disadvantages:
 It mostly depends on climatic conditions.
  High cost for long distances.
 Productivity is low.
 Some of the advantages and disadvantages are discussed above.
3. Air:
Advantages:
 Highest speed
 Even delivers goods to remote places.
 High reliability
Disadvantages:
 Highest cost of transportation.
 Even adverse weather conditions effect the transportation.
 Material and fuel consumption is costly.
4. Water:
Advantages:
 It is economical mode for transporting heavy loads and even cargo.
 It is the safest mode which provides convenience to the people
without accidents.
 Cost of construction and maintenance is very low.
 It even provides international transport
Disadvantages:
 It is highly affected by the weather conditions.
 It requires large initial investment
 It is a slow process.
So, these are some means of transport.

Ethiopia - Market Challenges

Learn about barriers to market entry and local requirements, i.e., things to be aware of when
entering the market for this country.

Last Published: 10/30/2019

While Ethiopia offers a number of opportunities, the market is also riddled with
challenges. The government is engaged in a slow process of economic reform and
liberalization, and the state remains heavily involved in most economic sectors.
The Government of Ethiopia (GOE) retains control over the utilities sector, such as
telecommunications, and prohibits foreign ownership of banking, insurance, and
financial services. State-owned enterprises (SOEs) and ruling political party-owned
entities dominate the economic landscape, reducing room for the private sector to
flourish. SOEs actively encourage joint venture and equity partnerships with
foreign companies.

The state-owned telecommunications company, EthioTelecom is undergoing

changes with plans to partially privatize, establish an independent telecom
regulator, and sell off licenses to third-party service providers announced in June
2018, and a new CEO, Frehiwot Tamiru, appointed in July 2018. EthioTelecom
has a record of delivering slow, expensive, and unreliable phone and internet
service.

Foreign exchange shortages, largely the result of weak export performance and
high demand for foreign currency, notably for GOE infrastructure priority projects,
will continue to present difficulties for firms in Ethiopia. Businesses can usually
expect delays in foreign exchange supply extending up to a year, and it is
especially common to expect slow-downs and down-time in manufacturing.

Electricity demand continues to outpace supply as new hydropower dams struggle

to produce at full capacity. Power transmission lines and distribution facilities are
inadequate to the demand. The GOE is investing significantly in construction of
very large-scale hydroelectric generation projects, with the objective of doubling
the current near 4000 MW power supply. If successfully completed, these projects
could meet domestic electricity demand and produce a significant surplus of power
for export. The GOE is open to proposals for power development projects using
Independent Power Purchase (IPP) agreements for the sale of renewable energy
resources (geothermal, solar, wind and biomass). USAID Power Africa is
supporting the development of a regulatory framework for IPP agreements. The
first 500 MW IPP geothermal power generation project agreement has been signed
with the U.S. company, Corbetti, under a BOOT (build, own, operate and transfer)
agreement. The Government of Ethiopia has signed a Power Purchase Agreement
(PPA) with developers to build a second 500 MW IPP, at Tulu Moye.

The Ethiopian economy has grown at a rapid pace over the past decade, but the
economy remains constrained by foreign exchange scarcity, as well as vulnerable
to periodic droughts and commodity price volatility that impacts the demand and
price of Ethiopia’s primary export commodities. The price of coffee, one-third of
Ethiopia’s exports, has a pronounced impact on Ethiopia’s export earnings.

Government procedures and paperwork are usually bureaucratic and time-

consuming, although some improvements have been made in recent years. While
the customs clearance process is still very slow, the GOE is committed to
improving its World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business (EODB) ranking and is
currently engaged in redrafting its Commercial Code, which has remained
unchanged for the past fifty years. Areas targeted for revision include the business
tax code and the registration process.

Prepared by our U.S. Embassies abroad. With its network of 108 offices across the
United States and in more than 75 countries, the U.S. Commercial Service of the
U.S. Department of Commerce utilizes its global presence and international
marketing expertise to help U.S. companies sell their products and services
worldwide. Locate the U.S. Commercial Service trade specialist in the U.S. nearest
you by visiting http://export.gov/usoffices.

Challenges of Construction Industries in

Developing Countries: Lessons from
Various Countries

G OFORI Department of Building, National University of Singapore 4 Architecture Drive, SINGAPORE

117566 bdgofori@nus.edu.sg

Abstract

The construction industry everywhere faces problems and challenges. However, in the developing
countries, these difficulties and challenges are present alongside a general situation of socio-
economic stress, chronic resource shortages, institutional weaknesses and a general inability to deal
with the key issues. There is also evidence that the problems have become greater in extent and
severity in recent years.
This paper considers some of the challenges facing the construction industries in developing
countries. The main issues addressed are: construction industry development; globalisation; culture;
and the environment. In each case, the issue is analysed from the perspective of the developing
countries, and the main implications and present challenges highlighted. Lessons are then drawn
mainly from the recent experience of other countries al all levels of development, especially
Singapore, to highlight possible ways by which progress can be made in the developing countries. A
research agenda is presented and the important role of researchers in the drive to improve the
performance of the construction industries of the developing countries in the light of their resource
constraints and administrative weaknesses, is outlined.

Keywords: construction industry development; globalisation; culture; the environment; research

agenda

INTRODUCTION

Many topical issues which have implications for the construction industry have, so far, only been
discussed to a significant extent in the context of the industrialised countries. It is often considered
that these matters do not (or not yet) concern the developing countries. This paper addresses some
of these issues and analyses them from the perspective of the developing countries. It starts with
construction industry development which, ironically, is often seen as a need for only developing
countries, although it is also relevant to industrialised countries. It then proceeds to discuss
globalisation, culture and the environment. In each case, the relevance of the topic is highlighted;
and examples of good initiatives and practices in other countries are discussed. In the penultimate
section, the further discussion of each of the issues ends with a consideration of issues to be studied
further by researchers.

KEY CHALLENGES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS

Construction industry development

At the first meeting of this Task Group, it was agreed that construction industry development is a
deliberate process to improve the capacity and effectiveness of the construction industry in order to
meet the demand for building and civil engineering products, and to support sustained national
economic and social development objectives (CIB, 1999). It was also agreed that construction
industry development promotes:

(a) increased value for money to industry clients as well as environmental responsibility in the
delivery process; and (b) the viability and competitiveness of domestic construction enterprises.

The construction industry, by nature, has many special problems and requirements (see Hillebrandt,
2000 for a discussion of the key features of the industry). The importance of taking measures to
improve the performance of the construction industry has now been recognised in several countries
at various levels of socio-economic development. Dedicated agencies have been formed in many
countries to administer the continuous improvement of the industry, although they have different
objectives, responsibilities and levels of authority. In the UK, the Construction Industry Board is an
industry initiative, whereas its counterpart institutions in developing countries are government
agencies. They include the Construction Industry Development Board of Malaysia, the Institute of
Construction Training and Development of Sri Lanka and the National Construction Council of
Tanzania (Miles and Neale, 1991). Singapore’s Building and Construction Authority is also a
government agency.

The recent formation of construction industry development agencies in the Southern African
countries, with a regional initiative to co-ordinate efforts and pool resources where necessary, is
encouraging. It is heartening that many of the institutions are industry inspired, or involve the
industry’s active participation. Such initiatives potentially have greater sustainability and chances of
success because the main stakeholder and beneficiary is directly included in the planning and
implementation processes.

Considering the nature of the industry’s needs and problems, and in many developing countries, the
resource constraints, formation of an agency does not guarantee the success of construction
industry development. An important point worth stressing is that construction industry development
is a continuous process. A number of countries at different levels of development have recently
formulated long-term plans for improving their construction industries. These include: Australia
(Australian Procurement and Construction Council, 1997), Hong Kong, Singapore (Construction 21
Steering Committee) and the UK (Latham, 1994; Egan, 1998). The reviews have been given impetus
by both internal and external trends which indicate a challenging future for each of these
construction industries. The trends include the needs of an increasingly sophisticated economy,
client demands, technological and social change, and globalisation leading to competitive pressures.
The initiative in Singapore, which has a successful construction industry development agency
(formed in 1984 originally as the Construction Industry and Development Board, which became the
Building and Construction Authority in 1999) is a good example of such efforts.
The Construction 21 (C21) exercise in Singapore was initiated at a higher level than the Building and
Construction Authority. It was launched by the Ministry of Manpower and Ministry of National
Development in a bid to improve the productivity of the industry by a radical restructuring of its
processes, procedures and practices (Construction 21 Steering Committee, 1999). A steering
committee representing the main segments of the industry was appointed, with the following terms
of reference: (i) to arrive at a vision and role for the construction industry in the 21st century; (ii) to
examine the current status of the construction industry with regard to techniques, manpower,
management practices and others and benchmark it against the best standards in the world; (iii) to
set concrete targets for the construction industry and its workforce in Singapore by taking into
account the gaps between current reality and the intended vision; and (iv) to recommend strategies
to meet the targets and move the construction industry and workforce towards the intended vision.

The C21 Steering Committee formulated a vision for Singapore’s construction industry for the 21st
century: “To Be a World Class Builder in the Knowledge Age”. Under the vision, C21 proposes to
transform Singapore’s construction industry from “the 3Ds” to “the 3Ps”, i.e., from an industry which
is “dirty, dangerous and demanding” to one which is “professional, productive and progressive”. The
report highlighted the following desired outcomes for the Singapore construction industry: (i) a
professional, productive and progressive industry; (ii) a knowledge workforce; (iii) superior
capabilities through synergistic partnerships; (iv) integrated process for high buildability; (v)
contributor to wealth through cost competitiveness; and (vi) construction expertise as an export
industry. Under the vision, six strategic thrusts were identified:

1: Enhancing the Professionalism of the Industry 2: Raising the Skills Level 3: Improving Industry
Practices and Techniques 4: Adopting an Integrated Approach to Construction 5: Developing an
External Wing 6: A Collective Championing Effort for the Construction Industry.

Thirty-nine recommendations are presented in the C21 report, specific targets are set and
responsible organisations indicated. The Building and Construction Authority is identified as the
“champion agency” and the Construction Industry Joint Council is also assigned some
responsibilities. The implementation period is 2000-2010.

Globalisation

Globalisation is a trend which has occupied the headlines of major popular publications for several
decades. There are sharply different arguments on the merits and otherwise of the process of
globalisation from the perspective of the developing countries. One of the short-term aims of the
CIB Task Group 29 (TG29) is to study the implications of globalisation for the construction industries
of developing countries. As far as these industries are concerned, globalisation is an inescapable fact.
This is because many of the construction projects which the nations require for their socio-economic
development are beyond the capability of their industries to undertake, owing to the size, novelty
and complexity of those projects (Drewer, 1980). Therefore, the developing countries must import
some construction activities. Table 1 shows the advantages and demerits of globalisation to the
construction industries of developing countries. Reviewing developments in the construction
industry in several Asian countries in the 1990s, Raftery et al (1998) identified three trends: (a) a
greater extent of private-sector participation in major infrastructure projects; (b) increasing vertical
integration in the packaging of construction projects which are growing larger; and (c) increased
foreign participation in the construction industries of most of the countries, almost all of which are
developing. They attributed these trends to “the globalisation and deregulation of markets
necessitated by fiscal technological and managerial constraints” (p. 729).

Table 1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Globalisation Considering Construction Industries in

Developing Countries Advantages Disadvantages Involvement of international finance makes
possible the implementation of several projects, such as those of major infrastructure. Local
construction firms have no funds or expertise to participate in the sponsorship of privatised projects.
Direct foreign investment in projects leads to increase in construction demand, creating work
opportunities for local firms. Local construction companies lack the technical and managerial
capability to undertake most of the foreign-funded projects. Competition among foreign firms
lowers the costs of projects to developing countries. It is possible that local firms will be deprived of
the opportunity to grow (Hillebrandt, 1999). Presence of large numbers of international firms offers
scope for technology transfer and the development of local firms and upgrading of the industry. The
large number of such firms also means that technology transfer can be a tool for competition.
Foreign construction firms may pay lip service to technology transfer (Carillo, 1994) or take
measures to avoid it. Moreover, local companies may not be in a position to benefit from technology
transfer, or to subsequently utilise the acquired expertise.

The study of international contractors and their role in developing countries is not new. Turin (1973)
identified in his matrix of construction industries in developing countries, “international-large”
projects which are large and complex, and can only be undertaken by foreign contractors. Edmonds
and Miles (1984) and the World Bank (1984) are among authors who have observed that
“international” or “foreign”

contractors are prominent among large construction firms in developing countries. Turin (1973),
Drewer (1980) and other authors advised developing nations to use their construction work to
support the growth and development of their indigenous contractors so that they can replace the
foreign firms. On the other hand, Moavenzadeh (1978) saw no end to the dominant position of the
foreign companies and urged developing countries to use foreign firms on a long-term basis to
undertake the large and complex projects.
Abbott (1985) studied the technology transfer potential of the operations of foreign contractors in
developing countries. Strassman and Wells (1988) note that Japanese and South Korean contractors
benefited from technology transfer from their US counterparts. Moavenzadeh and Hagopian (1984)
see foreign contractors as the sole factor influencing the development of the construction industries
of poorer countries. This model is criticized by Ofori (1996) who notes that the objectives of foreign
construction enterprises and host developing country governments differ. Raftery et al. (1998)
suggest that in the long term, the gap between local construction firms and their foreign
counterparts in technology, finance and management knowhow, could be filled through technology
transfer, for example, via joint ventures among the two groups of firms. However, several authors
have mentioned the difficulties involved in technology transfer, including the tendency of foreign
contractors to adopt strategies which do not support host countries’ effort to develop their
industries (Cockburn, 1970). Abbott’s (1985) and Carrillo’s (1994) works show that the foreign firms
are not keen to effectively transfer their technology since they believe that it means they would be
nurturing their future competitors. Ofori (1996) noted that both local and foreign firms benefit if
systematic efforts are made by the latter to develop the former.

Rashid (1993) draws lessons for developing-country contractors from the international operations of
foreign firms. Ofori (1996) and Ofori and Chan (2000) show that both local and foreign contractors in
Singapore have benefited from the latter’s operations.

CULTURE

The project procurement and administrative arrangements currently in use in developing countries
have been inherited from Western countries which have a different history, culture, collective
experience and breadth of construction expertise. These arrangements determine the
documentation, procedures and practices in the industry, and specify the roles of the participants
and the relationships among them, and hence the networks of power and authority. They stress
formality and the following of set channels of communication. Ironically, the countries of origin of
these procurement arrangements have changed their approaches. For example, after a
comprehensive review of the UK construction industry, Latham (1994) advocated the building of
trust and a spirit of partnering in an industry characterised by mistrust, rivalries and adversarialism.
Moreover, the “traditional” procurement approach, which is still predominant in the in the
Commonwealth countries, is now only one of many possible ones. Furthermore, the influences on
the UK construction have come from other industrialised countries, mainly the US. Rwelamila et al
(2000) showed that the failure to consider and incorporate cultural traits in the procurement
systems of construction project adopted in Southern Africa is a major contributor to the generally
poor performance on projects. Studies in other countries might reach similar conclusions.
Culture has become an important area of study in business organisations (see, for example,
Hofstede, 1980). It has been found that every organization has a culture which is determined by its
history, size, corporate goals and objectives, technology of production, market, and operating
environment (Handy, 1985). In construction, where several organisations temporarily interact on
each project, cultural issues are constantly to the fore (Barthorpe et al., 1999). The ability to manage
cultural issues, especially in multi-cultural situations as are encountered on large construction
projects, is a determinant of project and corporate success.

In construction, the studies relating to culture have concerned:

• the impact of the nation’s culture on construction activity (Rwelamila et al, 2000)

• the culture of the construction project (Rowlinson and Root, 1997) • the culture of the
construction firm (Liu and Fellows, 1999) • the culture of the construction site (Applebaum, 1991).

Given the uniqueness of culture to particular groups of people, and its pervasive influence in
societies and organisations, these studies confirm that the construction industry must differ in every
country. Thus, it is necessary for effort to be made to devise practices, procedures and relationships
which are suited to the culture of each country: universal solutions are not practical. In particular,
effort should be made to formulate procurement approaches which enable and facilitate the
integration of the construction process in the context of the country concerned.

THE ENVIRONMENT

The issue of the environment has been topical since the eighties, and has been a major subject of
research and international attention since the mid-eighties. There is a belief that countries do, or
should, only pay attention to the environment and endeavour to protect it when they attain a high
level of socio-economic development. However, the issue of preserving the environment should be
of even greater interest to developing countries since they face severe environment-related
problems (UNCHS, 1996). Most of these countries have fragile environments, and are faced with
high levels of land degradation (erosion, aridity, desertification, drought, flooding, alkalinisation and
salinisation). Many of them also experience acute shortages of fresh water, a situation which is
expected to worsen, and possibly lead to conflict among nations. The developing countries are also
losing their forests at a very fast rate. The countries also face rapid urbanisation with its associated
problems of air pollution and pressure on existing infrastructure such as waste management
systems. Another important issue in the context of developing countries is the volume of physical
resources which will be required to meet the backlog of infrastructural and building needs which
they must fulfil if they are to develop, as well as to raise the standard of living of their peoples. For
example, the UNCHS (1996) notes that more than 600 million people in the urban areas of the world
are homeless or live in life- and health-threatening situations. Meeting these key requirements of
the economies and basic needs of the peoples will put severe pressure on the resources of the
countries as well as the globe. These trends underline the critical importance of the sustainable
management of resources in developing countries.

The environmental problems of the developing countries exist side-by-side with a lack of the
managerial experience, financial resources, and legal and administrative systems necessary to deal
with the issue through public and formal education, formulation and enforcement of “command and
control” measures (legislation and regulations), as well as the devising and implementation of
“economic instruments” (incentives – grants, subsidies – and taxes).

The foregoing discussion puts into perspective the environmental implications of construction
activity for the developing countries. Table 2 shows the way in which construction affects the
environment, a subject on which there is now a considerable volume of literature (see a review in
Hill and Bowen, 1997 and Ofori, 2000). Perhaps the most relevant of the adverse impacts to most of
the people of these countries is the utilisation of resources, since more of their people rely on
natural resources at the basic level (such as the forests) for their livelihood. Also important are the
health problems relating to air and water pollution, considering the rudimentary nature of the
health care systems of most developing countries. Also worth considering is the loss of land when
construction takes place on green-field sites, as it takes land away from other uses, such as
agriculture, leading to the loss of livelihood of some of the people.

Table 2: Environmental Impact and Considerations of Construction Activity What is used Where it is
built How it is built What is built

* where raw materials are obtained

* location of facility; nature of terrain and ground conditions; alternative uses of the land

* methods of construction on site

* planning and design of facility (eg. potential of daylighting and natural ventilation)

* how raw materials are extracted; how land is restored after extraction (if necessary)

* immediate physical environment; proximity to water sources and ecosystems

* construction project management systems (eg. quality management systems)

* life-cycle economic, quality, maintainability considerations

* how raw materials are processed

* social disruption (eg. displacement of site’s inhabitants)

* site control measures (housekeeping)

* extent of use of energy and other resources in operation of building

* whether, and how renewable raw materials are regenerated

* economic disruption (eg. loss of livelihoods of previous inhabitants)

* welfare of site workers, neighbours and general public

* ease of demolition of building (deconstruction)

* how materials are transported to, and stored on, site

* present infrastructure, need for expansion to serve new building, its impact

* resource management (including waste minimisation)

* recycling and reuse of demolition waste

* how materials are moved on site

* impact on local vehicular traffic Source: Adapted from Ofori (1999)

Many countries, mainly industrialised ones, have taken action to ensure that their construction
industries adopt materials, techniques and practices which result in operations and products which
have a lower environmental impact. The developing countries can derive useful lessons from these
measures. They include the following:

• government action – legislation and regulations on environmental performance; requirement for

licenses and approvals; subsidies, tax incentives and grants; certification and labeling of products •
market forces – clients’ insistence on better environmental performance; other construction firms
adopting or benefiting from, good environmental practices • institutional initiatives – professional
bodies offering advice and support services to members • operational environment – action of
pressure groups and informed users.

Discussion

In this section, some pertinent issues which could form part of an agenda for research on the
construction industries of developing countries in the medium-term are discussed under the main
points considered above. Other authors have proposed topics for further studies in this area. For
example, after reviewing the state of the art of research in construction industry development, Ofori
(1993) proposed that there should be “appropriate research” which should seek to recognize the
circumstances of the developing countries, and to adapt and use the available analytical techniques
to help solve the difficulties facing their construction industries” (p. 182). The topics for research
suggested included: conceptualization of the construction industry and development of a common
framework for its analysis; development of conceptual models of stages through which a
construction industry passes as it progresses to maturity; how construction can help nations out of
long-term economic problems and how the industry can be improved in such circumstances;
appropriate construction materials and techniques; design of educational programmes for producing

essential technical personnel. It was also suggested that such research works be co-ordinated and
their results better disseminated.

Construction industry development

The economies of many developing countries are currently confronted by severe difficulties owing to
a combination of lower commodity prices, higher energy costs, falling exchange rates and rising
inflation. At the same time, the countries face immense social problems (including a rising urban
population and unemployment) which are putting pressure on the nation’s resources and
capabilities. The construction industry in a typical developing country is facing reduced levels of
demand as a result of adjustment programmes which invariably involve cuts in governments’ capital
investment. The challenge, as Ofori (1993) suggests, is that the construction industry should do well
despite the severe constraints in its operating environment. Moreover, the construction industry
must help the national economies to recover, and also contribute to the easing of the social
problems.

Ways must be found to take advantage of the special features of construction which offer unique
opportunities. First, the construction industry should effectively play its role in the economy by
realising its potential to create jobs in all parts of the country as well as stimulating business
activities in other sectors of the economy. New strategies are necessary to make this possible.
Second, construction activities should lay the infrastructure for development. With public funds
under severe strain and chronically short, ways must be found to structure funding strategies which
are suitable for the developing countries. Investment approaches which broaden the base of
ownership among the population and give the immediate community a stake in major development
projects could be formulated

While it is an encouraging step, the formation of a construction industry development agency is only
the beginning of a long process. In order to realise tangible results in terms of improvements in the
performance of, and prospects for, the construction industry, several other issues require attention.
First, the agency should formulate long-term plans for developing the industry (Ofori, 1993). These
should be supported by comprehensive reviews of the state of the industry and its concerns and
imperatives. Second, resources should be allocated to the tasks outlined, and effectively utilised.
One of the most important resources is people, and in particular, the personnel of the agency. Even
more important is leadership (Miles and Neale, 1991). Third, the agency should be in close contact
with the industry, and have complete control over all its aspects. Fourth, as mentioned above, the
construction industry should, preferably, have a role to play in the work of the agency in formulating
and implementing its plans. Finally, the agency should be continuously relevant. This implies that its
plans, policies, initiatives, procedures and communication channels should be continually reviewed
and fine-tuned or radically restructured where necessary.

Corporate development is of crucial importance. Construction industries need companies which take
a longterm view, and are prepared to invest in human resource, equipment and research and
development in order to improve their performance. However, the construction enterprises in
developing countries are known for their lack of knowledge, short-term orientation and lack of focus
on construction (Ofori, 1991). They are also unable to employ qualified personnel, and/or unwilling
to appoint them to positions of responsibility. Management development should be a key concern in
the construction firms of the developing countries.

Globalisation

There is a perception that globalisation is a one-way flow of exports from the industrialized countries
to developing ones. However, two points should be made. First, the firms from industrialized
countries are also active in each other’s markets, i.e., the “international construction market” does
not only lie within the developing countries. Second, it must be remembered that in globalisation,
some of the exporting construction enterprises are from developing countries. A study of the top 30
international construction firms during 1990-1999 revealed that 58 contractors were listed at least
once among the top 30 Engineering News Record (ENR) contractors during the period (ENR, 1990 to
1999). US contractors had the highest number listed: (14, or 24%) followed by Japan (9, or 16%),
France (8, or 14%) UK (6, or 10%) and

Germany (5, or 9%). Thirteen of the contractors were from Asian countries (Japan, Korea and China),
while the others were all from Europe and America.

A study of the performance of construction firms from Asia on the world market during 1990-99
revealed many significant players (ENR, 1990 to 1999). Four Singapore contractors were listed
among the top 225 ENR contractors in 1990-99. The highest ranking was 93, in 1993. However, none
of the Singapore contractors was able to remain on the ENR list throughout the 10 years. Only one
Malaysian firm was listed for three years, attaining its highest ranking of 180th in 1994. Four
Taiwanese contractors were listed at least once among the top 225 international contractors, with
the highest ranking being 97 in 1990, by a contractor which was on the ENR list throughout the ten-
year period. One Hong Kong contractor was listed on the list continuously after 1995, and its ranking
rose steadily from 183 to 63 in 1999. Some 19 Korean contractors were listed at least once in the
ENR top 225 during 1990-1999. The highest ranking was 12th by Hyundai Engineering & Construction
Co. in 1998. As many as 35 Chinese contractors were listed at least once in the ENR top 225 through
1990-1999. The highest ranking was 24, by China State Construction and Engineering Corporation in
1999. Three contractors have remained on the list steadily throughout the 10 years. Two Philippine
contractors were listed at least once in the ENR top 225 firms with the highest ranking of 139th, in
1993. Finally, 3 Indian contractors were listed at least once in the ENR top 225 firms, with the
highest ranked at 147th, in 1995. One firm was listed for 7 years.

The implications of globalisation for the construction industries of developing countries require
further study. First, the costs and benefits to national construction industries should be studied.
These may differ from those for the national economy. Second, work is required on how the benefits
of globalisation can be maximised and the adverse effects minimised for the benefit of both the
developing-country firms and their foreign counterparts. Third, actions which the industry itself can
take also requires to be studied. The final issue needing further investigation is intra-industry
diffusion of technologies and knowledge. The subject here would be how the larger local contractors
can use the relevant know-how acquired from their foreign counterparts or other sources, to lead
the industry to upgrade. Several authors predict that construction firms from developing countries
will play an increasingly greater role in the global market in future (see, for example, Hassan et al.,
1998). The way in which these companies can actively help to upgrade their national construction
industries should also be studied. Another issue is the possibility of cross-border strategic alliances
among construction firms from developing countries, which will enable them to collaborate in
modern construction business and technology development. For example, Ofori (2000) notes that
China has several international contractors but foreign firms are active on its sophisticated-project
market. India has large numbers of skilled personnel, and foreign enterprises have set up skills-
intensive operations such as design and informationtechnology offices. However, few Indian
construction firms are successful overseas. Strategic collaboration among companies from these
nations for projects within their own countries and beyond, would be beneficial.
Culture

The subject of culture has rightly come to the fore in construction research. So far, the work has
focused on industrialised countries. It is necessary to reconsider the arrangements and procedures
of the construction industries of developing countries, especially since the countries from which they
are borrowed have already taken measures to review or replace them. Effort is required to reflect
the cultural attributes and values of individual developing countries in their construction practices
and procedures. The existing ones are not only currently obsolete, but they are also inappropriate.

Studies on the culture of construction and construction-related firms, projects and workers in the
developing countries would, among other things:

• help managers to understand how to communicate with, and motivate, their workers • enable
clients to appreciate how to offer incentives to, and steer construction firms to innovate • offer
insights into the most effective way to transfer technology to local construction firms

• help project managers to integrate the contributions of the project participants most effectively.

The environment

As Ofori (1998) notes, the construction industry lags behind other sectors in its response to the
problems of the environment. In the developing countries, this issue receives even less attention
although it is of critical importance. Work on the environmental implications of construction activity
in developing countries should be undertaken as a matter of urgency. Considering these resource
and expertise constraints which these countries face, emphasis should be on prevention. The actions
which should be taken require investigation. Considering the weakness of the private sector in
developing countries, the role of the government as a construction client would be paramount.
Construction companies and practitioners should be encouraged to continuously search for inputs
and ways of working which will minimise the negative impact of construction activity on the
environment. Detailed case studies of good practice would also be useful. The possibility of
preparing good-practice manuals suitable for use in various contexts could be explored.

6.Pavement Distresses
Properly designed and maintained HMA pavements can provide many years of satisfactory
service. However, like all pavements, HMA pavements can be damaged by certain
conditions. This page is intended to:

1. Assist in identifying basic HMA pavement damage. HMA pavement damage that is
visible at the surface of the pavement is often called “surface distress”.
2. Provide some insight into why particular surface distresses are problematic.
3. Provide some basic guidance into what kinds of conditions might lead to certain
surface distresses.
4. Suggest some basic repair strategies.

This section is organized alphabetically by type of surface distress. If you are looking for a
specific type, scroll down and look at the thumbnails to see which picture most closely
matches the condition you are investigating. Photos of each type of distress are accompanied
by a description of the distress, the reason it is a problem, some of the most likely causes and
basic repair strategy.

Index of Pavement Distress

 Alligator (Fatigue) Cracking
 Bleeding
 Block Cracking
 Corrugation and Shoving
 Depression
 Joint Reflection Cracking
 Longitudinal Cracking
 Patching
 Polished Aggregate
 Potholes
 Raveling
 Rutting
 Slippage Cracking
 Stripping
 Transverse (Thermal) Cracking
 Water Bleeding and Pumping

Note on Pavement Distress

Distressed pavement is often a result of a combination of factors, rather than just one root
cause. There are always exceptions to the rule – the exact condition you are looking for may
Appendix A Pavement Distress Types and Causes
This Appendix provides descriptions of the types and causes of the distresses that occur in
asphalt, concrete, and asphalt-overlaid concrete pavements, and asphalt and concrete
shoulders. Many of the photos used in this Appendix are from the LTPP Distress
Identification Manual.1

6…Asphalt Pavement Distresses

Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking

Fatigue (also called alligator) cracking, which is caused by fatigue damage, is the principal
structural distress which occurs in asphalt pavements with granular and weakly stabilized
bases. Alligator cracking first appears as parallel longitudinal cracks in the wheelpaths, and
progresses into a network of interconnecting cracks resembling chicken wire or the skin of an
alligator. Alligator cracking may progress further, particularly in areas where the support is
weakest, to localized failures and potholes.

Figure A-1. Fatigue (alligator) cracking in asphalt pavement.1

Factors which influence the development of alligator cracking are the number and magnitude
of applied loads, the structural design of the pavement (layer materials and thicknesses), the
quality and uniformity of foundation support, the consistency of the asphalt cement, the
asphalt content, the air voids and aggregate characeristics of the asphalt concrete mix, and the
climate of the site (i.e., theseasonal range and distribution of temperatures). 2,3

A-1

Considerable laboratory research into the fatigue life of asphalt concrete mixes has been
conducted. However, attempting to infer from such laboratory tests how asphalt concrete
mix properties influence asphalt pavement fatigue life requires consideration of the mode of
laboratory testing (constant stress or constant strain) and the failure criterion used.
Constantstress testing suggests that any asphalt cement property (e.g., lower penetration,
higher viscosity) or mix property which increases mix stiffness will increase fatigue life.
Constant-strain testing suggests the opposite: that less brittle mixes (e.g., higher penetrations,
lower viscosities) exhibit longerfatigue lives. The prevailing recommendations arethat low-
stiffness(low viscosity) asphalt cements should be used for thin asphalt concrete layers (i.e.,
less than 5 inches), and that the fatigue life of such mixes should be evaluated using constant-
strain testing, while highstiffness (high viscosity) asphalt cements should be used for asphalt
concrete layers 5 inches and thicker, and the fatigue life of such mixes should be evaluated
using constant-stress testing.3 In practice, however, it is not common to modify the mixture
stiffness for different asphalt concrete layer thicknesses. Bleeding
Severe bleeding. Bleeding in the wheelpath.
Description: A film of asphalt binder on the pavement surface. It usually creates a shiny,
glass-like reflecting surface that can become sticky when dry and slippery when wet.

Problem: Loss of skid resistance when wet, unsightly

Possible Causes: Bleeding occurs when asphalt binder fills the aggregate voids during hot
weather or traffic compaction, and then expands onto the pavement surface. Since bleeding is
not reversible during cold weather or periods of low loading, asphalt binder will accumulate
on the pavement surface over time. Likely causes are:

 Excessive asphalt binder in the HMA (either due to a poor mix design or
manufacturing problems)
 Excessive application of asphalt binder during BST application
 Low HMA air void content (e.g., not enough void space for the asphalt to occupy),
likely a mix design problem

Repair: The following repair measures may eliminate or reduce the asphalt binder film on
the pavement’s surface but may not correct the underlying problem that caused the bleeding:

 Minor bleeding can often be corrected by applying coarse sand to blot up the excess
asphalt binder.
  Major bleeding can be corrected by cutting off excess asphalt with a motor grader or
removing it with a heater planer. If the resulting surface is excessively rough,
resurfacing may be necessary (APAI, no date given).

Block Cracking

Block cracking in a parking

lane. Parking lanes see little if any traffic, therefore the only likely Block cracking in a parking lane.
distresses that will occur are raveling and block cracking. These
cracks are probably too wide to be effectively crack sealed.
Description: Interconnected cracks that divide the pavement up into rectangular pieces.
Blocks range in size from approximately 1 ft2 to 100 ft2. Larger blocks are generally classified
as longitudinal and transverse cracking. Block cracking normally occurs over a large portion
of pavement area but sometimes will occur only in non-traffic areas.

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

Possible Causes: HMA shrinkage and daily temperature cycling. Typically caused by an
inability of asphalt binder to expand and contract with temperature cycles because of:

 Asphalt binder aging

 Poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix design

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the block cracking:

 Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide). Crack seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into
the subgrade through the cracks and (2) further raveling of the crack edges. HMA can
provide years of satisfactory service after developing small cracks if they are kept
sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996[1]). If looks are important, or cracking is extensive, a
slurry seal can be placed over the sealed cracks.
 High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and cracks with raveled edges). Remove and
replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.
Corrugation and Shoving

Shoving at a busy intersection.

Shoving in an intersection.
Description: A form of plastic movement typified by ripples (corrugation) or an abrupt wave
(shoving) across the pavement surface. The distortion is perpendicular to the traffic direction.
Usually occurs at points where traffic starts and stops (corrugation) or areas where HMA
abuts a rigid object (shoving).

Problem: Roughness

Possible Causes: Usually caused by traffic action (starting and stopping) combined with:

 An unstable (i.e. low stiffness) HMA layer (caused by mix contamination, poor mix
design, poor HMA manufacturing, or lack of aeration of liquid asphalt emulsions)
 Excessive moisture in the subgrade

Repair: A heavily corrugated or shoved pavement should be investigated to determine the

root cause of failure. Repair strategies generally fall into one of two categories:

 Small, localized areas of corrugation or shoving. Remove the distorted pavement and
patch.
 Large corrugated or shoved areas indicative of general HMA failure. Remove the
damaged pavement and overlay.
Depression

Slight
depression in the loading dock area of a hardware
store. This is likely due to a localized area of soft
subgrade.

Depression in an access roadway probably caused by

subgrade settlement. Note that the pavement has
fatigue cracked significantly as it has settled.
Description: Localized pavement surface areas with slightly lower elevations than the
surrounding pavement. Depressions are very noticeable after a rain when they fill with water.

Problem: Roughness, depressions filled with substantial water can cause vehicle
hydroplaning

Possible Causes: Subgrade settlement resulting from inadequate compaction during

construction.

Repair: By definition, depressions are small localized areas. A pavement depression should
be investigated to determine the root cause of failure. Depressions should be repaired by
removing the affected pavement then digging out and replacing the area of poor subgrade.
Patch over the repaired subgrade.
Joint Reflection Cracking

Joint reflective cracking on a low-use industrial road.

Joint reflective cracking on an urban arterial.

Description: Cracks in a flexible overlay of a rigid pavement. The cracks occur directly over
the underlying rigid pavement joints. Joint reflection cracking does not include reflection
cracks that occur away from an underlying joint or from any other type of base (e.g., cement
or lime stabilized).

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

Possible Causes: Movement of the rigid pavement slab beneath the HMA surface because of
thermal and moisture changes. Generally not load initiated, however loading can hasten
deterioration.

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:

 Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1)
entry of moisture into the subgrade through the cracks and (2) further raveling of the
crack edges. In general, rigid pavement joints will eventually reflect through an HMA
overlay without proper surface preparation.
  High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay after proper preparation of the underlying
rigid pavement.

Longitudinal Cracking

Longitudinal cracking. The cracking appears to be

the onset of alligator (fatigue) cracking and may be
occurring on the longitudinal joints.

Longitudinal cracking on a collector street. The

cracking appears to be the onset of alligator (fatigue)
cracking and may be occurring on the longitudinal
joints.
Description: Cracks parallel to the pavement’s centerline or laydown direction. Usually a
type of fatigue cracking.

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness, indicates possible onset of fatigue

cracking and structural failure.

Possible Causes:

 Poor joint construction or location. Joints are generally the least dense areas of a
pavement. Therefore, they should be constructed outside of the wheelpath so that they
are only infrequently loaded. Joints in the wheelpath will general fail prematurely.
 A reflective crack from an underlying layer (not including joint reflection cracking)
 HMA fatigue (indicates the onset of future fatigue cracking)
 Top-down cracking
Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:

 Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1)
entry of moisture into the subgrade through the cracks and (2) further raveling of the
crack edges. HMA can provide years of satisfactory service after developing small
cracks if they are kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996[1]).
 High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

Patching

Right: Larger
Utility patch across an arterial. Notice that the patc
edges are separated from the surrounding pavemen
These edges need to be crack sealed to prevent
water infiltration into the subgrade.

Small utility patch on a collector street.

Description: An area of pavement that has been replaced with new material to repair the
existing pavement. A patch is considered a defect no matter how well it performs.

Problem: Roughness

Possible Causes:

 Previous localized pavement deterioration that has been removed and patched
 Utility cuts
Repair: Patches are themselves a repair action. The only way they can be removed from a
pavement’s surface is by either a structural or non-structural overlay.

Polished Aggregate

Two
adjacent SMA pavements at the NCAT Test Track
near Auburn, AL. The pavement on the right uses
river rock, which is more susceptible to abrasion,
as its aggregate and is showing some signs of
aggregate polishing.

Thi
close-up picture of a road surface shows aggregate wea
after about 5 years of wear.
Description: Areas of HMA pavement where the portion of aggregate extending above the
asphalt binder is either very small or there are no rough or angular aggregate particles.

Problem: Decreased skid resistance

Possible Causes: Repeated traffic applications. Generally, as a pavement ages the protruding
rough, angular particles become polished. This can occur quicker if the aggregate is
susceptible to abrasion.

Repair: Apply a skid-resistant slurry seal, BST or non-structural overlay.

Potholes

Pothole
on a major highway. The area has been repaired but the repa
is failing. A more comprehensive effort is needed to correct
Pothole this pavement failure.
forming from a badly fatigued wheelpath
area on an arterial. Notice the water in the
pothole even though it has not rained in
almost 12 hours.
Description: Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement surface that penetrate all the
way through the HMA layer down to the base course. They generally have sharp edges and
vertical sides near the top of the hole. Potholes are most likely to occur on roads with thin
HMA surfaces (1 to 2 inches) and seldom occur on roads with 4 inch or deeper HMA
surfaces (Roberts et al., 1996[1]).

Problem: Roughness (serious vehicular damage can result from driving across potholes at
higher speeds), moisture infiltration

Possible Causes: Generally, potholes are the end result of fatigue cracking. As fatigue
cracking becomes severe, the interconnected cracks create small chunks of pavement, which
can be dislodged as vehicles drive over them. The remaining hole after the pavement chunk is
dislodged is called a pothole.

Repair: In accordance with patching techniques.

Raveling
 This road
has not been overlayed in almost 20 years. Additionally, it
was used as an arterial bypass for 6 months as a sewer line
was placed under the arterial. Raveled
area on an arterial in Honolulu. This
raveling is probably a result of segregation,
temperature differentials or inadequate
compaction.
Description: The progressive disintegration of an HMA layer from the surface downward as
a result of the dislodgement of aggregate particles.
Problem: Loose debris on the pavement, roughness, water collecting in the raveled locations
resulting in vehicle hydroplaning, loss of skid resistance

Possible Causes:

 Loss of bond between aggregate particles and the asphalt binder as a result of:
o Asphalt binder aging. Aging is generally associated with asphalt binder
oxidation as it gets older. As the asphalt binder gets older, oxygen reacts with
its constituent molecules resulting in a stiffer, more viscous material that is
more likely to lose aggregates on the pavement surface as they are pulled
away by traffic.
o A dust coating on the aggregate particles that forces the asphalt binder to bond
with the dust rather than the aggregate
o Aggregate segregation. If fine particles are missing from the aggregate matrix,
then the asphalt binder is only able to bind the remaining coarse particles at
their relatively few contact points.
o Inadequate compaction during construction. High density is required to
develop sufficient cohesion within the HMA. Often, inadequate compaction
will also result in rutting because once the pavement is opened to traffic, it
will continue to compact in the wheelpaths under traffic loading.
 Mechanical dislodging by certain types of traffic (studded tires, snowplow blades or
tracked vehicles).

Repair: A raveled pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure.
Repair strategies generally fall into one of two categories:
  Small, localized areas of raveling. Remove the raveled pavement and patch. If the
pavement is still structurally sound, the raveling can be fixed with a fog seal or slurry
seal.
 Large raveled areas indicative of general HMA failure. Remove the damaged
pavement and overlay.

Rutting

Shallow rutting on another Honolulu arterial.

Shallow rutting on a Honolulu arterial.

Description: Surface depression in the wheelpath. Pavement uplift (shearing) may occur
along the sides of the rut. Ruts are particularly evident after a rain when they are filled with
water. There are two basic types of rutting: mix rutting and subgrade rutting. Mix rutting
occurs when the subgrade does not rut yet the pavement surface exhibits wheelpath
depressions as a result of compaction/mix design problems. Subgrade rutting occurs when the
subgrade exhibits wheelpath depressions due to loading. In this case, the pavement settles
into the subgrade ruts causing surface depressions in the wheelpath.

Problem: Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle hydroplaning, can be hazardous because
ruts tend to pull a vehicle towards the rut path as it is steered across the rut.

Possible Causes: Permanent deformation in any of a pavement’s layers or subgrade usually

caused by consolidation or lateral movement of the materials due to traffic loading. Specific
causes of rutting can be:
  Insufficient compaction of HMA layers during construction. If it is not compacted
enough initially, HMA pavement may continue to densify under traffic loads.
 Subgrade rutting (e.g., as a result of inadequate pavement structure)
 Improper mix design or manufacture (e.g., excessively high asphalt content, excessive
mineral filler, insufficient amount of angular aggregate particles)

Repair: A heavily rutted pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of
failure (e.g. insufficient compaction, subgrade rutting, poor mix design or studded tire wear).
Slight ruts (< 1/3 inch deep) can generally be left untreated. Pavement with deeper ruts
should be leveled and overlayed.

Slippage Cracking

Slippage crack on a truck haul road.

Slippage crack possibly caused by poor tack coat

bonding.
Description: Crescent or half-moon shaped cracks generally having two ends pointed into
the direction of traffic.

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

Possible Causes: Braking or turning wheels cause the pavement surface to slide and deform.
The resulting sliding and deformation is caused by a low-strength surface mix or poor
bonding between the surface HMA layer and the next underlying layer in the pavement
structure.

Repair: Removal and replacement of affected area.

Stripping

A small
pavement core showing stripping at the
bottom of the pavement section. Picture
taken in Washington State.

A small
pavement core showing stripping at the bottom of the
pavement section. Picture taken in Washington State.
Description: The loss of bond between aggregates and asphalt binder that typically begins at
the bottom of the HMA layer and progresses upward. When stripping begins at the surface
and progresses downward it is usually called raveling.

Problem: Decreased structural support, rutting, shoving/corrugations, raveling, or cracking

(fatigue and longitudinal)

Possible Causes: Bottom-up stripping is very difficult to recognize because it manifests itself
on the pavement surface as other forms of distress including rutting, shoving/corrugations,
raveling, or cracking. Typically, a core must be taken to positively identify stripping as a
pavement distress. Stripping is typically caused by:
  Poor aggregate surface chemistry
 Water in the HMA causing moisture damage

Repair: A stripped pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure
(i.e., how did the moisture get in?). Generally, the stripped pavement needs to be removed
and replaced after correction of any subsurface drainage issues.

Transverse (Thermal) Cracking

Transverse crack near Loveland Pass, Colorado. Transverse crack.

Description: Cracks perpendicular to the pavement’s centerline or laydown direction.
Usually a type of thermal cracking.

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness

Possible Causes:

 Shrinkage of the HMA surface due to low temperatures or asphalt binder hardening.
 Reflective crack caused by cracks beneath the surface HMA layer
 Top-down cracking

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:
  Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1)
entry of moisture into the subgrade through the cracks and (2) further raveling of the
crack edges. HMA can provide years of satisfactory service after developing small
cracks if they are kept sealed (Roberts et. al., 1996[1]).
 High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

Water Bleeding and Pumping

Water
bleeding through a pavement surface.

Enlarge
Similar conditions. Picture taken in Washingto
State.
Description: Water bleeding occurs when water seeps out of joints or cracks or through an
excessively porous HMA layer. Pumping occurs when water and fine material is ejected from
underlying layers through cracks in the HMA layer or out the sides of the HMA layer under
moving loads.

Problem: Decreased skid resistance, an indication of high pavement porosity (water

bleeding), decreased structural support (pumping)

Possible Causes:

 Porous pavement as a result of inadequate compaction during construction or poor

mix design
 High water table
 Poor drainage

Repair: Water bleeding or pumping should be investigated to determine the root cause. If the
problem is a high water table or poor drainage, subgrade drainage should be improved. If the
problem is a porous mix (in the case of water bleeding) a fog seal or slurry seal may be
applied to limit water infiltration.
Pavement Distress Types and Causes

This Appendix provides descriptions of the types and causes of the distresses that occur in asphalt,
concrete, and asphalt-overlaid concrete pavements, and asphalt and concrete shoulders. Many of
the photos used in this Appendix are from the LTPP Distress Identification Manual.1

Asphalt Pavement Distresses

Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking

Fatigue (also called alligator) cracking, which is caused by fatigue damage, is the principal structural
distress which occurs in asphalt pavements with granular and weakly stabilized bases. Alligator
cracking first appears as parallel longitudinal cracks in the wheelpaths, and progresses into a
network of interconnecting cracks resembling chicken wire or the skin of an alligator. Alligator
cracking may progress further, particularly in areas where the support is weakest, to localized
failures and potholes.

Figure A-1. Fatigue (alligator) cracking in asphalt pavement.1

Factors which influence the development of alligator cracking are the number and magnitude of
applied loads, the structural design of the pavement (layer materials and thicknesses), the quality
and uniformity of foundation support, the consistency of the asphalt cement, the asphalt content,
the air voids and aggregate characeristics of the asphalt concrete mix, and the climate of the site
(i.e., theseasonal range and distribution of temperatures). 2,3

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Considerable laboratory research into the fatigue life of asphalt concrete mixes has been conducted.
However, attempting to infer from such laboratory tests how asphalt concrete mix properties
influence asphalt pavement fatigue life requires consideration of the mode of laboratory testing
(constant stress or constant strain) and the failure criterion used. Constantstress testing suggests
that any asphalt cement property (e.g., lower penetration, higher viscosity) or mix property which
increases mix stiffness will increase fatigue life. Constant-strain testing suggests the opposite: that
less brittle mixes (e.g., higher penetrations, lower viscosities) exhibit longerfatigue lives. The
prevailing recommendations arethat low-stiffness(low viscosity) asphalt cements should be used for
thin asphalt concrete layers (i.e., less than 5 inches), and that the fatigue life of such mixes should be
evaluated using constant-strain testing, while highstiffness (high viscosity) asphalt cements should
be used for asphalt concrete layers 5 inches and thicker, and the fatigue life of such mixes should be
evaluated using constant-stress testing.3 In practice, however, it is not common to modify the
mixture stiffness for different asphalt concrete layer thicknesses.

Bleeding

Bleeding is the accumulation of asphalt cement material at the pavement surface, beginning as
individual drops which eventually coalesce into a shiny, sticky film. Bleeding is the consequence of a
mix deficiency: an asphalt cement content in excess of that which the air voids in the mix can
accommodate at higher temperatures (when the asphalt cement expands). Bleeding occurs in hot
weather but is not reversed in cold weather, so it results in an accumulation of excess asphalt
cement on the pavement surface. Bleeding reduces surface friction and is therefore a potential
safety hazard.

Figure A-2. Tire marks evident in high-severity bleeding. 1

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Block Cracking and Thermal Cracking

Block cracking is the cracking of an asphalt pavement into rectangular pieces ranging from about 1 ft
to 10 ft on a side. Block cracking occurs over large paved areas such as parking lots, as well as
roadways, primarily in areas not subjected to traffic loads, but sometimes also in loaded areas.
Thermal cracks typically develop transversely across the traffic lanes of a roadway, sometimes at
such regularly spaced intervals that they may be mistaken for reflection cracksfrom an underlying
concrete pavement or stabilized base.

Figure A-3. Medium-severity block cracking. 1

Block cracking and thermal cracking are both relatedto the use of an asphalt cement which is or has
become too stiff for the climate. Both types of cracking are caused by shrinkage of the asphalt
concrete in response to low temperatures, and progress from the surface of the pavement
downward. The key to minimizing block and thermal cracking is using an asphalt cement of
sufficiently low stiffness (high penetration), which is nonetheless not overly temperature-susceptible
(i.e., likely to become extremely stiff at low temperatures regardless of its penetration index at
higher temperatures).

Bumps, Settlements and Heaves

Bumps, settlements, and heaves in asphalt pavements may be due to frost heave, swelling or
collapsing soil, or localized consolidation (such as that which occurs in poorly compacted backfill
material at culverts and bridge approaches). Frost heave, soil swelling, and soil collapsing produce
longer-wavelength surface distortionsthan localized consolidation.

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Frost heave occurs in frost-susceptible soils, when sufficient water is available, in freezing climates
such as the northern half of the United States. Water collects in a pavement´s subgrade by upward
capillary movement from the water table and also by condensation. When the temperature in the
soil drops below freezing, this water freezes and forms ice lenses, which may be up to 18 inches
thick. It is the continued and progressive growth of these ice lenses as additional water is drawn to
the freezing front that produces the dramatic raising of the road surface known as frost heave.4
Very fine sands and silts are most susceptible to frost heave because of their ability to draw water to
considerable heights (e.g., 20 ft) above the water table. Clays also have considerable suction
potential and are also susceptible to frost heave if their plasticity index is less than about 10 to 12.
Lower permeabilities inhibit the formation of ice lenses. Clean sands and gravels and mixed-grain
soils with less than 3 percent material smaller than 0.02mm are not susceptible tofrostaction.5

Swelling soils are those clays and shales which are susceptible to experiencing significant volume
increases when sufficient moisture is available to increase the ratio of voids (air and water) to solids,
especially in the absence of an overburden pressure. Overburden pressure may be reduced when
underlying material is excavated, and replaced by a pavement. If the moisture content of these soils
is normally low (i.e., in a dry climate), and evaporation of moisture from the soil is hindered by the
presence of the pavement, considerable swelling may result. Swelling soils are responsible for
pavement heaving, poor ride quality, and cracking in many areas of the southern and western
UnitedStates.

Collapsing soils are those soils which are susceptible to experiencing significant volume decreases
when their moisture content increases significantly, even without an increase in surface load.6 Soils
which are susceptible to collapsing include loessial soils, weakly cemented sands and silts, and
certain residual soils. Such materials typically have a loose, open structure in which the larger bulky
grains are held together by capillary films, montmorillonite (or other clay materials), or soluble
salts.6 Many collapsible soils are associated with dry or semi-arid climates, while others are
commonly found on flood plains and in alluvial fans as the remains of slope wash and mudflows.6

Longitudinal Cracking

Nonwheelpath longitudinal cracking in an asphalt pavement may reflect upfrom the edges of an
underlying old pavement or from edges and cracks in a stabilized base, or may be due to poor
compaction at the edges of longitudinal paving lanes. Longitudinal cracking may also be produced in
the wheelpaths by the application of heavy loads or high tire pressures. It is important to distinguish
between nonwheelpath and wheelpath longitudinal cracking when

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conducting condition surveys; only wheelpath longitudinal cracking should be considered along with
alligator cracking in assessing the extent of load-related damage which has been done to the
pavement.

Figure A-4. Medium-severity longitudinal cracking. 1

Pothole

A pothole is a bowl-shaped hole through one or more layers of the asphalt pavement structure,
between about 6 inches and 3 feet in diameter. Potholes begin to form when fragments of asphalt
concrete are displaced by traffic wheels, e.g., in alligator-cracked areas. Potholes grow in size and
depth as water accumulates in the hole and penetrates into the base and subgrade, weakening
support in the vicinity of the pothole.7

Figure A-5. High-severity pothole. 1

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Pumping

Pumping is the ejection of water and erodible fines from under a pavement under heavy wheel
loads. On asphalt pavements, pumping is typically evidenced by light-colored stains on the
pavement shoulder nearjoints and cracks.
Figure A-6.Water bleeding and pumping. 1

The major factors which contribute to pumping are the presence of excess water in the pavement
structure, erodible base or subgrade materials, and high volumes of high-speed, heavy wheel loads.

Ravelling and Weathering

Ravelling and weathering are progressive deterioration of an asphalt concrete surface as a result of
loss of aggregate particles (ravelling) and asphalt binder (weathering) from the surface downward.
Ravelling and weathering occur as a result of loss of bond between aggregates and the asphalt
binder. This may occur due to hardening of the asphalt cement, dust on the aggregate which
interferes with asphalt adhesion, localized areas of segregation in the asphalt concrete mix where
fine aggregate particles are lacking, or low in-place density of the mix due to inadequate
compaction. High air void contents are associated with more rapid aging and increased likelihood of
ravelling. Increased asphalt film thickness can significantly reduce the rate of aging and offset the
effects of high air voids.2 Surface softening and aggregate dislodging due to oil spillage are also
classified as ravelling.7

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Figure A-7. High-severity ravelling. 7

Ravelling and weathering may pose a safety hazard if deteriorated areas of the surface collect
enough water to cause hydroplaning or wheel spray. Loose debris on the pavement surface which
may also be picked up by vehicle tires is also a potential safety hazard.

Rutting

Rutting is the formation of longitudinal depression of the wheelpaths, most often due to
consolidation or movement of material in either the base and subgrade or in the asphalt concrete
layer. Another, unrelated, cause of rutting is abrasion due to studded tires and tire chains.
Deformation which occurs in the base and underlying layers is related to the thickness of the asphalt
concrete surface, the thickness and stability of the base and subbase layers, and the quality and
uniformity of subgrade support, as well as the number and magnitude of applied loads.

Figure A-8. Rutting. 1

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Deformation which occurs only in the asphalt concrete later may be the result of either
consolidation or plastic flow. Consolidation is the continued compaction of asphalt concrete by
traffic loads applied after construction. Consolidation may produce significant rutting in asphalt
layers which are very thick and which are compacted during construction to initial air void contents
considerably higher than the long-term air void contents for which the mixes were designed. Plastic
flow is the lateral movement of the mix away from the wheepaths, most often as a result of
excessive asphalt content, exacerbated by the use of small, rounded aggregates and/or
inadequatecompaction during construction.
Asphalt cement stiffness is believed to play a relatively minor role in rutting resistance of asphalt
mixes which contain well-graded, angular, rough-textured aggregates.2 Stiffer asphalt cements can
increase rutting resistance somewhat, but the tradeoff is that mixes containing stiffer cements
aremore prone to cracking in cold weather.

Wheelpath ruts greater than a third to a half an inch in depth are considered by many highway
agencies to pose a safety hazard, due to the potential for hydroplaning, wheel spray, and vehicle
handling difficulties.8

Shoving and Corrugation

Shoving and corrugation are terms which refer to longitudinal displacement of asphalt concrete in a
localized area. Shoving and corrugation are produced by traffic loading, but are indicative of an
unstable liquid asphalt mix (e.g., cutback or emulsion).7

Figure A-9. Shoving in pavement surface. 1

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Slippage Cracking

Slippage cracking occurs as a result of a low-strength asphalt mix in the surface layer and/or poor
bond between the surface layer and underlying layer, in areas where vehicles brake and turn.
Slippage cracking is thus uncommon in highway pavements, but is common in local roads and
streets, particularly at intersections.

Figure A-10. Slippagecracking. 7

Stripping

Stripping is a loss of bond between aggregates and asphalt binder which typically progresses upward
from the bottom of an asphalt concrete layer. Stripping may be manifested by several different
types of distress, including premature rutting, shoving, ravelling, and cracking.2 It is often necessary
to examine a sample from the asphalt concrete to determine if stripping is occurring in the layer.
Stripping may not be evident from visual examination of the exterior of an asphalt concrete core,
since the circumference of the core may be damaged by the coring drill. It may be necessary to split
the core apart to examine its interior. If stripping has occurred, partially coated or uncoated
aggregates will be visible. Severe stripping represents a loss of structural integrity of the asphalt
concrete layer, since its effective thickness is reduced as the stripping progresses.

Factors related to the likelihood of stripping include the mineral and chemical composition of the
aggregate, the exposure history of the aggregate (freshly crushed versus weathered stone), the
physical and chemical properties of the asphalt cement, the presence of moisture, and the
construction methods used.2 The likelihood of stripping may be reduced by using compatible

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aggregates and asphalt cements, drying the aggregate to a minimal water content prior to mixing
with asphalt cement, achieving adequate compaction, providing adequate surface and subsurface
drainage, and using an effective antistripping additive. Several antistripping agents are available;
hydrated lime has been shown effective in research studies.9,10

Concrete Pavement Distresses

Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

Reactive aggregates contain silicates or carbonates which react chemically with alkalies (i.e., sodium
and potassium) in portland cement paste. The product of the reaction is a gel-like material which
absorbs water and swells, causing progressive expansion and cracking of the concrete. Both coarse
and fine aggregate particles can react with cement paste. The reaction continues until all of the alkali
in the cement is consumed, but deterioration of the concrete can continue even after that time, as
the gel product continues to absorb water and expand into cracks in the concrete.

Figure A-11. Map cracking attributable to alkali-silica reactivity (ASR). 1

The most significant factors influencing the occurrence of reactive aggregate distress are the relative
reactivity of the aggregate, the fraction of reactive aggregate in the mix, the particle size of the
aggregate, the alkali content of the cement, and the availability of free water. Reactive aggregate
distress may develop rapidly, but more often develops gradually over a period of many years.

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In the United States, aggregates containing reactive silica or siliceous minerals are found
predominantly in the West and Southwest, although some have been found in the Southeast.
Aggregates containing reactive carbonates have been found in the Midwest and Northeast regions
of the United States and Canada.

Visible signs of reactive aggregate distress are fine, closely spaced longitudinal or map cracks
emanating from transverse joints and cracks, small joint widths, compressed joint sealant, and joint
spalling, all of which indicate compressive stress buildup in the pavement. Blowups may also occur
in pavements with reactive aggregates. Expansion of a concrete pavement with reactive aggregates
may cause shoving of bridge decks and cracking of bridge structures. Close inspection of concrete
affected by alkali-aggregatereaction will reveal the presence of the gel product around aggregate
particles and a network of fine cracks throughout the cement matrix.

Blowup

A blowup is a shattering or upward buckling of concrete pavement slabs at a joint or working crack,
often occurring in both traffic lanes simultaneously. Blowups occur when horizontal compressive
forces in the slab increase greatly due to expansion of the slabs, and the joints either become
completely closed, or closing of the joints and cracks is impaired by infiltrated incompressibles.

Figure A-12. Blowup.

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Blowups usually occur in the spring (after incompressibles have infiltrated during winter months), in
themidmorning to midday (as pavement temperaturesrise). A shattering blowup will crumble the
concrete for a few feet on each side of the joint or crack. A buckling blowup will raise the pavement
by several inches on one or both sides of the joint or crack. Both kinds of blowups are safety hazards
which require emergency repair.

Spacing of joints and cracks is a primary factor in blowup potential. JRCP and CRCP are susceptible
to blowups, since their joints and cracks are space far enough apart, and thus open wide enough in
cool periods, to permit substantial infiltration of incompressibles. Blowups rarely occur in JPCP.

Blowups may also occur in one lane of a concrete pavement when full-depth repairs are being
placed in an adjacent lane in hot weather, and the repair area is left open during the day or is filled
with asphalt concrete rather than portland cement concrete. Therefore, full-depth repairs are often
constructed across all lanes under such conditions, even if only one lane is really in need of repair.
For the same reason, pressure relief joints, when needed, should always be placed across all traffic
lanes rather than individual lanes.

Concrete pavements which experience expansion due to reactive aggregates are also very
susceptible to blowups. It has also been suggested that “D” cracking increases blowup potential, by
reducing the cross-sectional area of sound concrete at joints and crack faces to bear the compressive
stress which builds up in the pavement. Poor joint sealant conditions and erodible base materialsare
also believed to contributeto blowup potential.

Bumps, Settlements and Heaves

Bumps, settlements, and heaves in concrete pavements may be due to frost heave, swelling or
collapsing soils, or localized consolidation. Frost heave, swelling soils, and collapsing soils were
described earlier, in the section of this Appendix on asphalt pavement distresses.

Bumps sometimes develop at bridge approaches not because of localized consolidation, mentioned
earlier, but because of terminal treatments used for CRCP or JRCP. Terminal treatments fall into two
categories: anchorage systems, which are intended to prevent slab movement, and expansion
joints, which are intended to accommodate slab movement. Lug anchor systems are somewhat
effective in restraining movement at slab ends. Sometimes, however, the slabs can push on the lug
anchors enough to bend them out of position. This causes one or more bumps at the pavement
surface which produce roughness and can also be a safety hazard. Expansion joints may be
interlocking finger-type systems, a section of asphalt

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no more than a few feet long, constructed on a sleeper slab, or a wide-flange steel beam with
expansion joint filler material on either side, constructed on a sleeper slab. Good performance has
been reported for the wide-flange beam design. The asphalt concrete expansion joint design, on the
other hand, tends to perform poorly. Movement of the slab ends toward the bridge compress the
asphalt concrete and creates a rough and sometimes unsafe bump.

Corner Break

Corner breaking is a major structural distress in jointed concrete pavements. A corner break is a
diagonal crack that intersects a transverse joint or crack and a longitudinal joint less than 6 ft from
the corner of the slab. A corner break is a vertical crack through the full thickness of the slab, unlike
a corner spall, which runs diagonally downward through only part of the slab thickness.

Figure A-13. Corner breaks.

Corner breaks are the result of fatigue damage: heavy wheel load repetitions at slab corners cause
corner deflections and stresses in the top surface of the slab, resulting in fatigue damage and
eventual cracking. Factors which influence the development of corner breaks include the number
and magnitude of applied loads, the thickness and stiffness of the concrete slab, the stiffness and
uniformity of the base, the degree of load transfer at transverse and longitudinal joints and cracks,
the quality of drainage, and climatic influences (daily and seasonal temperature and moisture cycles
which influence slab curling, joint and crack opening, and foundation support).

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Two different situations may lead to corner cracking. In the first situation, a combination of poor
load transfer, poor drainage, and weak base support permit excessive downward deflection of the
slab. As fines are pumped out from under the leave corner and collect under the approach corner,
the leave corner becomes progressively less supported and experiences progressively higher
deflections and stresses under loads. In this situation, corner breaks tend to occur on the leave side
of the transverse joint before they occur on the approach side, and usually occur along the outer
edgeof the slab, where load transfer and moisture conditions are worse.

In the second situation, a combination of poor load transfer, a stiff base layer, and temperature
and/or moisture gradients that make the top of the slab cooler and/or drier than the bottom of the
slab cause the slab corners to curl or warp up out of contact with the base. When heavy wheel loads
are applied to the unsupported corners, they produce high stresses in the slab and contribute to the
fatigue damage which eventually results in corner breaks. In this situation, corner breaks may occur
on either the leave side or the approach side of the transversejoint. In jointed concrete pavements
with perpendicular joints, corner breaks related to curling will more often occur along the outer
edge of the slab, but in pavements with skewed joints, corner breaks may occur at the acute-angled
corners along both the inner and outer edges of the slab.

Curling/Warping Roughness

Upward deformation of slab corners in jointed concrete pavements can contribute to roughness.
Three different temperature and moisture mechanisms, alone or in combination, may cause upward
deformation of slab corners. One is cyclic curling which occurs due to a negative (nighttime)
temperature gradient, i.e., the top of the slab being cooler and contracting more than the bottom of
the slab. The second is permanent curling, also called construction curling, which occurs when a
high positive (daytime) temperature gradient exists in the slab as it hardens. The third is warping due
to moisture gradient in the slab, i.e., the top being drier and contracting more than the bottom of
the slab. Moisture warping may be permanent to some degree and also seasonally cyclic.11

“D” Cracking

“D” cracking is progressive deterioration of concrete which occurs as a result of freeze-thaw damage
in large aggregates. “D” cracking occurs frequently in concrete pavements in the northeastern, north
central, and south central regions of the United States.12 While “D” cracking is not caused by traffic
loads, it does diminish the structural integrity of the concrete, particularly at the outer slab edges,
along the centerline, and in the wheelpaths near joints and cracks.

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The major factors which influence the development of “D” cracking are the availability of moisture
(including the quality of base drainage),13 the occurrence of freeze-thaw cycles,14 the coarse
aggregate composition (sedimentary rocks suck as limestone and dolomite aregenerally the most
susceptible),15 the pore size distribution of the coarse aggregate,16,17,18,19 and the maximum
aggregate size.20 The fine aggregate does not influence the likelihood of “D” cracking.14,21 The
level of air entrainment, likewise, does not influence the likelihood of “D” cracking22 (although air
entrainment does improve resistance to scaling caused by freeze-thaw damage in the cement
mortar). The compositionor brand of cement has little or no influence on “D” cracking.22

Figure A-14. High-severity “D” cracking. 1

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Faulting

Faulting is a difference in elevation across a joint or crack. Faulting is the result of pumping under
many heavy wheel repetitions, which erodes support beneath the leave sides of joints or cracks, and
builds up fines beneath the approach sides. Faulting is a major contributor to roughness in JPCP and
JRCP, but is not a significant problem for CRCP. Faulting is also not usually a significant problem for
low-volume roads and streets.

FigureA-15. Transverse joint faulting. 23

Joint Seal Damage

Joint seal damage may take several different forms. Extrusion refers to the joint sealant being
pushed or pulled out of the joint by slab movement or traffic wheels. Infiltration is the presence of
incompressibles and/or vegetation either within the joint sealant material or between the joint
sealant and the joint reservoir walls. Oxidation is hardening of the sealant due to exposure to the
elements and ultraviolet radiation. Adhesive failure is loss of bond between the sealant and the
walls of the joint sealant reservoir. Cohesive failure is splitting within the sealant material due to
excessive tensile strain. Joint seal damage may be caused by the use of an inappropriatesealant
type, improperjoint sealant installation, or simply aging of the sealant.

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Joint Spalling

Joint spalling and joint deterioration are terms which refer to cracking, chipping, or fraying of
concrete slab edges within about 2 ft of transverse joints. Joint spalling may develop predominantly
in the top few inches of the slab, or may develop at a greater depth below the surface, depending on
the environmental conditions at the time of construction.
Joint spalling has several possible causes, including excessively early wet sawing of transverse joints,
infiltration of incompressibles (especially where delamination has occurred due to inadequate
curing), high reinforcing steel, alkali-aggregate reaction, “D” cracking, misaligned or corroded load
transfer devices, weak concrete in the vicinity of the joint (e.g., honeycombing caused by poor
consolidation) or damagecaused by cold milling,grinding, or joint cleaning.

Figure A-16. Spalling of transversejoint.

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Linear Cracking

Concrete pavements exhibit several types of linear cracking. Transverse cracking is the predominant
structural distress in jointed plain concrete highway pavements. Repeated heavy wheel loads cause
fatigue damage in the concrete slab, which eventually results in slab cracking. Since the greatest
stresses are generally produced by wheel loads at the outer slab edge, midway between the
transverse joints, transverse cracking most commonly results at midslab. Factors which influence
the development of transverse fatigue cracking include the number and magnitude of applied loads,
the thickness and stiffness of the concrete slab, the stiffness and uniformity provided by the base
and foundation, the degree of friction between the slab and base, the degree of load transfer at
transverse and longitudinal joints and cracks, the quality of drainage, and climatic influences (daily
and seasonal temperature and moisturecycles which influence slab curling, joint and crack opening,
andfoundation support).

Figure A-17. Transverse crack in jointed plain concrete pavement.

In jointed reinforced and continuously reinforced concrete pavements, midslab transverse cracking
develops early as a result of drying shrinkage. Under repeated heavy wheel load applications, the
reinforcing steel across the shrinkage crack may rupture and the crack will subsequently fault and
spall. Thus, transverse crack deterioration in JRCP and CRCP is also a major structural distress,
although its cause differsfrom that of transversecracking in JPCP.

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Figure A-18. Transverse shrinkage cracks in continuously reinforced concrete pavement. 1

Another type of transverse cracking sometimes occurs parallel to and within about 2 ft of dowelled
transverse joints. This type of cracking is caused by either dowel misalignment or dowel lockup.

Longitudinal cracking occurs in concrete highway and street pavements, but is not usually due
tofatigue damage. Themost frequent causes of longitudinal cracking in highway and street
pavements are improper longitudinal joint construction (inadequate sawcut depth, inadequate joint
insert placement depth, or late sawing), foundation movement (settlements or heaves), or shrinkage
(excessive slab width). Longitudinal cracks may also form to connect existing transverse or
diagonalcracks.

Figure A-19. Longitudinal cracking. 1

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Diagonal cracking is similar to transverse cracking except that it crosses slabs at an angle other than
perpendicular to the slab edge. Diagonal cracking differs from corner breaking in that, if it does
intersect a transverse joint or crack, it does so at a considerable distance (more than 6 ft) from the
slab corner. A shattered slab is one which is broken into four or more pieces by transverse, diagonal,
and/or longitudinal cracks.

Map Cracking, Crazing, and Scaling

Crazing, also called map cracking, is a network of fine cracks in the top surface of a concrete slab,
usually extending no deeper than a half inch into the concrete. Crazing or map cracking is usually
caused by overfinishing, but may also be indicative of alkali-aggregate reaction. The latter affects the
full thickness of the slab rather than the surface only, so although the two causes may be difficult to
distinguish by visual observation alone, alkali-aggregate reaction may also be indicated by related
distresses (closure, spalling, longitudinal cracking, and/or blowups at joints and cracks), and by
examination of concrete cores or fragments.

Crazing or map cracking is not itself a serious distress, since it detracts only from a pavement’s
appearance and not from its ride quality, durability, or structural capacity. However, if crazing
progresses to scaling, in which pieces of the concrete surface become loose, the pavement’s ride
quality and durability may be reduced. Scaling may also occur as a result of reinforcing steel being
too close to the surface. This type of scaling occurs without crazing and is usually evidenced by
exposed reinforcing steel or reddish brown staining.

Figure A-20. Scaling. 1

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Polishing

Polishing is the loss of friction of the concrete pavement surface in the wheelpaths, due to abrasion
by tires. Polished wheelpaths look very smooth, even shiny, and feel smooth to the touch. When the
wheelpaths become polished, surface friction is considerably reduced and the risk of skidding
accidents increases.

Popouts

Popouts occur when water freezes in coarse aggregate particles near the top surface of a concrete
slab, causing the aggregate to expand and pop out a small piece of concrete above the aggregate.
Popouts are typically about 1 to 4 inches in diameter and about a half inch to 2 inches deep.
Popouts detract from a pavement’s appearance but are not considered worth repair because they
generally do not affect a concrete pavement’s ride quality, durability, or structural capacity.
However, extensive popouts may increase tire noise, and may possibly aggravate “D” cracking by
creating surface cracks through which water may enter intothe slab.

Pumping

Pumping is the ejection of water and erodible fines from under a pavement under heavy wheel
loads. As a concrete slab corner is deflected under an approaching heavy wheel load, water and
erodible fines are pumpedforward under theadjacent slab corner and also pumped upward through
longitudinal and transverse joints and cracks. When the wheel crosses the joint or crack and deflects
the leave slab corner, water and fines are forced backward under the approach corner, and up
through joints and cracks. Pumped fines are typically visible as lightcolored stains on the pavement
shoulder near joints and cracks.

The major factors which contribute to pumping are the presence of excess water in the pavement
structure, erodible base or subgrade materials, poor deflection load transfer across joints and cracks,
and high volumes of high-speed, heavy wheel loads. Warping and curling of slab corners due to
moisture and temperature gradients may also contribute to high corner deflections and pumping.

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Figure A-21. Pumping. 1

Punchout

Punchouts are a form of cracking which is uniqueto continuously reinforced concrete pavement. A
punchout occurs when two closely spaced shrinkage crack lose load transfer, resulting in high
deflections and high stresses under wheel loads in the “cantilever beam” section of concrete
between the cracks. Eventually a short longitudinal crack forms to connect the two transverse
cracks, and the broken piece of concrete punches down into the base. Punchouts and working
transverse cracks are the two major structural distresses in CRCP. Factors which influence the
development of punchouts are the number and magnitude of applied wheel loads, slab thickness
and stiffness, base stiffness, steel content, drainage conditions, and erosion of support along the
slab edge.

Figure A-22. Punchout. 1

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Asphalt-OverlaidConcrete Pavement Distresses

Reflection Cracking

Reflection cracking occurs in asphalt overlays of concrete pavements as a result of stress

concentration in the asphalt concrete layer, due to movement at joints, cracks, asphalt patches, and
expansion joints in the underlying concrete slab. This movement may be either bending or shear
induced by wheel loads, or may be horizontal contraction and expansion induced by temperature
changes. The magnitudes of load-induced movements are influenced by the overlay thickness and
the thickness and stiffness of the concrete pavement and supporting layers. The magnitudes of
horizontal movements are influenced by daily and seasonal temperature cycles, thecoefficient of
thermal expansion of the concreteslab, and the spacing of joints and cracks.

Figure A-23. Reflection cracking at joints. 1

In an asphalt overlay of a jointed concrete pavement, some reflection cracks typically develop within
the first few years after placement of an overlay, and sometimes within the first year. The quantity
of reflection cracking that is likely to occur is very difficult to predict without knowing how much of
the crack and joint deterioration present prior to overlay was repaired, and what type of repairs
were placed. Reflection cracks should not appear for several years in an asphalt overlay of a
continuously reinforced concrete pavement, as long as the CRCP is adequately repaired with tied or
welded reinforced concrete.24,25

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The rate at which reflection cracks deteriorate depends on the factors listed above as well as the
number and magnitude of applied loads. The rate of initial occurrence of reflection cracks is easier to
model and predict, but arguably less important, than the rate of deterioration of reflection
crackstomedium and high severity levels.

Reflection cracking can have a considerable, often controlling, influence on the life of an asphalt-
overlaid concrete pavement. Deteriorated reflection cracks reduce a pavement’s serviceability and
also require frequent maintenance, such as sealing, milling, and patching. Reflection cracks also
permit water to enter the pavement structure, which may accelerate loss of bond between the
asphalt and concrete layers, stripping in the asphalt, “D” cracking or reactive alkali-aggregate
reaction in concrete prone to these problems, and softening of the base and subgrade.

Fatigue Cracking

Fatigue cracking in an asphalt concrete layer occurs as a result of repeated tensile strain in the
asphalt layer. Since an asphalt overlay of a concrete slab, even if unbonded, should never experience
significant tension under flexural loading, true fatigue cracking should never occur in a stable asphalt
overlay of a sound concrete slab. If longitudinal or alligator-type cracking does appear in an asphalt-
overlaid concrete pavement, it indicates one of the following unusual conditions: (a) an unstable
asphalt concrete mix coupled with loss of bond between the asphalt and concrete layers, or (b)
complete degradation of the concrete, e.g., extensive and severe “D” cracking. In this latter case,
the breakdown of the concrete is more likely to be concentrated in localized areas near joints and
cracks, and produce potholes and localized failures where the wheelpaths cross these areas.

Rutting

Rutting in asphalt overlays of concrete pavements occurs as a result of plastic flow of the mix
laterally away from the wheelpaths, due to shear stress produced by applied loads. This plastic
deformation normally occurs relatively slowly and only develops into ruts of significant depths after
several years. Mix deficiencies which increase an asphalt overlay’s tendency to rut include rounded
aggregates, excessive fines, improper aggregate gradation, strippingsusceptible aggregates, low air
void content, low asphalt cement viscosity, and high asphalt content.8

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The magnitude of shear stress experienced by the overlay under loading also depends on the
asphalt/concrete interface bonding condition and the asphalt thickness. Shear stress in the asphalt
is lowest when the asphalt and concrete are fully bonded, and increases as bond degrades. When
the asphalt and concrete are fully bonded, shear stress increases with overlay thickness. This has
been cited as a possible reason that very thin overlays do not fail primarily due to rutting. When the
asphalt and concrete are not bonded, asphalt shear stress is highest for overlay thicknesses in the
range of 4to 6 inches.26
Premature rutting, which develops unusually rapidly and reaches a critical level within a year or two,
occurs sometimes in an inadequately designed mix as a result of shear failure. Mix deficiencies
which have been identified as related to premature rutting potential include gradation problems and
low air voids.27

Stripping

Stripping in asphalt concrete, and the factors which influence its likelihood, were described earlier in
this Appendix in the section on asphalt pavement distresses. Asphalt overlays of concrete
pavements become particularly susceptible to stripping when the bond between the asphalt and
concrete layers is lost and water is able to collect at this interface.

“D” Cracking

“D” cracking in portland cement concrete, and the factors which influence its likelihood, were
described earlier in this Appendix in the section on concrete pavement distresses. Field and
laboratory studies have indicated that asphalt overlays do not halt the progression of “D” cracking,
and in some cases accelerate it.28 Althoughthe asphalt layer insulatesthe concrete to some extent,
thereby raising the minimum pavement temperature and perhaps decreasing the number of freeze-
thaw cycles which occur in the concrete, it also retards the rate of freezing, which is detrimental.
Asphalt-overlaid concrete samples subjected to freeze-thaw testing in the laboratory have been
shown to experience greater strength losses than nonoverlaid concrete samples.28

An asphalt overlay of a “D”-cracked concrete pavement might not exhibit significant visible distress
until the “D” cracking reaches a very advanced state. The first signs of localized “D” cracking failures
reflecting through an asphalt overlay are white fines pumping up through fine cracks in the overlay.
These cracks eventually develop into pothole-like localized failures in the wheelpaths, along the
centerline, along the outer edge of the pavement, and even cracking in the wheelpath resembling
alligator cracking. By the time the visible distress progresses to this

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point, the underlying degradation caused by “D” cracking is likely to be widespread and severe.
Deflection testing and coring are very important supplements to visual surveying in assessing thefull
extent of “D” cracking deterioration beneath an asphalt overlay.24

Asphalt and Concrete Shoulder Distresses

Lane/ShoulderDropoff

Lane/shoulder dropoff is a difference in elevation between the pavement edge and the shoulder. It
is caused by erosion or settlement of the shoulder, or by resurfacing of the pavement without
extending the resurfacing across the shoulder. A lane/shoulder dropoff of 2 inches or more is a
potential safety hazard.

Lane/Shoulder Separation

Lane/shoulder separation is a widening of the joint between the edge of the pavement and the
shoulder. It may result from differential movement of the pavement and the shoulder, or erosion of
the shoulder material. Separation makes the lane/shoulder more difficult to maintain sealed, and
permits the easier entry of water into the pavement structure, at the place where pavement
deflections are already highest and foundation support to the pavement structure tends to be
weakest. A wide separation along the lane/shoulder joint could also pose a safety hazard.

Figure A-24. Lane-to-shoulder separation. 1

Lane/Shoulder Joint Seal Damage

Lane/shoulder joint seal are vulnerable to the same types of damage that were previously described
for transverse joint seals: extrusion from the joint, oxidation, adhesive failure, cohesive failure, etc.
Lane/shoulder joints between concrete traffic lanes and asphalt shoulders

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are notoriously difficult to keep well sealed, but poorly sealed or unsealed lane/shoulder joints are
also common in concrete pavements with concrete shoulders and asphalt pavements with asphalt
shoulders. The lane/shoulder joint has been cited as the principal point of entry of surface water into
a pavement structure.

Linear Cracking

The types of linear cracking most often noted on asphalt shoulders are block cracking and transverse
thermal cracking. Both of these are related to the asphalt cement having become too stiff for the
climate, as described earlier in this Appendix in the section on asphalt pavement distresses. Asphalt
shoulders are likely to develop block and/or transverse cracking more rapidly than adjacent asphalt
traffic lanes because they receive very little traffic.

The types of linear cracking most often noted on concrete shoulders are shrinkage cracks caused by
excessive shoulder joint spacing, and “sympathy” cracks produced by opening of joints or cracks in
the adjacent concrete lanes. A shorter joint spacing in the concrete shoulder than in the adjacent
traffic lanes may, on the other hand, produce sympathy cracks in the traffic lanes. This is particularly
problematic in continuously reinforced concrete pavements with jointedconcrete shoulders and/or
jointed concrete ramps.

Pumping

In addition to the manifestations of pumping in asphalt and concrete pavements described earlier,
pumping of water and fines out through lane/shoulder joints may result in staining of the shoulder
surface (which is merely a cosmetic problem), and the formation of blowholes along the
lane/shoulder joint in an asphalt shoulder. This type of distress is often accompanied by or
progresses into degradation of a width of about 6 inches of shoulder material along the
lane/shoulder joint.

Figure A-25. Staining on shoulder dueto pumping of fines.

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Weathering
Weathering in asphalt concrete, and the factors which influence its likelihood, were described earlier
in this Appendix in the section on asphalt pavement distresses. Asphalt shoulders are more
vulnerable to the effects of weathering than asphalt traffic lanes, because they receive fairly little
traffic and therefore the asphalt mix is not kneaded by vehicle tires as it is in the traffic lanes.