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Time, Astronomy, and Calendars
in the Jewish Tradition
Time, Astronomy, and Calendars

Texts and Studies

Editors

Charles Burnett
Sacha Stern

E ditorial B oa rd

Daibhi O Croinin
Benno van Dalen
Gad Freudenthal
Tony Grafton
Leofranc Holford-Strevens
Bernard R. Goldstein
Alexander Jones
Daryn Lehoux
Jorg Rupke
Julio Samso
Shlomo Sela
John Steele

VOLUME 3

The titles p u b lish e d in this series are listed a t brill.com /tac

Time, Astronomy, and Calendars
in the Jewish Tradition

Edited by

Sacha Stern an d Charles B urnett

✓ S
' 1 6 8 * ‘

BRILL

LEIDEN • BOSTON
2014
On the cover: JTS MS 2596, f. 36b, detail of table illustrating the days of the week on which months
and festivals are fixed in various year-patterns, used with permission of the Library of the Jewish
Theological Seminary.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Time, astronomy, and calendars in the Jewish tradition / editors, Sacha Stern and Charles Burnett.
p. cm. — (Time, astronomy, and calendars, ISSN 2211-632X ; v. 3)
“The study of time, astronomy, and calendars, has been closely intertwined in the history of
Western culture and, more particularly, Jewish tradition. Jewish interest in astronomy was fostered
by the Jewish calendar, which was based on the courses of the sun and the moon, whist astronomy,
in turn, led to a better understanding of how time should be reckoned. Time, Astronomy, and
Calendars in the Jewish Tradition, edited by Sacha Stern and Charles Burnett, presents a wide
selection of original research in this multi-disciplinary field, ranging from Antiquity to the later
Middle Ages. Its variety of approaches and sub-themes reflects the relevance of astronomy and
calendars to many aspects of Jewish, and more generally ancient and medieval, culture and social
history. Contributors include: Jonathan Ben-Dov, Reimund Leicht, Marina Rustow, Francois de
Blois, Raymond Mercier, Philipp Nothaft, Josefina Rodriguez Arribas, Ilana Wartenberg, Israel
Sandman, Justine Isserles, Anne C. Kineret Sittig, Katharina Keim, and Sacha Stern”—Summary.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-90-04-25965-2 (hardback : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-90-04-25966-9 (e-book : alk.
paper)
1. Jewish calendar—History—To 1500. 2. Jewish astronomy—History— To 1500. 3. Jewish
cosmology—History—To 1500. I. Stern, Sacha. II. Burnett, Charles.

CE35.T46 2014
529’.326— dc23

2013036180

ISSN 2211-632X
ISBN 978-90-04-25965-2 (hardback)
ISBN 978-90-04-25966-9 (e-book)

Copyright 2014 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.

Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing,
IDC Publishers and Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher.

Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV
provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center,
222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA.
Fees are subject to change.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

 CONTENTS

N o tes o n th e C o n trib u to rs .............................................................................. vii

P reface .................................................................................................................... xiii

1 . A Je w ish P a ra p eg m a ? R eading 1 E n o ch 82 in R o m an E gypt ..... 1

J o n a th a n Ben-D ov

2 . O bserv in g th e M oon: A stro n o m ic a l a n d C o sm o lo g ical A sp ects

in th e R ab b in ic N ew M o o n P ro c e d u re ................................................ 27
R e im u n d L eicht

3 . C osm ology as S cience o r C osm ology as T heology? R eflections

o n th e A stro n o m ic a l C h a p te rs o f P irke D eR ab b i E liezer ............. 41
K a th a rin a K eim

4 . S om e Early Islam ic a n d C h ristia n S ources R eg ard in g th e Je w ish

C a le n d a r (9 th -1 1 th c e n tu rie s) ................................................................. 65
Frangois de Blois

5 . T he Je w ish C a le n d a r C o n tro v e rsy o f 9 21-22: R e c o n stru c tin g

th e M a n u sc rip ts a n d th e ir T ra n sm issio n H isto ry ........................... 79
M a rin a R u sto w a n d S a ch a Stern

6 . T he H eb rew C a le n d ric al B oo k sh elf o f th e E arly T w elfth C entury:

T he C ases o f A b ra h a m b a r H iyya a n d Ja co b b a r S am so n ............ 97
Ila n a W artenberg

7 . S cribal P rero g ativ e in M odifying C a le n d ric al T ab les ..................... 113

Isra el M . S a n d m a n

8 . A stro n o m ic a l T ables o f A b ra h a m b a r H iyya ..................................... 155

R a y m o n d M ercier

9 . T he S a b b a th E pistle b y A b ra h a m Ib n Ezra: Its P u rp o se a n d

N ovelty ............................................................................................................. 209
A n n e C. K ineret Sittig
10 . M ed iev al Jew s a n d M ed iev al A stro lab es: W h e re, W hy, How,
a n d W h a t For? ............................................................................................ 221
Josefina R od rig u ez A rribas

1 1 . S om e H ygiene a n d D ietary C a le n d ars in H eb rew M a n u sc rip ts

fro m M ed iev al A sh k en a z ....................................................................... 273
Ju stin e Isserles

1 2 . M e p u d e t a udire Iu d e u m talia scire: A Late M ed iev al L atin

S chool T ext o n th e Je w ish C a le n d a r ................................................. 327
C. P hilipp E. N o th a ft
 NOTES ON THE CONTRIBUTORS

J o n a th a n B en-D ov
Dr. J o n a th a n B en-D ov (Ph.D . H eb rew U niversity o f Je ru sa le m , 2 0 0 5 ), is
se n io r le c tu re r a t th e D e p a rtm e n t o f Bible, U niv ersity o f Haifa. H e stu d ies
th e H eb rew Bible a n d Early Ju d a ism w ith o th e r a n c ie n t lite ra tu re , m a in ly
fro m a n c ie n t M e so p o ta m ia a n d th e H ellen istic w o rld . A lo n g sid e g e n e ra l
stu d ies o n b ib lic a l h isto rio g ra p h y a n d p ro p h ec y , h e is a n e x p e rt o n tim e
re c k o n in g a n d a s tro n o m y in th e a n c ie n t w orld , as ex p re ssed in Je w ish
a p o c a ly p tic lite ra tu re a n d in th e D ea d Sea Scrolls. B en-D ov is c o -a u th o r
(w ith S h e m a ry a h u T a lm o n a n d U we G lessm er) o f th e official p u b lic a tio n
o f th e c a le n d ric a l scrolls fro m Q u m ra n (O xford U n iv ersity Press, 2001).
His b o o k H e a d o f A ll Years a p p e a re d in 2008. A n e d ite d v o lu m e Living
the L u n a r C alendar (w ith J o h n S teele a n d W a y n e H o ro w itz) a p p e a re d in
O xbow Press, 2012. A v o lu m e o n A n cien tJ ew ish Sciences a n d th e H isto ry o f
K now ledge in S eco n d T em ple L itera tu re (w ith S eth S an d ers) is d u e in n e w
York U niversity Press. B en-D ov w as g ra n te d th e M ic h ae l B runo M e m o rial
P rize for 2010 (given b y th e R o th sch ild F u n d in Israel), a n d h a s b e e n a fel­
low a t th e In stitu te f o r the S tu d y o f the A n c ie n t W o rld in n e w Y ork U n iv er­
sity (2010/11). H e is d ire c to r o f a n In te r-u n iv e rsity re se a rc h a n d g ra d u a te
g ro u p o n Jew ish Culture in the A n c ie n t W orld.

F ra n § o is d e Blois
F rangois de Blois is a sp e cia list in S em itic a n d Ira n ia n lan g u ag es a n d lit­
e ra tu re s w h o h a s w o rk e d ex ten siv ely o n th e h isto ry o f c a le n d a rs a n d
c h ro n o lo g ic a l sy stem s in th e N ea r E ast a n d C e n tra l A sia. His re le v a n t
p u b lic a tio n s in c lu d e: ‘T he P ersian c a le n d a r’, Ira n XXXIV, 1996, p p . 3 9 -5 4 ;
‘T a’rikh, I/1, (d a te s a n d eras in th e Islam ic w o rld )’, E ncyclopaedia o f Islam ,
se c o n d e d itio n ; ‘T he B a ctrian c a le n d a r’ (w ith N ich o las S im s-W illiam s),
B ulletin o f th e A sia In stitu te, n e w series, X, 1996 [p u b lis h e d 1998] (F est­
sc h rift V.A. L ivshits), p p . 149-165; ‘T he re fo rm o f th e Z o ro a stria n c a le n ­
d a r in th e y e a r 375 o f Y azdgird’ J a m s h id Soroush Soro u sh ia n M em o ria l
V olum e, II, B lo o m in g to n 2 003, p p . 139-145; ‘T he B a ctrian ca le n d ar: n e w
m a te ria l a n d n e w su g g e stio n s’ (w ith N icholas S im s-W illiam s), L a n g u a g es
o f Iran: p a s t a n d present. Ira n ia n stu d ies in m e m o ria m D a vid N eil M a cK en ­
zie, W ie sb a d e n 2 0 0 5 [p u b lish e d : 2 0 0 6 ], pp. 185-196; ‘L u n iso lar ca le n d a rs
in a n c ie n t Ira n ’, P roceedings o f the 5 th congress o f the Societas Iranologica
E uropaea, ed. A. P a n a in o a n d A. Piras, I, M ilan 2 0 0 6 (p u b lis h e d 2007),
p p . 3 9 -5 2 ; ‘D u n o u v e a u su r la ch ro n o lo g ie b a c trie n n e p o st-h e lle n istiq u e :
l’e re de 223 ap. J.-C.’, A ca d e m ie des inscriptions & belles-lettres: C om ptes
rendus, 2 0 0 6 /II (p u b lish e d 2 0 0 8 ), pp. 991-9 9 7 ; A rabic, P ersian a n d Guja­
ra ti m a n u scrip ts: The H a m d a n i Collection in the L ibrary o f th e In stitu te o f
Ism a ili S tu d ies, L o n d o n a n d N ew Y ork 2011. C u rre n tly h e is w o rk in g o n a
n e w e d itio n a n d tra n s la tio n o f al-B iruni’s C hronology as p a r t o f th e ERC
re se a rc h p ro je c t ‘C ale n d ars in a n tiq u ity a n d th e M id d le A ges’ a t U n iv er­
sity C ollege L ondon.

J u s tin e Isse rle s

Ju stin e Isserles (PhD , 2012, E cole P ra tiq u e d es H au te s E tu d es, P aris a n d
U n iv ersity o f G eneva) is c u rre n tly a n asso c ia te re se a rc h e r, EPHE-SAPRAT
(Paris) a n d a L ev erh u lm e P o st-D o c to ral R e sea rch F ellow a t th e D e p a rt­
m e n t o f H eb rew a n d Je w ish S tu d ies a t U niversity C ollege L o n d o n , as p a rt
o f a re se a rc h p ro je c t o n ‘M ed iev al Je w ish a n d C h ristia n C a le n d a r T exts in
E n g la n d a n d F ra n co -G e rm an y ’, d ire c te d b y Prof. S ach a S tern. H er are a s o f
in te r e s t in c lu d e codicology, p alae o g ra p h y , m e d ie v a l Je w ish c a le n d a r tex ts,
litu rg ical-leg al c o m p e n d ia fro m A sh k en a z a n d th e c u ltu ra l a n d in te lle c tu a l
h isto ry o f m e d ie v a l Je w ry in F ra n co -G erm an y . She is a u th o r o f a f o rth c o m ­
in g b o o k e n title d M a h zo r Vitry: etu d e d ’un corpus de m a n u scrits re g la n t la
vie liturgique e t legale des ju ifs en France e t en A sh k e n a z en tre le X IIe e t le
X IV e siecle (d o c to ra l d isse rta tio n ).

K a th a r in a K eim
K a th a rin a K eim is a d o c to ra l re se a rc h s tu d e n t a t th e U n iv ersity o f M a n ­
ch e ste r. She is c u rre n tly c o m p le tin g h e r th e sis o n Pirke deR a b b i Eliezer,
su p e rv ise d b y Prof. P hilip A lex a n d er a n d Dr. R en ate S m ithuis. H er
re se a rc h in te re s ts in c lu d e th e tra n sm issio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f Je w ish
tra d itio n fro m S eco n d T em p le tim e s th ro u g h to Late A n tiq u ity a n d th e
early M iddle Ages.

R e im u n d L e ic h t
R e im u n d L eich t is se n io r le c tu re r in th e D e p a rtm e n t for Je w ish T h o u g h t
a n d in th e P ro g ram fo r th e H istory, P h ilo so p h y a n d Sociology o f Science
a t th e H eb rew U niversity, Je ru sa le m . H e h a s p u b lis h e d ex ten siv ely o n th e
h isto ry o f p h ilo so p h y a n d scien c e in Je w ish c u ltu re in la te a n tiq u ity a n d
th e M iddle Ages, w ith a sp e cia l focus o n astro lo g y a n d co sm o lo g y (see
his A stro lo g u m e n a Judaica. U ntersuchungen z u r G eschichte d er astrologi-
schen L itera tu r der J u d e n , 2006). H e is c o -e d ito r o f th e C o m p lete W o rk s
o f th e C h ristia n H e b ra ist a n d K ab b alist Jo h a n n e s R eu ch lin a n d o f S tudies
on Steinschneider. M o ritz Stein sch n eid er a n d the E m ergence o f th e Science
o f J u d a ism in N in eteen th -C en tu ry G erm any (2012).

R a y m o n d M e rc ie r
D r R a y m o n d M e rc ier w as fo rm erly a le c tu re r in th e o re tic a l p h y sics a n d
m a th e m a tic s a n d also th e h isto ry o f scien c e a n d m a th e m a tic s , lastly in
S o u th a m p to n U niversity; a fte r re tire m e n t, A ffiliated R esearch S cholar
in H isto ry a n d P h ilo so p h y o f Science, C a m b rid g e U niversity. R esearch es
a re in th e h isto ry o f m a th e m a tic a l astro n o m y , m a in ly in th e A rabic, S an­
sk rit a n d G reek so u rce s in th e m e d ie v a l p e rio d b u t in c lu d e also th e w o rk o f
E nglish o rien talists in th e 17th ce n tu ry a n d th e w o rk o f Ja i Singh in th e 18th.
T he la te st p u b licatio n , w ith A nne T ihon, is P tolem aiou Procheiroi Kanones.
P to lem y’s H a n d y Tables, Vol.1, P e eters 2012. w w w .ra y m o n d m .co .u k

C. P h ilip p E. N o th a f t
C. Philipp E. N othaft is a research associate a t th e D ep a rtm en t o f H eb rew &
Je w ish S tudies, UCL, w h e re h e h a s b e e n w o rk in g in th e L ev erh u lm e
T ru st-fu n d e d p ro je c t “M ed iev al C h ristian a n d Je w ish C a le n d a r T ex ts”
(2011-2013). A m o n g h is c o n trib u tio n s to th e p ro je c t w ill b e a v o lu m e o f
stu d ies, ed itio n s, a n d tra n s la tio n s o f M ed ieva l L a tin T exts on the Jew ish
C alendar, w h ic h is c u rre n tly b e in g p re p a re d for p u b lic a tio n in th is series.
H is p re v io u s p u b lic a tio n s in c lu d e th e m o n o g ra p h D a tin g th e Passion: The
Life o f Jesu s a n d the E m ergence o f Scientific C hronology (2 0 0 -1 6 0 0 ), TAC 1
(L eiden: Brill, 2012) as w ell as a rticle s o n v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f m e d ie v a l a n d
early m o d e rn in te lle c tu a l h istory, w ith a p a rtic u la r fo cu s o n c h ro n o lo g ical
topics.

Jo s e fin a R o d rig u e z A rrib a s

Jo se fin a R odriguez A rribas is R e sea rch er a t th e W a rb u rg In s titu te (U n iv er­
sity o f L on d o n ). She is c u rre n tly w o rk in g o n a p ro je c t fu n d e d b y th e AHRC
a b o u t th e d iffe re n t v alu es a n d ro les a s so c ia te d w ith th e a s tro la b e in Je w ­
ish c u ltu re (11th-16th c e n tu rie s) a n d fin ish in g a b o o k o n th e e m erg en c e
a n d c o n s titu tio n o f th e a s tro n o m ic a l te rm in o lo g y in m e d ie v a l H eb rew
(11th-12th c e n tu rie s). H er in te r e s t fo cuses o n m e d ie v a l a s tro n o m y a n d
astrology, te c h n ic a l te rm in o lo g y in H ebrew , m e d ie v a l scien ce in relig io u s
co n tex ts, a n d th e G reek a n d L atin legacies in m e d ie v a l Ju d a ism . She h as
p u b lis h e d a b o o k (El cielo de Sefarad: los ju d io s y los astros, 2011) a n d
se v eral c h a p te rs a n d a rticle s o n m e d ie v a l a s tro n o m y a n d astrology. She
also c o n trib u te d w ith sev eral e n trie s to th e E ncyclopedia o f Jew s in the
Isla m ic W orld (2010).

M a rin a R u sto w
M a rin a R u sto w is th e C h a rlo tte B loom berg P ro fesso r in th e H u m a n itie s
a n d a n a sso cia te p ro fe sso r o f h isto ry a t th e J o h n s H o p k in s U niversity. She
is a sp e cia list in d o c u m e n ts fro m th e C airo G en iz a a n d th e a u th o r o f a n
aw a rd -w in n in g b o o k , H eresy a n d th e Politics o f C om m unity: The Jew s o f
th e F a tim id Caliphate (C ornell U niversity Press, 2 0 0 8 ). She also co -ed ited ,
w ith Ra’a n a n B o u stan a n d O re n K osansky, a co llec tio n ca lled Jew ish S tu d ­
ies a t the Crossroads o f A n th ro p o lo g y a n d H istory: A u th o rity, D iaspora, Tra­
dition (P e n n Press, 2011).

Is ra e l S a n d m a n
D r Israel M. S a n d m a n is a re se a rc h fellow a t U niversity College L ondon,
D e p a rtm e n t o f H eb rew & Jew ish Studies, w h e re h e is p a r t o f S ach a S tern ’s
c a le n d a r re se a rc h te am . Israel critically ed its m e d iev a l H eb rew w o rk s fro m
m a n u sc rip t, p ro v id es a n n o ta tio n a n d E nglish tra n sla tio n , a n d ex p lo res te x t
tran sm issio n , w ith its im p lic a tio n s for in te lle c tu a l histo ry , acro ss cu ltu res,
tim e, a n d place. In ad d itio n , Israel te a c h e s m e d iev a l Je w ish a n d c o m p a ra ­
tive Jew ish, C hristian, a n d Islam ic th o u g h t a n d lite ra tu re . H e rec eiv ed his
PhD fro m th e U niversity o f C hicago, u n d e r N o rm a n G olb, fro m w h o m h e
a b s o rb e d a love for m a n u s c rip t study. Before arriv in g a t UCL, Israel ta u g h t
Jew ish stu d ies a t th e U niversity o f W isconsin -M ad iso n , a n d Loyola U niver­
sity Chicago.

A n n e K in e re t S ittig
K in ere t S ittig is a d o c to ra l s tu d e n t in th e D e p a rtm e n t o f H eb rew a n d Je w ­
ish S tudies, U niversity C ollege L ondon. She p rev io u sly e a rn e d a n M A in
S em itic L anguages a n d C u ltu re s fro m th e U n iv ersity o f A m ste rd a m , R ab­
b in ic O rd in a tio n fro m th e L evisson In s titu te for th e T ra in in g o f Rabbis,
a n d a PhD in Physics fro m U tre c h t U niversity. She serv es th e D u tc h Jew ish
c o m m u n ity as a rab b i.

S ach a S te rn
S acha S tern is P ro fesso r o f R ab b in ic Ju d a ism a n d H ea d o f D e p a rtm e n t
a t th e UCL D e p a rtm e n t o f H eb rew a n d Je w ish S tudies. H e h o ld s a BA in
A n c ie n t H isto ry fro m O xford (1986), a n M A in Social A n th ro p o lo g y fro m
UCL (1988), a n d a D .Phil in Je w ish S tudies fro m O xford (1992). M u c h o f
h is re se a rc h is fo cu sse d o n th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, th e c o n c e p t o f tim e in
a n c ie n t Ju d a ism , a n d th e h isto ry o f c a le n d a rs in A n tiq u ity a n d th e M id d le
Ages. H e is th e a u th o r o f C alendar a n d C om m unity: a H isto ry o f th e J e w ­
ish Calendar, 2 n d cent. B C E -10th cent. CE. (O xford 2001), Tim e a n d Proc­
ess in A n c ie n t J u d a ism (O xford 2003), a n d C alendars in A n tiq u ity (O xford
2012). H e is th e P rin c ip a l In v e stig a to r o f se v eral re s e a rc h p ro je c ts a t UCL,
in c lu d in g th e AHRC m a jo r re se a rc h p ro je c t ‘M ed iev al M o n o g ra p h s o n
th e Je w ish C a le n d a r’, a n d th e ERC A d v an c ed G ra n t p ro je c t ‘C a le n d ars in
A n tiq u ity a n d th e M iddle Ages: S ta n d a rd iz a tio n a n d F ix atio n ’.

Ila n a W a r te n b e rg
D r Ilan a W a rte n b e rg is a p o st-d o c to ra l re se a rc h a sso cia te in th e D e p a rt­
m e n t o f H eb rew a n d Je w ish S tudies a t UCL. She s tu d ie d m a th e m a tic s,
lin g u istics a n d h isto ry o f scien ce in Tel Aviv a n d Paris. H er re s e a rc h in te r ­
ests in c lu d e m e d ie v a l H eb rew m a th e m a tic s, a s tro n o m y a n d calen d rics,
th e tra n sm issio n o f scien ce fro m A rabic in to H eb rew a n d th e c re a tio n o f
m e d ie v a l H eb rew scientific te rm in o lo g y . A m o n g h e r p u b lic a tio n s a re ‘T he
E pistle o f th e N u m b er: A n E pisode o f A lgebra in H eb rew 1, Z u to t: P erspec­
tive on Jew ish C ulture 5 (2 0 0 8 ), p p . 95-101, 'Iggeret ha-M ispar: b y Isaac b e n
S o lo m o n Ib n al-A hdab (Sicily, 14th c e n tu ry ) (P a rt I: T h e A u th o r)’, Ju d a ica
64 (2008), pp. 18-36, a n d ‘Ig g eret h a -M isp a r: b y Isaac b e n S o lo m o n Ib n
al-A hdab (Sicily, 14th c e n tu ry ) (P a rt II: T he T ex t)’, J u d a ica 6 4 (2008),
p p. 149-161.
 PREFACE

And an astronom er said, Master, w hat of Time?

Khalil Gibran, The Prophet

As th e c itiz en s o f G ib ran ’s im ag in ary , L ev an tin e city o f O rp h a le se g a th e r

a ro u n d th e d e p a rtin g P ro p h e t to h e a r h is la st w o rd s o f w isd o m , it is a n
a s tro n o m e r w h o asks h im to d e c la im o n ‘T im e’. T he P ro p h e t’s reply, largely
a b o u t th e m e a s u re m e n t o f tim e a n d its flow , is o f less c o n c e rn to u s th a n
th e id e n tity o f th e p e rso n w h o h a s p ro m p te d h im . O n e m a y le g itim ate ly
w o n d er, in d e e d , w h y a n a s tro n o m e r sh o u ld h av e h a d m o re in te r e s t in
tim e th a n a p h ilo so p h e r, a physicist, a p o et, o r a n y o th e r p e rs o n w h o se
call is to re fle c t o n th e s tru c tu re s o f re a lity a n d h u m a n e x p e rien c e, w h ic h
tim e to ta lly e n c o m p a sses. G ib ran ’s ch o ice o f a n a s tro n o m e r to in tro d u c e
th e P ro p h e t’s d isc o u rse o n tim e — as if a s tro n o m e rs h a d a p riv ileg ed claim
ov er it— is u n w ittin g ly p e rp e tu a tin g a lo n g -sta n d in g tra d itio n , in W e ste rn
cu ltu re, o f a s so c ia tin g tim e re c k o n in g w ith th e scien tific p u rs u it o f a s tro n ­
om y. It is th is tra d itio n a l asso cia tio n , in a specifically Jew ish , a n c ie n t a n d
m e d iev a l c o n te x t, th a t th e p r e s e n t v o lu m e ad d re sses.
T he tra d itio n a l as so c ia tio n o f tim e rec k o n in g , h e n c e ca le n d ars, w ith
a s tro n o m y is n o t w ith o u t a n ex p la n a tio n . It is m o s t likely b e c a u s e a n c ie n t
so cieties in th e M e d ite rra n e a n a n d th e N ea r East, as in m o s t (b u t n o t all)
p a rts o f w orld, h av e g en e rally c o u n te d a n d m e a s u re d tim e w ith re fe re n c e
to a s tro n o m ic a l p h e n o m e n a — th e sun, th e m o o n , th e stars, w h o se p re ­
d ic tab le co u rse s co u ld b e ta k e n as sta b le re fe re n c e p o in ts — th a t tim e,
astro n o m y , a n d c a le n d a rs h av e b e c o m e in e x tric a b ly im p lic a te d . T his h as
ev en le d so m e sc h o lars to arg u e th a t th e p u r s u it o f a s tro n o m y m a y h av e
b e e n o riginally m o tiv a te d , a m o n g o th e r reaso n s, b y a n e e d to im p ro v e th e
ac cu rac y o f ca le n d ars; o r altern ativ ely , o n th e co n tra ry , th a t th e d e v e lo p ­
m e n t o f so m e c a le n d a rs in A n tiq u ity a n d th e M id d le A ges w as specifically
in te n d e d to fac ilita te a s tro n o m ic a l e n q u iry .1
It is n o su rp rise, th e re fo re , th a t a s tro n o m ic a l te x tb o o k s fro m A n tiq u ity
a n d th e M iddle A ges (a n d even, to so m e e x te n t, fro m th e p r e s e n t day)

1 The former has been argued by some, though not very convincingly, with regard to
ancient Mesopotamian astronomy; the latter aptly applies, for example, to the Athenian
Metonic and Callippic calendars. See in general Stern, Calendars in Antiquity, Oxford
2012.
h av e tra d itio n a lly in c lu d e d in tro d u c to ry c h a p te rs a b o u t tim e reck o n in g ;
a n d conversely, th a t m o n o g ra p h s o n c a le n d a rs a n d tim e k e e p in g h av e tr a ­
d itio n a lly in c lu d e d in tro d u c to ry c h a p te rs o n astro n o m y . B o th c o m b in a ­
tio n s a re ex e m p lifie d in al-B iruni’s a s tro n o m ic a l a n d c h ro n o lo g ical w o rk s
(e.g. h is Q anun a n d Chronology, resp ectiv ely , w ritte n in A rab ic a ro u n d th e
b e g in n in g o f th e se c o n d m ille n n iu m CE): th e Q anun in c lu d e s p assag es o n
ca le n d ars, a n d th e C hronology, in th e first a n d la st c h a p te rs, o n a s tro n o m y
(see de Blois in th is v o lu m e ). In th e c o n te x t o f Je w ish lite ra tu re , likew ise,
m e n tio n c a n b e m a d e (for e x a m p le ) o f A b ra h a m ib n E zra’s w o rk s o n th e
astro la b e , w h ic h ex p lain s n o t on ly its a s tro n o m ic a l b u t also its ca len d ri-
cal uses, a n d A b ra h a m b. H iyya’s m o n o g ra p h o n th e Je w ish c a le n d a r (see
R odriguez a n d W a rte n b e rg in th is v o lu m e ). T he la tte r co m p rises, in its
first p a rt, a n ex ten siv e a s tro n o m ic a l a n d co sm o lo g ical p re s e n ta tio n o f th e
daily m o tio n a n d o f th e co u rse s o f th e su n a n d th e m o o n , b e c a u s e o f th e ir
a s su m e d — th o u g h n o t alw ays explicitly a rtic u la te d — rele v an c e to th e w ay
th e fixed ra b b in ic c a le n d a r w as c o n s tru c te d .
T he in e x tric a b le re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n a s tro n o m y a n d c a le n d a rs ca n
b e c o n tin u o u sly tra c e d , in th e c o n te x t o f Je w ish tra d itio n , th ro u g h o u t
th e a n c ie n t a n d m e d ie v a l p erio d s, as th is v o lu m e w ill d e m o n stra te . It is
first ev id en t, in A n tiq u ity , in th e so-called ‘A stro n o m ic a l Book o f E n o c h ’,
th e th e m e o f J o n a th a n B en-D ov’s c o n trib u tio n . C o m p o sed so m e tim e
in th e 3 rd c e n tu ry BCE, th is is th e e a rlie st k n o w n Je w ish w o rk t h a t engages
w ith a stro n o m y , in d e e d th e e a rlie s t Je w ish w o rk th a t m a y b e c o n sid e re d
‘sc ien tific’. A t its co re a re d e ta ile d a c c o u n ts o f th e a n n u a l co u rse o f th e
sun, th e m o n th ly p h a s e s o f th e m o o n , th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n so la r a n d
lu n a r cycles, a n d a n a n n u a l c a le n d a r o f 3 6 4 days. Since th e d isco v ery o f
A ra m a ic fra g m e n ts o f th e A stro n o m ic a l E n o ch a t Q u m ran , a n d esp ecially
afte r th e ir p u b lic a tio n fro m th e early 1990s, a large a m o u n t o f re se a rc h
h a s b e e n d e v o te d to th is a s tro n o m ic a l-c a le n d ric a l w ork, in c lu d in g b y Ben-
D ov him self. In th is v o lu m e, h o w ev er, B en-D ov ta k e s th e o rig in al ste p o f
c o n sid e rin g th e re c e p tio n o f th is w o rk in la te r A n tiq u ity , p a rtic u la rly in
R o m an Egypt, w h e re it is k n o w n to h av e c irc u la te d in G reek tra n sla tio n .
H e suggests a read in g , in p a rtic u la r, o f 1 E n o ch 82 as a p a ra p e g m a (in th is
c o n tex t, a n a stro -m e te o ro lo g ic a l ca le n d ar), w h ic h c a n b e re la te d to th e
‘koine c o rp u s o f p o p u la r a s tro n o m y o f L ate A n tiq u ity ’.
T u rn in g to ra b b in ic lite ra tu re o f la te A n tiq u ity , R e im u n d L eich t n o te s
th e d e a rth o f co sm o lo g ical a n d a s tro n o m ic a l m a te ria l in M ish n aic a n d
T alm u d ic sources, a n d th e a b s e n c e o f a n y a tte m p t to co n v ey a c o h e r­
e n t cosm o lo g ical o r a s tro n o m ic a l w orldview . L eich t arg u es, h o w ev er,
th a t e le m e n ts o f cosm ology a n d a s tro n o m y c a n b e im p licitly id e n tifie d
in ra b b in ic a c c o u n ts o f th e sa n c tific a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n , a p ro c e d u re
involving lu n a r o b se rv a tio n . A lth o u g h th e p u rp o s e o f th is p ro c e d u re w as
c a le n d ric a l— to d e te rm in e th e b e g in n in g o f th e m o n th — a n d alth o u g h ,
as S tern h a s arg u e d elsew h ere, its g e n e ra l c h a ra c te r w as ju d ic ia l r a th e r
th a n scientific, th e p ro c e d u re d id im p ly a c e rta in a m o u n t o f a s tro n o m ic a l
k n o w led g e th ro u g h w h ic h so m e n e w m o o n te stim o n ie s co u ld b e re je c te d
o n th e g ro u n d s o f b e in g ab su rd . T his u n d e rly in g a s tro n o m ic a l k n o w led g e
se em s to h av e m o tiv a te d th e a u th o rs o f th e Je ru sa le m T alm u d , in th e c o n ­
te x t o f a d isc u ssio n o f th e n e w m o o n p ro c e d u re , to m a k e so m e fu rth e r
ste p s in th e d ire c tio n o f a s tro n o m ic a l a n d cosm o lo g ical in q u iry .
It is n o t u n til th e Islam ic p erio d , how ev er, th a t th e stu d y o f a s tro n o m y
b e c a m e e sta b lish e d in H eb rew — m o re specifically ra b b in ic — lite ra tu re .
T he e a rlie s t ev id en c e a re th re e w o rk s th a t are te n ta tiv e ly d a te d to th e 8th
ce n tu ry , a n d sh a re q u ite a few fe a tu re s in co m m o n : th e B a ra ita d eS h e m u el
h a Q a ta n , th e B a ra ita deM azalot, a n d c h a p te rs 6 -8 o f th e Pirqei deR abbi
Eliezer. K a th a rin a K eim focu ses h e r c o n trib u tio n o n th e la tte r. C h a p ­
te rs 6 - 8, w h o se c o n te n ts are m a in ly a stro lo g ica l a n d ca le n d rical, a p p e a r
re m a rk a b ly scien tific in c o n tra s t w ith th e s o m e w h a t p rim itiv e cosm o lo g y
a s su m e d in th e e a rlie r c h a p te rs o f th e w ork. N o t u n lik e th e b o o k o f E noch,
PRE is p a rtic u la rly in te re s te d in th e co u rse s a n d cycles o f th e s u n a n d
m o o n , a n d th e lu n a r p h ases; m u c h a tte n tio n is also g iv en to th e w eek ly
cycle o f p la n e ta ry h o u rs (a d istin c tly a stro lo g ica l tra d itio n ), a n d th e in te r ­
c a la tio n in th e Je w ish c a le n d a r (w ith p e rh a p s th e e a rlie s t m e n tio n o f th e
Je w ish 19-year cycle). T h ere is also a n im p o r ta n t a g g a d a h a b o u t th e tr a n s ­
m issio n o f th e s o d h a ’Ibbur, th e ‘se c re t o f in te rc a la tio n ’, fro m th e days
o f A dam , w h ic h c u lm in a te s w ith th e s ta te m e n t th a t in te rc a la tio n , a n d
b y im p lic a tio n p e rh a p s th e re s t o f th e ca le n d ar, c a n o n ly b e le g itim ate ly
d e te rm in e d in th e L and o f Israel. K eim discusses th e p o ssib le so u rce s o f
th e PRE, a n d co n c lu d e s th a t a c o n n e c tio n w ith E n o ch ic lite ra tu re is p o s­
sible a lth o u g h n o t strong. In c o m m o n w ith th e b o o k o f E noch, h o w ev er, is
th e PRE’s c o m m itm e n t to th e s tu d y o f science, p e rh a p s its first a tte s ta tio n
w ith in ra b b in ic tra d itio n .
It c a n h a rd ly b e a c o in c id e n c e th a t in th e sa m e p erio d , th e fixed
ra b b in ic c a le n d a r b e g a n to ta k e its final shape, w ith th e a d o p tio n o f th e
19-year cycle (m e n tio n e d in PRE) a n d o f precise, scien tific v alu es su c h as
th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e m o la d (lu n a r c o n ju n c tio n ) for th e d e te rm in a tio n
o f th e m o n th s . T he e a rlie s t so u rce s th a t a tte s t to th e m o la d ca lc u latio n ,
a n d in fa c t d escrib e th e ra b b in ic c a le n d a r c a lc u la tio n as a w h o le, are
su rp risin g ly n o t Je w ish b u t Islam ic, b e g in n in g w ith a tre a tis e b y th e
re n o w n e d m a th e m a tic ia n a n d a s tro n o m e r al-K h w arizm i (early 9 th cen t.).
A critica l e d itio n o f th is im p o r ta n t te x t is in p re p a ra tio n b y F ran g o is de
Blois, w h o p re s e n ts in th is v o lu m e a su m m a ry o f it.
It h as lo n g b e e n n o te d th a t al-K h w arizm i o m its a n im p o r ta n t d e ta il in
h is a c c o u n t o f th e Je w ish ca le n d ar: th is is th e e p o c h o f th e m olad, w ith o u t
w h ic h th e m o la d c a n n o t b e ca lc u lated , a n d h e n c e w ith o u t w h ic h th e cal­
e n d a r c a lc u la tio n a n d its a lg o rith m o f th e ‘F o u r G ates’, laid o u t in d e ta il
in th e tre a tise , c a n n o t b e u se d in p rac tice . N ev erth eless, d e Blois suggests
th a t th is e p o c h is im p licitly re fe rre d to in th e tre a tise , in a p assag e w h e re
th e a u th o r u ses th e m o la d c a lc u la tio n to d e te rm in e th e m e a n p o sitio n
o f th e su n a n d m o o n o n an y given d ate; a n d th a t a c c o rd in g to al-K hw arizm i,
th e e p o c h differs fro m w h a t w as la te r a s su m e d in th e fixed ra b b in ic cal­
en d a r. T he la tte r a ssu m e s as e p o c h 6:14 ( V 1!), i.e. th a t th e m o la d o f T ishri
in th e y e a r o f th e C re a tio n w as F riday a t 14 h o u rs, w h ic h c o rre sp o n d s
to 2 h o u rs a fte r sun rise; w h e re a s a c c o rd in g to al-K hw arizm i, th is m o la d
w o u ld h av e b e e n ‘a t th e risin g o f th e s u n ’. T his m e a n s th a t a n y s u b s e q u e n t
m o la d , as c a lc u la te d b y al-K hw arizm i, w o u ld h av e b e e n c o n s iste n tly tw o
h o u rs earlier. D e Blois’s a rg u m e n t, to b e m o re p recise, is th a t in th is p a s­
sage al-K hw arizm i selects th e ‘risin g o f th e s u n ’ as a p a ra d ig m b e c a u se
th is is th e tim e o f th e c o n ju n c tio n o f th e first cycle, i.e. th e m o la d o f th e
C reatio n , th e e p o c h o f th e ca lc u latio n . Som e m a y c o u n te r-a rg u e th a t w ith
re g a rd to th e first cycle a n d th e C rea tio n , al-K h w arizm i’s tim e o f ‘risin g
o f th e s u n ’ is eq u a lly p a ra d ig m a tic a n d sc h em a tic , a n d d o es n o t c o rre ­
sp o n d to th e c a le n d a r’s a c tu a l m o la d tim e. T his in te rp re ta tio n , h o w ev er,
w o u ld c re a te a n a d d itio n a l c o m p lic a tio n in al-K h w arizm i’s im p lic it r e a ­
soning. W e a re th e re fo re in c lin e d to ag ree w ith d e Blois th a t al-K h w arizm i
a ssu m e s th e e p o c h o f th e m o la d c a lc u la tio n to b e F rid ay 12h, i.e. su n rise,
a n d n o t 14h as a s su m e d in th e la te r a n d p re se n t-d a y ra b b in ic ca le n d ar.
If co rrec t, th is w o u ld b e a sig n ific an t h isto ric a l discovery, co n firm in g th e
div ersity — o r flexibility— o f th e ra b b in ic c a le n d a r in th e early 9 th c e n ­
tury. B ut its p rec ise h isto ric a l im p lic a tio n s re m a in u n clea r, in a s m u c h as
w e do n o t k n o w w h e th e r al-K h w arizm i w as d e sc rib in g a c a le n d a r t h a t w as
ac tu a lly in use, o r a th e o re tic a l c a le n d a r th a t Jew s h a d d ev ised b u t w ere
n o t n ec essarily using, o r ev en a c a le n d a r th a t al-K h w arizm i h a d p a rtly
c o n s tru c te d h im s e lf a n d re g a rd e d as su ita b le for th e Jew s to use.
L ater tre a tise s o n th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, w ritte n in A rab ic a n d in Syriac
b y 9 th -1 1 th -c e n tu rie s M u slim a n d C h ristian a u th o rs (al-Q a’ini, an-N ayrizi,
al-B ayruni, Elias o f N isibis, a n d o th e rs), a re also b e in g e d ite d b y d e Blois
a n d a re p re s e n te d in th is article. P artic u larly n o te w o rth y is E lias’ u n iq u e
refe re n c e to th e ‘d isa g re e m e n t’ th a t arose, in 921 CE, ‘b e tw e e n th e Jew s
o f th e W e st a n d th e Jew s o f th e E ast c o n c e rn in g th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e ir
festivals; a n d th e Je w s w h o a re in th e W e s t m a d e th e b e g in n in g o f
th e ir y e a r T uesday, a n d th o se o f th e E ast (m a d e it) T h u rsd a y ’.
V ery little w as k n o w n a b o u t th is d isa g re e m e n t a n d co n tro v ersy , u n til
th e d iscovery in th e C airo G en izah , in th e la te 19th ce n tu ry , o f a tro v e o f
d o c u m e n ts, le tte rs a n d m e m o ra n d a a u th o re d b y th e m a in p ro tag o n ists.
T hese d o c u m e n ts , also th e e a rlie st a tte s ta tio n w e h av e in H e b re w o f th e
fixed ra b b in ic c a le n d a r c a lc u latio n , w e re h astily p u b lis h e d a t th e tim e o f
th e ir discovery, a n d fo rm e d th e b asis o f a m o n o g ra p h b y H.Y. B o rn ste in
(1904), w h o p o in te d a lre a d y to th e ir b ro a d e r sig n ifican ce for th e origins
a n d h isto ry o f th e Je w ish c a le n d a r th a t is in u se to d ay . B ecause th e s e e d i­
tio n s w e re v ery fau lty a n d ig n o red , in m o s t cases, th e m a te ria l ev id en c e
o f th e m a n u s c rip ts th e m se lv es, a n e w ed itio n , in te rp re ta tio n , a n d stu d y o f
th is c o rp u s o f m a n u s c rip ts is lo n g ov erd u e. T his is th e o b je c t o f a re se a rc h
p ro je c t in p ro g ress b y M a rin a R u sto w a n d S ach a S tern, w h o a n tic ip a te a
r e a p p ra isa l o f th e g re a t c a le n d a r d isp u te o f 921/2, its im m e d ia te afte rm a th ,
a n d its im p a c t in th e follow ing ce n tu ry . In th is v o lu m e , th e y p r e s e n t th e
p re lim in a ry re su lts o f th e ir re se a rc h : h o w th e fra g m en ts, n o w sc a tte re d
all o ver th e w orld, w ere id e n tifie d a n d lo c ate d ; th e n e w jo in s th a t w ere
m a d e, le a d in g to co m p le te ly rev ise d re c o n s tru c tio n s o f th e m a n u sc rip ts
a n d tex ts; th e co d ico lo g ical analysis o f th e m a n u sc rip ts , s h e d d in g lig h t o n
h o w a n d p o ssib ly w h y th e s e te x ts w e re p re se rv e d a n d tr a n s m itte d in th e
N ear E ast u n til th e 11th cen tu ry .
It is p e rh a p s in th e w ak e o f th is m a jo r co n tro v e rsy th a t m o n o g ra p h s o n
th e Je w ish c a le n d a r a n d o n its c a lc u la tio n w e re first c o m p o se d b y ra b b a n -
ite Jew s. Sa’ad y a w as a m o n g th e first, a lth o u g h o n ly fra g m e n ts o f h is cal­
e n d a r w orks, in th e G e n iz a h o r in se c o n d a ry c itatio n s, h av e survived. B ut
as th e fixed, ra b b in ic c a le n d a r w as tra n s m itte d to th e W est, th e g en re o f
th e (Jew ish) c a le n d a r m o n o g ra p h a p p e a rs to h av e b e c o m e ra p id ly e s ta b ­
lished, in close as so c ia tio n w ith a s tro n o m ic a l a n d astro lo g ica l w ritin g .
M o n o g ra p h s o n th e “ibbur, n o w b e s t tr a n s la te d as ‘c a le n d a r c a lc u la tio n ’,
are a ttr ib u te d b y la te r a u th o rs to H assan b. H assan o f C o rd o b a (m id -late
10th cen t.) a n d to Isaac b. B aru k h A lbalia (Spain, m id -la te 11th cen t.) b u t
o n ly fra g m e n ta ry c ita tio n s o f th e ir w o rk s a re ex tan t.
T he 12th ce n tu ry , h o w ev er, saw a p ro life ra tio n o f m o n o g ra p h s o n th e
Je w ish ca le n d ar, w h ic h a re m o stly e x ta n t. S everal o f th e se , b y a co in ci­
d e n c e th a t re m a in s to b e ex p lain e d , w ere c o m p o se d in F ran ce in th e y ea r
1122/3, th e e n d o f th e 2 5 7 th 19-year cycle (o f th e e ra o f C rea tio n ): th u s th e
c a le n d a r m o n o g ra p h o f A b ra h a m b. Hiyya, a n in flu e n tia l w o rk th a t h as
b e e n p re se rv e d in m a n y m a n u sc rip ts , a n d th a t o f J a c o b b. Sam son, a sig­
n ific a n t fra g m e n t o f w h ic h is p re se rv e d in a single m a n u s c r ip t .2 B o th are
in tro d u c e d a n d c o m p a re d b y Ila n a W a rte n b e rg , w h o is p rep a rin g , w ith
Israel S an d m a n , a n e w e d itio n o f th e s e w orks. As W a rte n b e rg show s, th e
d ifferen ces b e tw e e n th e s e w o rk s a re q u ite c o n sp icu o u s: Ja co b b. S am so n
a p p e a rs to ig n o re th e tequfah c a lc u la tio n a ttr ib u te d to th e T alm u d ic sage
Rav A da, w h ic h is first a tte s te d , in fact, in A b ra h a m b. H iyya’s w o rk (b u t
citin g h is p re d e c e s so r Isaac b. B arukh); Ja co b b. S am so n w a rn s a t le n g th
o f th e d a n g e r o f d rin k in g w a te r o n th e days o f teq u fa h (e q u in o x e s a n d
solstices), w h e re a s A b ra h a m b. H iyya re je c ts th is b e lie f as su p e rstitio u s;
A b ra h a m b. H iyya’s F o u r G ates sc h em e, as in th e 1 0 th -ce n tu ry G en iz ah
sources, is b a s e d o n th e m o la d o f T ishri, w h e re a s Ja c o b b. S am so n sug­
g ests in a d d itio n a F o u r G ate sc h e m e b a s e d o n th e m o la d o f N isan; A b ra­
h a m b. H iyya’s style is scientific, Ja c o b b. S am so n ’s p o etic. W a rte n b e rg
co n c lu d e s th a t in sp ite o f th e ir g eo g ra p h ica l a n d te m p o ra l p ro x im ity , th e
p ro fo u n d d iv e rg e n ce s b e tw e e n th e s e w o rk s in te rm s o f style, lan g u ag e,
a n d c o n c e p tio n o f th e c a le n d a r arg u e stro n g ly a g a in st a n y d e p e n d e n c e
b e tw e e n th e m .
A d istin ctiv e fe a tu re o f H eb rew c a le n d a r w o rk s fro m th e 12th c e n tu ry
a n d la te r is th e ir ex ten siv e u se o f ta b les, w h ic h fo r so m e re a s o n a p p e a r
n o t to h av e b e e n u se d b efo re (th e re a re n o c a le n d ric a l ta b les, fo r ex am p le,
in th e 10th -c e n tu ry G e n iz a h sources, a lth o u g h H eb rew a s tro n o m ic a l
ta b le s are a lre a d y a tte s te d in th is p erio d ). T he ta b le s a n d d ia g ra m s in th e
m a n u s c rip ts o f A b ra h a m b. H iyya’s c a le n d a r b o o k are a n a ly z e d in d e ta il
b y Israel S an d m a n , w ith p a rtic u la r a tte n tio n to th e fre e d o m ex e rcise d by
scrib es to d ev iate fro m th e te x t o f th e ir m a s te r copies, a n d th e re a so n s
w h y th e s e d e v ia tio n s w ere m a d e. T his fre e d o m o f scrib es sto o d in te n s io n
w ith th e ir fidelity to th e te x t o f th e ir m a s te r co p ies a n d o f th e a u th o ria l,
o r p re s u m e d au th o ria l, versio n . V arious a g e n d a w e re a t play, su c h as id e ­
ology a n d th e d esire to u p d a te A b ra h a m b. H iyya’s w o rk a n d m a k e it re l­
e v a n t to c o n te m p o ra ry , lo c alize d a u d ie n c e s. S a n d m a n ’s stu d y th u s sh e d s
c o n sid e ra b le lig h t o n h o w A b ra h a m b. H iyya’s w o rk w as tr a n s m itte d a n d
u se d in p ra c tic e in th e la te r m e d ie v a l p erio d .
A b ra h a m b. H iyya is also th e a u th o r o f a se t o f a s tro n o m ic a l tab les,
w h ic h h av e b e e n p re se rv e d as a d is tin c t w o rk in se v eral H eb rew m a n u ­

2 These works, especially Abraham b. Hiyya’s, are often given the title of Sefer halbbur,
but the manuscripts are generally untitled. To these two works may be added the calendar
section of ms ex-Sassoon 535 (the earliest manuscript of Mahzor Vitry), another French
composition that appears to be of exactly the same date.
sc rip ts a n d in o n e L atin v ersio n ; th e L atin v e rsio n c o n ta in s a s u b sta n tia l
n u m b e r o f a d d itio n a l tab les, so m e a ttr ib u te d to A b ra h a m b. H iyya (b u t
n o t a tte s te d in H ebrew ), a n d o th e rs b e lo n g in g to th e 13th ce n tu ry . M o st
o f th e ta b le s a re p ro p e rly a s tro n o m ic a l, b u t so m e re la te d m o re sp ecifi­
cally to th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, w h ic h in d ic a te s th e e x te n t to w h ic h th e tw o
d isc ip lin es w ere n o t alw ays clearly d istin g u ish e d . T he m a n u s c rip ts a n d
A b ra h a m b. H iyya’s ta b les are surveyed a n d an a ly zed b y R ay m o n d M er-
cier. M e rc ier n o te s th e a u th o r ’s d e p e n d e n c e o n th e a s tro n o m ic a l d a ta
a n d sc h e m e s o f th e A lm a g e st a n d o f al-B attan i, so m e tim e s to th e p o in t
o f in te r n a l in c o n siste n cy . In so m e tab les, fo r ex am p le, a l-B attan i’s radices
a re u se d in c o m b in a tio n w ith th e A lm a g e st’s ra te s o f m o tio n ; th is h y b rid
sc h em e , a c c o rd in g to M ercier, is th e re s u lt o f A b ra h a m b. H iyya’s p re fe r­
en c e for th e A lm a g e st’s le n g th o f th e year, a n d th is p re fe re n c e , in tu rn ,
is d u e to its close a p p ro x im a tio n to th e y e a r le n g th o f th e Je w ish c a le n ­
d a r (a c c o rd in g to Rav A da). T he u se o f Je w ish c a le n d a r v a lu e s in th is a n d
o th e r a s tro n o m ic a l ta b le s in th is se t le ad s M e rc ier to th e re m a rk a b le c o n ­
clu sio n th a t A b ra h a m b. H iyya’s a s tro n o m ic a l sy stem w as larg ely b a s e d o n
th e Je w ish c a le n d a r— w h ic h ex em p lifies th e close re la tio n sh ip , in th e 12th
c e n tu ry a t least, b e tw e e n a s tro n o m y a n d ca le n d ars.
T he n e x t m a jo r sc h o la r o f th e Je w ish c a le n d a r w as A b ra h a m ib n E zra
(m id 12 th c e n tu ry ), w h o a u th o re d a large n u m b e r o f a stro lo g ica l a n d cal­
e n d a r-re la te d w orks. B esides h is b o o k o n th e ca le n d ar, o fte n re fe rre d to
as Sefer h albbur, h e w ro te a s h o rt a n d in trig u in g tre a tise o n th e S ab b ath ,
w h ic h is th e su b je c t o f K in ere t S ittig’s c o n trib u tio n . T h e S a b b a th Epistle
revolves a ro u n d th e q u e s tio n o f w h e th e r th e S a b b a th b e g in s o n F rid ay
ev e n in g o r o n S atu rd ay m o rn in g , w h ic h is resolved, in a r a th e r o rig in al
fash io n , b y an a lo g y w ith th e cycle o f th e year; b u t it also e x te n d s to a
b ro a d e r d isc u ssio n o f th e Je w ish ca le n d ar. T h e tre a tise in c lu d es, m o re ­
over, a s tro n o m ic a l passages, b ib lic a l exegesis, p o etry , a n d p o lem ics, th u s
defying a n y stra ig h tfo rw a rd g en e ric classificatio n . S ittig arg u e s th a t A b ra­
h a m Ib n E zra w as n o t re sp o n d in g in th is tre a tise to riv al in te rp re ta tio n s
o f G enesis 1:5, as h a s o fte n b e e n suggested, b u t r a th e r to ch a lle n g es th a t
w e re arisin g in c o n te m p o ra ry d e b a te s b e tw e e n Jew s a n d C h ristian s.
T he a s tro n o m ic a l w o rk s o f A b ra h a m ib n Ezra, m o re specifically his
tre a tise s o n th e a stro la b e , are c o m p a ra tiv e ly su rv ey e d a n d a n a ly z e d b y
Jo se fin a R odriguez A rribas. In th e s e tre a tise s, w h ic h in c lu d e th re e v ery
d iffe re n t H eb rew v ersio n s a n d o n e L atin v ersio n , A b ra h a m ib n E zra p ro ­
v id e s a d e s c rip tio n o f th is a s tro n o m ic a l in s tru m e n t, a n e x p la n a tio n o f
its d iffe re n t a p p lic a tio n s a n d u ses (astro n o m ical, astro lo g ical, b u t also
ca le n d ric a l a n d to p o g ra p h ic a l), a n d a c ritiq u e o f its scien tific accu racy .
R odriguez arg u e s th a t th e se w o rk s a re ev id en c e o f th e p o p u la rity a n d
u se o f th e a s tro la b e a m o n g m id 1 2 -century Jew s, in a p e rio d w h e n it w as
b e c o m in g w id ely diffu sed in E urope.
F u rth e r, m a jo r w o rk s o n a s tro n o m y a n d c a le n d a rs w e re p ro d u c e d by
Jew s in H eb rew in th e la te r M iddle Ages, n o ta b ly M a im o n id e s’ L aw s o f the
S a nctification o f the M o n th (late 12th ce n tu ry ), w h ic h in c lu d e s a co n cise
a c c o u n t o f th e Je w ish c a le n d a r a n d a n a s tro n o m ic a l tre a tise o n n e w m o o n
visibility, a n d in th e 14th ce n tu ry , Isaac Israeli’s Yeso d O lam , a le a rn e d
tre a tise o n a stro n o m y , m a th e m a tic s, a n d th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, a n d th e
g ro u n d b re a k in g a s tro n o m ic a l w o rk s o f Levi b. G ersh o n (G erso n id es). In
th is v o lu m e , how ev er, less fam o u s w o rk s fro m th is p e rio d are giv en c o n ­
sid e ra tio n . Ju stin e Isserles p re s e n ts a tra n s c rip tio n a n d an aly sis o f h y g ien e
a n d d ie ta ry c a le n d a rs in th re e A sh k en a zi H e b re w m a n u s c rip ts fro m th e
1 3 th -1 4 th ce n tu rie s, th a t a re in c lu d e d in se c tio n s o f th e m a n u s c rip ts th a t
c a n b e v ario u sly id e n tifie d as ca le n d rical, astro lo g ical, p ro g n o stic al, a n d
m e d ical. Isserles show s th a t th e in c lu sio n o f h y g ien e a n d d ie ta ry ca le n ­
d ars in th e s e m a n u s c rip ts im ita te d a w ell-e sta b lish e d , co d ico lo g ical g en re
in m e d ie v a l L atin tra d itio n . T he c o n te n ts o f th e s e H eb rew c a le n d a rs w ere
also largely d ra w n fro m L atin tra d itio n : th e y are s tru c tu re d o n th e Ju lia n
ca le n d ar, a n d sh a re th e sam e, m a in ly H ip p o c ra tic tra d itio n s as th e ir L atin
c o u n te rp a rts. P h ilip p N o th a ft ad d re sse s a sim ila r p h e n o m e n o n in th e
o p p o site d irec tio n : th e la te m e d ie v a l rise o f Latin, C h ristia n tre a tise s o n
th e Je w ish ca le n d ar. H is artic le fo cuses o n o n e o f th e m o st im p o r ta n t o f
th e s e w orks, o f w h ic h h e is c u rre n tly p re p a rin g a n ed itio n : a m id -1 4 th c e n ­
tu ry L atin tre a tise th a t w as m assiv ely diffu sed as a p o p u la r a s tro n o m ic a l
sc h o o l te x t, a n d in c u rre d n u m e ro u s rev isio n s a n d c o m m e n ta rie s . C h ris­
tia n sc h o lars in th is p e rio d saw in th e Je w ish c a le n d a r a m o re a c c u ra te
re c k o n in g o f th e m o o n th a n w as affo rd ed b y th e E aster C o m p u tu s, w h ic h
co u ld b e usefully a p p lie d to th e stu d y o f a stro n o m y a n d — for so m e— could
serve as a m o d e l for C h ristia n c a le n d a r refo rm . N o th a ft p o in ts to th e
te n s io n in th is tre a tise b e tw e e n theo lo g ical h o stility to w ard s Ju d a ism (to
th e p o in t o f referring, in th e co m m en taries, to th e m y th o f Jew ish m ale
m e n stru a tio n ) o n th e o n e h an d , a n d grudgin g a d m ira tio n for th e ex actn ess
o f Jew ish c a le n d a tio n o n th e o th er. This lead s u s to reflect o n th e u ltim a te
c o n trib u tio n o f Jew ish tra d itio n to th e scien c es o f a s tro n o m y a n d c a le n d a rs
in th e m e d ie v a l L atin W est.
T his v o lu m e arises fro m a c o n fe re n c e th a t w as h e ld a t U n iv ersity C ol­
lege L o n d o n (UCL) in Ju n e 2012 u n d e r th e sa m e title. Jo in tly sp o n so re d b y
th e UCL In s titu te o f Je w ish S tu d ies a n d th e A rts a n d H u m a n itie s R esearch
C o u n cil (AHRC), th is co n fe re n c e re p re s e n te d th e c u lm in a tio n o f a n
A H R C -funded m a jo r re se a rc h p ro je c t a t UCL o n ‘M ed iev al M o n o g rap h s
o n th e Je w ish C a le n d a r’, o f w h ic h th e m a in th e o b jectiv e is to p ro d u c e
n e w ed itio n s, w ith tra n s la tio n a n d co m m e n ta ry , o f th e 12 th -c e n tu ry cal­
e n d a r m o n o g ra p h s o f A b ra h a m b. Hiyya, Ja co b b. S am son, a n d A b ra h a m
ib n E zra (w ith Ila n a W a rte n b e rg a n d Isra el S a n d m a n as m a in rese arch e rs).
T he p u rp o se o f th is co n fe re n c e w as a t o n ce to p r e s e n t th e p re lim in a ry
re su lts o f th is p ro jec t, a n d to e x p a n d its scope to a s tro n o m y a n d ca le n ­
d a rs in th e w h o le o f a n c ie n t a n d m e d iev a l Je w ish tra d itio n . All th e p a rtic i­
p a n ts a t th is co n fe re n ce, w h o se p a p e rs m a k e u p a lm o st th e w h o le v o lu m e,
h av e b e e n a s so c ia te d in v a rio u s w ays w ith th is p ro jec t, as w ell as b e in g
in v o lv e d in o th e r L o n d o n -b a se d re se a rc h p ro je c ts o n a s tro n o m y a n d th e
Je w ish ca le n d ar, as follow s (in o rd e r o f a p p e a ra n c e in th is v o lu m e ); UCL
L e v e rh u lm e -fu n d e d p ro je c t o n ‘th e J e w ish c a le n d a r in al-B iru n i a n d o th e r
e arly Islam ic so u rc e s’ (de Blois), UCL a n d Jo h n s H o p k in s B ritish A cadem y-
fu n d e d p ro je c t o n ‘J e w ish c a le n d a r co n tro v e rsie s in th e 1 0 th -1 1 th ce n tu rie s
N ea r E ast’ (R u sto w a n d S tern), W a rb u rg In s titu te A H R C -funded p ro je c t
o n ‘A stro lab e s in M ed iev al Je w ish Society 1 (R od rig u ez a n d B u rn ett), UCL
L e v e rh u lm e -fu n d e d p ro je c t o n ‘M ed iev al C h ristia n a n d Je w ish c a le n d a r
te x ts fro m E n g lan d a n d F ra n co -G e rm an y ’ (Isserles a n d N o th aft).
A ccordingly, o u r in te n tio n in th is v o lu m e is n o t to su m m a riz e ex istin g
k n o w led g e, b u t to p r e s e n t n ew , o n g o in g re se a rc h in th e re la te d fields o f
Je w ish a s tro n o m y a n d ca le n d ars. W e a re g rate fu l to Jim D ingley (co p y e d i­
to r) a n d all th e c o n trib u to rs for en a b lin g u s to p u b lis h th is re s e a rc h w ith in
a n u n u su a lly s h o rt tim e fro m th e co n fe re n ce. This v o lu m e , h o w ev er, is n o t
sim p ly o n e o f ‘c o n fe re n c e p ro c e e d in g s’ o r a c o lle c tio n o f lo o sely re la te d
a rtic le s o n a th e m e ; it aim s to co n v ey a sen se o f th e c o n tin u o u s, d ev e lo p ­
in g tra d itio n o f Je w ish a s tro n o m y a n d c a le n d a rs th ro u g h A n tiq u ity a n d
th e M iddle Ages, in its b ro a d e r c o n te x t o f in te ra c tio n w ith H ellen istic,
C h ristian , a n d Islam ic sc ien c e a n d c u ltu re. In d ee d , th e g re a t v a rie ty o f
a p p ro a c h e s a n d su b -th e m e s th a t c h a ra c te riz e e a c h o f th e s e a rticle s is evi­
d e n c e o f th e b ro a d rele v an c e o f a s tro n o m y a n d c a le n d a rs to m a n y asp ec ts
o f Jew ish, a n d m o re g en e rally a n c ie n t a n d m ed iev al, cu ltu re a n d social
h istory.

S ach a S tern
UCL

C h arles B u rn e tt
W a rb u rg In s titu te

L ondon, 7 M ay 2013
 CHAPTER ONE

A JEW ISH PARAPEG M A? READING 1 ENOCH 82 IN ROMAN EG Y PT

J o n a th a n B en-D ov

s tu d ie s o f th e re c e p tio n o f 1 E n o ch in la te a n tiq u ity y ield in te re s tin g

re su lts, esp ecially w ith re g a rd to th e sto ry o f th e fallen an g els, w h ic h w as
q u o te d a n d re to ld in n u m e ro u s Je w ish a n d C h ristia n te x ts d u rin g th e first
c e n tu rie s o f th e C o m m o n E ra .2 in d e e d te x ts sh o u ld b e e x a m in e d n o t o n ly
in re la tio n to th e c irc u m sta n c e s a n d b a c k g ro u n d o f th e ir c o n c e p tio n ,
b u t also in re la tio n to th e sp e cia l social, e c o n o m ic a n d in te lle c tu a l b a c k ­
g ro u n d o f th e ir c irc u la tio n in a n y given p e rio d o f tim e. w e p re se n tly aim
to e lu c id a te th e re c e p tio n o f 1 E n o ch in H ellen istic-R o m an E gypt, a lite r­
a ry m ilie u o n w h ic h c o n sid e ra b le re se a rc h h as a c c u m u la te d .3 it is n o w
p o ssib le to tra c e th e sta tu s o f 1 E n o ch a n d th e cry sta lliza tio n o f su c h c o n ­
c e p ts as ‘a p o c ry p h a ’ a n d ‘a p o c a ly p se ’ in th a t p e rio d o f tim e. T h ese stu d ies
n o tw ith s ta n d in g , I p re se n tly a tte m p t to stu d y esp ecially th e a stro n o m ica l
te a c h in g o f 1 E noch, as it c irc u la te d in H ellen istic-R o m an E gypt a n d o th e r

1 I am grateful to Sacha Stern, to the UCL Department of Hebrew and Jewish Studies,
as well as to the Institute of Jewish Studies, for their kind invitation and warm hospitality.
The original idea of the paper arose from a presentation of the parapegmata by Ms. Katja
Kosova in Alexander Jones’ seminar on ancient astronomy, New-York, Spring 2011.
2 D. Dimant, ‘“The Fallen Angels” in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the Apocryphal and
Pseudepigraphic Books Related to them’, Ph.D. thesis (Hebrew University of Jerusalem,
1974); A.Y. Reed, Fallen Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity: The Reception
o f Enochic Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005); L.T. Stuckenbruck
and C. Auffarth (eds), The Fall of the angels (TBN 6; Leiden: Brill, 2004); A.T. Wright, The
Origin of Evil Spirits: The Reception of Genesis 6.1-4 in Early Jewish Literature (WUNT 2,
Reihe 198; Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005); J.C. VanderKam and W. Adler (eds), TheJewish
Apocalyptic Heritage in Early Christianity (CRINT 4; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996). The most
significant effort with respect to the setting of Egyptian Enoch manuscripts was under­
taken by G.W.E. Nickelsburg, ‘Two Enochic Manuscripts: Unstudied Evidence for Egyptian
Christianity’, in H.W. Attridge et al. (eds), OfScribes and Scrolls: Studies on the Hebrew Bible,
IntertestamentalJudaism, and Christian Origins presented to John Strugnell on the Occasion
o f his Sixtieth Birthday (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1990), pp. 251-260;
B. Pearson, ‘Enoch in Egypt’, in idem, Gnosticism amd Christianity in Roman and Coptic
Egypt (New York: T. & T. Clark, 2004), pp. 132-152; R.A. Kraft, Exploring the Scripturesque:
Jewish Texts and Their Christian Contexts (JSJSup 137; Leiden: Brill, 2009).
3 See most recently Roger Bagnall, Early Christian Books in Egypt (Princeton; Princeton
University Press, 2009). On the reception of Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha in that period
see D. Stokl Ben Ezra, ‘Canonization—a non-Lineary Process? Observing the Process of
Canonization through the Christian (and Jewish) Papyri from Egypt’, ZAC 12 (2008), 229­
250.
tra je c to rie s o f th e L ate A n tiq u e w orld. L ittle w ork, if any, h as b e e n d e d i­
c a te d to th is p a rtic u la r b r a n c h o f E n o ch ic te ac h in g . W h ile th e circ u la tio n
o f m y th ic a l a n d a d m o n ito ry n a rra tiv e s like th e Book o f th e W a tc h e rs is
easy to a c c o u n t for, it se em s less o b vious w ith re g a rd to a n a s tro n o m ic a l
te x t, w h ic h differs q u ite sign ifican tly fro m o th e r c o n te m p o ra ry a s tro n o m i­
cal w ritings.
A fter su rveying th e m e a g e r m a te ria l k n o w n to us, I w o u ld like to sug­
g est a w ay in w h ic h th e A stro n o m ic a l Book o f E n o ch (=1 En 7 2 -8 2 , h e n c e ­
fo rth AB)— o r p a rts th e re o f — co u ld h av e b e e n in te g ra te d w ith p o p u la r
lite ra ry g e n re s in G raeco -E g y p tian astro n o m y . F inally, th e p o ssib ility is
ra ise d th a t th is m ilie u o f tra n sm issio n w as re sp o n sib le n o t o n ly for th e
reception o f th e A stro n o m ic a l B ook b u t also fo r its red a ctio n , esp ecially
w ith re g a rd to c h a p te r 82.

1. The C om position a n d Circulation o f A B

Since th e co dicological fin d o f AB h a s b e e n d isc u sse d in te n siv e ly in th e

p ast, it is n o t n e c e ssa ry to re c o u n t it h e r e .4 T he sam e is tru e w ith reg a rd
to th e stages o f c o m p o sitio n o f AB, fro m th e e a rlie st av ailab le te x t fo r­
m a t u n til th e v e rsio n k n o w n to u s fro m C h ristia n E th io p ic m a n u s c rip ts o f
th e fo u rte e n th c e n tu ry o n w a rd s .5 W e n e e d o n ly m e n tio n sev eral c e n tra l
p o in ts, w h ic h are im p o r ta n t fo r th e d isc u ssio n below .
AB re p re s e n ts th e o u tc o m e o f a tra d itio n a l co rp u s o f M e so p o ta m ia n
a stro n o m y , w h ic h h a d d e v e lo p e d in th e se co n d -first m ille n n ia BCE. This
w isd o m w as co d ified a n d s ta n d a rd iz e d a ro u n d th e tu r n o f th e first m ille n ­
n iu m , in th e fo rm o f th e a s tro n o m ic a l c o m p e n d ia M u l.A p in a n d E n u m a
A n u Enlil a n d a h o s t o f re la te d d o c u m e n ts .6 T his co rp u s d e a lt m a in ly w ith
p e rio d re la tio n s a n d id e a l sch em es, fo cu sin g o n o b se rv a tio n o f risin g s a n d
se ttin g s o f th e sun, m o o n a n d sta rs o n th e h o riz o n . It w as p ro m u lg a te d
in th e d o m a in o f M e so p o ta m ia n in flu e n c e u n d e r th e g re a t n eo-A ssyrian,

4 See most recently G.W.E. Nickelsburg and J.C. VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2. (Herme-
neia Minneapolis: Fortress, 2012), pp. 335-357. On the Aramaic copies see especially
H. Drawnel, The Aramaic Astronomical Book (4Q208-4Q211) From Qumran: Text, Transla­
tion, and Commentary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).
5 See Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 357-371; J. Ben-Dov, Head o f All Years:
Astronomy and Calendars at Qumran in their Ancient Context (STDJ 78; Leiden: Brill, 2008),
pp. 69-118.
6 See H. Hunger and D. Pingree, Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia (HdO I, 44; Leiden:
Brill, 1999), pp. 5-26, 32-116; D. Brown, Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology
(Leiden: Brill [Styx Publications], 2000), pp. 103-160.
n eo -B ab y lo n ian , a n d A c h a e m e n id em p ires. W h ile to w a rd s th e e n d o f th a t
p e rio d a n e w ty p e o f a s tro n o m ic a l te a c h in g d e v e lo p e d in M e so p o tam ia,
w h ic h w as m o re m a th e m a tic a l a n d m o re a n c h o re d to h ig h -p re cisio n
m e a su re m e n ts, th e o ld a n d less s o p h is tic a te d M u l.A p in -ty p e a s tro n o m y
c o n tin u e d to e c h o in w id ely d iv e rg e n t w ritin g s fro m as far as th e L evant,
Egypt, India, Persia, a n d ev e n G reek a n d R o m an w rite rs .7 T he A ram aic
tre a tise w h ic h g rad u a lly b e c a m e ‘th e A stro n o m ic a l B ook o f E n o ch ’ is a
tra je c to ry o f th is tra d itio n ; it is p ro b a b ly th e clo sest e x ta n t e x a m p le o f
a d ire c t tra n s la tio n fro m A k k ad ia n to a n o th e r c o n te m p o ra ry la n g u a g e .8
T he fo u r A ra m a ic co p ies o f AB p re se n tly k n o w n a re fra g m e n ts fro m
Q u m ran , d a tin g m o stly b e tw e e n th e first c e n tu ry BCE a n d th e first c e n ­
tu ry CE, w ith o n e sign ifican tly early co p y d a tin g to ca. 2 0 0 BCE. It is n o t
clear, how ev er, w h e th e r th is scroll— 4 Q 208 E n a stra— is stric tly a co p y o f
AB, o r m a y b e r a th e r re p re s e n ts a fo re ru n n e r o f t h a t b o o k in p re-E n o ch ic
form . H aving r e a c h e d fin al fo rm in th e la st tw o c e n tu rie s BCE a n d circ u ­
la tin g in th e L evant, AB as a m a n ife s ta tio n o f M u l.A p in -ty p e a s tro n o m y
w as p ro n e to in te r a c t w ith o th e r, cog n ate, a s tro n o m ic a l tra d itio n s w h ic h
aro se o n a sim ila r b ac k g ro u n d .
T he A stro n o m ic a l Book, like o th e r tre a tise s c o llec te d in 1 E noch, w as
la te r tra n s la te d fro m A ra m a ic to G reek. A lth o u g h n o s u b s ta n tia l G reek
v e rsio n is p rese rv e d , R an d all C h e s n u tt d e m o n s tra te d (follow ing M ilik’s
in itia l ch allen g e) th a t su c h a v e rsio n d id exist, a n d is r e p re s e n te d in th e
sc ra p s o f P.O xy 2 069.9 T he c o n te x t fo r th e tra n s la tio n o f 1 E n o ch in to
G reek is n o t e n tire ly k n o w n , b u t a m e a n in g fu l clu e co m es fo rth fro m th e
sim ila rity o f tra n s la tio n a l p ra c tic e s b e tw e e n 1 E n o ch a n d D aniel, su g g est­
in g th a t th e tw o w e re tra n s la te d in c o n ju n c tio n .10 In d e e d it m a k e s sen se

7 D. Pingree, ‘Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens’, in S. Dalley (ed.), The Leg­
acy of Mesopotamia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 125-137; Ben-Dov, Head
o f All Years, pp. 176-181.
8 This conviction is based mainly on the discoveries by Drawnel, The Aramaic Astronomi­
cal Book, pp. 260-311, who demonstrated the close similarity between AB and its cuneiform
prototypes. Drawnel follows the pioneering work of M. Albani, Astronomie und Schop-
fungsglaube: Untersuchungen zum astronomischen Henochbuch (WMANT 68; Neukirchen-
Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1994).
9 J.T. Milik, ‘Fragments grecs du livre d’Henoch [p.Oxy. XVII 2069]’, Chronique d’Egypte
46 (1971), 321-343; R.D. Chesnutt, ‘Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2069 and the Compositional
History of 1 Enoch’,JBL 129 (2010), 485-505.
10 J. Barr, ‘Aramaic-Greek Notes on the Book of Enoch (I-II)’,JSS 23 (1978), 184-198; 24
(1979), 179-192. Barr’s initial insights were corroborated by Eric Larson in his dissertation:
E. Larson, ‘The Translation of Enoch: From Aramaic into Greek’, Ph.D. dissertation (New
York University, 1995), p. 345. They are also accepted by G.W.E. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1
(Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001), pp. 14, 49. Note that Barr pointed to the similarity
th a t th e tw o m o s t p r o m in e n t early a p o c aly p ses w ere tra n s la te d as p a r t o f
th e sa m e effort. W e c a n th u s ag ree w ith B arr a n d N ick elsb u rg th a t E n o ch
w as tra n s la te d in to G reek a lre a d y b e fo re th e tu r n o f th e Era. E n o ch ic lit­
e ra tu re en jo y ed a w id e a u d ie n c e , b o th in R o m an E gypt a n d elsew h ere
d u rin g la te a n tiq u ity , as w e le a rn fro m q u o ta tio n s o f E n o ch b y th e C h u rch
F a th e rs a n d fro m th e c irc u la tio n o f E n o ch ic th e m e s. As k n o w n fro m early
C h ristia n w ritin g s, 1 E n o ch w as classified as ‘A p o caly p se’ w h e n th e full
c o n n o ta tio n o f th is w o rd first e m e rg e d as a lite ra ry g e n re .11
N o t on ly w e re th e E n o ch ic w ritin g s q u o te d in la te r lite ra tu re , th e y
w e re also th e m se lv e s re fa sh io n e d b y n e w id eas, c h a ra c te ris tic o f G raeco ­
R o m an religion, a n d w ere th u s in te g ra te d in to th e c o n te m p o ra ry literary
fabric. A p a rtic u la rly in te re stin g ex a m p le p re s e n ts its e lf in th e AB, w h ic h
c a n b e p ro v e n to h av e a b s o rb e d th e m e s o f H ellen istic science. S uch is th e
failed a tte m p t to p ro d u c e a n octaeteris in 1 E n o ch 74:10-16, w h ic h m u s t
h av e b e e n in te rp o la te d in th e te x t in A lex a n d ria a ro u n d th e b eg in n in g
o f th e C o m m o n E ra .12 U p d a te s a n d o th e r glosses w e re ro u tin e ly in se rte d
in tr a n s m itte d te x ts d u rin g th e p ro c e ss o f ‘critica l’ te x tu a l stu d y ca rrie d
o u t in A le x a n d ria n sch o larly circles.13 A n o th e r sa lie n t e x a m p le is th e
a s tro n o m y in th e B ook o f 2 E noch, n o w p re se rv e d in S lavonic a n d C optic,
b u t d o u b tle ssly a p r o d u c t o f th e early c e n tu rie s CE in Egypt.14 T his b o o k
in h e rite d th e E n o ch ic a s tro n o m y a n d u p d a te d it w ith n e w H ellen istic-
R o m an th e m e s, fo r ex am p le, b y c o n v e rtin g th e 3 6 4 - d a y c a le n d a r in to th e
Ju lia n 3 6 5 - d a y calendar.15 T he a s tro n o m y o f 1 E n o ch w as th u s p a r t o f
th e life-cycle o f (a t le a s t som e) w rite rs in H ellen istic-R o m an Egypt.

of the Greek Enoch especially with the so-called ‘LXX’ version of the Greek Daniel, less so
with the Theodotion version.
11 VanderKam and Adler, Jewish Apocalyptic Heritage, pp. 10-13. The authors note
that the use of ‘apocalypse’ first appears in the Theodotion translation of Daniel, chapter 2
(see ibid., with earlier bibliography cited there).
12 See O. Neugebauer, ‘The “Astronomical” Chapters of the Ethiopic Book of Enoch
(72 to 82)’, in M. Black, The Book of Enoch or 1 Enoch (SVTP 7; Leiden: Brill, 1995), pp. 386­
414, esp. 400-401; Albani, Astronomie und Schopfunqsqlaube, pp. 72-75; Ben-Dov, Head of
All Years, pp. 126-127.
13 See recently M. Niehoff, Jewish Exegesis and Homeric Scholarship in Alexandria (Cam­
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
14 See most recently A. Orlov and G. Boccaccini (eds), New Perspectives on 2 Enoch: No
Longer Slavonic Only, Studia Judaeoslavica 4 (Leiden: Brill, 2012).
15 On the adoption and adaptation of the Enochic 364-day calendar in 2 Enoch see
Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, pp. 403-405 (with earlier bibliography adduced
there); D. Stokl Ben-Ezra, ‘Halakhah, Calendars, and the Provenances of 2 Enoch’, in Orlov
and Boccaccini (eds), New Perspectives on 2 Enoch, 229-242; C. Bottrich, Das slavische
Henochbuch, JSHRZ V, 7 (Gutersloh: Gutersloher Verlagshaus, 1996), pp. 803-804.
 F ro m y e t a la te r p e rio d w e h e a r o f 1 E n o ch (esp ecially th e Book o f th e
W a tc h e rs) as a co llec tio n o f a n c ie n t a n d se c re t w isd o m , w h ic h w as o nly
av ailab le as e so te ric k n o w led g e to th e ‘c h o s e n ’ o r to o th e r n a rro w ly d efin e d
groups.16 F u rth e r ev id en c e m a y b e cu lled fro m th e p re se n c e o f E n o ch ic
lite ra tu re in E th io p ic C hristian ity , w h ic h ow es m u c h o f its d o c trin e to
E gyptian a n d S yrian F a th e rs o f L ate A n tiq u ity . T hus, th e P asc h al tr a c t o f
A nato liu s, th e A le x a n d ria n -b o rn b ish o p o f L ao d icea (c. 282 CE), cites “th e
B ook o f E n o ch ”— e v id en tly AB— as a n a u th o rity o n th e fixing o f th e Jew ­
ish ca le n d ar, esp ecially a b o u t th e p la c e o f th e e q u in o x in th e c a le n d a r
y e a r (E useb. H ist. Eccl. 7.32.19).n E n o ch is c o n s ta n tly p ra ise d in E th io p ic
C h ristian ity as th e fo re m o st a u th o rity for h a n d lin g th e E aster C o m p u tu s,
d e sp ite th e fa c t th a t h is b o o k is n o t a b it re le v a n t to th is topic.18
E specially illu m in a tin g in th is re s p e c t is th e ev id en c e a b o u t M ani, a
p r o m in e n t religious le a d e r o f th e th ir d c e n tu ry CE a n d th e fo u n d e r o f
M a n ich a eism , w h o lived in P a rth ia n a n d S assan id M e s o p o ta m ia d u rin g th e
th ird c e n tu ry CE. A cc o rd in g to th e so-called Cologne M a n i C odex, a G reek
b io g ra p h ic a l so u rce a b o u t M ani, h e g rew u p w ith in th e Je w ish -C h ristia n
se c t o f th e E lchasites, w h e re h e w as ex p o sed to v a rio u s’ anoxaXvfeig, in c lu d ­
in g th e Book o f Enoch.19 T his re p o r t is m a d e m o re ta n g ib le b y m e a n s o f
a sh o rt a stro n o m ic a l text, w ritte n b y M ani o r h is stu d e n ts, w h ic h b etra y s a
clea r d e p e n d e n c e o n th e A stro n o m ic a l Book, r a th e r th a n o n th e an g elic
m y th o lo g y in th e Book o f th e W a tc h e rs .20 A lto g e th e r th e n , M a n i suggests

16 VanderKam and Adler, Jewish Apocalyptic Heritage, pp. 12-13; A.Y. Reed, ‘The Origins
of the Book of Watchers as “Apocalypse” and its Reception as “Apocryphon”’, Henoch 30
(2008), 55-59.
17 On the Paschal tract of Anatolius see D.P. McCarthy and A. Breen, The ante-Nicean
Christian Pasch: De ratione paschali, the Paschal Tract o f Anatolius, Bishop o f Laodicea
(Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1993).
18 In the writings of the reformer king Zar'a Ya'qob (15th century) we find the state­
ment that ‘If a person comes from the East or West, from the North or South, or from the
ends of the wide world, he is able to make no computation about his Fast, his Easter, or
his festivals according to the sun, moon or stars without Enoch’ (quoted, alongside other
extensive quotations from the same author, apud Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2,
405-406; see the bibliography adduced there). For further patristic references to AB see
Reed, Fallen Angels, p. 148 n. 88.
19 VanderKam and Adler, Jewish Apocalyptic Heritage, pp. 10-12; for much detail on
Mani’s apocalyptic heritage see I. Gruenwald, ‘Manichaeism and Judaism in Light of the
Cologne Mani Codex’, ZPE 50 (1983), 29-45, esp. 31-36.
20 J. Tubach, ‘Spuren des astronomischen Henochbuches bei den Manichaern Mittel-
asiens’, in P.O. Scholz and R. Stempel (eds), Nubia et Oriens Christianus: Festschrift fu r
C.D.G. Muller zum 60. Geburtstag (Koln: Dinter, 1988), pp. 73-89. This text from Turfan,
first published by M. Henning, departs from the gates model of 1 Enoch 72 and updates it
with the theory of climates, in order to give a better account for the sun’s orientation in
various locations.
a p o ssib le b a c k g ro u n d for th e stu d y a n d p ro m u lg a tio n o f a s tro n o m ic a l
p assag e s fro m 1 E n o ch in L ate A ntiq u ity .
D esp ite all o f th e above, w e still la ck a n id e a o f h o w th e a stro n o m y
o f E n o ch m ig h t h av e b e e n co n c e iv e d in R o m an A lex a n d ria a n d Oxy-
rh y n ch u s. Since a fo u rth -c e n tu ry co p y o f AB w as fo u n d a t O x y rh y n ch u s
(i.e., p. Oxy. 2069 m e n tio n e d above) w e are n o t e x e m p t fro m clarifying
its b ac k g ro u n d .
T he g en re s a n d m e d ia o f M e so p o ta m ia n scien ce, w h ic h h a d g iven rise
to th e c o m p o sitio n o f AB, w e re n o lo n g e r activ e in H ellen istic Egypt, a n d
th u s th e m a te ria l h a d to tra v e l u n d e r a n e w id e n tity . H ow w as th e E n o ch
a s tro n o m y co n c eiv ed in a H ellen istic e n v iro n m e n t? C learly it w as n o t
th e m o s t a d v a n c e d scien ce to b e fo u n d ; a t so m e stag e th e a c h ie v e m e n ts
o f H ip p a rc h u s w ere m a d e available, as w ell as th e a d v a n c e d B ab y lo n ian
m o d e ls o f S ystem A a n d B, w h ic h a p p e a r in G reek a n d D em o tic a lre ad y
in th e first c e n tu ry CE.21 H ow th e n w as E n o ch p ro m o te d ? A se c tio n a t th e
e n d o f AB su p p lie s g o o d g ro u n d s for u n d e r s ta n d in g 1 E n o ch in th e H elle­
n istic p erio d , sin ce it c o rre sp o n d s to a c e rta in e x te n t, in fo rm a n d c o n te n t,
b o th w ith th e M e so p o ta m ia n M ul.A pin m a te ria l a n d w ith o th e r literary
genres, c u rre n t in c o n te m p o ra ry Egypt. T his issu e le a d s u s to re fle c t o n
th e AB b o th as su sta in in g e a rlie r tra d itio n s a n d as re p re s e n tin g a n e w
c u ltu ra l h ybrid.

2. P a ra p eg m a ta a n d A stro-M eteorology

T ec h n ically speaking, a p a ra p e g m a is th e n a m e o f a tim e -c o u n tin g device,

e ith e r a v ery sim p le one, c o u n tin g m e re days, o r a r a th e r e la b o ra te one,
allow ing th e sy n c h ro n iz a tio n o f sev eral d is tin c t te m p o ra l sy stem s .22
P a ra p eg m a ta o n sto n e o r p la ste r are d esig n ed as in sc rip tio n s w ith h o le s
th a t are d rille d n e x t to a list o f d a te s o r o th e r tim e u n its. A sm all peg
(a lth o u g h a d m itte d ly n o n e o f th e s e p egs h av e su rv iv ed ) is m o v e d fro m
o n e ite m to th e n e x t every day, th u s allo w in g o n e to tra c k in a serial m a n ­
n e r all th e p h e n o m e n a a s so c ia te d w ith th a t p e rio d o f tim e. ‘P a ra p e g m a ’

21 A. Jones, ‘A Greek Papyrus Containing Babylonian Lunar Theory’, ZPE 119 (1997),
167-172; idem, ‘Babylonian Lunar Theory in Roman Egypt: Two New Texts’, in J.M. Steele
and A. Imhausen (eds), Under One Sky: Astronomy and Mathematics in the Ancient Near
East, AOAT 297 (Munster: Ugarit Verlag, 2002), pp. 167-174.
22 While the word parapegma is often used in a narrow technical sense, it is also used in
more general contexts, often denoting the sense of ‘calendar’. See for example E.G. Turner
and O. Neugebauer, ‘Gymnasium Debts and New Moons’, BJRL 32 (1949), 95.
g rad u a lly b e c a m e a c o m m o n d e s ig n a tio n for te x ts a n d in s tru m e n ts th a t
c o rre la te d c a le n d a r d a te s w ith th e risings o f fixed sta rs a n d w ith th e
w e a th e r p h e n o m e n a o cc u rrin g o n th e s e d ates, a n d th u s th e y ca m e to b e
k n o w n as dev ices for w e a th e r p re d ic tio n . W h ile th e lin k ag e o f w e a th e r
p h e n o m e n a w ith th e fixed sta rs w as c e rta in ly a n o ld cu sto m , a tte s te d
a lre a d y in H esio d ’s W orks a n d D ays, th e co m p re h e n siv e p re s e n ta tio n o f
c a le n d a r d a te s in c o n ju n c tio n w ith w e a th e r a n d a s tro n o m ic a l p h e n o m ­
e n a w as a la te r p rac tice . A longside th e p a ra p e g m a ta th a t to o k th e sh a p e
o f re a l objects, a tra d itio n o f lite ra ry p a ra p e g m a ta d ev e lo p ed . H ere th e
in fo rm a tio n w as c o n ta in e d in a lite ra ry co n tex t, w h e th e r in s c rip tio n a l or
in a la rg e r lite ra ry tex t. A fam o u s p a ra p e g m a in sc rip tio n is en g ra v ed o n
a b ro n z e s h e e t as p a r t o f th e ‘A n tik y th e ra M e c h a n ism ’.23 Som e literary
p a ra p e g m a te x ts w e re p re se rv e d o n p a p y ri fro m a n c ie n t Egypt, w h ile o th ­
ers e n te re d th e m e d iev a l tra n sm issio n o f G reek tex ts. T o d ay it is h ig h ly
c o n v e n ie n t to ac cess th e p a ra p e g m a ta b y m e a n s o f a re so u rc e fu l b o o k
b y D aryn L ehoux, w h ic h co llects all th e p e r tin e n t m a te ria ls a n d su p ­
p lies n o te s a n d c o m m e n ta ry o n e a c h o f them .24 T he m a te ria l c o llec te d
in L ehoux’s b o o k is q u ite v arie g ate d , a n d sp a n s a v a rie ty o f g en re s o v er a
lo n g p e rio d o f tim e. T he e a rlie s t G reek re c o rd is p. H ib e h 27 (early th ird
c e n tu ry BCE), b u t L eh o u x also in c lu d e s a se c tio n o n p o ssib le p re d e c e sso rs
fo r th e p a ra p e g m a tra d itio n in cu n e ifo rm w ritin g s. T he s u b je c t-m a tte r o f
th is tra d itio n is easily m o ld e d in to n e w lite ra ry co n tex ts: la p id a ry in sc rip ­
tio n s, graffiti, a se c tio n in P to le m y ’s A lm a g e st, o r a n in s p ira tio n for O vid’s
F asti. In fact, th e v a ria tio n is so far rea ch in g th a t th e v ery d efin itio n o f th e
g en re re m a in s s o m e w h a t elusive: w h ile so m e o f th e ite m s in c lu d e d in
th e b o o k w o u ld go b y ‘a c a le n d a r’, o th e rs a re a stro lo g ica l o r a s tro n o m ic a l
texts. N o t all o f th e te x ts are stric tly re la te d w ith astro -m e teo ro lo g y .

23 For the current reading of this inscription, which is part of the larger mechanism,
see D. Lehoux, Astronomy, Weather and Calendars in the Ancient World: Parapegmata and
Related Texts in Classical and Near Eastern Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2007),
p. 188. Alexander Jones is working on a new edition of the inscription, as the reading
of this sheet has recently been considerably enhanced due to the use of new imaging
technologies.
24 Lehoux, Astronomy, Weather and Calendars. See the review of this book by S. Stern,
in Scripta Israelitica Classica 27 (2008), 141-142. Previously, parapegmata were discussed
by A. Rehm, ‘Parapegma, RE (1949) vol. xviii.4, 1295-1366. See also B.L. van der Waerden,
‘Greek Astronomical Calendars: I. The Parapegma of Euctemon’, Archivefor the History of
Exact Sciences 29 (1984), 101-114, and a series of additional articles by the same author;
more recently L. Taub, Ancient Meteorology (London: Routledge, 2003), pp. 20-37; J. Evans,
The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy (New York and Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1998), pp. 199-204.
 P a ra p eg m a ta o fte n re fle c t th e w isd o m o f th e crow d, d e sp ite th e fa c t th a t
th e y flag th e n a m e s o f e s te e m e d a s tro n o m e rs like E udoxus, M e to n a n d
C alippus. T h ere is little in th e p a ra p e g m a ta w h ic h re se m b le s th e h ig h -e n d
g e o m e tric a l th e o rie s o f a s tro n o m y o f th o se e s te e m e d A th e n ia n a u th o ri­
ties. R ather, th e w isd o m c o n ta in e d in th e m re so n a te s w ith th e tra d itio n a l
w isd o m o f p e a s a n ts a n d sea-farers.25 N ot on ly th e c o n te n t is a t o d d s w ith
th e m e n tio n o f th e se n am es, b u t also th e tim e fram e, sin ce th e e x ta n t
p a ra p e g m a te x ts do n o t p re d a te th e th ird c e n tu ry BCE, m o s t o f th e m ev en
d a te c o n sid e ra b ly later. L eh o u x m a k e s th e v alid c la im — o p p o sin g ea rlier
sc h o lars— th a t th e a n c ie n t n a m e s w e re u se d in th e p a ra p e g m a ta in o rd e r
to le n d p restig e to th e n e w c o m p o sitio n s, a n d sh o u ld n o t b e ta k e n a t face
value.26 T he p o p u la r c h a ra c te r o f th e p a ra p e g m a ta is p a rtic u la rly im p o r­
t a n t fo r o u r p r e s e n t n ee d s, sin ce th e ex p re ssio n o f n o n -m a th e m a tic a l,
p o p u la r a stro n o m y , fits m o re easily w ith th e ty p e o f a s tro n o m y o n e co u ld
fin d in c o n te m p o ra ry Je w ish sources.
S everal early p re c e d e n ts for th e a stro -m e te o ro lo g ic a l tra d itio n s ste m
fro m th e cu n e ifo rm tra d itio n m e n tio n e d ab o v e. T he so -called ‘M e so p o ­
ta m ia n A stro la b e s’ (m ista k e n ly n a m e d th is w ay a fte r th e early fin d o f a n
e x e m p la r r e p re s e n te d as a circ u lar sc h e m e o n a cu n e ifo rm ta b le t) are
lite ra ry te x ts w h ic h c o rre la te th e y e a r w ith th e risin g s o f key fixed-stars,
w h ile also re c o rd in g w e a th e r c o n d itio n s a n d m a jo r festivals in e a c h o f
th e seasons.27
A fam o u s p assag e fro m M ul.A pin (II G ap A 1— ii 20) se em s to h av e
b e e n co n c eiv ed w ith th e A stro lab e s in m in d . T his p assag e is co m m o n ly
ca lled ‘th e se c o n d in te rc a la tio n sc h e m e ’, b u t sc h o lars h av e d e b a te d th e

25 See R. Hannah, ‘From Orality to Literacy? The Case of the Parapegma’, in J. Watson
(ed.), Speaking Volumes: Orality and Literacy in the Greek and Roman World, Mnemosyne
Supplement 218 (Leiden: Brill, 2001), pp. 139-159.
26 Lehoux, Astronomy, Weather and Calendars, pp. 95-97, where he also argues with
earlier writers who entertained more optimistic views on the possibility of (re)constructing
fifth-century parapegmata. Taub, Ancient Meteorology, 30-32, emphasizes the role of past
authorities in the parapegmata and points out the problematic aspect of using past obser­
vations recorded in different locations. However, she does not doubt the authenticity of
the reports.
27 See W. Horowitz, ‘The Astrolabes: Astronomy, Theology, and Chronology’, in
J.M. Steele (ed.), Calendars and Years. Astronomy and Time in the Ancient Near East (Oxford:
Oxbow Publishers, 2007), pp. 101-114; idem, The Three Stars Each: The Astrolabes and
Related Texts, AfOB 33 (in press); M.C. Casaburi, Tre-stelle-per-ciascun(-mese). L’astrolabio
B: edizione filologica, Suppl. ANNALI, sezione orientale 93 (Napoli: Universita degli studi
di Napoli, 2003); Lehoux, Astronomy, pp. 103-106.
re a l v alu e o f it as a p ra c tic a l in te rc a la ry m echanism .28 Be th a t as it m ay,
th e in tro d u c tio n to th is se c tio n tra c e s th e p la ce o f th e s u n o n th e h o ri­
zo n d u rin g th e a n n u a l seasons, re c o rd in g also th e w e a th e r signs ty p ical
o f th o se seasons:

From the first of Addaru until the 30th of Aiaru the sun stands in the path
of the Anu stars; w ind and w eather (zlqu u setu).
From the first of Simanu until the first of Abu the sun stands in the path of
the Enlil stars; harvest and h eat (iburu u ussu).
From the first of Ululu until the 30th of A rahsam nu the sun stands in the
path of the Anu stars; w ind and w eather (zlqu u setu).
From the first of Kisllmu until the 30th of Sabatu the sun stands in the path
of the Ea stars; cold (kussu).

T his passag e is a n c h o re d to th e d a te s o f th e id e a l 3 6 0 -d ay year.29 T he

fo u r seaso n s a re m a rk e d b y th e p la ce o f th e s u n o n th e h o riz o n as it rises
a n d sets, r a th e r th a n a n y o th e r c o o rd in a te in th e sky. T his is b e c a u s e th e
“p a th s ” o f h e a v e n in tra d itio n a l M e so p o ta m ia n a s tro n o m y w e re p re d o m i­
n a n tly d efin e d as se ctio n s o n th e h o riz o n r a th e r th a n a d iv isio n o f th e sky.
T he ‘P a th o f A n u ’ d esig n ates th e se c tio n o f th e h o riz o n o n e ith e r sid e o f
th e c e le stia l e q u a to r, w h e re th e s u n rises a n d se ts close to th e d a te s o f th e
eq u in o x es. T he p a th s o f E nlil a n d Ea r e p r e s e n t m o re n o r th e r n a n d so u th ­
e rn se ctio n s respectively. N o te th a t, as p a r t o f th e e m p h a sis in M ul.A pin
o n fixed sta rs a n d th e ir p erio d s, in th e p re s e n t p assag e th e c o o rd in a te s for
th e su n a re given a c c o rd in g to th e p a th s o f fixed stars.
T he c o rre la tio n o f th e risin g s o f fixed sta rs w ith w e a th e r p h e n o m e n a ,
m a in ly w in d s, is a c o m m o n fe a tu re o f early G reek p a ra p e g m a ta . It is sp o ­
rad ic ally a tte s te d o n b o th p a ra p e g m a ta I a n d II fro m M iletus, as w ell as
in th e R o m an L atiu m p a ra p e g m a , w h e re o n e fin d s th e d a te s a n d le n g th s
o f se v eral o f th e a n n u a l seasons.30 L eh o u x n o te d th e sim ila rity o f th e
p a ra p e g m a ta tra d itio n w ith th e cu n e ifo rm a n te c e d e n ts , b u t c o n c lu d e d

28 H. Hunger and D. Pingree, MUL.APIN: An Astronomical Compendium in Cuneiform,

AfOB 24 (Horn, Austria: Berger, 1989), pp. 152-153; cp. Brown, Mesopotamian Planetary
Astronomy-Astrology, pp. 17-18; L. Brack-Bernsen, ‘The “Days in Excess” from MUL.APIN:
On the “First Intercalation” and “Water Clock” Schemes from MUL.APIN’, Centaurus 47
(2005), 1-29.
29 Indeed this is the difference between this list and the parapegmata, since the latter
usually mention dates in a luni-solar Greek calendar, based on a regular practice of
intercalation. On the paths see W. Horowitz, Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography (Winona
Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1998), pp. 252-258.
30 Lehoux, Astronomy, pp. 172, 223-226, 478-479.
th a t it a tte s ts m o re to p a ra lle l d e v e lo p m e n ts in th e re sp e c tiv e cu ltu res,
r a th e r th a n to d ire c t in f lu e n c e d Be as it m ay, w e e n c o u n te r a n in te re s t
in b a sic fac to rs o f astro -m e teo ro lo g y , fro m a n c ie n t M e so p o ta m ia to th e
H ellen istic w orld, w ith 1 E n o ch o p e ra tin g as p a r t o f th is m atrix .

3. 1 Enoch 8 2 as a p a ra p e g m a

W e b e g in b y q u o tin g th e p e r tin e n t te x t fro m 1 E n o ch 82:4b-20.32 T h e p eri-

co p e is d iv id e d in to th re e sections:

a general statem ent on the 364-day year (vv. 4-8)

order of the leaders of tim e-periods (vv. 9-12)
a detailed description of each season, its leaders and its w eather signs
(vv. 13-20).

T he la tte r se c tio n w as n o t fully p re se rv e d in th e E th io p ic tra n sm issio n ,

w h ic h p re s e n ts tw o se aso n s only. F ollow ing M ilik w e q u o te h e re a tr u n ­
c a te d a c c o u n t o f a th ird seaso n , ta k e n fro m th e A ra m a ic Q u m ra n te x t
4Q211 col i.33

Prologue on 364-day Year

4b__ the sun travels in the sky through the gates, entering and emerging
for thirty days w ith the heads of thousands of the order of the stars, w ith
the four additional ones th a t divide betw een the four parts of the year th at
lead them and enter w ith the four days. 5. People err regarding them and
do n o t calculate them in the num bering of the entire year because they
err regarding them and people do not understand them precisely. 6. For
they belong in the reckoning of the year and are indeed recorded forever:
one in the first gate, one in the third, one in the fourth, and one in the

31 Lehoux, Astronomy, p. 115.

32 Quotation is from Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, pp. 550, 555, with slight
modifications.
33 Milik assumed that AB had originally described the four seasons, but that only
its torso was preserved in Ethiopic. VanderKam (1 Enoch 2, p. 566), though not entirely
negative about it, raises some doubts about this possibility, pointing out the differences
between the Aramaic seasonal description and those preserved in Ethiopic. Drawnel (Ara­
maic Astronomical Book, p. 410) takes a similar position. Indeed, one cannot be entirely
sure that 4Q211 col. i preserves the continuation of chapter 82. Note that the following
columns of 4Q211 preserve a broken mathematical text which includes a series of fractions,
something entirely unattested in AB as we know it. 4Q211 might therefore be an expansion
and elaboration on the themes of AB, but was not part of the main textual tradition.
sixth. Thus a year of 364 days is com pleted. 7. The account about it is true
and its calculation is precisely recorded because the lum inaries and the
m onths, the festivals, the years, and the days he showed me, and Uriel, to
w hom the Lord of the entire creation gave orders for m e regarding the host
of heaven, breathed on me. 8. He has pow er in heaven over night and day to
make light appear over hum anity: the sun, the moon, the stars, and all the
heavenly powers w hich revolve in their circuits.

Order o f the Leaders o f Time

9. This is the law of the stars w hich set in their places, at their times, at their
set times, and in their m onths. 10. These are the nam es of those w ho lead
them, who keep w atch so that they enter at their times, who lead them in
their places, in their orders, in their times, in their m onths, in their jurisdic­
tions, and in their positions. 11. Their four leaders w ho divide the four parts
of the year enter first, and after them (come) the twelve leaders of the orders
who divide the months, and the 360 heads of thousands who separate the
days, and the four additional ones w ith them are the leaders who separate
the four parts of the years. 12. (As for) these heads of thousands betw een
leader and leader, one is added behind the position and their leaders make
a division.
13. These are the nam es of the leaders who separate the four fixed parts
of the year: Milkiel, Helememelek, M ele’eyel, and Narel. 14. The nam es of
those w hom they lead (are): A dnare’el, Iyasusael, and Elome’el; these three
follow the leaders of the orders, and one follows the three leaders of the
orders who follow those leaders of the positions who separate the four parts
of the year.

Season 1: Spring
15. At the beginning Melkeyal rises first and rules— the one called the
southern sun; all the days th a t fall w ithin the period th at he rules are 91
days. 16. These are the signs of the days that are to be seen on the earth dur­
ing the days of his rule: sweat, heat, and care (anxiety?); all the trees bear
fruit and leaves come out on all the trees; (there is) a harvest of w heat, roses
and all the flowers that bloom in the field; b u t the w inter trees are dried up.
17. These are the nam es of the leaders w ho are b eneath them: Berka’el, Zele-
besel, and another head of a thousand who is added has the nam e Hiluyasef.
His days of rule are com pleted.

Season 2: Sum m er
18. A second leader after him is Helememelek who is nam ed the bright sun;
all the days of his light are 91 days. 19. These are the signs of the days on
the earth: heat, drought, trees bearing their fruit ripe and yielding all their
fruit ripe and ready; the sheep m ate and becom e pregnant; people gather
all the fruit of the earth and everything in the fields and the w inepress— it
 happens during the days of his rule. 20. These are the names, the orders, and
the leaders of those heads of thousands, Gida’iyal, Ke’el, and He’el; the nam e
of the one w ho is added to them as a head of thousands is Asafel, and the
days of his rule are com pleted.

Season 4(?): Winter

2. [ dew] and rain they make fall [o]n the earth; and seed
3. [ ]grass of the earth and trees. And it (=the sun?) emerges and sets
4. [ ] and it becom es winter, and the leaves of all the trees
5. [wither and fall down except four]teen trees for w hich it is n ot fitting
6. [ ] their lea[ve]s rem ain

T he c h a p te r n o w sta n d s a t th e e n d o f th e AB b u t it se em s to b e m isp lac ed ,

sin ce it d o es n o t c o n ta in a n y c o n c lu d in g sta te m e n t, as co u ld b e e x p e c te d
in th e heav ily e d ite d AB. T h e m a tic se c tio n s in AB u su a lly b e g in a n d e n d
w ith m o re lite ra ry sta te m e n ts , w h ic h fra m e th e te c h n ic a l m a te ria l w ith in
a p ro g ra m m a tic settin g . T he p assag e 8 2 :4 -2 0 se em s to h av e b e lo n g e d e a r­
lie r in th e tre a tise , p re c e d in g su c h lite ra ry s ta te m e n ts as 79:1, 6.34 T hese
tw o v erse s d e p a rt fro m th e te c h n ic a l m a te ria l a n d sta te th e ir affair in lite r­
ary m o d e . H ow ever, it is n o t im m e d ia te ly c lea r w h ic h se c tio n th e y o p e n
o r co n clu d e.
A se c tio n in v erse s 8 2 :4 b -8 (p a ra lle le d in 75:1-3)35 e x p o u n d s u p o n th e
div isio n o f th e y e a r in to fo u r seasons, a div isio n w h ic h c o n s titu te s a fo u n ­
d a tio n sto n e o f th e e n tire AB. In th is p assage, th e days th a t sta n d b e tw e e n
th e se a so n s— th e c a rd in a l days o f th e y e a r— are a d d e d to th e 3 6 0 days,
y ie ld in g th e E n o ch ic y e a r o f 36 4 days. T he h e a d s o f th o u s a n d s — i.e., th e
n o rm a l days o f th e y e a r— a re a s so c ia te d in v e rse 4 b w ith ‘th e o rd e r o f
th e sta rs’. V erse 11 in fo rm s th a t th e re are 3 6 0 su c h ‘h e a d s o f th o u s a n d s ’.
P resum ably, ea c h day is called ‘H ead o f T h o u san d ’ b ec au s e it h as 1,000 stars
u n d e r its c o m m a n d . W h ile th e th e m e o f sta rs lo o m s large in c h a p te r 82,
in AB in g e n e ra l th e sta rs do n o t p lay a c e n tra l p a rt, if a t all. In AB th e
y e a r is d e te rm in e d , as in th e in te rc a la tio n s c h e m e o f M ul.A pin, a c c o rd ­
in g to th e o rie n ta tio n o f th e su n (c h a p te r 72), w ith so m e lu n a r e le m e n ts
a d d e d (e.g. 74:10-16, 7 9 :4 -5 ). T he ro le o f sta rs as c o o rd in a tin g th e seaso n s

34 Nickelsburg and VanderKam 1 Enoch 2, p. 367.

35 See Ben-Dov, Head of All Years, pp. 113-116.
is stre sse d o n ly in th e tw in p assag e s 82:4b-8 a n d 75:1-3, w ith so m e fu rth e r
e la b o ra tio n in th e re s t o f c h a p te r 82.36
T he n e x t section, vv. 9-12, (u n p a ra lle le d in c h a p te r 75) e n u m e ra te s th e
v ario u s le a d e rs w h ic h officiate ov er th e m a rc h o f time.37 T his se c tio n is
a v a ria tio n o n th e th e m e o f th e p rev io u s one, d e p a rtin g fro m th e n o tio n
o f fo u r lead ers. I n d e e d th e re a d e r is stru c k b y th e m u ltitu d e o f le ad e rs
a n d th e e la b o ra te d istin c tio n s b e tw e e n th e ir v a rio u s ra n k s a n d p o sitio n s.
V erse 11, a t th e h e a r t o f th e sectio n , gives a n a c c o u n t o f th e v ario u s lead ers:
th e fo u r le a d e rs o f th e seasons, follo w ed b y th e tw elv e le a d e rs o f m o n th s,
w ith th o se in tu r n follow ed b y th e 360 le a d e rs o f days. T h e q u e u e sh o u ld
b e u n d e rs to o d as sta g g ered r a th e r th a n as lin ear: th e le a d e r o f ev ery se a ­
so n co m es first, follo w ed b y th e le a d e r o f m o n th 1, th e n th e days o f t h a t
m o n th ; th e n m o n th 2 a n d its days, m o n th 3 a n d its days, o n ly to re a c h th e
le a d e r o f th e se c o n d se aso n etc. A sim ila r s tru c tu re a p p e a rs in th e a c c o u n t
for e a c h se a so n se p a ra te ly in vv. 13 o n w ard s. T he re sp e c tiv e a c c o u n ts o f
th e se aso n s in vv. 15-17, 1 8 -2 0 c o m m e n c e w ith th e n a m e o f th e se aso n
le ad e r, w h o is— in th e tw o e x ta n t ca se s— c o n n e c te d w ith th e su n (vv. 15,
18).38 It th e n c o n tin u e s w ith ‘th e signs o f th e d ay s’ (ta ’am arta m aw a'dl),
i.e. th e w e a th e r c o n d itio n s in th e resp e ctiv e seasons.39 T he se c tio n th e n
gives th e n a m e s o f th e in fe rio r le a d e rs in e a c h seaso n : th re e lead ers, ea c h
o f th e m le ad in g o n e m o n th . I t co m es to a n e n d w ith th e fo rm u la ‘His
days o f ru le are c o m p le te d ’.
T he a u th o r is seem in g ly v ery a n x io u s a b o u t th e c o rre c t o rd e r o f th e se
lead ers, le st a n y o n e o f th e m is p re c e d e d b y th e w ro n g co lleag u e. H ere

36 In Head of All Years, pp. 113-116, I claimed that 75:1-3 and 82:4b-8 represent two par­
allel transmissions of the editorial section, which developed independently of each other
and acquired different characteristics in this process. Cp. Nickelsburg and VanderKam,
1 Enoch 2, p. 551.
37 Several previous authors (Dillmann, Milik, Uhlig, quoted apud Ben-Dov, Head o f All
Years, p. 23) suggested that vv. 9-20 are a late addition to AB because they depart from the
pronounced interests of the core of the book. Milik even claimed that the Aramaic frag­
ment 4Q209 28 is materially different from the rest of the scroll 4Q209 and thus belongs to
a different, later, copy. While this claim is clearly exaggerated (see Ben-Dov, ibid.), doubts
remain with regard to the integrity of the unit 9-20, as follows.
38 In the broken Aramaic text of the third season (4Q211 ii 3) it equally appears that
the sun is the one bringing about the shift of seasons. I would thus reconstruct the reading
nNn’Vri N piro, ‘in the third gate’ at the beginning of line 4, after the word Vpl, ‘and it
enters’. Cp. the mention of the heavenly gates in the context of the division of the year
in 82:6 above.
39 Note that the use of ‘signs’ to denote meteorological conditions continues the older
Greek usage, as in Theophrastus’ nepi (on weather signs).
a n d th e re in vv. 9 -1 2 a p p a r e n t c o n tra d ic tio n s arise, w h ic h are p o ssib ly
d u e to in te rfe re n c e b y la te r a u th o rs. H ow ever, reg a rd le ss o f th e d e ta ils o f
h ie ra rc h y , th e re a d e r o f th e la rg e r p ic tu re in a d v e rte n tly asks: w h e n c e th e
in te n s e a tte n tio n given to ord er, h ie ra rc h y a n d ran k s? V ario u s m a g n itu d e s
o f le a d e rsh ip a re p a r t o f an g e l lists a lre a d y in th e Book o f W a tc h e rs, in
1 E n o ch 6 :7 -8 (A ram aic 4Q E na a n d 4Q E nb).40 P rev io u s au th o rs, n o ta b ly
A u g u st D illm an n , ex p la in e d th e se h ie ra rc h ie s o n th e an a lo g y o f th e H el­
le n istic arm ies, a n d a c co rd in g ly ca lled th e le a d e rs chilliarch, dekarch, etc.41
Still, o n e w o n d e rs w h y th is e m p h a sis o n h ie ra rc h y o f sta rs in p a rtic u la r,
w h ic h is n o t re q u ire d b y th e m e c h a n istic sy stem p ro m u lg a te d in AB.
In ad d itio n , ac co rd in g to D raw nel it seem s th a t th e sense o f h ie ra rc h y in
vv. 9 - 2 0 is m o re in te n siv e in th e E th io p ic (a n d G reek?) v e rsio n th a n it
w as in th e o ld e r A ram aic. A cco rd in g to D raw nel, w h ile th e A ra m a ic te x t
on ly p re s e n te d le a d e rs o f th e fo u r seaso n s a n d o f th e 3 6 0 days, a la te r
v e rsio n a d d e d th e tw elve le a d e rs o f th e m onths.42 T his m e a n s th a t th e
h ie ra rc h ic a l stru c tu re w as e v e n f u rth e r in te n sifie d d u rin g th e tra n s m is ­
sio n o f 8 2 :9 -2 0 , a fa c t w h ic h re q u ire s ex p la n a tio n .
T he h e a d in g in v. 9 d ec la re s ‘th is is th e law o f th e sta rs ’. T h e id e n tifi­
c a tio n o f sta rs w ith th e c a rd in a l days o f th e y e a r m a y re fe r to th e ro le o f
specific sta rs th a t rise a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e seaso n s, as in th e B abylo­
n ia n A strolabes.43 H ow ever, th e im a g ery o f sta rs im m e d ia te ly gives w ay to
th e m ilita ry im a g ery o f le ad e rs. F u rth e r o n in th e p assage, n o a c tu a l sta rs
are m e n tio n e d , e ith e r b y n a m e o r b y o b liq u e referen c e. N o t o n ly are
th e y n o t m e n tio n e d , th e ‘n a rra tiv e ’ d o es n o t e v e n tr e a t th e m as stars: n o
sid e re a l p h e n o m e n a are m e n tio n e d , n o risin g s a n d settin g s, n o c o n s te lla ­
tio n s a n d n o p e rio d ic tab les. T his p ic tu re in te n sifie s as th e te x t c o n tin u e s.
In vv. 13 o n w ard s w e re a d th e n a m e s o f th e se aso n le a d e rs M ilkiel, H ele-
m e m elek , M ele’eyel, a n d N arel, w ith th e n a m e s o f th e ir ju n io r a sso cia te s
A d n a re ’el, Iyasusael, a n d E lom e’el .44 H ow ever, th e te x t d o es n o t specify
w h a t k in d o f b ein g s th e se le a d e rs are: a re th e y stars? A ngels? S pecial days?
T he suffix -el is u su a lly c h a ra c te ristic o f a n g e ls’ n am es, as in 6:7, in c h a p te r 8,
in 69:2 a n d n u m e ro u s o th e r p laces. I t d o es n o t ty p ically d e n o te n a m e s

40 See Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, p. 175.

41 A. Dillmann, Das Buch Henoch uebersetzt und erklart (Leipzig: Vogel, 1853), p. 247;
Albani, Astronomie, pp. 55-59.
42 Drawnel, The Aramaic Astronomical Book, pp. 394-396, where the reader will find
detailed argumentation.
43 See Albani, Astronomie, p. 59.
44 On the names see recently Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, pp. 562-3.
o f lu m in aries. V an d e rK a m stresses th a t ‘. .. (n o w h e re ) a re th e s e le a d ­
ers called angels. T h ey a re m o re likely lu m in a rie s w ith n a m e s ’.45 W h ile
v. 18 d escrib es th e n a m e H e le m e m e le k as ‘w h o is n a m e d th e b rig h t s u n ’
(cf. also ‘s o u th e rn s u n ’ in v. 15), th is s ta te m e n t d o es n o t p re c lu d e th e p o s­
sibility o f a n angel. R ather, it re ite ra te s th e q u ite c o m m o n id e n tific a tio n
o f th e h e a v e n ly h o s t w ith angels, a n id e n tific a tio n w h ic h a p p e a rs a lre a d y
in Jo b 38:7 a n d c o n tin u e s th r o u g h o u t la te r Je w ish lite r a tu r e .^
In a 1974 d iss e rta tio n E c k h a rt R au su g g e sted th a t AB w as su b je c te d to
a p ro c e ss o f re d a c tio n w h ic h u n d e rs c o re d th e ro le o f stars, a fte r th is to p ic
h a d n o t b e e n c e n tra l e n o u g h in th e e a rlie r re c e n sio n o f th e book.47 This
re d a c tio n in tro d u c e d th e 364 -d ay c a le n d a r a n d re je c te d th e 3 6 0 -d ay year,
w ith th e fo u r a d d itio n a l days id e n tifie d as ste lla r le ad e rs. R au assig n s th e
p a ra lle l se c tio n s a t th e b e g in n in g o f c h a p te rs 75 a n d 82 to th is re d a c tio n a l
pro cess. In p o ssib le s u p p o rt o f R au’s h y p o th e sis, it m ig h t b e u se fu l to
c o m p a re th e tr u n c a te d a c c o u n t o f w in te r in 4Q211 i w ith th e d e sc rip tio n s
o f th e seaso n s in th e E th io p ic (a n d th e b ro k e n A ram aic) te x t o f c h a p te r
82: th e fo rm e r te x t c o n c e n tra te s o n w e a th e r c o n d itio n s a n d a lto g e th e r
n eg lec ts to m e n tio n th e lead ers, w h ile th e la tte r se c tio n s give p ro m in e n t
p la ce to th e leaders.48 W e m a y th u s sp e c u la te th a t 4Q211 reflects a n o ld e r
v ersio n , w h ic h w as m o re a ttu n e d to th e s u n a n d th e ag ric u ltu ra l c o n d i­
tio n s, w h ile th e v e rsio n p re se rv e d in E th io p ic a n d in 4 Q 2 0 9 frg 28 is th e
p r o d u c t o f a la te r re d a c tio n , in a g re e m e n t w ith R au’s h y p o th e sis. O ne
m a y also a d d — follow ing D ra w n el— th a t th e o rig in al p assag e w as clo ser
to M ul.A pin b y c o u n tin g th e days o f th e se a so n b u t n o t e n u m e ra tin g th e

45 Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, p. 562.

46 Ben-Dov, Head of All Years, pp. 25-31. Drawnel, The Aramaic Astronomical Book, 405,
raises the intriguing possibility that the leaders of the seasons replace the Mesopotamian
divinities in whose names the paths of heaven are called in the parallel passage from Mul.
Apin, the “second intercalation scheme”. In that passage there are only three divine names,
with the sun traveling in the path of Anu twice during the year. Since the autumn is not
preserved in 1 Enoch 82 (neither Aramaic nor Ethiopic), it is impossible to tell whether
the pericope included four different leaders or only three.
47 E. Rau, ‘Kosmologie, Eschatologie, und die Lehrautoritat Henochs. Traditions- und
formgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zum aethiopischen Henochbuch’, Ph.D. dissertation
(Hamburg University, 1974). As I have not seen the dissertation, my knowledge of it is
drawn from the monograph by Albani, Astronomie, pp. 57-59 as well as from VanderKam,
1 Enoch 2 (esp. pp. 360-362). Since Rau did not know the Aramaic fragments of AB and
worked exclusively with the Ethiopic, his conclusions must be reevaluated according to
current finds.
48 Admittedly, caution should be exercised due to the bad preservation of 4Q211. In
addition, the leaders are mentioned in the Aramaic text of 4Q209 frg 28, which roughly
corresponds with parts of 1 En 82:9-13.
le a d e rs o f th e m o n th s ; in c o n tra st, th e e d ite d v e rsio n m a k es a p o in t o f
e n u m e ra tin g also th e tw elv e le a d e rs o f m onths.49
To su m u p , th e an aly sis o f c h a p te r 82 rev eals th a t th e o rig in al te x t o f
th is c h a p te r, w h ic h h a d co n v ey ed th e o rd e r o f th e fo u r se aso n s a n d th e ir
m e te o ro lo g ic a l ‘signs’, w as su b se q u e n tly a u g m e n te d a t o n e o r m o re o f th e
follow ing p o in ts:

1) The change from a 360 to a 364-day year by m eans of adding four

stellar m arkers at the corners on the year, as reflected in 75:1-3 and
82:4b-8 (Rau).
2) The intensification of the hierarchy of time in 82:9-13 by adding the 12
leaders of the m onths (Drawnel).
3) The addition of the nam es of angels/stars in the records of each season
(82:15-17, 18-20), as it arises from the com parison betw een 4Q211 i and
the text in chapter 82.

C h a p te r 82 in its p re s e n t fo rm th u s se em s to b e th e fru it o f re d a c tio n ,

w h ic h e m p h a siz e d its h ie ra rc h ic a l d im e n sio n a n d in s e rte d re fe re n c e s to
stars. T his ed ito ria l lay er (o r layers) w as to o s h o rt a n d v ag u e to convey
d ire c t m e a s u re m e n ts o f ste lla r p h e n o m e n a , b u t r a th e r w as d riv en b y th e
m o tiv a tio n to stru c tu re th e y e a r in th e m o d e o f th e in te rc a la tio n sc h em e s
o f M ul.A pin (see above). In th is re d a c tio n a l activity, th e sta rs a re cu rio u sly
b o th p ro p a g a te d a n d av o id ed : th e ir ro le is re c o g n iz e d b u t th e y a re called
b y an g e ls’ n am es. T he re s u lt is a d m itte d ly a b it aw k w ard , a n d d o es n o t
a p p e a r as a stric tly a s tro n o m ic a l te x t d ea lin g w ith ste lla r m o d els.
It is n o t easy to d a te th e tra n s fo rm a tio n o f c h a p te r 82, fro m a pre-
E n o ch ic m e te o ro lo g ic a l a c c o u n t to a n an g e lo lo g ica l-stellar tre a tise w o v en
in th e fab ric o f AB a n d o f 1 E n o ch in g en eral. T he tra n s fo rm a tio n m u s t
h av e b e g u n a lre a d y a t th e A ra m a ic stage o f tra n sm issio n , sin ce it is a lre a d y
d o c u m e n te d o n th e fra g m e n t 4 Q 2 0 9 28 (p e n n e d in th e H e ro d ia n p erio d ).
It in te n sifie d in th e G reek stage o f tra n sm issio n , w ith th e e la b o ra tio n o f
th e lists o f lead ers. T his in te rv e n tio n in th e te x t c o rre sp o n d s w ith a H el­
le n istic in te rv e n tio n in th e te x t o f c h a p te r 74:10-16. T hus, a ro u n d th e s ta rt
o f th e C o m m o n E ra c h a p te r 82 w as a lre a d y k n o w n as a n angelo lo g ical-
ste lla r tre a tise , p ra isin g th e h ie ra rc h y o f th e h e a v e n ly h o st. It m a rk e d th e
lite ra ry c o n c lu sio n o f th e A stro n o m ic a l B ook o f E noch.

49 Drawnel, The Aramaic Astronomical Book, p. 405.

 4. 1 Enoch 8 2 a n d G reek-R om an L itera ry T raditions

If a G re ek -sp e ak in g re a d e r ca m e acro ss 1 E n o ch 82— a n d so m e su c h re a d ­

ers c e rta in ly d id — a n d if th a t p e rs o n w as in so m e w ay in v o lv ed w ith cal­
e n d a rs o r astro -m e teo ro lo g y , h e o r sh e w o u ld h av e b e e n fam iliar w ith th e
p a tte r n o f 1 E n o ch 82 fro m o th e r c o n te m p o ra ry lite ra tu re . S uch a n in te r ­
e s t is e x p re ssed q u ite clearly in P hilo o f A lex an d ria, a p r o m in e n t Jew ish-
H ellen istic w rite r in R o m an Egypt. In h is d isc u ssio n o f th e Je w ish y e a r
(spe.Leg. 2.153-156) h e d etails th e c lim a te c o n d itio n s a n d th e a g ric u ltu ra l
tra its o f th e seasons, in a w ay n o t d issim ila r fro m 1 E n o ch 82, a n d c o n ­
n e c ts th e m w ith th e d esig n o f th e Je w ish ritu a l year.
A n in te re stin g e x a m p le co m es fro m p a p y ru s H ib e h I 27, a lo n g strip o f
p a p y ru s u se d in th e c a rto n a g e o f a m u m m y , w ritte n in th e early th ir d c e n ­
tu ry BCE in th e S aite Nome.50 It is th e e a rlie st e x ta n t ex a m p le o f a w ritte n
p a ra p e g m a , lo n g b efo re th e o th e r e p ig ra p h ic a n d lite ra ry p a ra p e g m a ta .
S am ple lin es fro m th is p a p y ru s read:

Col iv-v. (M onth of M echeir). 6 th. (The sun is) in Taurus. The Hyades set
acronychally; the night is 11 % + 1/10 +1/30 + 1/90 hours, the day has 12 1/3 +
1/45. Hera burns, and there is a change in the w eather, and the south w ind
blows. If it is wrong, it burns the crops.
Col. vii-viii. P harm ou[thi]__ 24th. Summer solstice, and the night becom es
greater w ith respect to the day by 1/45 of an hour, (where an hour is) the
twelfth p art (of a day), // so the night is 10 1/45 hours, the day 13 2/3 + Va +
1/20 + 1/90. 25th. The Estesian w inds begin to blow, and the river beg[i]ns
to rise ...
Col. xi-xii. Epiphi. 23rd. A utum nal equinox; the night is 12 hours, the day 12.
Feast of Anubis, and the river changes w ith respect to its rising.

T he en tries, a rra n g e d b y se q u e n tia l d a te s in th e E g y p tian year, give a n

id e a l a c c o u n t o f n u m e ro u s a s tro n o m ic a l a n d w e a th e r p h e n o m e n a , in c lu d ­
in g th e follow ing: le n g th o f d ay a n d n ig h t m e a s u re d b y e q u in o c tia l h o u rs,

50 For the initial publication see B.P. Grenfell and A.S. Hunt, TheHibeh Papyri, I (London:
EEF, 1906), pp. 138-157; further Lehoux, Astronomy, pp. 217-223. The translation below fol­
lows Lehoux. P. Hibeh shows some similarity with the data and the literary framework of
the so-called ‘Eudoxus Papyrus’ (p. Louvre 7172). This latter piece is discussed by Lehoux,
Astronomy, pp. 206-207, 485-487. An illuminating study reveals the (social and personal)
circumstances for the circulation of this astronomical text alongside other, literary and
non-literary material: D. Thompson, ‘Ptolemaios and the “Lighthouse”: Greek Culture in
the Memphite Serapeum’, CPhS 213 (n.s. 33) (1987), 105-21. I thank Dr. Sylvie Honigman
for bringing this article to my attention.
d a te s o f solstices a n d eq u in o x es, risings o f k ey stars, relig io u s festivals
(b o th G reek a n d E gyptian), a n d sp o ra d ic n o te s o n w e a th e r p h e n o m e n a .
T he a le rt re a d e r w o u ld h av e n o tic e d b y n o w th a t th is so rt o f m a te ria l
w as n o t far a p a r t fro m th e c o n te n t o f th e AB. D esp ite so m e u n m is ta k a b le
E gyptian tra its — like th e div isio n in to 12 h o u rs — th e c o m p u ta tio n a l p rin ­
ciples are r a th e r sim ilar. T he e sse n tia l p h e n o m e n a a re k n o w n also fro m
E n o ch ic a stro n o m y : th e c a rd in a l days o f th e y e a r as d iv id in g th e seaso n s,
th e le n g th o f d ay lig h t a n d n ig h t tim e, a n d th e risin g s o f sta rs (a lth o u g h in
1 E n o ch 82 th is e le m e n t is ra th e r v ag u e in c o m p a riso n w ith th e d e ta ile d
o b se rv a tio n s o f p. Hibeh).51
P o p u la r a s tro n o m y o f th is type, b a s e d u ltim a te ly o n M u l.A p in -ty p e
m o d els, is th e k in d o f te a c h in g th a t c irc u la te d o u tsid e M e so p o ta m ia
th r o u g h o u t th e M e d ite rra n e a n b a s in b e tw e e n ca. 5 0 0 BCE a n d 5 0 0 CE.
P eo p le faced th e sam e k in d o f p ro b le m s a n d p ro d u c e d sim ila r so lu tio n s
to th e m . T hus, reg a rd le ss o f th e in s p ira tio n th a t le d to th e co m p o sitio n o f
th e A stro n o m ic a l Book o f E noch, p. H ib eh c a n su g g est th e w ay AB w as
u n d ersto o d in G raeco -R o m an Egypt. T aking in a c c o u n t th a t p a ra p e g m a ta
o fte n rely o n th e n a m e s o n a n c ie n t a u th o ritie s , like E u doxos o r M eto n , or
th e E gyptian m a s te r d e sc rib e d in th e p ro lo g u e to p. H ib eh I 27, a n ‘E n o ch
p a ra p e g m a ’ co u ld h av e b e e n q u ite a ttra c tiv e . E n o ch w as as p re stig io u s as
E udoxos, a t le a st in so m e circles, to b e c o n sid e re d a reliab le so u rce for
a stro -m e te o ro lo g ic a l notions.52 In a d d itio n , as m e n tio n e d ab o v e, E n o c h ’s
a s tro n o m ic a l-c a le n d ric a l te a c h in g w as a c tu a lly u sed , re w ritte n and

51 The prologue to p. Hibeh (frg a cols. ii-iii, Grenfell-Hunt, pp. 145, 151) preserves the
instructional setting of the document, wherein it is described as the teaching of a scribe
to his disciple. This instructional setting pertains also in Enoch, where the astronomical
material is presented as wisdom taught to a ‘son’; thus e.g. 4Q209 26 6 (=1 En 79:1?)
’13 rUN rnna ’and now I show you, my son.’
52 Evidence for this image of Enoch abounds in Jewish-Hellenistic writings from Pales­
tine, as in PsEupolems and Josephus. In these accounts, Enoch and Abraham are credited
with the introduction of astronomy to the Egyptians. See G.H. van Kooten, ‘Enoch, the
“Watchers”, Seth’s Descendants and Abraham as Astronomer: Jewish Applications of
the Greek motif of the First Inventor (300 BCE-CE 100)’, in J.W. van Henten and
A. Brenner (eds), Recycling Biblical Figures: Papers read at a NOSTER Colloquium in Amster­
dam, 12-13 May 1997 (Leiderdorp: Deo Publishing, 1999), pp. 292-316; A.Y. Reed, ‘Abraham
as Chaldean Scientist and Father of the Jews: Josephus, Ant. 1.154-168 and the Graeco­
Roman Discourse about Astronomy-Astrology’, JSJ 35 (2004), 119-158. Later on, Enoch
was associated with the astronomical teaching of the Fallen angels by Clement of Alex­
andria, Eclogae Propheticae 53,4; see VanderKam and Adler, Jewish Apocalyptic Heritage,
pp. 45-46. For the angelic teaching according to Clement see also Reed, Fallen Angels,
pp. 181-184 (but she does not refer to the passage quoted here).
e x p a n d e d , m o s t p ro b a b ly in R o m an Egypt, as a tte s te d fro m th e S eco n d
(Slavonic) Book o f E noch.
N o t on ly th e p a ra p e g m a ta , b u t also o th e r E g y p tian tra d itio n s a b o u t th e
o rd e r o f th e sta rs co u ld h av e in fo rm e d th e a c c o u n t in 1 E n o ch 82. T he clas­
sific atio n o f sta rs in to g ro u p s a n d th e ir o rd e rin g is a n a n c ie n t c o m p o n e n t
o f th e E gyptian w orldview , w h ic h p ro d u c e d th e c o n c e p t o f th e d ec an s
a lre a d y b y th e la te th ird m ille n n iu m BCE.53 L eh o u x d e te c ts a n in d ig e ­
n o u s s tre a m o f a s tro -m e te o ro lo g y in th e E gyp tian tra d itio n , w h ic h d a te s
b a c k m u c h e a rlie r th a n th e G reek p a ra p e g m a ta a n d m ig h t h av e h a d so m e
in flu e n c e o n th e fo rm a tio n o f th e G reek lite ra ry trad itio n .5 4 T he tr a d itio n
o f th e d ecan s, w ith th e ir o rd e r a n d h ie ra rc h y , w as co n s p icu o u sly v isib le
in la te a n tiq u e Egypt, sin ce it a p p e a re d o n n u m e ro u s m o n u m e n ts a n d
te m p le d e c o ra tio n s th r o u g h o u t th e co u n try . O n e su c h p r o m in e n t e x a m ­
p le illu stra te s th e v isu a l a stro n o m ic a l-th e o lo g ic a l e n v iro n m e n t w h ic h
co u ld h av e in fo rm e d th e re c e p tio n o f AB. It is th e fam o u s ‘N aos o f th e
D ecad es’ (w ith ‘D ec ad e s’ m e a n in g m o re o r less th e sa m e as th e d ecan s),
m o re p ro p e rly ca lled th e saft e l-H e n n a n aos. In th is p a rtic u la r o b ject, th e
n a o s (i.e., m o d e l sh rin e) is d e c o ra te d w ith a n a c c o u n t o f all th e d e c a n s
alo n g th e o rd e r o f th e year, w ith m e tic u lo u s ic o n o g ra p h ic a l a n d v e rb a l
in fo rm a tio n o n th e tim e s o f e a c h d ecan , its n a m e s a n d its pow ers.55 P arts
o f th is object, p ro d u c e d u n d e r k in g N e c ta n e b o in th e early fo u rth c e n tu ry
BCE, sev eral d e c a d e s b e fo re th e M a c e d o n ia n c o n q u e st, w ere k n o w n in
th e w e st alre ad y a ro u n d 1800. Y et a d d itio n a l o th e r p a rts w ere fo u n d in th e
1940s, a n d th e re s t w as fo u n d in th e w a te r o f th e A b u k ir b a y in 1999 by

53 See R.A. Parker, ‘Ancient Egyptian Astronomy’, Philological Transactions o f the Royal
Society of London 276 (1974), 51-65; C. Leitz, Altagyptische Sternuhren (OLA 62; Leuven:
Peeters, 1995). The most important composition in this regard is ‘the Book of Nut’: A. von
Lieven, Grundriss des Laufes der Sterne. Das sogenannte Nutbuch, 2 vols, Carlsberg Papyri 8
(Copenhagen: The Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Near Eastern Studies, Museum Tusculanum
Press, 2007). The Book of Nut remained in circulation and was interpreted and copied in
Roman times, as von Lieven indicates. She also stresses the strong religious dimension of
this discipline, which existed alongside its ‘scientific’ aspect. For an additional depiction
of the decans see eadem, Die Himmel uber Esna: eine Fallstudie zur religiosen Astronomie
in Agypten am Beispiel der kosmologischen Decken- und Architravinschriften im Tempel von
Esna, AA 64 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2000).
54 Lehoux, Astronomy, pp. 116-143, esp. 116.
55 For an up-to-date survey of the iconographical find see A.S. von Bomhard, The Naos
of the Decades. From the Observation of the Sky to Mythology and Astrology, Oxford Centre
for Maritime Archaeology 3 (Oxford: Institute of Archaeology, 2008). The book includes
numerous new high-quality photographs, as well as a detailed account of the elaborate his­
tory of discovery of the naos. For an earlier discussion of the naos (but without the newly-
discovered parts) see Leitz, Altagyptische Sternuhren, pp. 3-57. Wherever possible I base
myself on the discussion and improved translations in Lehoux, Astronomy, pp. 123-127.
th e m a rin e arc h a e o lo g ist F ra n c k G oddio a n d h is te a m . In th is n ao s, ea c h
d e c a n is d e sc rib e d b y a su c ce ssio n o f five im ages, a rra n g e d in v e rtic a l
o rd e r fro m to p to b o tto m . A longside th e im a g es co m e th e n a m e s a n d e p i­
th e ts o f e a c h d ec an , a n d o p p o site th e m a te x tu a l a c c o u n t o f th e d e c a n ’s
days o f d o m in io n , festival ac tiv itie s in its d o m a in , a n d th e astro lo g ical
tra its a s so c ia te d w ith it. W e q u o te h e re so m e ru b ric s w h ic h c o n ta in s ta te ­
m e n ts o n th e w e a th e r, su c h as in th e fo rm u laic in s c rip tio n b e s id e e a c h
decan:56

W ater, w ind and (fertile) fields are requested from him in his decade in
PN, M onth XXX of smw, day 1 to 1 0 ...H e rises in this form in the decade
of (his) m otion, (as) m aster of the earth. He is the one who causes sickness
and death.

N o tes o n w e a th e r are s c a tte re d w ith in th e v a rio u s a c c o u n ts o f d ecan s,

su c h as th e follow ing:

He causes h ea t__ He will be hot for five days__ He causes rain in

H eaven. .. [He causes] three days of bitterness ...[ h e c]auses an evil w ind
in the night__ He draws forth the flood-water from its cav ern ...

T he b o n d b e tw e e n th e d e c a n a n d its c h a ra c te ristic w e a th e r d isp lay s a m e a ­

su re o f causality: n o t o nly is th e d e c a n in ch a rg e o f w e a th e r p h e n o m e n a ,
it a c tu a lly causes th e m to appear.57 T his is a far cry fro m th e s ta te m e n t
in E n o ch a b o u t ‘th e signs o f th e days th a t a re se e n d u rin g h is d o m in io n ’
(82:16). B ut th e fa c t is th a t th e te x t d escrib es a ste lla r b e in g w h ic h is so m e ­
h o w re sp o n sib le fo r v a rio u s clim a tic a n d a g ric u ltu ra l p h e n o m e n a .
T he c o n c e p t o f h ie ra rc h y , so o u ts ta n d in g in 1 E noch, w ith little to
a c c o u n t for its im p o rta n c e , plays a p r o m in e n t ro le in th e tr a d itio n o f th e
d ecan s. T hey a re d e p ic te d follow ing e a c h o th e r in n u m e ro u s m o n u m e n ts
o f R o m an Egypt, as if in a p a ra d e , a n d are re c u rre n tly title d ‘le a d e rs’ in
th e in sc rip tio n s a c c o m p a n y in g th e images.58 T he n u m b e r o f 36 d ecan s,
e a c h re sp o n sib le for a c o h o rt o f 10 days, is esp ecially suggestive in th e
c o n te x t o f th e E n o ch ic chiefs o f te n , a n d th e n u m b e r o f 360 le a d e rs in
1 E n o ch 82. T he in te n sific a tio n o f th e h ie ra rc h y in 82:9-13 b y m e a n s o f
in se rtin g th e tw elv e le a d e rs o f th e m o n th s (a c co rd in g to D raw nel, n o te d

56 Translations are taken from Lehoux, Astronomy, pp. 124-125. See further recently
published passages unknown to Lehoux, in von Bomhard, The Naos, p. 104.
57 For a debate about the causal relations between the stars and weather phenomena
see Evans, The History and Practice o f Ancient Astronomy, p. 200.
58 Thus for example the constellation Kenmet, in von Lieven, Die Himmel uber Esna,
p. 48 and passim.
above), fits w ell w ith th e G raeco -E g y p tian tra d itio n . F u rth e rm o re , w h ile
th e E gyptian tra d itio n fe a tu re s a n a d d itio n a l d ec an , w h o is re sp o n sib le
for th e five e p a g o m e n a l days a t th e e n d o f th e y ear, th e E n o ch ic tra d i­
tio n p la ce s sp e cia l e m p h a sis o n th e ‘a d d itio n a l’ days, w h o are sc a tte re d
in th e fo u r c o rn e rs o f th e year, a t th e c a rd in a l days o f th e s u n ’s p a th . T he
a c c o u n t o f sta rs a n d w e a th e r alo n g th e year, as r e p re s e n te d in 1 E n o ch 82,
w o u ld th u s h av e fo u n d fertile g ro u n d in H ellen istic-R o m an Egypt, w h e re
th e b u ild in g b lo ck s o f th is a c c o u n t w ere u b iq u ito u s, b o th in th e sch o larly
a n d in th e p u b lic sp h ere.

5. Conclusion

T he a c c o u n t o f th e y e a r in 1 E n o ch 82 c o m b in e s c a le n d a r d ates, risings
o f stars, ca rd in a l days o f th e sun, a n d w e a th e r c o n d itio n s, all u n d e r a n
e la b o ra te h ie ra rc h y o f ‘le a d e rs’. T hese le ad e rs, in tu rn , a re id e n tifie d b o th
as sta rs a n d — im p licitly — as h e a v e n ly b ein g s ca rry in g a n g e ls’ n a m e s. W e
h av e se e n h o w th is a c c o u n t is a n c h o re d in th e koine co rp u s o f p o p u la r
a s tro n o m y o f Late A n tiq u ity , w h ic h o rig in a te d w ith M u l.A p in -ty p e te a c h ­
ing. M ore specifically, it w as sh o w n how , w h e n a G reek v e rsio n o f 1 E n o ch
c irc u la te d in G raeco -R o m an Egypt, th e a c c o u n t o f c h a p te r 82 w o u ld h av e
b e e n fruitfully in te g ra te d in th e in d ig e n o u s a s tro n o m ic a l tra d itio n : th e
lists o f d e c a n s a n d th e em erg in g tra d itio n o f p a ra p e g m a ta .
W h e re d o es th is all le ad ? W e sh o u ld re je c t a t th e o u ts e t th e p o ssib il­
ity o f m u tu a l in flu e n c e b e tw e e n th e d e c a n tra d itio n a n d th e c o m p o sitio n
o f 1 E n o ch 82. S uch a claim , w h ic h a ssu m e s th a t th e 3 6 4 -d ay E n o ch ic
y e a r w as fa sh io n e d u n d e r E gyptian in flu e n ce, is n o t s u p p o rte d b y th e
evidence.59 A so fter claim w o u ld b e to p o s it th a t so m e so rt o f c o n n e c tio n
ex iste d b e tw e e n E gyptian a s tra l tra d itio n s a n d 1 E n o ch 82 as th e E n o ch ic
m a te ria l c irc u la te d in R o m an Egypt. T his k in d o f c o n n e c tio n m u s t h av e
ex iste d on ly a t th e reception stage o f 1 E noch. T he ev id en c e g a th e re d so far
is su fficien t to s u p p o rt th is so fter claim . F u rth e rm o re , th e ab o v e d isc u s­
sio n le d u s to su ggest a th ird p o ssibility, n a m e ly th a t a n o rig in al v e rsio n

59 This claim may join forces with others, who have traced the origin of the Enochic
364-day year in the Egyptian civil year of 365 days; see for example H. Stegemann, The
Library of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist and Jesus (Grand Rapids,
MI: Eerdmans, 1998) pp. 168-172; L. Ravid, ‘The Book of Jubilees and its Calendar:
A Reexamination’, DSD 10 (2003), 371-94, esp. 384-386. See however J. Ben-Dov and
S. Saulnier, ‘Qumran Calendars: A Survey of Scholarship 1980-2007’, CBR 7 (2007),
131-179, esp. 143-144.
o f 1 E noch, w h ic h w as in d e p e n d e n t o f th e E g y p tian m a te ria l, u n d e r w e n t
a la te r re d a c tio n to re fle c t c u rre n t, E gyptian o r G reek co n c e p ts. T he
re d a c tio n a p p a re n tly e m p h a siz e d th e h ie ra rc h y o f le a d e rs in th e sea­
so n a l a c c o u n ts o f c h a p te r 82, a n d a d d e d th e 12 le a d e rs o f sta rs o n to p o f
th e — o riginally M e so p o ta m ia n — le a d e rs o f se aso n s a n d days. T his k in d o f
re d a c tio n sh o u ld n o t su rp rise us, sin ce it is q u ite a p p a r e n t in th e H elle­
n istic, po ssib ly A le x a n d ria n a tte m p t, in d ic a te d ab o v e, a t c re a tin g a n octa-
eteris in 1 E n 74:10-16.
For a p e rs o n re a d in g 1 E n o ch in th e days o f M arc A n th o n y a n d C leo­
p a tra , th e lite ra ry te x t o f c h a p te r 82 a b o u t th e m a rc h o f th e le ad e rs-sta rs-
angels w o u ld h av e se e m e d like a Je w ish v e rsio n o f th e d ec an s. P a rtic u la r
n o te sh o u ld b e m a d e o f th e ic o n o g ra p h ic ev id en c e o f th e d ec an s, sin ce
ic o n o g ra p h y is m o re likely to b e th e o b je c t o f p u b lic aw a re n ess. A b e t­
te r e d u c a te d re a d e r o f 1 E n o ch in R o m an E gypt w o u ld h av e c o n n e c te d
1 E n o ch 82 w ith p a ra p e g m a ta su c h as p a p y ru s H ib eh I 27, o r w ith th e
c a le n d ric a l in te re s ts o f a v a rie ty o f sch o larly tex ts, b o th E g y p tian a n d
G reek, w h ic h c irc u la te d in th a t p e rio d o f tim e.

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 CHAPTER TWO

OBSERVING THE MOON:

ASTRONOMICAL AND COSMOLOGICAL ASPECTS
IN THE RABBINIC N EW M O O N PROCEDURE

R e im u n d L eicht

T he p ro c e d u re o f th e sa n c tific a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n d e sc rib e d in M is h n a h

tr a c ta te R osh h a -S h a n a h h as rec eiv e d rela tiv e ly little a tte n tio n in m o d ­
e rn re se a rc h so fa r .1 In a re c e n tly p u b lis h e d article, h o w ev er, S ach a S tern
re n e w e d th e d isc u ssio n a b o u t th is im p o r ta n t p ie c e o f ev id en c e for th e
h isto ry o f scien tific th in k in g w ith in ra b b in ic Ju d aism , a n d h as p ro v id e d
a c o m p re h e n siv e analy sis o f th is tex t, w h ic h h o p efu lly w ill b e a s ta rtin g
p o in t fo r fu rth e r d isc u ssio n s .2 S tern focu ses in h is stu d y m a in ly o n th e
so c io -p o litical a s p e c ts o f th e p ro c e d u re . L eaving asid e th e q u e s tio n o f
th e h isto ric ity o f th e a c c o u n t h e h a d d e a lt w ith in a n o th e r p lace, h e h ig h ­
lig h ts th e p re d o m in a n tly ‘j u d ic ia l’ (o r ‘p se u d o -ju d ic ia l’) c h a ra c te r o f th e
m is h n a ic ru lin g s for th e n e w m o o n p ro c e d u re a n d co n v in cin g ly in te r ­
p re ts it as a n a tte m p t to le g itim ize ra b b in ic claim s for a u th o rity w ith in
th e c o n te x t o f a struggle for h e g e m o n y w ith o th e r a u th o ritie s — in th is
case w ith lo cal city councils. F ollow ing th is lin e o f a rg u m e n ta tio n , h e fu r­
th e r h y p o th e siz e s th a t th e g ra d u a l a b a n d o n m e n t o f ju d ic ia l n e w m o o n
p ro c e d u re s in th e follow ing c e n tu rie s m ig h t reflec t a c h a n g e in th e so cio ­
p o litic a l sta tu s o f th e ra b b in ic m o v e m e n t .3
T he p r e s e n t p a p e r converges in m a n y re sp e c ts w ith S tern ’s in te r ­
p re ta tio n , a lth o u g h th e g e n e ra l o u tlo o k is slig h tly d iffe re n t a n d it w ill
p a rtly d ra w d iffe re n t co n clu sio n s. Since it re m a in s d ifficult to d e te rm in e
w h e th e r, a n d if so to w h ic h e x te n t, th e m is h n a ic re g u la tio n s w e re ev er

1 See Ernest Wiesenberg, ‘Elements of a Lunar Theory in the Mishnah, Rosh Hashanah
2:6, and the Talmudic Complements Thereto’, Hebrew Union College Annual 33 (1962),
153-169; Ben Zion Wacholder and David Weisberg, ‘Visibility of the New in Cuneiform and
Rabbinic Sources’, Hebrew Union College Annual 42 (1971), 227-242.
2 Sacha Stern, ‘The Rabbinic New Moon Procedure: Context and Significance’, in
J. Ben-Dov, W. Horowitz and J.M. Steele (eds), Living the Lunar Calendar (Oxford: Oxbow
Books, 2012), pp. 211-230. See also his earlier books Calendar and Community: A History of
the Jewish Calendar, 2nd Century BCE to 10th Century CE (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001),
and Calendars in Antiquity. Empires, States and Societies (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2012).
3 See Stern, ‘The Rabbinic New moon Procedure’, 224.
a p p lie d in p rac tice , it is n o t c lea r w h e th e r w e a re e n title d to sp e ak o f a n
a c tu a l a b a n d o n m e n t o f th e s e p ro c e d u re s. B ut irre sp e c tiv e o f th is h isto ri­
cal p ro b lem , th e ra b b in ic n e w m o o n p ro c e d u re aro u se s th e q u e s tio n o f
w h e th e r th e in ju n c tio n for th e e m p iric a l o b se rv a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n ,
w h ic h u n d o u b te d ly is th e core o f th e n e w m o o n p ro c e d u re , h a d a n y in flu ­
en c e o n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f scien tific co sm o lo g ical a n d a s tro n o m ic a l c o n ­
c e p ts p rev a ilin g in ra b b in ic J u d a is m .4
It is a c o m m o n p la c e to arg u e th a t th e ex a ct sc ien c es o f la te a n tiq u ity
h av e le ft on ly lim ite d tra c e s in ra b b in ic lite ra tu re , a n d th a t Je w ish cal­
e n d a r re c k o n in g m ig h t b e o n e o f th e few e x c e p tio n s to th is ru le. W h ile
s e ttin g o u t w ith ra th e r p rim itiv e o b se rv a tio n a l m e th o d s, th e ra b b is are
b e lie v e d to h av e a c c u m u la te d in th e co u rse o f tim e r a th e r so lid a s tro ­
n o m ic a l a n d m a th e m a tic a l k n ow ledge, w h ic h fin ally allo w ed th e m to fix
th e c a le n d a r o n th e b asis o f so u n d th e o re tic a l fo u n d a tio n s. As S tern h a s
show n, how ev er, th e in c re a se o f scientific k n o w led g e a lo n e c a n n o t b e
se e n as th e o nly fac to r for th e tra n s itio n fro m a n o b se rv a tio n a l c a le n d a r to
a fixed ca lc u latio n , a n d it w ill b e se e n th a t also fro m o th e r p o in ts o f v iew
th is h isto ric a l im ag e n e e d s q u alifica tio n . O n e o f th e q u e s tio n s th a t arise
is w h e th e r th e scientific a c h ie v e m e n ts in c a le n d a r re c k o n in g re p re s e n t
a n iso la te d p h e n o m e n o n o r a re p a r t o f th e b ro a d e r d e v e lo p m e n t w h ic h
le d to th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a n y k in d o f c o h e re n t a n d co m p re h e n siv e sci­
en tific w orldview . In o rd e r to ta ck le th is q u estio n , th e p re s e n t p a p e r w ill
re -e x a m in e th e ra b b in ic so u rce s a b o u t th e o b se rv a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n
a n d ask w h e th e r a n d to w h ic h d eg re e th e ra b b in ic d isc u ssio n s a b o u t th e
c a le n d a r sto o d in a n y in te rd e p e n d e n c e w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e ir
a s tro n o m ic a l a n d co sm o lo g ical c o n c e p ts in g en eral.
S uch a n in te rd e p e n d e n c e o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c a le n d a r ca lc u latio n ,
a s tro n o m y a n d cosm ology is far fro m b e in g a m a tte r o f co u rse g iven th e
fa c t th a t ev e n th e re la tio n b e tw e e n a s tro n o m y a n d co sm o lo g y is o fte n
te n u o u s a n d p ro b le m a tic . T he d e v e lo p m e n t o f e x a c t a s tro n o m ic a l k n o w l­
edge d o es n o t a u to m a tic a lly im p ly th e e n h a n c e m e n t o f specific co sm o ­
logical w orldview , a n d th is p ro b le m b e c o m e s ev e n m o re a c u te if o n e a d d s
‘c a le n d a rs’ as a th ird te rm . C a le n d a r c a lc u la tio n d o es n o t n ec essarily in flu ­
en c e th e co sm o lo g ical a n d a s tro n o m ic a l id e as p re v a le n t in a specific cu l­
tu re , a n d o n e m a y w ell ask w h e th e r it d id so a m o n g th e Jew s in A n tiq u ity .

4 For a survey see Reimund Leicht, ‘Major trends in rabbinic cosmology’, in R. Boustan,
M. Himmelfarb and P. Schafer (eds), Hekhalot Literature in Context: from Byzantium to
Babylonia (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2013) (245-278).
A prio ri, th e re are good re a so n s to d o u b t it: C a le n d a r ca lc u la tio n s a re
b a s e d u p o n a ra th e r lim ite d se t o f a s tro n o m ic a l facts a n d d ata, m a in ly
to c e rta in a s p e c ts o f lu n a r a n d so la r th e o ry . O th e r a s tro n o m ic a l p h e n o m ­
e n a a n d e n titie s n o rm a lly do n o t receiv e a n y d ire c t tr e a tm e n t in c a le n d a r
sources. M oreover, c a le n d a r c a lc u la tio n is heav ily in flu e n c e d b y facto rs
w h ic h h av e on ly a n in d ire c t c o n n e c tio n w ith a stro n o m y : th e o b se rv a tio n
o f th e a g ric u ltu ra l seasons, feasts a n d relig io u s tra d itio n s o fte n a p p e a r to
h av e b e e n a m o re in flu e n tia l fa c to r th a n a s tro n o m ic a l a n d o r co sm o lo g i­
cal c o n c e p ts o r th e o ries.
O n th e o th e r h a n d , c a le n d a r d iscussions, a s tro n o m y a n d cosm o lo g y
o bviously c a n n o t b e to ta lly d isc o n n e c te d fro m o n e a n o th e r. A ccordingly,
th e re a re g o o d re a so n s to lo o k o u t fo r tra c e s o f a s tro n o m ic a l a n d co s­
m o lo g ical ideas, c o n c e p ts o r th e o rie s th a t h av e h a d re p e rc u ssio n s in th e
ra b b in ic te x ts a b o u t th e sa n c tific a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n as w ell. By ask in g
th is q u e s tio n o n e m ig h t h o p e n o t on ly to re a c h a b e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f
so m e o f th e classical so u rces fo r Je w ish c a le n d a r a n d for Je w ish co sm o l­
ogy, b u t also to ac h ie v e a cle a re r p ic tu re o f th e p la ce o f c a le n d a r c a lc u la­
tio n w ith in th e b ro a d e r c o n te x t o f scientific k n o w led g e o f th e Jew s o f late
A ntiq u ity .
Like sim ila r p ra c tic e s in o th e r a n c ie n t c u ltu re s ,5 th e ra b b in ic p ro c e ­
d u re for th e sa n c tific a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n relies p rim a rily o n th e a c tu a l
o b se rv a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n . T h ere is, how ev er, n o su c h th in g as n e u tra l
a n d ob jectiv e o b se rv a tio n , b e c a u s e w h a te v e r p e o p le c a n see in th e sky
is alw ays in fo rm e d a n d sh a p e d b y p rev io u s k n o w led g e a n d e x p e c ta tio n s
o n th e side o f th e o bserver. T he sta rtin g p o in t fo r th e fo llo w in g an aly sis
w ill th u s b e a se t o f se em in g ly sim p le q u estio n s: W h a t d id th e p e o p le
im a g in e d b y th e ra b b in ic tex ts, th o se p eo p le, w h o w e re s u p p o s e d to give
te s tim o n y o f th e ir o b se rv a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n , ac tu a lly see? W h a t d id
th e y b eliev e th e y co u ld see w h e n th e y o b se rv e d th e first a p p e a ra n c e o f
th e n e w m o o n rig h t ab o v e th e h o riz o n in th e ev e n in g im m e d ia te ly afte r
su n se t? A n d h o w do th e se o b se rv a tio n s re fle c t th e ir a s tro n o m ic a l a n d cos­
m o lo g ical k n o w led g e a n d e x p e c ta tio n s?
Before tu r n in g to th e ra b b in ic sources, it m ig h t b e h e lp fu l to h av e a
lo o k a t w h a t a n e d u c a te d H ellen istic Je w like P hilo o f A lex a n d ria h a s to
say a b o u t th is to p ic. In h is case, th e a n s w e r to th e q u e s tio n s m e n tio n e d
ab o v e seem s to b e p re tty sim ple. W h a t P hilo w o u ld h av e se e n w h e n h e

5 For a survey see Stern, Calendars in Antiquity; see also Wacholder and Weisberg,
‘Visibility of the New’, for a comparison with Mesopotamian sources.
o b se rv e d th e a p p e a ra n c e o f n e w m o o n a t th e b e g in n in g o f e a c h m o n th
w as h o w th e m o o n , lo c a te d in a sp h e re b e lo w th e sun, w as m o v in g fro m
th e p o in t o f its full c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e su n (th e syn o d o s in G reek), w h e re
it is invisib le for a n o b se rv e r o n th e e a rth , to a p o sitio n w h e re a sm all p a rt
o f th e m o o n b e c o m e s visible ag a in b e c a u s e it is illu m in a te d b y th e sun.
T his is a t le a st w h a t h e tells u s in h is d e s c rip tio n o f th e c e le b ra tio n o f th e
n e w m o o n in th e se c o n d b o o k o f th e O n Special Law s, w h e re h e w rites
(Spec. Leg. II.11,41) th a t

the third [feast] is the new m oon w hich follows the conjunction [synodos]
of the m oon w ith the sun .6

In th e follow ing p assag e s h e th e n p ro v id es f u rth e r d etails a b o u t th e re a ­

so n s fo r th e c e le b ra tio n o f th e n e w m o o n . H e ex p lain s th a t n e w m o o n is
c e le b ra te d (Spec. Leg. II.26,140),

[...] because w hen it (i.e. the new m oon) arrives, nothing in heaven is left
w ithout light, for while at the conjunction, w hen the m oon is lost to sight
under the sun, the side w hich faces earth is darkened, w hen the new m oon
begins it resum es its natural brightness.

P hilo w as o bviously sufficiently w ell in fo rm e d a b o u t classical m o d e ls o f

sp h e ric a l a s tro n o m y to b e ab le to ‘o b se rv e’ th e p a ssin g b y o f th e m o o n
u n d e r n e a th th e su n a n d its b e c o m in g visible ag a in afte rw a rd s. It re m a in s
difficult to d e te rm in e h o w d ee p h is a s tro n o m ic a l k n o w led g e w e n t, or
h o w m u c h tim e h e a c tu a lly s p e n t o n o b se rv in g th e sta rry sky, b u t w e ca n
assu m e th a t h e n e v e r w o u ld h av e m a d e a n o b se rv a tio n w h ic h c o n tra ­
d ic te d th is p re c o n c e iv e d a s tro n o m ic a l a n d co sm o lo g ical w o rldview .
If c o m p a re d to Philo, it is m u c h m o re d ifficult to d e te rm in e w h a t a
Je w fro m P ale stin e a c tu a lly saw w h e n h e o b se rv e d th e n e w m o o n , a n d b y
w h ic h k in d o f a s tro n o m ic a l a n d co sm o lo g ical k n o w led g e h is o b se rv a tio n s
w e re in fo rm ed . A m o re carefu l re a d in g o f th e M ish n ah , R osh h a -S h a n a h
(h e n c e fo rth m R H ), w ith its p ara llels in th e T o sefta (tRH ), th e T alm u d
Bavli (bRH ) a n d th e T a lm u d Y eru sh alm i (yRH) w ill p ro v id e us, h o w ev er,
w ith in te re s tin g in fo rm a tio n w h ic h p ro v es to b e q u ite h e lp fu l for a h y p o ­
th e tic a l re c o n stru c tio n .
T he te x t o f m R H 2 is a ric h m o sa ic o f d iffe re n t a s p e c ts a n d c o n c e rn s
c o n n e c te d w ith th e p ro c la m a tio n a n d sa n c tific a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n .
M o st o f th e m are largely irre le v a n t for th e re c o n s tru c tio n o f u n d e rly in g

6 English translations are taken from F.H. Colson and G.H. Whitaker, The Works o f Philo
(Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library, 1929-1953).
a s tro n o m ic a l a n d co sm o lo g ical id e as a n d c o n c ep ts: T he first h a la k h a h
d eals w ith th e g e n e ra l reliab ility o f th e eye w itn e sse s o f th e n e w m o o n ,
w h e re a s th e seco n d , th ird a n d fo u rth d escrib e th e p ro c e d u re h o w th e
sa n c tific a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n sh o u ld b e m a d e p u b lic. T h e fifth h a la k h a h
r e tu rn s to th e in itia l to p ic o f th e p ro p e r tr e a tm e n t o f th e eye w itn esses.
For o u r p u rp o se th e six th h a la k h a h is o f m o re im p o rta n c e . H ere th e M ish-
n a h sta te s (m RH 2:6 ):7

How do they examine the witnesses?

The pair w hich comes first they examine first.
They bring the elder of the two and say to him,
‘Tell us how thou sawest the moon: facing the sun or turned away from it?
to the north or to the south? how high was it?
to w hich side was the leaning? and how broad was it?’
If he said, ‘Facing the sun’, he has said naught.
Afterward they bring the second witness and examine him.
If their w ords are found to agree their evidence holds good.
The other pairs of w itnesses w ere asked [only] the m ain points,
n o t because there was need of them,
b u t th at they should no go away disappointed
and th a t they m ight make it their habit to come.

O ne o f th e p r e d o m in a n t e le m e n ts in th is te x t is to safeg u ard th e h o n o u r ­
ab le tr e a tm e n t o f th e w itn e sses, w h ic h o bviou sly w as a se rio u s c o n c e rn
a n d fin d s its ex p re ssio n also in so m e o f th e p rev io u s h a la k h o t. T he m o st
im p o r ta n t p ra c tic a l objective, how ev er, seem s to b e th e a tte m p t to s e t u p
a c o u rt p ro c e d u re w h ic h allow s th e c o n siste n c y o f th e te stim o n ie s o f th e
tw o eye w itn e sse s to b e e stab lish ed . Since v alid ev id en c e co n sists o f tw o
id e n tic a l te stim o n ie s o f a p a ir o f w itn e sses, esta b lish in g th e c o n siste n c y o f
th e tw o te stim o n ie s is a cru c ial p re c o n d itio n for th e ir a c c e p ta n c e b y th e
ra b b in ic co u rt, w h ic h in tu r n allow s for th e su b s e q u e n t so le m n p ro c la m a ­
tio n o f th e n e w m o o n .
As S tern h as co n v in cin g ly p o in te d o u t in h is a b o v e -m e n tio n e d study,
th e w h o le n e w m o o n p ro c e d u re as d e sc rib e d in th e M ish n a h is m o d e lle d
in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e p a tte r n o f legal c o u rt p ro c e d u re s. T hus, th e p r o ­
cess o f d ec isio n ta k in g b y th e c o u rt a lm o st e n tire ly d e p e n d s u p o n th e for­
m a l reliab ility o f th e te stim o n ie s. S cientific c o n sid e ra tio n s, su c h as th e
a s tro n o m ic a l p la u sib ility o f th e te stim o n ie s, se e m to p lay a s u b o rd in a te
role only.

7 I follow the translation of Herbert Danby, The Mishnah (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1933), p. 190.
 In fact, m R H 2:6 c o n ta in s on ly o n e ex p lic it ru lin g w h ic h goes b e y o n d
th e g u id e lin e o f ‘m u tu a l co n siste n c y ’. T his is th e s ta te m e n t th a t th e w it­
n e sse s sh o u ld b e a sk e d w h e th e r th e n e w m o o n w as o b se rv e d ‘facin g th e
s u n ’ o r ‘tu r n e d aw a y fro m it’. T he m e a n in g a n d p ra c tic a l fu n c tio n o f th is
ru lin g is n o t sp e lle d o u t, b u t th e m o s t likely in te r p re ta tio n w o u ld b e th a t
th is is a k in d o f v ery low grade, m in im a l re g u la tio n for th e in v a lid a tio n o f
te stim o n ie s w h ic h do n o t fulfil th e m o s t b a s ic c o n d itio n s o f a s tro n o m ic a l
plau sib ility . In o th e r w ords, ev e n if th e re is a clea r p re p o n d e ra n c e o n th e
side o f th e fo rm a l in v e stig a tio n o f th e te stim o n ie s a t th e e x p e n se o f th e ir
scien tific plausibility, p a te n tly a b s u rd te stim o n ie s w ill n o t b e a c c e p te d .8
In view o f th is g e n e ra l o u tlo o k o f th e M ish n ah , it is r a th e r likely th a t
also th e follow ing h a la k h a h h a s to b e in te r p re te d in th e lig h t o f th e g e n ­
era l te n d e n c y to lim it th e ro le scien tific k n o w led g e to a n a b so lu te m in i­
m u m (m RH 2:8):

Rabban Gamaliel had pictures of the shapes of the m oon

on a tablet and on the wall of his upper chamber.
These he used to show to the unskilled and say,
‘Didst thou see it on this wise or on that?’

A t first sig h t th is a d d itio n a l p ie ce o f in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e p ro c e d u re o f

in te rro g a tio n o f th e w itn e sse s se em s to in d ic a te a m o re th o ro u g h g o in g
scien tific e x a m in a tio n o f th e w itn e sses, b u t th is m ig h t w ell b e a m o d e rn
m is c o n c e p tio n . m R H 2:8 in fac t d o es n o t say a n y th in g a b o u t astro n o m y ,
a n d th e re are g o o d re a so n s to a ssu m e th a t th e im a g es w e re sh o w n to th e
w itn e sse s n o t in o rd e r to te s t th e a s tro n o m ic a l c o rre c tn e ss o f th e o b se r­
v a tio n s b u t m e re ly as a te c h n ic a l d evice in o rd e r to ac h ie v e u n e q u iv o c a l
fo rm u la tio n s o f th e te stim o n ie s. A fter all, th e ra b b in ic c o u rt h a d to re c k o n
w ith u n sk ille d w itn e sse s to w h o m th e d e s c rip tio n o f ce le stia l p h e n o m e n a
m u s t h av e b e e n a r a th e r u n fa m ilia r e n te rp rise , a n d if c o n siste n c y w as to
b e e s ta b lish e d b e y o n d a n y d o u b t, m e a n s to ac h ie v e u n e q u iv o c a l p re s e n ta ­
tio n s o f th e te stim o n ie s w e re necessary .
O n th e o th e r h a n d , it is o b vious th a t th e m is h n a ic c o u rt p ro c e d u re for
th e sa n c tific a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n h a s a com posite c h a ra c te r. E ven if th e
fo rm a listic a sp e c ts give th e im p re ssio n o f b e in g p re p o n d e ra n t, a closer
lo o k rev eals th a t, ta k e n as a w h o le, m R H 2:6 d escrib es a c o m b in a tio n o f
legal in v e stig a tio n w ith a b a sic e x a m in a tio n o f th e a s tro n o m ic a l facts.

8 This interpretation deviates from earlier ones like that of Wiesenberg, ‘Elements of
a Lunar Theory’, who believes that all the questions posed to the witnesses focus on the
astronomical plausibility of the testimonies.
T his fu n d a m e n ta l c h a ra c te r o f th e p ro c e d u re o b v io u sly reflec ts th e ta c it
a ssu m p tio n th a t a difference can, a n d n e e d s to, b e m a d e b e tw e e n w h a t th e
w itn e s s e s b e lie v e to h a v e se en , a n d w h a t o b je c tiv e ly c a n b e th e case.
T he M ish n a h th u s rev e als a r a th e r c lea r co n scio u sn e ss fo r th e c o m ­
p o site c h a ra c te r o f a s tro n o m ic a l o b se rv a tio n s, w h ic h alw ays en tails
th e o re tic a l a n d e m p iric a l asp ec ts. In a w ay, th e M is h n a h m a k e s th is c o m ­
p o site stru c tu re o f a s tro n o m ic a l o b se rv a tio n s e v e n m o re th a n ex p licit
th a n in Philo, w h o also a d d u c e s th e o re tic a l a s tro n o m ic a l k n o w led g e in
o rd e r to d escrib e th e o b se rv a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n , b u t n aiv ely h a r m o ­
n iz e d th e tw o asp ects.
Now, if w e re tu r n to th e in v e stig a tio n o f th e a s tro n o m ic a l facts d e s c rib e d
in m R H 2:6, th e te x t a t first sig h t se em s in d e e d to re fe r to cases o f v ery
fu n d a m e n ta l scien tific a b s u rd itie s only. A ccordingly, o n e c a n m a in ta in
th a t scien tific a s tro n o m ic a l k n o w led g e p la y ed o n ly a s u b o rd in a te ro le in
th e w h o le p ro c e d u re . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e issu e tu rn s o u t to b e m o re
c o m p lic a te d if o n e ta k e s in to c o n s id e ra tio n th a t th e a c tu a l m e a n in g a n d
fu n c tio n o f su c h a n ‘a b su rd ity -re g u la tio n ’ is o p e n to v ario u s d iffe ren t
in te rp re ta tio n s : T he te x t o f th e M is h n a h c a n e ith e r b e re a d as re fe rrin g to
th e specific te s tim o n y fo rm u la te d in th e h a la k h a h (i.e., th e p o sitio n o f th e
n e w m o o n in th e face o f th e s u n o r tu r n e d aw a y fro m it) o r b e ta k e n — p a rs
p ro toto— as a s ta te m e n t th a t 1. te stim o n ie s w h ic h c o n tra d ic t c o m m o n
sen se w ill n o t b e a c c e p te d b y th e co u rt, o r th a t 2 . a n y k in d o f o b jectiv ely
‘a b s u rd ’ w itn e sse s w ill b e reje cte d . T he p ro b le m in b o th cases, h o w ev er,
b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t o n ce o n e ta k e s in to c o n s id e ra tio n th a t th e c rite ria for
w h a t is a p a te n tly ‘a b s u rd ’ te s tim o n y n a tu ra lly v ary a c c o rd in g to th e level
o f th e scien tific k n o w led g e o n th e p a r t o f th e liste n e r/ju d g e . W h a t still
m ig h t se e m to b e a p la u sib le a s tro n o m ic a l p h e n o m e n o n for a n u n sk illed
p e rs o n w ill b e a b s u rd for a m o re e d u c a te d on e, a n d w h a t th e e d u c a te d
la y m a n w ill still c o n s id e r to b e a re a so n a b le d e s c rip tio n o f th e n e w m o o n ,
w ill a p p e a r to b e u tte rly a b s u rd for th e p ro fe ssio n a l a s tro n o m e r. In o th e r
w ords, o n ce a co m p o site in v e stig a tio n o f th e w itn e sse s co n sistin g o f fo r­
m a l a n d scien tific c rite ria is a d m itte d , th e re is n o u n e q u iv o c a l c rite rio n
as to h o w far th e scien tific e x a m in a tio n o f th e te stim o n ie s sh o u ld go.
A ccordingly, given th e fu n d a m e n ta lly com posite ch a ra cter o f th e m is h n a ic
n e w m o o n p ro c e d u re , th e re is a n in b u ilt te n s io n w h ic h leav es ro o m for
co n tro v ersies.
As a m a tte r o f fact, su c h co n tro v e rsie s se e m to h av e su rfa ce d in r a b ­
b in ic Ju d a ism fro m a rela tiv e ly early p e rio d o n w ard s. A lread y th e M ish-
n a h re p o rts tw o ca se -sto rie s in w h ic h te stim o n ie s w ere first re je c te d o n
g ro u n d s o f a s tro n o m ic a l im po ssib ility , b u t la te r o n a c c e p te d (m RH 2:8):
 It once happened that two came and said,
‘We saw it in the east in the m orning and in the w est in the evening’.
R. Yohanan b. Nuri said: They are false witnesses.
But w hen they came to Yabneh,
Rabban Gamaliel accepted their evidence.
And two others came and said,
‘We saw it at its expected time, yet in the night of the added day,
it did n o t appear’;
and Rabban Gamaliel accepted their evidence.
R. Dosa b. Harkinas said:
‘They are false w itnesses [...]’.

T he te x t o f th e M is h n a h is n o t in every p o in t c lea r re g a rd in g th e m o tiv es

o f th e d iffe re n t ac to rs. Yet, it se em s likely th a t R. Y o h an a n a n d R. D ossa
re je c te d th e te stim o n ie s o f th e w itn e sse s in b o th cases o n th e b asis o f th e ir
ad v a n c e d a s tro n o m ic a l k now ledge, w h ic h d id n o t allo w for th e o c c u rre n c e
o f su c h a p h e n o m e n o n . O n th e o th e r h a n d , R a b b an G am aliel’s p o s itio n is
o p e n to tw o in te rp re ta tio n s . It c a n e ith e r b e th a t h e o v e rru le d th e d ec isio n
o f h is co lleag u es b e c a u s e h e w as p re p a re d to a c c e p t tw o fo rm ally co n sis­
te n t te stim o n ie s irre sp e c tiv e o f th e ir a s tro n o m ic a l p lau sib ility , o r b e c a u s e
h e w as c o n v in c e d th a t th e p h e n o m e n o n w as astro n o m ic a lly p lau sib le. In
an y ev en t, in b o th cases it b e c o m e s c lea r t h a t th e a s tro n o m ic a l k n o w led g e
in v o lv e d a lre a d y goes b e y o n d th e c rite ria o f c o m m o n sen se p la u sib ility or
ab su rd ity .
N e ith e r tRH 1:17 n o r th e B ab y lo n ian T alm u d su b sta n tia lly m o d ify th is
im age. In th e G em a ra o n m RH 2:8 a b o u t th e a c c e p ta b ility o f th e te s ti­
m o n ie s o f w itn e sse s p re te n d in g to h av e se e n th e d e c re s c e n t m o o n in th e
m o rn in g a n d th e n e w m o o n o n th e follow in g ev e n in g o f th a t v ery sam e
day, a b a ra yta in bRH 2 5 a re p o r ts :9

It has been taught: Rabban Gamaliel said to the Sages:

This formula has been handed down to me
from the house of my father’s father:
Sometimes it [the moon] transverses [the heavens] by a long course
and som etim es by a short course.

T his is a s ta te m e n t w h ic h is o bviously in te n d e d to s tre n g th e n th e v alid ity

o f se em in g ly u n lik e ly te stim o n ie s. T he d ic tu m is fo llo w ed b y a saying o f
R abbi Y o h an a n w h ic h ju stifie s th is ‘a g n o stic ’ sta n c e to w a rd s th e p o ssib il­
ity o f a n y e x a c t k n o w led g e a b o u t th e tru e m o v e m e n ts o f th e m o o n a n d

9 According to the translation of Maurice Simon in Isidore Epstein, The Babylonian

Talmud, Seder Mo’ed (London: Soncino Press, 1938), 109.
th u s leaves ro o m fo r a ra th e r lib e ra l a p p ro a c h to w a rd w itn e sse s w h o se
r e p o rt se em s u n lik e ly fo r o n e re a so n o r a n o th e r (bRH 25a):

R. Yohanan said:
W hat is the reason of the house of Rabbi?
Because it is w ritten,
Who appointest the moon fo r seasons,
the sun knoweth his going down.
It is the sun w hich knows its going down,
b u t the m oon does n o t know its going down.

In c o n tra s t to th is ‘a g n o s tic ’ o u tlo o k , a n o th e r b a ra yta a ttr ib u te d to R a b b an

G am aliel, w h ic h serves as p r o o f fo r th e re je c tio n o f a te s tim o n y c o n c e rn ­
in g a n u n u su a lly early a p p e a ra n c e o f th e n e w m o o n a lre a d y o n th e 2 9 th
d ay o f th e m o n th , h a s to b e se e n as a su rp risin g ‘a n o m a ly ’(bRH 25a):

Our Rabbis taught:

Once the heavens w ere covered w ith clouds
And the likeness of the m oon was seen on the
tw enty n in th of the m onth.
The public m inded to declare New moon,
and the Beth Din w anted to sanctify it,
b u t Rabban Gamaliel said to them:
I have it on the authority of the house of my father’s father
th at the renewal of the m oon takes place
n o t after less than tw enty-nine days and a half and two thirds
of an hour and seventy-three halaqin.

As c a n b e easily seen, th e te n d e n c y o f th is b a ra yta ru n s to ta lly a g a in st th a t

o f th e o th e r tra d itio n s a ttr ib u te d to R a b b an G am aliel in its full re lia n c e o n
th e astro n o m ic a lly d e te rm in e d le n g th o f th e m o n th as su fficie n t c rite ria
fo r th e re fu ta tio n o f a te stim o n y . W h a te v e r its origin, th e re a re g o o d r e a ­
so n s to b eliev e th a t it is ‘a p o c ry p h a l ’.10
T he te x ts su rv ey ed so far th u s sh o w th a t fro m a v ery early p e rio d
o n w a rd s th e ra b b is w e re seriously stru g g lin g w ith th e q u e s tio n o f h o w to
fin d th e p ro p e r b a la n c e b e tw e e n th e fo rm a listic a n d th e scien tific asp ec ts
o f th e n e w m o o n p ro c e d u re . A lth o u g h th e ta n n a itic so u rces m a k e th e
im p re ssio n o f fav o u rin g th e fo rm a listic a p p ro a c h , th e p ro b le m o f th e sci­
entific e v a lu a tio n n e v e r to ta lly d isa p p e a re d .
G iven th is g e n e ra l te n d e n c y o f th e early ra b b in ic tex ts, it is n o t su rp ris­
in g to see th a t on ly rela tiv e ly little in te r e s t in co sm o lo g ical issu es co u ld

10 See Stern, Calendar and Community, pp. 201-202.

evolve. S om e m a te ria l fo u n d in th e T alm u d Y eru sh alm i, h o w ev er, seem s
to b e a n in te re s tin g e x c e p tio n to th is rule. It is p re se rv e d in th e G em a ra
c o m m e n tin g u p o n m R H 2:6, w h ic h speak s a m o n g o th e r th in g s a b o u t th e
r e je c tio n o f o bviously a b s u rd te stim o n ie s. T he fac t th a t th e M ish n a h seri­
o usly re c o m m e n d s th e in v e stig a tio n o f su c h o b v io u s a b s u rd itie s a ro u se s
so m e p e rp le x ity a m o n g th e ra b b is q u o te d in th e T a lm u d Y eru sh alm i.
R. Y o h an an , e.g., co n sid e rs su c h a c o m m a n d m e n t u n n e c e s sa ry a n d a c c o rd ­
ingly suggests a n o th e r in te rp re ta tio n , w h ic h is th e n ta k e n u p b y Bar Q ap-
p a r a (yRH 2:5(6) [58a]):n

Rabbi Yohanan said:

Even one who is m istaken the m ost of all does n o t err in this m atter,
‘in front of the sun or behind the sun?’
It ought not to read otherwise than ‘concavity [of the moon] in front of the
sun,
concavity [of the moon] behind the sun’.

It is in te re s tin g to see th a t th is te x t ta ck le s a n in te rp re tiv e p ro b le m w h ic h

arises fro m th e p ro b le m w e h av e m e n tio n e d ab o v e, i.e., th a t th e c rite ria o f
w h a t is a n u tte rly ‘a b s u rd ’ te s tim o n y d e p e n d u p o n th e k n o w led g e o f th e
s p e a k e r/o b s e rv e r a n d th e liste n e r/ju d g e . In th is re s p e c t R. Y o h a n a n seem s
to arg u e th a t given th e g e n e ra l level o f e d u c a tio n , it is u tte rly u n lik e ly th a t
a n y b o d y w o u ld te stify to h av e o b se rv e d a n a s tro n o m ic a l p h e n o m e n o n
w h ic h e v e n to th e m as la y m e n w o u ld b e p a te n tly ab su rd . A ccordingly, in
o rd e r to give so m e sen se to th e m is h n a ic re g u la tio n it h a s to b e a d ju ste d
to rea lity to th e effect th a t it is n o lo n g e r th e p o s itio n o f th e m o o n b efo re
o r b e h in d th e su n a t su n se t, b u t r a th e r th e d ire c tio n o f th e co n c av ity o f
th e m o o n (p e g im a h ) in re la tio n to th e sun, w h ic h is a t stake.
T his re fo rm u la tio n o f th e p ro b le m is o f c o n s id e ra b le in te re s t fo r o u r
p u rp o se n o t on ly b e c a u s e it raise s th e p ro b le m o f th e in te rd e p e n d e n c e o f
em p irica l o b se rv atio n a n d th e o re tic a l know ledge, b u t also b ec au s e it b rin g s
u s in to th e close v ic in ity o f co sm o lo g ical q u e stio n s. O n e m ig h t e x p e c t th a t
w h e n th e d ire c tio n o f th e illu m in a te d a n d th e d a rk e n e d sid e o f th e m o o n
in re la tio n to th e p o sitio n o f th e su n is b e in g d iscu ssed , th e q u e s tio n o f
th e su n as th e so u rce o f th e lig h t o f th e m o o n w o u ld s o m e h o w su rface
in th e discu ssio n . This, a t least, is w h a t P hilo p ro b a b ly w o u ld h av e d o n e
a t th is p o in t. N o t so th e T a lm u d Y erushalm i, w h e re in ste a d o f a co sm o ­
logical e x p la n a tio n for th e d ire c tio n o f th e illu m in a te d a n d d a rk e n e d sides
o f th e m o o n , th e follow ing s ta te m e n t is a d d e d (yRH 2:6 [58a]):

11 Translation according to Edward A. Goldman, The Talmud of the Land of Israel. A Pre-
limiary Translation and Explanation, vol. 16 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 68.
 Rabbi Yohanan said:
It is w ritten,
Dominion and dread are with Him,
He makes peace in His high palaces (Job 25:2).
The sun never saw the concavity of the moon.

T his passag e p ro v id es so m e k in d o f e x p la n a tio n o f th e o b se rv e d a s tro ­

n o m ic a l p h e n o m e n a , b u t it is p re s e n te d n o t as a co sm o lo g ical n ec essity
b u t r a th e r as a n ex p re ssio n o f en fo rc e d cele stia l p e a c e G od in sta lle d in
h is h ea v en s. In o th e r w ords, th e G em a ra o f th e T a lm u d Y eru sh alm i c o r­
rec tly d escrib es th e a s tro n o m ic a l p h e n o m e n o n o f th e c re sc e n t m o o n , b u t
in s te a d o f giving a scien tific cosm o lo g ical e x p la n a tio n , it p ro v id es a p u re ly
m id ra sh ic in te r p re ta tio n (i.e. a n in te r p re ta tio n b a s e d o n B iblical exegesis)
o f th e p ro b le m a tic re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e su n a n d th e m o o n , w h ic h
c a n b e a p p e a s e d b y G od’s in te rv e n tio n only. T he T a lm u d Y eru sh alm i th u s
shies aw ay fro m giving a c o n s iste n t cosm o lo g ical e x p la n a tio n a n d c o n ­
te n ts its e lf w ith religious sta te m e n ts .
C o sm o lo g ical issu es are also to u c h e d in a la te r p assag e (yRH 2:6
[58a]):

Rabbi Levi said:

No planet ever sees the one w hich precedes it,
b u t all of them ascend like those who ascend a ladder backward.
The Holy One blessed be He
created 365 windows that the world m ight use them:
182 in the east, 182 in the west,
and one in the center of the firmament,
from w hich it [i.e., the sun] came forth at the beginning of the Creation.
The distance the sun covers in thirty days,
the m oon covers in two and a half days.
[...]
Rabbi Yonah said:
There is not here an [exact] measure, b u t rather a little less.

T he m o s t in te re stin g p o in t in th is passage is p e rh a p s its very ex isten ce— th e

fac t th a t th e re d a c to rs o f th e T a lm u d Y eru sh alm i a g a in to o k u p th e glove
a n d s ta rte d to in s e rt a s tro n o m ic a l a n d co sm o lo g ical d isc u ssio n s in to a
c a le n d ric a l c o n tex t. If o n e a ssu m e s th a t m a z z a l m e a n s ‘p la n e t’ in th is
c o n te x t, 12 w e m u s t still ask, how ev er, w h a t th e im ag e o f a p la n e t clim b ­
in g u p a la d d e r b a c k w a rd s a c tu a lly m e a n s? T he m o s t likely in te r p re ta tio n

12 See on the meaning of the term mazzal Reimund Leicht, ‘The Planets, the Jews, and
the Beginnings of Jewish Astrology’, in Sh. Shaked, G. Bohak and Y. Harari (eds), Continuity
and Innovation in the History o f Magic (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2011), 271-288, here 282.
se em s to b e th a t th e m o o n is ‘clim b in g u p ’ th e im a g in a ry ‘la d d e r’ o f th e
zo d iac a fte r its re -a p p e a ra n c e a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e m o n th , a n d th a t it
d ire c ts its b o w ed , ro u n d ‘b a c k ’ to th e s u n like a m a n w h o is clim b in g u p
a la d d er. H ow ever, if th is is co rrec t, o n e still m a y ask w h e th e r R abbi Levi
in d e e d a s su m e d th a t th e sa m e p h e n o m e n o n w o u ld o cc u r w ith th e o th e r
p la n e ts — so m e th in g w h ic h is in fac t tru e , m o s t n o ta b ly for V en u s w ith its
p h a s e s— b u t c a n n o t really b e o b se rv e d w ith th e n a k e d eye. B ut b e th is
as it m ay, th e c o m m e n t o f R. Y o n ah o n th e s p e e d o f th e m o v e m e n ts o f
th e s u n a n d th e m o o n w h ic h is a p p e n d e d h ere , sh o w s th a t a t h is tim e
m o re ex a c t a s tro n o m ic a l d a ta w e re accessib le to th e rab b is, a lth o u g h th is
d o es n o t n e c e ssa rily p ro v e th e ex iste n ce o f m o re d e v e lo p e d co sm o lo g ical
co n c ep ts.
If w e n o w try to briefly su m u p th e ev id en c e for th e in te rc o n n e c tio n
b e tw e e n th e o b se rv a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n o n th e o n e h a n d a n d th e d ev el­
o p m e n t o f a s tro n o m ic a l a n d co sm o lo g ical k n o w led g e o n th e o th e r, on e
h a s to sta te th a t fro m th e ta n n a itic p e rio d o n w a rd s th e ra b b is w e re aw a re
th a t th e re exists a n in tim a te c o rre la tio n b e tw e e n w h a t w ill b e se e n a n d
w h a t c a n b e se e n in th e sky. A lth o u g h th e so u rce s re v e a l a c e rta in re lu c ­
ta n c e to b a se th e (p se u d o -)ju d ic ia l n e w m o o n p ro c e d u re exclusively o n
scientific astro n o m ica l c o n sid eratio n s ,!3 th e o re tic a l k n o w led g e w as alw ays
given a c e rta in role in it— a t le a s t to th e e x te n t th a t p a te n tly ‘a b s u rd ’ te s ­
tim o n ie s w o u ld b e re je c te d . G iven th e fact, h o w ev er, th a t th e ca te g o ry o f
‘a b s u rd ity ’ is am b ig u o u s, it is n o t su rp risin g to see th a t ra b b in ic lite ra tu re
re p o rts n u m e ro u s d isp u te s th a t a ro se a r o u n d th e e x te n t to w h ic h sc ie n ­
tific k n o w led g e sh o u ld in flu e n ce th e fo rm a l ju rid ic a l p ro c e d u re o f th e
in v e stig a tio n o f th e w itn esses. T h ere c a n b e n o d o u b t th a t th e c o m b in e d
c h a ra c te r o f th e n e w m o o n p ro c e d u re w as a fa c to r w h ic h c re a te d in n e r
d y n am ics w ith in ra b b in ic Ju d a ism to d e e p e n th e ir scien tific k n o w led g e in
th e field s o f a s tro n o m y a n d cosm ology. T his fin d s its c le a re st e x p re ssio n
in th e T alm u d Y eru sh alm i. 14
T h ese in n e r d y n am ics n o tw ith s ta n d in g , ra b b in ic Ju d a ism in la te A n tiq ­
u ity seem s to h av e b e e n far aw ay fro m a n y a tte m p t to c re a te a c o h e re n t
a n d u n ifie d w o rld -im ag e o r th e fo rm u la tio n o f a p h y sic al th e o ry w h ic h

13 In the line of Stern’s argument one could hypothesize that the astronomical profes-
sionalisation of the new moon procedure would again have shaken rabbinic authority.
14 This general tendency towards the formulation of a more scientific worldview in
rabbinic sources from Palestine in the amoraic period corroborates similar observations
made for the Talmud Yerushalmi and Bereshit Rabba in my ‘Major Trends in Rabbinic
Cosmology’.
w o u ld e n c o m p a ss d iffe re n t b ra n c h e s o f k n o w led g e like c a le n d a r ca lc u ­
la tio n , a s tro n o m y a n d cosm ology. W h e re a s P hilo freely c o m b in e d H elle­
n istic a s tro n o m ic a l a n d cosm o lo g ical m o d e ls w ith Je w ish tra d itio n in On
S pecial L aw s, th e re is a su rp risin g re lu c ta n c e to a d o p t su c h id e a s in th e
ra b b in ic te x ts re la te d to th e o b se rv a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n . T he differ­
e n t b ra n c h e s o f k n o w led g e o bviously d e v e lo p e d w ith d iffe re n t sp e e d
a n d v ary in g d ire c tio n s in Je w ish c u ltu re s in la te A n tiq u ity . T he d y n a m ­
ics u n d e rly in g th e se d e v e lo p m e n ts a re still in su fficien tly u n d e rs to o d , b u t
th e re a re g o o d re a so n s to a s su m e th a t a c o h e re n t scien tific a s tro n o m i­
cal a n d cosm o lo g ical w orldview , w h ic h in so m e w ay u n ifie s scien tific
th e o ry a n d o b se rv a tio n a l p rac tice , w as p ro b a b ly a c h ie v e d n o t e a rlie r th a n
w ith th e a d v e n t o f A rab scien c es a n d th e ir in te g ra tio n in to Je w ish in te l­
le c tu a l cu ltu re in th e M iddle Ages.

References

Colson, F.H., and G.H. Whitaker (eds), The Works of Philo (Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical
Library, 1929-1953).
Epstein, Isidore, The Babylonian Talmud, Seder Mo’ed (London: Soncino Press, 1938).
Goldman, Edward A., The Talmud of the Land of Israel. A Preliminary Translation and
Explanation, vol. 16 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).
Leicht, Reimund, ‘Major Trends in Rabbinic Cosmology’, in R. Boustan, M. Himmelfarb and
P. Schafer (eds), HekhalotLiterature in Context:from Byzantium to Babylonia (Tubingen:
Mohr Siebeck, 2013) (245-278).
----- , ‘The Planets, the Jews, and the Beginnings of Jewish Astrology’, in Sh. Shaked,
G. Bohak and Y. Harari (eds), Continuity and Innovation in the History o f Magic (Leiden
and Boston: Brill, 2011), pp. 271-288.
The Mishnah. Translated from the Hebrew with Introduction and Brief Explanatory Notes
by Herbert Danby (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933).
Stern, Sacha, Calendar and Community. A History of the Jewish Calendar, 2nd Century BCE
to 10th Century CE (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001).
------, Calendars in Antiquity. Empires, States and Societies (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2012).
------, ‘The Rabbinic New Moon Procedure: Context and Significance’, in J. Ben-Dov,
W. Horowitz and J. M. Steele (eds), Living the Lunar Calendar (Oxford: Oxbow Books,
2012), pp. 211-230.
Wacholder, Ben Zion, and David Weisberg, ‘Visibility of the New in Cuneiform and
Rabbinic Sources’, Hebrew Union College Annual 42 (1971), 227-242.
Wiesenberg, Ernest, ‘Elements of a Lunar Theory in the Mishnah, Rosh Hashanah 2:6, and
the Talmudic Complements Thereto’, Hebrew Union College Annual 33 (1962), 153-169.
 CHAPTER THREE

COSMOLOGY AS SCIENCE OR COSMOLOGY AS THEOLOGY?

REFLECTIONS ON THE ASTRONOMICAL CHAPTERS
OF PIRKE DERABBI ELIEZER

K a th a rin a k e im

Pirke deR abbi E liezer

P irke d eR ab b i E liezer (PRE) is a n u n u s u a l w o rk d a tin g to th e early G ao n ic

p erio d . C o m m o n ly classified as a m id ra sh , it differs in style a n d c o n te n t
fro m e a rlie r R ab b in ic m id ra s h im .1 T he b u lk o f th e te x t c a n b e d escrib ed
as a n aggadic d isc o u rse th a t b ro a d ly m irro rs th e o rg a n isa tio n a n d to p i­
cal se q u e n c e o f g e n e s is 1 to E xodus 32 w ith so m e v erse s o f N u m b ers
th ro w n in. Its early c h a p te rs, 3-19, co v erin g ju s t u n d e r a th ird o f its to ta l
le n g th , offer a su b s ta n tia l e x p o sitio n o n th e sev en days o f c re atio n , w ith in
w h ich , in c h a p te rs 6 - 8, u n d e r th e fo u rth d ay o f cre atio n , is to b e fo u n d

i There is no adequate edition of PRE. For convenience I have used the text published
by Dagmar Borner-Klein in Pirke de-Rabbi Elieser, Nach der Edition Venedig 1544 unter
Berucksichtigung der Edition Warschau 1852, aufbereitet und ubersetzt (Walter de Gruyter:
Berlin and New York, 2004). This simply gives the textus receptus. Eliezer Treitl, Pirke
de-Rabbi Eliezer: Text, Redaction and a Sample Synopsis (Dissertation Series: The Hebrew
University Department of Halakhah/The Institute for Research of Eretz Israel: Jerusalem,
2012) [Hebrew], offers the most thorough analysis of the manuscripts of PRE to date, the
somewhat surprising conclusion of which is that the text is more stable than one might
have supposed. Hence I felt justified in citing for my purposes here the textus receptus.
Textual variants are unlikely to disturb my argument. However, like many classic Rabbinic
texts, PRE lacks an agreed referencing system suitable for close analysis. I have cited it by
the traditional chapters, followed by the page and line number in Borner-Klein: hence PRE
6, 53/10 = Pirke deRabbi Eliezer chapter 6, ed. Borner-Klein p. 53, line 10. My translations
generally follow those of Gerald Friedlander, Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer (The Chapters of Rabbi
Eliezer the Great) according to the Text of the Manuscript belonging to Abraham Epstein of
Vienna (1916; repr. Sepher-Hermon Press: New York, 1981), but with modifications. Recent
notable monographs on PRE include: Dina Stein, Meimra, Magia, Mitos: Pirqe de-Rabbi
Eliezer le-'or ha-sifrut ha-'amamit (‘Maxims, Magic, Myth: A Folkloristic Perspective of Pirqe
de-Rabbi Eliezer’) (Magnes Press: Jerusalem, 2004); Ute Brohmeier, Exegetische Methodik
in Pirke de-Rabbi Elieser, Kapitel 1-24 nach der Edition Venedig 1544, unter Berucksichtigung
der Edition Warschau 1852 (Peter Lang: Frankfurt a.M., 2008); Steven Daniel Sacks, Mid­
rash and Multiplicity: Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer and the Renewal o f Rabbinic Interpretive Cul­
ture (Studia Judaica: Forschungen zur Wissenschaft des Judentums 48; Walter de Gruyter:
Berlin and New York, 2009); Rachel Adelman, The Return o f the Repressed: Pirqe de-Rabbi
Eliezer and the Pseudepigrapha (Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism 140;
Brill: Leiden and Boston, 2009).
a n ex ten siv e scien tific tre a tis e o n cosm ology, a s tro n o m y a n d astrology.
T ak e n a t face value, th is m a te ria l is ‘sc ien tific’ in c h a ra c te r, b u t it raises o n
clo ser in sp e c tio n a n u m b e r o f p u z z lin g q u es tio n s. T h o u g h it offers m a n y
o b se rv a tio n s o f n a tu re a n d m a th e m a tic a l ca lc u latio n s, its sc ien c e is su r­
p risin g ly p rim itiv e fo r its tim e, its d a ta in a c c u ra te a n d co n tra d ic to ry , a n d
in a d e q u a te to d e te rm in e a w o rk a b le ca le n d ar. Som e o f th e co n fu sio n m a y
b e d u e to sc rib a l in te rv e n tio n in th e tra n sm iss io n o f th e te x t, a im e d a t
c o rre c tin g its p e rc e iv e d errors, b u t ev e n if w e m a k e a g e n e ro u s allo w an c e
fo r se c o n d a ry w o rk in g sow ing co n fu sio n , th e u n sa tisfa c to ry n a tu re o f th e
o rig in al d o c u m e n t’s scien tific k n o w led g e, ju d g e d b y th e lig h t o f its tim e,
c a n n o t b e disguised.
E ven w ith in PRE’s to ta l a c c o u n t o f th e c re a tio n o f th e w o rld , c h a p te rs
6 -8 sta n d out. T he o th e r c h a p te rs ’ tr e a tm e n t o f th e co sm o s is stro n g ly
bib lical, a n d ta k e s th e b ib lica l te x t a t face v alu e. T h ey a c c e p t, fo r ex am p le,
G en esis’ flat-e arth , th re e -d e c k e r u n iv e rse . In PRE 3, 2 1 /1 0 -2 3 /3 , th e h e a v ­
en s a re said to h av e b e e n c re a te d fro m th e lig h t o f G o d ’s g a rm e n t, a n d th e
e a rth fro m a clod o f sn o w w h ic h w as ta k e n fro m b e n e a th G o d ’s th ro n e
a n d th ro w n in to th e w a te rs to fo rm th e h a b ita b le w o rld (a p o stb ib lic al,
n o t a b iblical, idea). T he te x t c o n tin u e s : ‘T he h o o k s o f th e h e a v e n s are
fixed in th e w a te rs o f th e o c e a n ’ (PRE 3, 23/4 ), a n d th e in sid e sh a p e o f th e
firm a m e n t is c o m p a re d to a d o m e o r te n t. T he fo u r q u a rte rs o f th e ea rth ,
p ic tu re d as fo u r c o m p a ss-p o in ts o n a fla t surface, are d escrib ed . C h a p te r 5
(37/16) b egins, ‘O n th e th ird d ay all th e e a r th w as flat like a p la in a n d th e
w a te rs co v e red th e surface o f all th e e a r th ’, a n d th e n p ro c e e d s to give a n
a c c o u n t o f th e c re a tio n o f th e d e p th s b e n e a th th e e a rth . G iven th a t PRE is
co m m o n ly , a n d p ro b a b ly correctly, d a te d to th e la te eig h th o r early n in th
ce n tu ry , th is is asto n ish in g ly p rim itiv e. T he id ea, lo n g ago e x p o u n d e d in
b o th th e A risto te lia n a n d th e P to lem aic system s, th a t th e e a rth is ro u n d ,
a n d sits a t th e c e n tre o f th e cosm os, w as w ell d iffu sed a m o n g e d u c a te d
p e o p le b y th is d ate, b u t ev e n m o re b iz a rre is th e fac t th a t th e th re e -d e c k e r
u n iv e rse h e re sits side-by-side w ith th e far m o re scien tifically so p h isti­
c a te d (if, n o n e th e le s s o u t-o f-d a te) scien c e o f c h a p te rs 6 - 8 . T h o se c h a p ­
te rs, to b e sure, ta k e n o ex p licit p o sitio n o n th e sh a p e o f th e w o rld , a n d
th e ir cosm ology is, p e rh a p s, ju s t a b o u t c o m p a tib le w ith a fla t e a rth , b u t,
scientifically speaking, th e y b e lo n g to a d iffe re n t u n iv e rse o f d isco u rse.
T he s h o rt so lu tio n to th is c o n u n d ru m w o u ld b e, o f course, to re g a rd PRE
6 -8 as a se c o n d a ry in se rtio n , b u t th is is n o t as a ttra c tiv e as a t first sig h t
it m ig h t seem . T he c h a p te rs in q u e s tio n a re in all th e m a n u s c rip ts o f th e
w ork, a n d w e a re d u ty b o u n d to try a n d m a k e sen se o f it w ith th e m in.
PRE c a n b e sh o w n to h av e a stro n g c o h e re n c e ,2 a n d to b e larg ely th e w o rk
o f a single a u th o r. So w h y d id h e in c lu d e th e scien tific m a te ria l, a n d w h a t
p a r t d o es it p la y in th e a r g u m e n t o f th e b o o k as a w h o le?

1. C on tent a n d S tru ctu re o f the A stro n o m ic a l C hapters

T he g e n e ra l c o n te n t a n d s tru c tu re o f th e a s tro n o m ic a l c h a p te rs o f PRE

a re clear, b u t th e y p o se m a n y d e ta ile d p ro b le m s o f in te rp re ta tio n , a n d th e
ca lc u la tio n s o ffered do n o t alw ays ag ree w ith e a c h o th e r. T he c o n te n t is
largely a s tro n o m ic a l, b u t in te rw o v e n a re passag es o f ag g ad ah , a n d im p lie d
a t v a rio u s p o in ts is a stro lo g ica l d o ctrin e, c o n c e rn e d w ith th e influence o f
th e h e a v e n ly b o d ie s o n h u m a n affairs (n o te, e.g., PRE 7, 67/13, mbTOn b l
□ IK n n b in V l n ja b n i b i o b D’rn © O , ‘All th e c o n s te lla tio n s serv e th e
M olad o f th e m o o n , a n d the g en e ra tio n s o f the children o f m e n ’), r a th e r th a n
sim ply w ith th e ir m o tio n s th ro u g h th e h e a v e n s a n d th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f
a w o rk in g ca le n d ar, b u t th e astro lo g y is n o t d ev e lo p e d . PRE 6 is m a in ly
a b o u t th e sun, PRE 7 a b o u t th e m o o n , a n d PRE 8 a b o u t in te rc a la tio n .
PRE 6 o p e n s w ith a v e rsio n o f th e a g g a d a h c o n c e rn in g th e d im in is h ­
in g o f th e m o o n fro m p a rity w ith th e su n a t th e tim e o f th e c re a tio n o f
th e w orld. T h en follow s sectio n s o n th e seven p la n e ts (an d th e days o f th e
w ee k ov er w h ic h th e y ru le), a n d th e tw elve co n stellatio n s. T he su n resid es
in e a c h o f th e tw elv e c o n s te lla tio n s for o n e so la r m o n th , w h ic h is se t a t
30 days 10% h o u rs. V arious cycles o f th e su n a re n e x t id e n tified , sta rtin g
w ith a g re a t cycle o f 28 years, w h ic h is su b d iv id e d in to se v en sm all cycles
o f fo u r y ea rs each. T he solar y e a r is se t h e re a t 3 6 5 % days (th e v alu e 366
days is fo u n d e lsew h e re in th e a c c o u n t), a n d it is d iv id ed in to fo u r teq u fo t
(seasons), e a c h o f w h ic h lasts fo r 91 days 7% h o u rs. T he d a te a n d tim e
in th e solar y e a r w h e n e a c h teq u fa h b eg in s is c a lc u la te d for e a c h y e a r o f
th e sm all (4-year) a n d g re a t (28-year) solar cycles. T h ere is th e n a lo n g
a c c o u n t o f th e ‘w in d o w s’ in th e firm a m e n t (366 in n u m b e r — 183 in th e
e a st a n d 183 in th e w est) th ro u g h w h ic h th e su n rises a n d se ts th ro u g h ­
o u t th e y ea r (th e im p lic a tio n is th a t as th e su n m o v es n o r th a n d s o u th
o n th e e a s te rn a n d w e s te rn h o riz o n s it w ill a p p e a r in e a c h w in d o w tw ice
in a y e a r— o n ce as it jo u rn e y s n o r th a n d o n ce as it re tu rn s so u th ). T he
a c c o u n t o f th e su n closes w ith tw o a s se rtio n s a b o u t its n a tu re : ( 1 ) it is

2 I argue the case for this in my doctoral dissertation being completed at the University
of Manchester.
in a n im a te , a n d c a n n o t m o v e b y itself. It is m o v e d th ro u g h th e h e a v e n s
in a v eh icle (ch a rio t), le d b y an g els (th o u g h th e an g els th a t le a d it b y d ay
fro m e a st to w est, are d iffe re n t to th o se w h o le a d it, u n s e e n , b y n ig h t fro m
w e s t to e a st b a c k to th e e a s te rn h o riz o n ). (2) T h e s u n h a s tw o faces, o n e
o f h a il a n d o n e o f fire. W h e n th e fiery face is tu r n e d to w a rd s th e w o rld
it is su m m er, a n d w h e n th e face o f h a il is tu r n e d to w a rd s th e w o rld it is
w in te r. T he o th e r tw o se a so n s— sp rin g a n d a u tu m n — are ca u se d b y th e
s u n p re s e n tin g a face p a rtly o f fire a n d p a rtly o f h a il to th e w o rld . T his is
m o s t o bviously ex p la in e d b y a s su m in g th a t th e su n ro ta te s, a n d it is th e
p r o p o rtio n s o f its faces o f fire a n d h a il p re s e n te d to w a rd s th e w o rld th a t
d e te rm in e s th e seasons.
C h a p te r 7 o p e n s w ith a n ag gadah, b a s e d o n P salm 33:6, a b o u t th e c re­
a tio n o f th e m o o n a n d th e r e s t o f th e h o s t o f h e a v e n fro m th e b r e a th
o f G od’s m o u th , all o n th e fo u rth d ay o f th e w ee k o f c re a tio n . T h e n fol­
low s p u re ly a s tro n o m ic a l in fo rm a tio n . It is n o te d th a t if th e M o lad o f th e
m o o n (th e lu n a r c o n ju n c tio n ) o cc u rs o n th e fo u rth d ay o f th e w e e k it w ill
ste ad ily regress fo r se v en days ov er a p e rio d o f 21 y ea rs till it o ccu rs o n ce
a g a in o n th e fo u rth day. A ta b le o f th is re g ressio n is given. T his 21-year
cycle is th e g rea t cycle o f th e m o o n w h ic h is div id ed in to seven sm all cycles
o f th re e y ea rs each . T he lu n a r m o n th is s e t a t 29% days, 40 m in u te s
a n d 73 p arts. T he m o o n p asses th ro u g h e a c h o f th e tw elv e zo d iac signs
in a lu n a r m o n th , re m a in in g in e a c h sign fo r 2 days a n d 8 h o u rs, so th a t in
7 days it w ill p ass th ro u g h th re e signs. T h u s all th e signs w ill b e tra v e rse d
in 28 days. T he re m a in in g 1% days o f th e lu n a r m o n th a re ru le d b y th e
sign w h ic h ru le d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e m o n th . A ta b le o f th e h o u rs a t
w h ic h th e M o lad b eg in s is given, sta rtin g w ith th e o n s e t o f ev e n in g o n
th e fo u rth d ay o f th e w eek, th e ‘h o u r o f S a tu rn ’. It is c laim ed th a t o v er a
p e rio d o f se v en y ea rs th e M o lad o f th e N ew Y ear w ill o cc u r successively
in th e h o u rs o f th e M oon, M ercury, V enus, th e Sun, M ars, a n d Ju p iter,
re tu rn in g to S a tu rn in th e e ig h th y ear. T his p a tte r n w ill r e p e a t its e lf th re e
tim e s w ith in a lu n a r g re a t cycle o f 21 years. T he m o v e m e n t o f th e m o o n
rela tiv e to th e c o n s te lla tio n s a n d th e su n is co v e red a t so m e le n g th . T he
d isc re p a n c y b e tw e e n th e lu n a r y e a r a n d so la r y ea rs is n o te d . T he lu n a r
y e a r is se t a t 35 4 % days a n d 876 p arts, w h ic h is said to fall s h o rt o f
th e solar y e a r b y 10 days, 21 h o u rs a n d 2 0 4 p a rts. This le a d s n a tu ra lly to th e
q u e s tio n o f in te rc a la tio n , a n d h o w th e m o v e m e n ts o f th e m o o n a n d
th e su n c a n b e re c o n c ile d — a to p ic to w h ic h PRE re tu rn s in th e n e x t c h a p ­
ter. It is n o te d th a t 3 g re a t so la r cycles (28 y ea rs ea ch ) are e q u iv a le n t to
4 g re a t lu n a r cycles (21 y ea rs each), a n d th is p e rio d (= 84 y ears) is said
to b e o n e h o u r o f th e ‘d ay o f th e H oly O ne, b le sse d b e h e ’. T he im p lic a tio n
is th a t a ‘d iv in e d ay ’ is 1000 o f o u r years, w h ic h w o u ld m a k e a ‘d iv in e h o u r ’
83% years, h e re r o u n d e d u p to 84. T he c h a p te r closes w ith a d isc u ssio n o f
th e m o o n ’s light: a n e x p la n a tio n is o ffered o f eclip ses a n d o f th e w ax in g
a n d w a n in g o f th e m o o n b e tw e e n M o lad a n d M olad.
PRE 8 d ev e lo p s th e to p ic o f in te rc a la tio n w h ic h w as b ro a c h e d b riefly
in th e p rev io u s c h a p te r. It o p e n s w ith a lo n g c h a in o f tra d itio n giving th e
n a m e s o f th o se b y w h o m th e ‘se c re t o f in te rc a la tio n ’ (so d h a - cibbur) w as
p a s se d on, b e g in n in g w ith H oly O ne h im s e lf a t th e tim e o f c re a tio n . T he
H oly O ne tr a n s m itte d th e c a lc u la tio n to A d am w h o p a s se d it d o w n to his
d e s c e n d a n ts. T he p assag e e n d s b y s ta tin g th e p rin c ip le th a t in te rc a la tio n
c a n on ly b e d o n e in th e L and o f Israel: ‘E ven w h e n th e rig h te o u s a n d th e
w ise a re o u tsid e th e L and (o f Israel), a n d th e k e e p e rs o f sh e ep a n d h e rd s
a re in th e L and, th e y do n o t in te rc a la te th e y ea r e x c e p t th ro u g h th e k e e p ­
ers o f sh e e p a n d h e rd s w ith in th e Land. E ven w h e n p ro p h e ts are o u tsid e
th e L and th e y do n o t in te rc a la te th e y ea r e x c e p t th ro u g h th e ig n o ra n t w h o
a re in th e L and.’ T his le ad s to a d isc u ssio n o f th e b asis o n w h ic h in te rc a la ­
tio n is to b e m a d e , a n d tw o m e th o d s a re p ro p o se d . T he first is o b se rv a tio n
o f n a tu r e — ‘trees, grass, th e te q u fo t’.3 If all th re e o f th e s e a re late, th e n th e
y e a r sh o u ld b e in te rc a la te d , b u t o n e w aits till 2 0 th T ev et b efo re d o in g so.
T he se c o n d is ca lc u la tio n : ov er a 1 9 -y e a r p e rio d o n e in te rc a la te s se v en
tim es, in th e 3rd, 6 th , 8th , 11th, 14th, 17th, a n d 19th y ea rs o f th e cycle. T he
c h a p te r e n d s w ith a d isc u ssio n o f th e legal p ro c e d u re fo r in te rc a la tin g
th e year.

2. The Sources o f PRE 6 - 8

W h a t w ere th e so u rces o f PRE’s scien tific kn o w led g e? T he m a ss o f o b se r­

v a tio n s a n d ca lc u la tio n s in PRE 6 -8 re g a rd in g th e m o v e m e n ts o f th e sun,
m o o n a n d sta rs th ro u g h th e h ea v en s, c a n n o t, fo r sure, b e d e riv e d fro m
S crip tu re, a n d th e te x t d o es n o t w a ste tim e try in g to claim th a t th e y can.
B ut equally, th e a u th o r is u n lik e ly to h av e c o n c o c te d th e m him self, so
w h e re d id h e g e t th e m fro m ? W h a t are h is sources? T h ere is a lo n g -sta n d in g
v ie w th a t h e w as in flu e n c e d b y S eco n d T em p le tex ts. T his p e rc e p tio n
h a s b e e n fo ste re d b y G erald F rie d la n d e r’s w id ely u se d E nglish v e rsio n o f
PRE, first p u b lis h e d in 1916. F rie d la n d e r fre q u e n tly d raw s a tte n tio n in his

3 The tequfot are the two equinoxes and the two solstices. See PRE 8, 83/1; cf. PRE 8,
73/9-14.
fo o tn o te s to p ara llels b e tw e e n PRE a n d S eco n d T em p le Je w ish lite r a tu r e .4
H e n o w h e re arg u e s a d e ta ile d case, a n d th e alleg ed p arallels, w h e n e x a m ­
in e d in d etail, o fte n tu r n o u t to b e less co n v in cin g th a n h is cro ss-referen c in g
m ig h t im ply. N ev erth eless, a g lan ce a t h is n o te s c re a te s th e im p re ssio n
th a t s o m e h o w th e a u th o r o f PRE d id h av e k n o w led g e o f S eco n d T em p le
tr a d itio n s — in m a n y cases tra d itio n s w h ic h a p p e a r n o w h e re in o u r e x ta n t
R ab b in ic lite ra tu re . F rie d la n d e r h im s e lf cites p ara llels fro m th e S eco n d
T em p le E n o ch ic te x ts specifically to PRE’s a s tro n o m ic a l d ata. C o m m e n t­
in g o n th e a p p e a ra n c e o f E n o ch as o n e o f th e p a tria rc h s to h av e rec eiv ed
th e s o d h a - cib b u r (‘se c re t o f in te rc a la tio n ’: PRE 8, 7 3 /4 ), h e o bserves: ‘T he
m e n tio n o f E n o ch in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e C a le n d a r is significant, su g g est­
in g a n a c q u a in ta n c e w ith th e C a le n d a r sy stem s a s so c ia te d w ith E n o ch
in th e p se u d e p ig ra p h ic lite ra tu re ’.5 M ore c o n c re te ly h e p o sits a n E n o ch ic
p a ra lle l to PRE’s v ie w o f th e re la tio n sh ip o f th e su n to th e zo diac, a n d th e
re la tio n sh ip o f b o th to e a rth ly tim e, in th e A stro n o m ic a l B ook o f 1 E n o ch
(c h a p te rs 7 2 -8 2 ), w h ic h im p lies th a t th e su n p asses th ro u g h e a c h o f th e
zo d iac al signs in tu rn , o n e p e r m o n th . 1 E n o ch is n o t e n tire ly ex p licit
a b o u t th is ,6 b u t 2 E n o ch (w h ich F rie d la n d e r also cites) is clear: ‘A n d th e
s u n goes in a c c o rd a n c e w ith e a c h an im al. A n d th e tw elv e a n im a ls are
th e su c ce ssio n o f th e m o n th s ’ (2 E n o ch 30:6).7 PRE 6 p ro b a b ly ec h o es
th is view , im p ly in g th a t th e su n resid e s in e a c h sign in tu r n for o n e c o m ­
p le te lu n a tio n , b u t it th e n m u d d ie s th e w a te rs b y g o in g o n to sta te th a t
th e zo d iac al signs ru le in su c ce ssio n fo r tw o a n d a h a lf days e a c h w ith in
e a c h m o n th (PRE 6 , 4 5 /2 2 - 4 7 /2 ).8

4 On PRE and the Second Temple pseudepigrapha see further Annette Yoshiko Reed,
‘ “Who can Recount the Mighty Acts of the Lord?”: Cosmology and Authority in Pirqei
deRabbi Eliezer 1-3’, Hebrew Union College Annual 80 (2009), pp. 115-141.
5 Friedlander, Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer, p. 52 fn. 7.
6 But see 1 Enoch 72:3-4. Friedlander, Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer, p. 33, fn 1 refers vaguely
to ‘Eth. Enoch lxxiii-lxxiv’, but this makes little sense. The parallel he needs is in chapter
72, and specifically in verses 3-4.
7 Translated by F.I. Andersen, in J.H. Charlesworth (ed.), The Old Testament Pseude­
pigrapha, vol. 1 (Darton, Longman and Todd: London, 1983), p. 150. The text belongs to
the so-called Long Recension of 2 Enoch.
8 mpw iw pi □T’ ffwbw nonn w in m o’i nonn w in m o’ nK ^ m w o mbran bo
□’O’ nwonb mbra ’jw nanoi □’O’ ’jw nonn w in m o 1 nK n iw o brai bTO boi nanoi
(‘All the constellations serve for the days of a solar month, and the days of a solar month
are thirty days and ten and a half hours. And each constellation serves the days of the solar
month for two and a half days, two constellations for five days.’) The service for two and
a half days has to be with respect to the moon, which passes through all twelve zodiacal
signs within a solar month. See PRE 7, 61/10-11, though there the values are more precise
(here they may have been rounded up): ‘Each constellation serves the days of the lunar
month for 2 days and 8 hours; three constellations serve for 7 days’. So the sun passes
 A n o th e r o f F rie d la n d e r’s su g g e sted p ara llels is th e c o n c e p t o f th e 366
c e le stia l a p e rtu re s (g ate s/w in d o w s). PRE 6 , 51/1-4 read s: m K o w ib w ai
n iT o n r a n b ip w b w □’jio w n K o m i i ’i n b ip n o n n m b p o n w w □’w w i
m a o w ib w ai n o n n ru w m o ’ a i p o n n a n i i i ’ w bw i □’jio w n a o i
n iT o a DJDJT K2V n o n n n u ib n n w w i □’w w i (‘A n d in 3 6 6 d eg re es th e
su n rises a n d sets, 183 in th e east, a n d 183 in th e w est, c o rre s p o n d in g to
th e solar year, a n d th ro u g h 366 w in d o w s th e su n goes o u t a n d goes in ’). T he
c o n c e p t o f ‘a p e rtu re s ’ (g ate s/w in d o w s) is re m in is c e n t o f 1 E n o ch 7 2 :2 -3 ,
‘T he lu m in ary , th e su n h as its risin g in th e e a s te rn g ates o f h e a v en , a n d its
se ttin g in th e w e s te rn g ates o f h e a v e n ’. F rie d la n d e r’s n o te h e re suggests
th a t PRE co n c e iv e d o f a 366 -d ay so la r year, a g a in st th e 3 6 4 -d ay so la r y ea r
fo u n d in 1 E n o ch ,9 a n d th is p o in ts to a clo ser p a ra lle l in 2 E n o ch 13:2
(L onger R ecension), w h ic h h e tra n sla te s, ‘A n d I saw th e six g re a t g ates
o p en , e a c h g ate h a v in g sixty-one sta d ia ’. S ixty-one m u ltip lie d b y six gives
366 gates. F rie d la n d e r p ro p o se s th a t PRE m a y h av e b o rro w e d fro m 2 E n o ch
to sid e ste p th e difficulties in 1 E noch: ‘Eth. E n o ch a d o p ts th e stra n g e cal­
c u la tio n th a t th e so la r y e a r h a s 3 6 4 d a y s . . . D oes o u r b o o k [PRE] a tte m p t
a n e w so lu tio n ? or, as I v e n tu re to suggest, d id o u r a u th o r b o rro w fro m
Slavonic E noch? T his se em s th e m o s t p ro b a b le v ie w ’. H ow ever, th e a rg u ­
m e n t is n o t convincing. It relies o n th e n u m b e r 3 6 6 b e in g th e c o rre c t
re a d in g o f PRE, b u t th e v a r ia n t 365 is a tte s te d ,10 an d , actu ally , 2 E n o ch
13:2 re a d s ‘sixty-one sta d ia a n d a q u a r te r ’. F rie d la n d e r h as q u ie tly ig n o re d
th e q u a rte r. S ynoptic c o m p a riso n o f all th e alleg ed o v erlap s b e tw e e n
1 E n o ch a n d PRE fails to d isclose p ara llels o f su c h su b s ta n c e as to m a k e
it likely th a t 1 E n o ch a c te d as a d ire c t so u rce fo r PRE.
M o reo v er th e c o n c e p t o f th e h e a v e n ly a p e rtu re s is n o t co n fin e d to th e
E n o ch ic lite ra tu re . It h a s a n a lo g ie s in R ab b in ic so u rce s as w ell. Y eru sh alm i
R osh H a sh a n a h 2, 5 8 a refers to 365 ‘w in d o w s’ c re a te d b y G od, 182 in
th e east, 182 in th e w e st a n d o n e in th e m id d le o f th e firm a m e n t. Exo­
d u s R a b b a h 15.22 also ca lc u lates 365 windows.11 T he p o ssib ility th a t th e

through one sign in a solar month; the moon, however, passes through all twelve signs in
one lunar month. But the text could have expressed itself more clearly.
9 Friedlander, Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer, pp. 37-38, fn. 5.
10 For the evidence see Friedlander, Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer, p. 37, fns 4-5.
11 Yerushalmi Rosh Hashanah 2, 58a: I l i a w npn K ia nuibn worn □’wwi niKo wbw
nnKi a ip o a □’nwi □’jiowi nKoi niToa □’nwi □’jiowi nKo □bipn |n a wonw’w Kin
p’p l bw IpaoKa (‘The Holy One, blessed be He, created three hundred and sixty-five
windows of which the world makes use, 182 in the east and 182 in the west, and one in
the middle of the firmament’). The text in Exodus Rabbah 15.22 is slightly different and
dispenses with the window in the middle of the firmament: nuibn worn '’wwi niKo wbw
tno a ip o a □’jwi □’jiowi nKoi niToa nwbwi '’jiowi nKo p’p ia Kin Yna w npn K ia
A stro n o m ic a l Book o f E n o ch in tro d u c e d th e c o n c e p t o f h e a v e n ly a p e r­
tu re s in to Je w ish th o u g h t c a n n o t, o f course, b e ru le d o u t, a n d is, in d e ed ,
in trin sic a lly likely, b u t th is id e a h a d p ro b a b ly b e c o m e so w id e s p re a d b y
th e tim e o f PRE th a t it c a n n o t, o n its ow n, b e u s e d to forge a d ire c t literary
lin k b e tw e e n it a n d th e E n o ch ic lite ra tu re . T h e p a ra lle lism b e tw e e n PRE’s
a s tro n o m ic a l m a teria l, o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d E n o ch ic a n d R ab b in ic lite ra ­
tu re , o n th e o th e r, is v e ry lim ite d , b u t th e su g g estio n th a t PRE reflec ts th e
la tte r h as e v e n less to c o m m e n d it th a n th e su g g estio n th a t it reflects
th e fo rm er. In fact, o n e o f th e im p o r ta n t th in g s w e c a n say a b o u t th is
m a te ria l in PRE is p rec isely th a t it h a s few, if any, sig n ific an t p arallels
a n y w h e re in a n te c e d e n t R ab b in ic lite ra tu re o f th e T alm u d ic era. W e w ill
r e tu r n to th is p o in t p rese n tly , b u t suffice to n o te h e re th a t PRE 8, 83/7,
gives u s th e e a rlie st ex a m p le o f a Je w ish c a le n d a r w ith a 19-year cycle— a n
id e a ‘to ta lly a b s e n t in early ra b b in ic so u rc e s’.12 T h e in n o v a to ry c h a ra c te r
o f PRE in c o m p a riso n to th e p re c e d in g R ab b in ic tra d itio n , a t le a st as w e
n o w h av e it, is e v id e n t th r o u g h o u t PRE. It clearly w a n ts to alig n its e lf w ith
R ab b in ic tra d itio n , a n d reg u la rly ‘q u o te s ’ w ell-k n o w n R ab b in ic a u th o ritie s
o f a n e a rlie r g en e ra tio n . In d ee d , a t le a s t in th o se m a n u sc rip ts w h ic h b eg in
w ith th e sto ry o f R abbi E liezer’s d isc o u rse in th e B et M id rash o f Y o h an a n
b e n Z akkai, th e w h o le tre a tise is a p p a re n tly assig n ed to o n e o f th e m o st
fam o u s o f th e T an n a im . B ut th e te a c h in g s a n d s ta te m e n ts a ttr ib u te d to
R abbi E liezer in PRE, like th o se o f th e o th e r n a m e d R abbis, c a n se ld o m
b e fo u n d in ea rlie r tex ts, a n d are, p resu m a b ly , p se u d e p ig ra p h ic . A b e tte r
case c a n b e m a d e fo r lin k in g PRE’s scien tific tra d itio n w ith th a t in th e
E n o ch ic c o rp u s th a n th a t in th e R abbinic. T his is h a rd ly su rp risin g , given
th a t scien tific sta te m e n ts , save po ssib ly in fields su c h as m e d ic in e w h ic h
c a n h av e a b e a rin g o n H alakhah,13 a re ra re in R ab b in ic lite ra tu re . Y et as

njabb K ia fnoi wowb K ia (‘God created 365 windows in the firmament, 183 in the east
and 182 in the west. Some he created for the sun and some he created for the moon’). The
passage in the Yerushalmi is a rare case where classic Rabbinic literature shows a fleet­
ing interest in the study of nature, but it hardly compares to PRE. The parallel in Exodus
Rabbah is more typical. This, having noted that Moses left many things out of his account
of creation, supplements the information not by turning to nature but to the Book of
Psalms!
12 Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community: A History o f the Jewish Calendar Second Cen­
tury BCE— Tenth Century CE (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2001), p. 196.
13 Julius Preuss collects together the scattered medical references in Rabbinic literature
in his classic study Biblisch-talmudische Medizin: Beitrage zur Geschichte der Heilkunde und
der Kultur uberhaupt, (3 vols; S. Karger: Berlin, 1923). In the vast majority of cases the
medical knowledge is introduced in the service of halakhic discussion.
w e h av e se e n th e p ara llels w ith E n o ch ic scien c e a re n o t, in su b stan ce ,
strong.

3. PRE 6 - 8 a n d B ere’sh it R a b b a h ’s A c c o u n t o f Creation

T he re la tio n sh ip o f PRE to a n te c e d e n t R ab b in ic lite ra tu re c a n b e e x p lo re d

m o re c o n c re te ly b y c o m p a rin g a n d c o n tra stin g its tr e a tm e n t o f G en esis 1
w ith th a t c o n ta in e d in B ere’s h it R a b b ah (BerR). BerR is u n d o u b te d ly th e
o ld e r te x t, a n d th e c h a n c e s a re h ig h th a t th e a u th o r o f PRE 6 -8 k n e w it
in so m e sh a p e o r form . As w e sh all see, it is h a rd to re s is t th e c o n c lu ­
sio n a t c e rta in p o in ts th a t a n in te rte x tu a l re la tio n sh ip o f so m e k in d exists
b e tw e e n PRE a n d BerR, b u t d ire c t lite ra ry d e p e n d e n c e o f o n e o n th e o th e r
is n o t easy to prove, n o r is it n e c e ssa ry for th e p r e s e n t a rg u m e n t. W h a t
w e a re in te re s te d in is a h e u ristic c o m p a riso n o f h o w e a c h w o rk tr e a ts th e
sam e u n d e rly in g b ib lic a l text.
W h e n w e c o m p a re PRE w ith BerR th e first th in g th a t strik es u s is th e
a b s e n c e in th e la tte r o f scien tific s ta te m e n ts in v o lv in g d ire c t o b se rv a tio n
o f n a tu re . G enesis its e lf offers a n u m b e r o f s ta te m e n ts a b o u t th e n a tu ra l
w orld, b u t BerR is n o t in te re s te d in g oing to n a tu re to ch e ck th e s e o u t
a n d s u p p le m e n t th e m e a g re d a ta o ffered in th e Bible. In ste a d it fo cu ses
n a rro w ly o n e x p o u n d in g th e b ib lic a l w ords, a n d d raw in g fro m th e m
m o ra l o r th e o lo g ic a l lessons. It is m e talin g u istic, i.e. m a k in g sta te m e n ts
a b o u t o th e r sta te m e n ts , r a th e r th a n o b ject-lin g u istic, i.e. m a k in g s ta te ­
m e n ts a b o u t o b je cts in th e re a l w o rld b e y o n d th e tex t. O f co u rse BerR, as
a c o m m e n ta ry , b y its v ery n a tu re h a s to b e m e talin g u istic, b u t if th e te x t
c o m m e n te d u p o n refers to th e w o rld b e y o n d th e te x t, it c a n b e se e n as
in v itin g th e c o m m e n ta to r to go to th a t w o rld a n d to d ra w ev id en c e fro m
it to illu m in a te th e te x t. So so m e c o m m e n ta to rs o n G en esis 1 h av e u se d it
as th e b asis fo r co n v ey in g m a sses o f in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e n a tu ra l w orld.
A n d th e T able o f th e N a tio n s in G enesis 10 h as b e e n u se d to p ro p o u n d a
g eo g ra p h y o f th e world.14 B ut it is p rec isely th is m o v e to th e w o rld b e y o n d
th e te x t th a t BerR show s n o in c lin a tio n to m ak e.

14 Some texts in the Christian Hexaemeron tradition illustrate how Genesis 1 can
become a peg on which to hang accounts of the physical world: see J. Zahlten, Creatio
Mundi: Darstellungen der sechs Schopfungstage und naturwissenschaftliches Weltbild im
Mittelalter (Stuttgarter Beitrage zur Geschichte und Politik 13; Klett-Cotta: Stuttgart, 1979).
The Book of Jubilees 8-9 shows how Genesis 10 can serve as the basis of a world geogra­
phy and ethnography. See Philip Alexander, ‘Notes on the “Imago Mundi” of the Book of
 T his a p p ro a c h is illu stra te d b y its tr e a tm e n t o f G en esis 1:16, w h e re G od
is said to h av e c re a te d tw o ‘g re a t lig h ts’, clearly th e su n a n d th e m o o n
as o p p o se d to th e stars. F or th e a u th o r o f BerR th e o b v io u s im p lic a tio n
is th a t th e se lu m in a rie s w e re o riginally c re a te d e q u a l in b rillian ce , b u t
th is is c o n tra d ic te d b y th e te x t im m e d ia te ly re fe rrin g to th e o n e as th e
‘g re a te r’, th e o th e r as th e ‘le sser’ light. So th e y w e re c re a te d e q u a l b u t
o n e w as la te r d im in ish e d . W hy? BerR’s e x p la n a tio n is a m o ra l one. It w as
b e c a u s e th e m o o n stray e d in to th e s u n ’s territory.15 T he d o m a in o f th e
m o o n w as th e n ig h t, b u t so m e tim e s sh e c a n b e o b se rv e d in th e sky d u r­
in g th e day, th e d o m a in o f th e sun. Im p lic it h e re are tw o o b se rv a tio n s
o f n a tu re : ( 1 ) th a t th e su n a n d m o o n are n o t e q u a l in lu m in e sc e n c e ; a n d
( 2 ) th a t th e m o o n c a n reg u la rly b e se e n sh in in g fain tly in th e sky d u rin g
th e day; b u t n o th in g ‘sc ien tific’ is m a d e o f th e s e o b se rv a tio n s. R a th e r th e y
a re u se d to su ggest a m o ra l lesson, th a t w e sh o u ld sta y in th a t sta tio n to
w h ic h G od h a s assig n ed us, a n d n o t stra y fro m it, o th e rw ise w e w ill b e
p u n ish e d , a n d th is is w h a t w e sh o u ld th in k a b o u t w h e n w e see th e m o o n
sh in in g in th e day, n o t w h e re th e m o o n g ets its lig h t from , o r h o w b ig it is,
o r h o w far aw a y fro m th e e a rth , o r w h a t its cycles are, o r w h y w e n e v e r see
th e su n in th e sky a t n ig h t. T he b o o k o f n a tu re is a b o o k o f m o rals. BerR’s
m o ralizin g in te rp re ta tio n o f th e te x t c o n tin u e s w ith a fu rth e r p o in t. R abbi
N a h m a n observes: ‘As lo n g as th e lig h t o f th e g re a te r lu m in a ry fu n ctio n s,
th e lig h t o f th e sm a lle r o n e is n o t n o tic e a b le , b u t w h e n th e lig h t o f th e
g re a te r o n e sets, th e lig h t o f th e sm a lle r o n e b e c o m e s n o tic e a b le ’. T his is
th e n d e v e lo p e d b y ta k in g th e su n to sta n d for R om e, a n d th e m o o n for
Israel. As lo n g as R om e is in th e a s c e n d a n t, Isra el’s lig h t c a n n o t b e seen,
b u t R o m e’s p o w e r w ill o n e d ay set, a n d th e n Isra el w ill sh in e fo rth in all
h e r glory (BerR 1.3). T he U rze it a n tic ip a te s th e E n d zeit a n d looks fo rw ard
to th e r e d e m p tio n o f Israel. T h a t is th e le sso n w h ic h Israel sh o u ld d raw
fro m th e b o o k o f n a tu re , w h e n it c o n te m p la te s th e lu m in a rie s to g e th e r
in th e sky.

Jubilees”, in: G. Vermes and J. Neusner (eds), Essays in Honour of Yigael Yadin (Journal of
Jewish Studies: Oxford 1982), pp. 194-214.
15 The expression of the idea is very compressed: BerR 6.3, ‘i □wa Dnj’fl 'i □mjn 'i
'■m b iu n iiKon nK KnonK miai in n Kin KnonK □’b m iniK Kiip Kinw inK o po’D
l i ’an □inna Djajw ’1 ’ bp KbK ,KnonK [|10pn iiKon nKl], (‘Rabbi Tanhum and Rabbi
Pinhas said in Rabbi Simon’s name: After calling them [both] “great”, God turns round and
denigrates [one of them by saying], “the great light...and the small light” [Genesis 1:16]!
The reason is because it [the moon] penetrated into its neighbour’s territory’). I quote
here the text given in J. Theodor and Ch. Albeck (eds), Bereschit Rabba: mit kritischen
Apparat und Kommentar (Akademie Verlag und M. Poppelauer: Berlin, 1912-1936), and so
throughout this article when BerR is quoted, but the references are according to the more
familiar numbering system of the Vilna edition.
 T h ere is m e rit in th e su g g e stio n th a t th is d e fle c tio n o f th e re a d e r’s gaze
fro m n a tu re to th e te x t o f T orah, c h a ra c te ristic o f BerR’s tr e a tm e n t o f G en ­
esis 1 as a w hole, is d e lib e ra te , a n d m o tiv a te d b y th e o lo g ic al concerns.16 It
is p rec isely in te n d e d to ex c lu d e co sm o lo g ical sp e c u la tio n , a n d to k ee p th e
exegesis w ith in th e fra m e w o rk o f th e b a n o n p u b lic ly e x p o u n d in g M a 'a seh
B ere’sh it laid d o w n in M is h n a h H agigah 2.1: x b l n w b w a n i’i p a | ’w i n | ’K
I’a o i □ a n n ’n p □ x x b x i ’n ’a n a a i o a x b i □ ’jw a n ’w x i a n w p o a
i n p i o (‘O ne m u s t n o t e x p o u n d th e F o rb id d e n D egrees in th e p re s e n c e o f
th re e , n o r th e W o rk o f C re a tio n in th e p re se n c e o f tw o, n o r th e C h a rio t in
th e p re se n c e o f one, u n le ss h e is a sage w h o a lre a d y u n d e rs ta n d s fro m his
o w n k n o w led g e’). BerR is a lm o st c e rta in ly a p r o d u c t o f th e S chool o f T ib e­
rias, a n d its co m p ile rs w o u ld h av e k n o w n th is M ish n ah . BerR 1.10 co u ld b e
re a d as rea ffirm in g a n d e x te n d in g it: K i a j n o b i o x ’lb ' i □ w a n il’ ’a i
m w i 7 b |’K 7 3 n a b o m n a i m i x b a o m n D nT 'a n o x b x 'a a □ b ip n
n n x b n o □’j a b n o n b p o b n o n o o b n o i o i b (‘R ab b i J o n a h said in th e
n a m e o f R abbi Levi: W h y w as th e w o rld c re a te d w ith a beit? B ecause ju s t
as a beit is clo sed o n all sides a n d o p e n befo re, so y o u h av e n o a u th o rity
to say w h a t is b elow , w h a t is above, w h a t is b e fo re a n d w h a t is h e re a fte r’).17
B ut h o w co u ld th e y p ro v id e a c o m m e n ta ry o n G en esis 1 w ith o u t falling
foul o f th e b a n ? T he a n s w e r is th a t th e y o ffered a m o ra liz in g exegesis,
w h ic h w as p rec isely in te n d e d to p r e -e m p t co sm o lo g ical sp e cu la tio n .
It is a g a in st th e b a c k g ro u n d o f th is a p p a r e n t av o id a n c e o f d ire c t a p p e a l
to th e stu d y o f n a tu re th a t w e sh o u ld re a d th e fam o u s o p e n in g p e ric o p e
o f BerR:

nDiao | iok ju t s |iok D’piwpw n’nxi jion ibax n’nxi nna K’pwiK 'i
kw’ iw xa io x n x i no 7’n j u t s pox nnai pox 'xi n’K pjaio pox
pjaio pox pbin ’bp □’jioxn io x n x i no 7’n nDiao pox pji’n nx joixn

16 See Philip Alexander, ‘Pre-emptive Exegesis: Genesis Rabba’s Reading of the Story of
Creation’, Journal of Jewish Studies 43 (1992), pp. 230-45. Annette Yoshiko Reed attempts
to take the analysis further in ‘From “Pre-Emptive Exegesis” to “Pre-Emptive Speculation”?
Ma’aseh Bereshit in Genesis Rabbah and Pirqei deRabbi Eliezer’, in: D. Arbel and A. Orlov
(eds), With Letters of Light— Otiyot Shel Or: Studies in early Jewish Apocalypticism and
Mysticism in Honour of Rachel Elior (De Gruyter: Berlin, 2011), pp. 115-32; and ‘“Who can
Recount the Mighty Acts of the Lord?”: Cosmology and Authority in Pirqei deRabbi Eliezer
1-3’, Hebrew Union College Annual 80 (2009), pp. 115-141.
17 Clearly cosmogony is banned here (‘what is before’), and astronomy and the contents
of the heavens (‘what is above’), which pretty much exhausts the substance of Ma’aseh
Bere’shit. But it also, apparently, bans speculation about the underworld, represented in
early Jewish tradition by the so-called ‘Tours of Hell’ literature, and about the end of his­
tory (‘what will be hereafter’), well represented by Apocalyptic. All that seems to be left
for study is history proper, and presumably specifically the Heilsgeschichte—the history of
God’s dealings with Israel.
 ’ao’nn ion n x i no 7’n nnai |iox nDin nx join ’n’i ion n x i no 7’n
[n "i ] xniinj ’j’a xan’i x n a i N’iijDabxo xao nxn jj’o jin oi jion njo
jnua Kin 71m wnpn bw injoix ’ba ’n’’n ’jn n io ix niinn join jion
n pio xbx ioap n pio nnix njia u ’ni j’oba njia □ ! iw a 7bo □bipaw
7N’n p i’b ib w’ niDpj’ai n ixiu a’i xbx inpio nnix njia u ’n joixni join
□bipn Niiai niinn u’ao Kin 71m wnpn n’n 73 □’wawai □’i i n nwip Kin
’"’ ion n x i no 7’n niin xbx n’w x i j’ni □’nbx x ia n’w xia 'n niinni
'iji ia ii n’w x i ’jjp
Rabbi Osa‘ya opened: Then I was by Him as an ’amon; and I was daily all
delight (Proverbs 8:30). ’A m on m eans tutor; ’amon m eans covered; ’amon
m eans hidden; and some say ’amon m eans great. ’A m on m eans tutor, as you
say, As the nurse (’omen) carries the sucking child (Numbers 11:12). ’A m on
m eans covered, as you say, They that were covered (ha-’em unim ) in scar­
let (Lam entations 4:5). ’A m on m eans hidden, as you say, A n d he was hid­
ing (’omen) Hadassah (Esther 2:7). ’A m on m eans great, as you say, Are yo u
better than No-Amon? (Nahum 3:8), w hich we translate, Are yo u better than
Alexandria the Great, that is situated among the rivers? [Another interpre­
tation:] ’amon m eans a architect (’uman). The Torah declares: ‘I was the
working tool (keli ’umanuto) of the Holy One, blessed be He.’ In the custom
of the world, w hen a king of flesh and blood builds a palace, he does not
build it from his own knowledge b u t from the knowledge of an architect.
The architect does n o t build it from his own knowledge, b u t he has plans
and diagrams so th a t he m ight know how to make the rooms and the w icket
gates. Thus God looked into the Torah and created the world. The Torah
says, In the beginning God created (Genesis 1:1), and there is no beginning
other than Torah, as you say, The Lord made me as the beginning of His way
(Proverbs 8:22).

H ere W isd o m in P ro v erb s 8 is e q u a te d w ith th e T o ra h o f M oses. T he T o rah

p re c e d e d c re a tio n a n d w as c o n s u lte d b y G o d w h e n h e ca m e to c re a te th e
w orld, in th e w ay th a t a k in g w o u ld d ra w u p a n d c o n s u lt p la n s b e fo re h e
b e g in s to b u ild a city. T o ra h is th e b lu e p rin t o f c re a tio n : ‘G od lo o k e d in to
th e T o ra h a n d c re a te d th e w o rld ’. In th e b ro a d e r c o n te x t o f th e a rg u m e n t
in BerR o n e p o ssib le in fe re n c e w e m ig h t d ra w fro m th is is th a t a ll w e n e e d
to do if w e w a n t to k n o w a b o u t n a tu re is, in im ita tio n o f G od, to ‘look
in to T o ra h ’. T h ere is little to b e g a in e d fro m d ire c t s tu d y o f th e b o o k o f
n a tu re itself.
W h e n w e tu r n to PRE w e fin d th e sam e e le m e n ts in p la ce as in BerR,
b u t n o w th e y se e m to b e given a su b tly d iffe re n t spin. T he a c c o u n t o f th e
fo u rth d ay o f c re a tio n in PRE 6 , 4 3/11-45/5, o p e n s w ith a m o ra liz in g re a d ­
in g o f th e g re a t lu m in aries:

□ non |’iwi nra bra nr xbi nra bra nr xb □’bran n iiixo ’jw ian ’p’aia
nr □n’j’a niinn Djaj niiixon ’jw nx □’nbx wp’i ionjw jiinoi lixnai
□n’j’a □ibw n’n xbi 7oo bra ’jn nTb ioin nn 7oo bra ’jn nTb ioin
 bran iix o n nx ionjw in x n nx j’upni in xn nx bran n"npn nwp no
nb’bn nbwoob jupn n xon nxi □i’n nbwoob
On the fourth day he connected together the two great luminaries, of w hich
one was n o t greater than the other. They were equal as regards their height
[above the earth], their form, and their light, as it is said, A n d God made the
two great lights (Genesis 1:16). Rivalry ensued betw een them. One said to the
other, I am bigger than you. The other answered, I am bigger than you. And
there was no peace betw een them . W hat did the Holy One, blessed be He,
do? He m ade the one larger and the other smaller, as it is said, The greater
light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night.

T he PRE v e rsio n is fu ller th a n th a t in BerR, an d , in d e e d , re a d s like a n

e x p a n sio n o f it. It is d raw in g fro m th e p rec ise w o rd in g o f S crip tu re a
r a th e r sim ila r p o in t. 18 T he a u th o r o f PRE w as as h a p p y as th e a u th o r o f
BerR to re a d th e b o o k o f n a tu re in a m o ra liz in g w ay, th o u g h th e m o ra l
h e draw s, in te restin g ly , is d iffe re n t ,!9 b u t clearly h e d id n o t see su c h m o r­
alizin g as ex clu d in g a co sm o lo g ical read in g , b e c a u s e h e th e n goes o n to
m a k e all so rts o f s ta te m e n ts a b o u t th e m o v e m e n ts o f th e sun, m o o n a n d
sta rs in th e h e a v e n s th a t c a n on ly b e d e riv e d u ltim a te ly fro m th e stu d y
o f n a tu re . 2°

18 But note how in rewriting the tradition PRE seems to make a careless slip: it was
surely not that God increased the sun and diminished the moon. Rather he left the sun
as its was, and diminished the moon! Perhaps b’Ttn should be translated ‘left the one
great’.
19 In BerR the moral lesson has to do with the transgressing of boundaries, with
encroaching on domains where we have no right to be. In PRE, however, it seems to be
about rivalry and hierarchy. The only way God was able to make peace between the sun
and the moon was to impose on them a hierarchy: equality leads to rivalry. Elsewhere
PRE significantly denies that the moon trespasses on the domain of the sun: ‘Just as the
moon’s light does not rule over the sun’s light by day, nor does the sun’s light rule over
the moon’s light by night, likewise the calculation of the moon does not rule by day nor
does the calculation of the sun (obtain) by night, and the one does not trespass on the
boundary of the other’ (PRE 7, 69/15-17, trans Friedlander).
2° I am not suggesting here that the author of PRE derived his astronomical data from
his own direct observation of nature. He makes no such claim, and, one assumes, he actu­
ally had written sources, but he presents the data in the form of objective statements
about how nature works, not validated by any authority. Within the Enochic tradition,
and related apocalyptic literature, the observational basis of its statements about nature is
strongly asserted: the sage travels through the cosmos and sees the wonders of nature, or
is shown them by an angel. See, e.g., 1 Enoch 75:6-8, ‘I saw twelve gates in the heavens at
the boundaries of the earth... and I saw many window openings to the right and to the
left...and I saw chariots in the heavens’. This pattern continues down to 3 Enoch (see,
e.g., 3 Enoch 42:2-3). The fact that the observations may be inaccurate should not blind us
to the important nature of this claim. The contrast with the cosmologies in works such as
Seder Rabba diBere’shit is striking. In the latter the modelling of the cosmos is so abstract
A n d w e also fin d in PRE a v e rsio n o f th e tr a d itio n b a s e d o n P ro v erb s 8 o f
T o ra h ’s ro le in th e c re a tio n o f th e w orld. It is a t PRE 3, 1 5 /4 -1 9 /4 , a n d it
d eserv es carefu l parsing:

nd31 |ip pi □jn’ji niin jn ibxi □bipn x ia j xbw ip ixiaj □’i a i npaw
n’w x i ’jjp '’’ ionjw j’’jo niin n’wo bw iowi naiwni wipon n’ai naan
i ’o ........ □bipn x ia j xbw □ip ioib nan—□ip tno I’bpao □ip ia ii
jiai m o w ib na’wn □bipn nx xiab n’win noww niina n"apn pp’TU
j’Dbpo □p j’K □ki 7bio Kin no bp 7bob njno j’N □ki xaa j’N □n □’obipn
fp’nj ’a niin n io x ib aipi □bipn jun pow 7bo bw inaa Kin nT’N 7bob
n’wini nap ’b ionjw □bipn nx xiab n"apn
Seven things were created before the world was created. They are: Torah,
Gehinnom, the G arden of Eden, the Throne of Glory, the Temple, Repen­
tance, and the Name of the Messiah. W hence do we know th a t this applies
to the Torah? Because it is said: The Lord possessed me as the beginning o f his
way, before his works o f old (Proverbs 8:22). ‘Of old’ m eans before the world
was created__ Forthw ith the Holy One, blessed be He, took counsel w ith
the Torah whose nam e is Tushiyyah, w ith reference to the creation of the
world. The Torah said to Him: Sovereign of the Worlds, if there be no host,
and if there be no camp for the king, over w hom does he rule? If there be
no people to praise the king, w here is the honour of the king? The Holy One,
blessed be He, heard this and it pleased Him. The Torah said: The Holy
One, blessed be He, took counsel w ith me concerning the creation of the
world, as it is said: ‘Counsel is mine, and tushiyyah’ (Proverbs 8:14).

T his re a d s less like a n e x p la n a to ry e x p a n sio n o f th e c o rre sp o n d in g tra d i­

tio n in BerR th a n a cre ativ e re w ritin g o f it.21 S trik in g is th e clev er u se o f
P ro v erb s 8:14 to p ro v e th a t T o ra h p la y ed a ro le in c re a tio n — a v erse th a t
d oes n o t fea tu re in BerR. In P roverbs 8:14 W isd o m /T o rah p ro cla im s th a t to
h e r b elo n g s ‘c o u n s e l’ a n d th a t c o u n s e l is in te r p re te d p rec isely as h e r
ad v ice to G od to c re a te th e w orld. G od is d e p ic te d as h e s ita n t, u n a b le
to m a k e u p h is m in d : it is W isd o m w h o sw ays h im to a c t decisively. T he

and stylized that it bears little or no relation to observable nature. See Nicolas Sed, La
mystique cosmologiquejuive (Mouton: Paris, Berlin, New York, 1981).
21 The Midrash on the seven things created before the creation of the world is fairly
widespread in Rabbinic literature, so it does not in itself prove an exclusive relationship
between PRE and BerR at this point. We also find the substance of the idea that Torah was
the instrument of creation in Mishnah Avot 3.14 (nan n io n ’ba □nb jn’jw bK iw j’a’an
□bipn K iaj law rn o n ’ba □nb jn’jw □nb n p iu n i’n’, ‘Beloved are Israel, because to
them was given the precious instrument. Greater love was made known to them, because
to them was given the precious instrument by which the world was created’), as well as
in BerR 1.1. And the tradition of the diminishing of the moon also has parallels elsewhere.
All of this makes it difficult to demonstrate that PRE has a direct intertextual relationship
with BerR. But this still remains the most economical hypothesis.
h ig h lig h tin g o f th e w o rd tu sh iyya h c a tc h e s th e eye, b u t th e p o in t o f th is is
a little obscu re. T he id e a o f c o u n se l is a lre a d y p r e s e n t in th e n o u n 'e tza h ,
so d o es tu sh iyya h a d d a n y th in g m o re ? T ushiyyah is a fav o u rite te rm
in th e W isd o m lite ra tu re b u t its m e a n in g is h a rd to c a tc h in English. In
so m e c o n te x ts it se em s to d e n o te ‘efficien t w isd o m ’, i.e., w isd o m a p p lie d
to b rin g in g s o m e th in g about.22 In o th e r w o rd s h e re it m ig h t a s se rt th a t
W isd o m n o t on ly gave advice, b u t w as ac tiv e in p u ttin g th a t ad v ice in to
effect. It p la y ed a n activ e role in c re a tin g th e w o rld . T h a t w o u ld b e co n so ­
n a n t w ith th e id e a p ic k e d u p m o re explicitly in ’a m o n , ‘c ra fts m a n ’, a p p lie d
la te r in th e c h a p te r to W isd o m (P roverbs 8:30). W e c a n n o t b e su re h o w
th e a u th o r o f PRE u n d e rs to o d tu sh iyy a h (m ig h t h e h av e c o n n e c te d it w ith
’ush , ‘f o u n d a tio n ’?), b u t th a t it d e n o te d for h im a ro le o v er a n d ab o v e th a t
o f co u n sello r, is p lau sib le. W isd o m /T o ra h ’s ro le in c re a tio n is m a rk e d ly
m o re d y n am ic in PRE th a n in BerR. It h a s o fte n b e e n n o tic e d th a t w h e n
BerR spells o u t th e m e a n in g o f its o w n sim ile o f th e king, th e a rc h ite c t
a n d th e p lan s, it effectively ig n o res th e a rc h ite c t, a n d it fla tte n s th e ag en cy
im p lic it in ’a m o n in to in stru m e n ta lity (keli ’u m a n u to , ‘h is w o rk in g to o l’).23
T he p ro b a b le re a s o n fo r th is is th a t it w a n ts to d efin e T o ra h as a w ritten
te x t, so th a t it c a n id e n tify th e p re -e x is te n t T o ra h w ith th e te x t g iven to
M oses o n Sinai, w h ic h Israel n o w h as in h e r h an d s . PRE’s stress o n ag en cy
arg u a b ly lo o se n s th a t link, th o u g h it d o es n o t n e g a te it. T he a u th o r o f PRE
su rely a c c e p te d th a t th e T o ra h o f M oses w as a c o n c re te m a n ife sta tio n
o f th e p re -e x is te n t T orah, b u t h e m ig h t n o t h av e w a n te d to claim , as is
p ro b a b ly im p lic it in BerR, th a t it is id en tica l w ith it.24 T h ere is ro o m for
a n o th e r m a n ife s ta tio n o f th e p re -e x is te n t T o ra h in th e law s o f n a tu re .

22 See the long entry on the word in L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner, The Hebrew and
Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, rev. W. Baumgartner and J.J. Stamm (Study Edition;
Brill: Leiden, Boston, Koln, 2001), vol. 2, pp. 1713-1715.
23 See the text of BerR 1.1 quoted above. The contrast with Philo, On the Creation o f the
World, is instructive. Philo too uses the simile of the king, the architect and the plans, but
when he spells out the simile each element has an equivalent: the king is God, the archi­
tect is the Logos, and the plans are the Ideas which inhere in the Logos. See especially On
the Creation of the World 20, ‘As , then, the city which was fashioned beforehand within
the mind of the architect held no place in the outer world, but had been engraved in the
soul of the artificer as by a seal; even so the universe that consisted of ideas would have
no other location than the Divine Reason (ton theion logon), which was the author of this
ordered frame’ (trans. F.H. Colson and G.H. Whitaker, Philo, vol. 1 [Loeb Classical Library;
Heinemann: London/Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Mass., 1971], p. 17).
24 Nowhere does BerR distinguish the pre-existent cosmic Torah in any way from
the Torah given to Moses on Sinai. On the contrary the identity of the Torah by which the
world was created and the Torah given on Sinai seems to be asserted in BerR 1.10 (ed.
Vilna): ’jab i j n Kiip ^"bKn nn’n m m nwwi □’iw p x n x ' i □wa x j’jn i a iTpbx i" n
 Be th a t as it m ay, PRE’s c o n c e p t o f th e p re -e x is te n t T o ra h w h ic h w as
in v o lv e d in c re a tio n h as to b e re a d in th e lig h t o f its a c tu a l r e a d in g o f G en ­
esis 1, a n d h e re its inclusion o f o b se rv a tio n o f n a tu re in its in te rp re ta tio n ,
like BerR’s exclusion o f o b se rv a tio n o f n a tu re , sp eak s v o lu m e s. It suggests
th a t it reg a rd s th e c o n c e p t o f th e co sm ic T o ra h as le g itim a tin g th e d ire c t
o b se rv a tio n o f n a tu re , r a th e r th a n m a k in g it re d u n d a n t. T h ere c a n b e no
co n flict b e tw e e n th e T o ra h o f n a tu re a n d th e T o ra h o f M oses, a n d so
n o h a r m c a n b e d o n e in b rin g in g th e m to g e th er.

4. The Theological P urpose o f PRE 6 - 8

In th e lig h t o f th is an aly sis o f th e in te rte x tu a lity o f PRE a n d BerR it looks

likely t h a t th e in c lu sio n o f o b se rv a tio n o f n a tu re (alb eit, o b se rv a tio n d o n e
b y others25) in PRE is m a k in g a th e o lo g ic a l p o in t, a n d th a t p o in t re m a in s
v alid in p rin cip le, e v e n if its o b se rv a tio n s p ro v e in a d e q u a te o r in c o rrec t.
In c o n tra d is tin c tio n to BerR, PRE im p licitly d raw s fro m P ro v erb s 8 th e
co n c lu sio n th a t th e re is a T o ra h o f n a tu re , a n d th a t T o ra h is fu n d a m e n ­
ta lly th e sam e as th e T o ra h o f M oses: b o th are m a n ife s ta tio n s o f th e p r e ­
ex istin g cosm ic W isd o m , w h ic h G od c o n s u lte d w h e n h e c re a te d th e w orld.
C osm ology, th e re fo re , c a n n o t b e w ro n g , n o r c a n it b e in co n flict w ith th e
T o ra h o f M oses: d isc o v e rin g fro m o b s e rv a tio n o f th e m a te r ia l w o rld
th e law s o f n a tu re is, as Isaac N e w to n w as to p u t it m u c h la ter, ‘th in k in g
G od’s th o u g h ts a fte r h im ’.
If th is is th e im p lic a tio n o f PRE’s read in g , th e n its p o s itio n is re m in is c e n t
o f th e re la tio n sh ip w h ic h its n e a r c o n te m p o ra ry S a'ad y a p o sits b e tw e e n

’a 7 obip nK ia Kbi ni’niK bw jiw ki ’jn p"w ai I’jab n io x Kin 7 iia w npn bw ind3
t d noana ‘n io n jw n iin n niaTa KbK K iaj Kb iKiboi □bipn Kin 7 iia w npn nb io n
7’nbK 'n ’3Jn 'jw 7 a KbK nbnn nnia ’j’Ki ’j’Da n iin jn’b no ’jk in o b 'ui piK, (‘Rabbi
Eleazar said in the name of Rabbi Aha: For twenty-six generations Alef was complaining
before the throne of the Holy One, blessed be He. She said before him: Lord of the World,
I am the first of the letters, yet you did not create the world through me! The Holy One,
blessed be He, replied, The World and its fullness was created only for the sake of Torah,
as it is written, The Lord through Wisdom founded the earth [Proverbs 3:19]. Tomorrow I
am coming to give the Torah on Sinai, and I am going to begin with you, as it is written,
I am the Lord your God [Exodus 20:2]’). The Torah which was the instrument of creation
began with the letter Beit, as does Genesis 1:1, but Alef cried foul, and complained for
twenty-six generations (the span of time between the creation of the world and the giving
of the Torah on Sinai) that she should have been first. But God consoled her by promising
that when he gave the Torah on Sinai the first word which he would utter to Israel would
begin with an Alef, which is what we find in Exodus 20:2.
25 See fn. 19.
re a s o n a n d rev e latio n . In th e B ook o f Beliefs a n d O pinions, I n tro d u c tio n VI,26
S a'ad y a ta k e s a v ery o p tim istic v ie w o f h u m a n rea so n . H u m a n ity is c a p a ­
b le o f fin d in g o u t for its e lf all n e c e ssa ry tru th s , b e c a u s e o f its G od-given
rea so n . So w h y th e n d id G od give rev e latio n ? It w as to b e s to w o n h u m a n ­
ity th o se n e c e ssa ry tr u th s straig h taw ay , a n d n o t leav e th e m b e re ft o f th e m
w h ile th e y w o rk e d th e m out. In d ee d , so m e o f w e a k e r in te lle c t— w o m e n
a n d c h ild re n — m a y n e v e r h av e b e e n ab le to d isco v er th e m , so G od in
h is good n ess, h a n d e d th e m to th e m ‘o n a p la te ’. Im p lic it h e re is a p o si­
tive d o c trin e o f th e c o n g ru e n c e o f re v e la tio n a n d rea so n . T ru e re a s o n ca n
n e v e r b e in co n flict w ith rev e latio n , n o r d o es re v e la tio n c o n ta in a n y th in g
fu n d a m e n ta l to h u m a n w ellb ein g th a t co u ld n o t, ev en tu ally , h av e b e e n
d isc o v ered b y rea so n . It is n o t easy to c o m p a re a w o rk o f p h ilo s o p h y su c h
as The B ook o f Beliefs a n d O pinions w ith a w o rk o f ag g a d ah su c h a PRE.
T he re a so n in g is m u c h m o re c o n c e a le d in th e la tte r, m u c h m o re sugges­
tive; few er stra ig h tfo rw a rd p ro p o sitio n s a re u s e d to p ro c la im th e m essage.
B ut it m a k e s sen se o f w h a t th e a u th o r o f PRE a c tu a lly d o e s— it m a k e s his
p ra c tic e ratio n a l— if w e a ssu m e h e su b sc rib e d to th e ax io m th a t c o rre c t
o b se rv a tio n o f n a tu re c a n n e v e r b e in im ic a l to, o r c o n tra d ic t th e T o ra h
o f M oses. In d e e d it c a n b e u se d to s u p p le m e n t a n d illu m in a te w h a t th e
T o ra h o f M oses says a b o u t n a tu re , b e c a u s e b o th th e law s o f n a tu re a n d
th e law s o f T o ra h a re alik e ex p re ssio n s o f th e p re -e x is te n t co sm ic T orah.
A rguing th a t th e scien c e in PRE serves th e o lo g ic a l e n d s is n o t to d e n y
th a t it could, co in cid e n ta lly , h av e serv ed o th e r p u rp o se s as w ell. It is
te m p tin g to see specifically th e c a le n d ric a l m a te ria l as h av in g so m e th in g
to do w ith th e d e b a te o ver th e c a le n d a r in th e G ao n ic era. As S ach a S tern
n o te s, th e P a le stin ia n R a b b in ic al a u th o ritie s c la im e d a m o n o p o ly o ver
d e te rm in in g th e c a le n d a r a n d in te rc a la tin g th e y e a r. 27 T h a t m o n o p o ly
is ac tu a lly a s se rte d in PRE 8, 79/1 ( n a i n a n jw n nK i a p b m w i 7 b j’K
f iK b , ‘Y ou h av e n o a u th o rity to in te rc a la te th e y e a r o u tsid e th e L and
o f Isra el’). By th e m id -n in th c e n tu ry how ev er, th e ‘se c re t o f in te rc a la tio n ’
(s o d h a - cibbur) w as k n o w n in B abylonia, a n d a struggle b e g a n b e tw e e n th e
P a le stin ia n a n d B ab y lo n ian a u th o ritie s o ver w h o h a d th e rig h t to fix th e
c a le n d a r— a sk irm ish in a w id e r p o w er-p lay b e tw e e n th e se tw o c e n tre s o f
R ab b in ic au th o rity . T he struggle c u lm in a te d in th e c o n tro v e rsy b e tw e e n
S a'ad y a G ao n a n d B en M e’ir in th e early te n th ce n tu ry , w h ic h d e a lt a b lo w

26 See Samuel Rosenblatt, Saadia Gaon: The Book of Beliefs and Opinions, translated
from the Arabic and Hebrew (Yale University Press: New Haven, 1948), pp. 26-33.
27 Stern, Calendar and Community, pp. 188-189.
to P a le stin ia n claims28 to exclusive ju ris d ic tio n in th is m atter.29 T he a s tro ­
n o m ic a l se c tio n s o f PRE m ig h t b e a w ay o f a s se rtin g P a le stin ia n calen d ri-
cal ex p e rtise b u t if th is w as th e aim , th e a u th o r o f PRE h a s failed to offer
a m o d e l w h ic h co u ld serve as th e b asis for a w o rk in g c a le n d a r.3°
T he q u e s tio n w h e re PRE g o t its cosm olo g y fro m re m a in s o p en . W e
m a y n o t h av e id e n tifie d its so u rce s as yet, b u t th a t it h a d so u rce s seem s
b e y o n d re a so n a b le d o u b t. W e fin d sim ila r id e as in th e B araita d iS h em u el,
w h ic h p ro b a b ly b elo n g s to th e sa m e period.31 T h e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n
th e B araita a n d PRE h a s n e v e r b e e n p ro p e rly clarified. M ig h t th e B araita
b e th e so u rce o f PRE, o r m ig h t it b e e x tra c te d fro m PRE, in th e w ay th a t
M id ra sh Yonah32 m a y h av e b e e n th e so u rce o f PRE 10 or, altern ativ ely ,
b e e n d eriv e d fro m it? T he an a lo g y w ith M id rash Y o n ah is suggestive, b u t
p o ssib ly m islead in g , b ec au se, w h e re a s th e v e rb a l o v erlap s b e tw e e n th e
M id ra sh a n d PRE are n u m e ro u s a n d close, th e re are s u b s ta n tia l differ­
en c e s b e tw e e n th e B araita a n d PRE. It is p ro b a b le th a t th e B a raita a n d
PRE e m a n a te fro m th e sa m e circles in P ale stin e in th e G ao n ic era. W e are
u n lik e ly to b e ab le to th ro w m u c h m o re lig h t o n th o se circles fro m Je w ish
sources, b u t it is p o ssib le th a t so m e illu m in a tio n m ig h t co m e fro m Islam ic
astro lo g ica l d o c trin e o f th e e ig h th -n in th c e n tu ries.

5. The True P arallelism w ith th e E nochic C alendar

If th is analy sis is c o rre c t th e n it b rin g s u s back , so m e w h a t p arad o x ically ,

to th e E n o ch ic ca le n d ar, b e c a u s e th a t too, ca m e to serve th e o lo g ic al ends.

28 It is widely accepted that PRE was composed in Palestine, and with good reason. It
is attributed to a Palestinian sage (Rabbi Eliezer), and almost all the authorities quoted
are Palestinian. Though some parallels to it are to be found in Bavli, the majority come
from the Palestinian sources, particularly the Yerushalmi and BerR. There is little evidence
to suggest that this genre of aggadic midrash was of much interest to Babylonian schol­
ars. It might be argued that the Babylonian Talmud quotes many Palestinian Rabbis and
Palestinian traditions, but the case of the Bavli is different because there the Palestinian
elements are counterbalanced by Babylonian names and traditions, whereas in PRE the
identifiable Babylonian component is very small, and perfectly compatible with Babylo­
nian influence on Palestine in the Gaonic period. For discussion see the secondary litera­
ture cited in footnote 1 above.
29 Stern, Calendar and Community, pp. 265-268.
3° For the possibility that PRE is offering a theoretical or ideal calendar see below.
31 Stern, Calendar and Community, pp. 203-204. For a text of the Baraita see J.D. Eisen-
stein, Ozar Midrashim (J.D. Eisenstein: New York, 1915), pp. 542-47 (conveniently repro­
duced in the Bar Ilan Responsa database, Version 20). Eisenstein has a short but valuable
introductory note on the textual sources for this work.
32 For Midrash Yonah see Eisenstein, Ozar Midrashim, pp. 217-223.
Like th e c a le n d a r in PRE, th e c a le n d a r in 1 E n o ch d o es n o t offer a calen-
d rical m o d e l th a t w ill w o rk in p rac tice . Its 364 -d ay so la r y e a r is o n e a n d
q u a rte r days b e h in d th e a c tu a l m o v e m e n t o f th e su n , a n d th a t w ill rap id ly
b e c o m e a p p a r e n t to a n y observ er: w ith in th irty y ears it w ill b e a ro u n d
th irty -se v e n a n d h a lf days o u t o f p h ase. W h a t is in te re s tin g to n o te in th e
case o f 1 E n o ch is th a t th e te x t seem s to b e aw a re th a t th e m o d e l d o es
n o t w ork. T ow ards th e e n d o f th e A stro n o m ic a l Book (1 E n o ch 8 0 :2 -8 ) it
is claim ed th a t th e o rd e r o f n a tu re a n d m o tio n s o f th e lu m in a rie s , w h ic h
d e te rm in e th e ca le n d a r, h av e b e e n d is tu rb e d b y h u m a n sin, o r b y so m e
s o rt o f re b e llio n a m o n g th e h e a v e n ly bodies.33 T h e c o n n e c tio n o f th is p a s ­
sage w ith w h a t p re c e d e s is aw k w ard , a n d it m a y b e a la te r addition.34 O ne
w ay o f e x p la in in g su c h a n a d d itio n w o u ld b e to su p p o se th a t for a w h ile it
w as a s su m e d th a t th e c a le n d a r a c tu a lly d id w ork, b u t w h e n it b e c a m e
obvious, as it w o u ld h av e r a th e r quickly, th a t it w as o u t o f k ilte r w ith
reality, it w as n o t a b a n d o n e d , b u t th e a p p e a ra n c e s w e re sav ed b y th e d o c ­
trin e th a t th e cele stia l m o tio n s h a d b e e n c h a n g e d b y sin. T h e re su lt w as
th a t th e E n o ch ic c a le n d a r b e c a m e id e alised : it w as th e c a le n d a r w h ic h
G od h a d in te n d e d a t c re atio n , a n d w h ic h w o u ld , p e rh a p s, b e re sto re d a t
th e e n d o f tim e. T he a lte rn a tiv e w o u ld b e to su p p o se th a t th e E n o ch ic
c a le n d a r w as alw ays m e a n t to offer a sim p le th e o re tic a l m o d e l, b e c a u s e
th e tru e v a lu e s a re com p lex , a n d lack eleg a n ce a n d sy m m etry . O n e co u ld
con ceiv e o f d id a c tic o r a n a ly tic a l o r ev en h o m ile tic p u rp o se s for su c h a
sim p lificatio n . B ut th is is n o t h o w th e a u th o r o f 1 E n o ch 8 0 :2 -8 u n d e r ­
sto o d th e m a tte r. H e w as clearly aw a re o f th e fa c t th a t th e c a le n d a r d id

33 ‘And in the days of sinners years shall become shorter, and their seeds shall be late in
their lands and fields, and all the work on earth shall be changed, and shall not appear
in its time__ And the moon shall alter her order and not appear at her (proper) time.
And in those days she shall appear in the heavens, and shine more brightly than accords
with the order of (her) light. And many leaders of the stars shall stray from the command­
ments (of God), and shall change their orbits and tasks, and not appear at the seasons com­
manded them’ (1 Enoch 80:2, 4-6). I have quoted here the translation of Matthew Black,
which seems to me to offer the most plausible rendering of this passage (Matthew
Black, The Book of Enoch or 1 Enoch [Brill: Leiden, 1985], p. 69). Is the reference to the
moon shining ‘more brightly than accords with the order of (her) light’ an allusion to
the moon appearing in the sky during the day, and from this it was inferred that she had
disobeyed God’s creation ordinance to rule the night? We saw earlier how BerR appeared
to have moralized this phenomenon. See above.
34 So Black, The Book o f Enoch, p. 252, following R.H. Charles, The Book of Enoch (Clar­
endon Press: Oxford, 1912) p. 170. More recent work on the Astronomical Book of Enoch by
Henryk Drawnel, The Aramaic Astronomical Bookfrom Qumran (Oxford University Press:
New York, 2011), and Jonathan Ben-Dov, Head of all Years: Astronomy and Calendars at
Qumran in their Ancient Context (Brill: Leiden, 2008), does not add to the source-critical
analysis of 1 Enoch 80:2-8.
n o t c o rre sp o n d to reality, b u t h is u n d e rs ta n d in g is n o t th a t it is a sim p li­
fied th e o re tic a l m o d e l, b u t th a t th e d isc re p a n c y b e tw e e n th e m o d e l a n d
re a lity is d u e to th e fa c t th a t th e sy m m e tric a l o rd e r o f n a tu re e sta b lish e d
b y G od a t c re a tio n h a s b e e n d istu rb e d .
U nlike th e A stro n o m ic a l Book o f 1 E n o ch (a t le a st as w e n o w h av e it),
th e re is n o ev id en c e in PRE th a t th e a u th o r p e rc e iv e d th a t th e c a le n d a r
h e w as p re s e n tin g d id n o t c o rre sp o n d to reality . T h o u g h th is p o ssib ility
c a n n o t b e ru le d out, it is a n h y p o th e sis to su p p o se th a t h e is o fferin g a n
id e a lise d c a le n d a r o r a sim p lified th e o re tic a l m o d e l. O n th e face o f it, h e
offers h is v a lu e s as true values: c e rta in ly so m e o f th e m a p p e a r to h av e
b e e n r o u n d e d u p , fra c tio n s b e in g re p la c e d b y th e n e x t w h o le n u m b e r
(e.g., 366 u s e d to r e p r e s e n t 365% : see above, p. 43), b u t o th e rs se e m to
b e n eedlessly co m p lic ate d if w h a t h e is offering is a sim plified th e o re tic a l
m o d e l (e.g., th e lu n a r y e a r = 354% days a n d 876 p a rts: see ab o v e, p. 44).
B ut w h e th e r h e th in k s h is c a le n d a r is tru e o r th e o re tic a l o r id e a l d o es
n o t affect th e a rg u m e n t h ere . H e is clearly a tte m p tin g to m o d e l n a tu re ,
a n d th e so rt o f m o d e l h e p re s e n ts m a k e s little sen se if it is n o t u ltim a te ly
b a s e d o n observation.35 T h eo retical m o d els a re w ell-k n o w n to th e sciences,
a n d serve a n u m b e r o f p u rp o ses, b u t w h a te v e r h is p u rp o se h e re th e a u th o r
o f PRE is, surely, offering a re a d in g o f the book o f n a tu re . T he E n o ch ic
c a le n d a r c a n b e se e n as d o in g th e sam e. E noch, it h a s b e e n arg u ed , fu n c ­
tio n e d as th e p a tro n -s a in t o f Je w ish scien ce in th e S eco n d T em p le p erio d :
his n am e, re c o rd e d obscurely in th e a c c o u n t o f th e a n te d ilu v ia n p e rio d in
T o ra h (G enesis 5:18-24), w as u se d to d o m e stic a te w ith in Je w ish tra d i­
tio n id eas derived fro m B abylonian science, w h ic h h a d d eriv ed th e m , u lti­
m a tely , fro m o b se rv a tio n o f nature.36 H e p re sid e s o v er th e b e g in n in g s

35 Stern argues that PRE is presenting a simplified model, and that the complex values
are probably later scribal changes. See his Calendar and Community, p. 186: ‘I have shown
elsewhere [“Fictitious Calendars”, 1996] that the Baraita de-Shemuel itself would not have
believed its values to be functional or accurate, nor would it have been able to apply this
calendar in practice; the calendar of the Baraita de-Shemuel was only theoretical, and in
some respects, fictitious__ The same argument is likely to apply to Pirqei de-R. Eliezer,
which belongs to the same period and which assumes, in chs. 6-7, the same simplified
values for the year and the lunation as in the Baraita de-Shemuel.’ Further, Stern, ‘Ficti­
tious Calendars: Early Rabbinic Notions of Time, Astronomy, and Reality’,Jewish Quarterly
Review, New Series 87 (1996), pp. 103-129.
36 See Philip Alexander, ‘Enoch and the Beginnings of Jewish Interest in Natural Sci­
ence’, in C. Hempel, A. Lange, H. Lichtenberger (eds), The Wisdom Texts from Qumran
and the Development of Sapiental Thought (Peeters: Leuven, 2002), pp. 223-243. Further
Annette Yoshiko Reed, ‘Was there science in ancient Judaism? Historical and cross-cultural
reflections on “religion” and “science”’, Studies in Religion 36/3-4 (2007), pp. 461-495.
o f Je w ish in te re s t in th e n a tu ra l w o rld for its o w n sake, th e b eg in n in g s o f
Je w ish science.
T he th e o re tic a l u n d e rp in n in g s o f th a t d e v e lo p m e n t h a d b e e n laid
d o w n a little e a rlie r in W isd o m circles in th e P ersian p erio d . T h e key te x t
w as P ro v erb s 8. T h a t re m a rk a b le c h a p te r h a d a s s e rte d tw o v ery im p o r­
ta n t th in g s, w h ic h w ere cru c ial for th e e m e rg e n c e o f scien ce. T h e first
w as th a t a u n iv e rsa l W isd o m u n d e rlie s th e w h o le o f th e n a tu ra l w o rld : th e
w ay th e w o rld w o rk s is g o v ern e d b y ra tio n a l law s. T he se c o n d w as th a t
h u m a n ity p a rtic ip a te s in th a t ratio n ality , a n d th e re fo re h u m a n ity h as th e
c a p a c ity to disco v er a n d u n d e r s ta n d th e law s o f n a tu re . P ro v erb s 8 m a k es
it clea r th a t th e W isd o m w h ic h m a d e th e w o rld d w ells o n e a rth a n d ca n
b e g ra sp e d b y h u m a n k in d . L ater Je w ish tra d itio n , sta rtin g w ith B en Sira
(24:1-33),37 te n d e d to id e n tify th a t d w ellin g v ery closely w ith th e giving
o f th e T o ra h o n Sinai, b u t th e re w as su rely m o re to it th a n this. W h a t th e
a u th o r o f P ro v erb s is h in tin g a t is th a t th e re is a p ro fo u n d c o n g ru e n c e
b e tw e e n th e logos in m a n a n d th e logos in th e co sm o s, o n th e b asis o f
w h ic h h u m a n ity c a n u n d e r s ta n d h o w th e w o rld w orks. T his is th e o p p o ­
site o f th e v ie w a s se rte d in Jo b 28, w h e re G od te lls Jo b in n o u n c e r ta in
te rm s th a t h e c a n n e v e r u n d e r s ta n d c re a tio n : th e re is a n u n b rid g e a b le g u lf
b e tw e e n th e ra tio n a lity o f G od a n d h is w orks, a n d th e ra tio n a lity o f man.38
PRE sh o u ld b e lo c a te d o n th e sam e arc th a t ru n s fro m P ro v erb s 8 th ro u g h
1 E noch. It asserts, in its o w n w ay, po ssib ly for th e first tim e w ith in R a b ­
binic tradition,39 th e v a lid ity o f science. PRE w as a su rp risin g ly p o p u la r
w o rk in th e M iddle A ges a n d early m o d e rn tim es, a n d it is in te re s tin g to

37 The Praise of Wisdom on Ben Sira 24 is clearly modelled on Proverbs 8. The identifi­
cation of cosmic Wisdom with the Torah is suggested by ver. 8, ‘Then the Fashioner of all
gave me his command, and he who had made me chose the spot for my tent, saying, “In
Jacob make your dwelling, in Israel your inheritance”,’ and put beyond doubt by ver. 23,
‘All this is true of the book of the Most High’s covenant, the Law which Moses enjoined on
us as a heritage for the community of Jacob’. See the comments of Alexander A. Di Lella,
in P. Skehan and A.A. Di Lella, The Wisdom of Ben Sira (The Anchor Bible; Doubleday: New
York, 1987), p. 336 (‘V 23a is... one of Ben Sira’s most emphatic statements that Wisdom
is the Torah of Israel’).
38 Job 28:20-21, ‘Where then does wisdom come from? And where is the place of
understanding? It is hidden from the eyes of all living, and concealed from the birds
of the air’ (NRSV).
39 Occasional ‘scientific’ statements in Rabbinic literature (e.g. the reference to heav­
enly windows in y.RH 2, 58a mentioned above) do not compare with the mass of ‘scien­
tific’ observations in PRE 6- 8, nor have they the same effect.
n o te th a t n o t a few o f th o se w h o to o k it u p a n d c o m m e n te d o n it, u s e d it
as a p r e te x t for d isc u ssin g science.4°

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4° See, e.g., the list of editions and commentaries in Borner-Klein, Pirke de-Rabbi Elieser,
pp. xix-xxiv. Further, D. Blumenthal, ‘The Rationalistic Commentary of R. Hoter Ben
Shelomo to Pirqe de Rabbi Eliezer,’ Tarbiz 48 (1978-1979), pp. 99-106 [Hebrew].
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Genesis Rabbah and Pirqei deRabbi Eliezer’, in D. Arbel and A. Orlov (eds), With Letters
o f Light— Otiyot Shel Or: Studies in early Jewish Apocalypticism and Mysticism in Honour
o f Rachel Elior (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011), pp. 115-32.
----- , ‘Was there science in ancient Judaism? Historical and cross-cultural reflections on
“religion” and “science”,’ Studies in Religion 36.3-4 (2007), 461-495.
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Stein, Dina, Meimra, Magia, Mitos: Pirqe de-Rabbi Eliezer le-'or ha-sifrut ha-'amamit
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Magnes Press, 2004).
Stern, Sacha, ‘Fictitious Calendars: Early Rabbinic Notions of Time, Astronomy, and Real­
ity’,Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series 87 (1996), 103-129.
----- , Calendar and Community: A History of theJewish Calendar Second Century BCE-Tenth
Century CE (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
Theodor, J. and Ch. Albeck (eds), Bereschit Rabba mit kritischem Apparat und Kommentar
(Berlin: Akademie Verlag und M. Poppelauer, 1912-1936).
Treitl, Eliezer, Pirke de-Rabbi Eliezer: Text, Redaction and a Sample Synopsis (Dissertation
Series: Jerusalem: The Hebrew University Department of Halakhah/The Institute for
Research of Eretz Israel, 2012) [Hebrew].
Zahlten, Johannes, Creatio Mundi: Darstellungen der sechs Schopfungstage und naturwis-
senschaftliches Weltbild im Mittelalter, Stuttgarter Beitrage zur Geschichte und Politik 13
(Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1979).
 CHAPTER FOUR

SOME EARLY ISLAMIC AND CHRISTIAN SOURCES

REGARDING THE JEW ISH CALENDAR (9TH-11TH CENTURIES)

F rangois de Blois

T he p u rp o se o f th is p a p e r is to su m m a riz e m y w o rk o n early M u slim a n d

E a ste rn C h ristian so u rces c o n c e rn in g th e Je w ish c a le n d a r a n d to p re s e n t
a p re lim in a ry sy nopsis o f m y fo rth c o m in g m o n o g ra p h o n th e su b ject. This
w o rk h a s fo cu ssed o n six a u th o rs w ritin g ov er a p e rio d o f a b o u t 200 years,
fro m th e first q u a rte r o f th e n in th c e n tu ry to th e first th ird o f th e elev e n th .
T hese te x ts a re im p o r ta n t n o t o nly as d o c u m e n ts for th e p e rc e p tio n o f
Je w ish in s titu tio n s a m o n g n o n -Jew ish c o m m u n itie s — in its e lf a n e n o r­
m o u sly in te re s tin g su b je c t— , b u t th e y are also p rim a ry so u rce s for th e
h isto ry o f th e Je w ish ca le n d ar. All o f th e s e w o rk s are in fac t o n e to tw o
c e n tu rie s o ld e r th a n th e e a rlie s t c o m p re h e n siv e su rv iv in g b o o k o n th e
c a le n d a r b y a Je w ish a u th o r, n a m e ly th e b o o k b y b a r H iyya fro m th e first
q u a rte r o f th e tw e lfth ce n tu ry , a n d th e o ld e st o f th e m , n a m e ly th e tre a tise
b y al-X uw arizm i, is a g o o d c e n tu ry ea rlie r ev e n th a n th e G en iz a d o c u ­
m e n ts re la tin g to th e c a le n d a r co n tro v e rsie s o f th e m id - te n th cen tu ry ; it
is th u s th e o ld e st surviving d e ta ile d te s tim o n y for th e Je w ish c a le n d a r in
its R ab b in ic form . In th e lim ite d sp ace av ailab le I w ill b e d isc u ssin g a few
fe a tu re s o f th e se texts.

1. M u h a m m a d b. M u sa a l-X u w a rizm l (ca. 823)

T he fam o u s m a th e m a tic ia n and a s tro n o m e r M u h a m m a d b. M u sa

al-X uw arizm i (also tra n s lite ra te d as al-K hw arizm i o r al-K h w arazm i) flo u r­
ish e d d u rin g th e first h a lf o f th e n in th ce n tu ry . W e do n o t k n o w th e ex a ct
d a te s o f h is b ir th a n d h is d e a th , b u t w e k n o w th a t h e w as activ e in B agh­
d a d a t th e c o u rt o f th e c a lip h al-M a’m u n , w h o re ig n e d fro m 813 to 833. His
tre a tise o n th e Je w ish c a le n d a r is n o t explicitly d a te d , b u t it d o es c o n ta in a
re fe re n c e d a te ( th a t is: a d a te c ite d b y th e a u th o r b y w ay o f illu stra tio n ) o f
1135 o f th e S eleucid e ra ( 8 2 3 -4 CE) a n d it is th u s likely th a t h e c o m p o se d
h is w o rk in th a t year, o r sh o rtly afte rw a rd s. T he fac t th a t th is d a te falls in
a tim e w h e n w e k n o w fro m o th e r so u rces th a t al-X u w arizm i w as ac tiv e is
in a n y case a stro n g a rg u m e n t fo r th e a u th e n tic ity o f th e w ork.
 T he tre a tise h a s b e e n p re se rv e d in a single copy, a v ery re m a rk a b le
collective m a n u s c rip t o f m a th e m a tic a l a n d a s tro n o m ic a l tre a tise s p u t
to g e th e r in M osul in th e Islam ic y e a r 632 (1234 CE) a n d n o w p re se rv e d in
th e K h u d a B akhsh L ibrary in P a tn a (B an k ip o re), In d ia .1 A lth o u g h th e m a n ­
u s c rip t is o f re sp e c ta b le age, its q u a lity is d e c id e d ly m e d io cre. T h e tr e a ­
tise b y al-X uw arizm i w as p u b lish e d , to g e th e r w ith se v eral o th e rs o f th e
w o rk s c o n ta in e d in th e sa m e m a n u sc rip t, in H y d e ra b a d /D e c c a n in 1947,
w h e re b y th e n a m e o f th e e d ito r is n o t in d ic a te d in th e p u b lic a tio n .2
T he e d itio n p e rp e tu a te s all th e sc rib a l erro rs fo u n d in th e o rig in a l m a n u ­
sc rip t a n d su p p le m e n ts th e m w ith a lo t o f n e w m istak es. It is esp ecially
u n f o rtu n a te th a t th e e d ito r o bviously d id n o t k n o w h o w to re a d th e o ld e r
fo rm o f th e ‘In d ia n ’ n u m e ra ls n o r d id h e p ro p e rly u n d e r s ta n d th e a lp h a ­
b e tic n o ta tio n w ith a b ja d n u m e ra ls w ith th e re su lt th a t m a n y o f th e n u m ­
b e rs c ite d in th e p u b lis h e d te x t a re ac tu a lly w ro n g , a r a th e r fata l d efe ct
in w h a t is essen tially a m a th e m a tic a l te x t. I h av e n o w re e d ite d th e A rab ic
te x t o n th e b asis o f a m ic ro film o f th e m a n u s c rip t a n d trie d to c o rre c t
th e r a th e r co p io u s sc rib a l erro rs a n d h av e also p re p a re d a n a n n o ta te d
E nglish tra n sla tio n , to m y k n o w led g e th e first tra n s la tio n o f th e w o rk in a
E u ro p e a n language, th o u g h th e re is a p u b lis h e d s u m m a ry o f th e w o rk b y
K e n n e d y fro m 1964,3 a n d a tra n s la tio n in to M o d e rn H eb rew b y Langer-
m a n n fro m 1987.4
T he s u p e rsc rip tio n in th e u n iq u e m a n u s c rip t is ‘T re atise o n th e c o m ­
p u ta tio n o f th e ch ro n o lo g y o f th e Jew s a n d th e ir festiv als’ (M a q a la tu n f l
stixra ji ta rlxi l-yahudi w a ’a ’y a d ih im ), a lth o u g h th e re is a c tu a lly n o th in g
a b o u t festivals in th e p r e s e n t tex t. T he ex p licit calls it m e re ly ‘T h e c h ro ­
n o lo g y o f th e Je w s’ (T arlxu l-yahud). I h av e d iv id e d it in to n in e sectio n s:

1 Catalogue of the Arabic and Persian manuscripts in the Oriental Public Library at Banki­
pore, Patna 1908 sqq., vol. XXII no. 2468/XXIV. See also: J.P. Hogendijk, ‘Rearranging the
Arabic mathematical and astronomical manuscript Bankipore 2468’,Journalfor the history
o f Arabic science, 6 (1982), 133-159, where the two treatises on the Jewish calendar are
mentioned on p. 142, as nos. A 21 and A 22.
2 The treatise was printed with separate pagination and a separate title-page bearing
the date 1366/1947, and is bound together with others in at least two different collec­
tions, one containing nine treatises, with the overall title ar-Rasa’ilu l-mulhaqatu bi rasa'ili
l-Blrunl, the other with eleven treatises, with a title in rather questionable Arabic, namely
ar-Rasa’ilu l-mutafarriqatu f l l-hay'ati li l-mataqddimlna wa mu'asirl l-Blrunl, both dated
Hyderabad 1367/1948. The work by al-Xuwarizmi is the first one in both collections.
3 E.S. Kennedy, ‘Al-Khwarizmi on the Jewish Calendar’, Scripta mathematica 27 (1964),
55-59.
4 T. Langermann, ‘When was the Hebrew calendar instituted?’, Assifot 1 (1987), 159-168
[Hebrew].
In th e lo n g §1 th e M u slim a u th o r gives, so to speak, a th e o lo g ic al ju s ti­
fica tio n o f th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, w h ic h h e sees as p a r t o f G o d ’s a u th e n tic
re v e la tio n to th e p r o p h e t M oses a n d as a n e c e ssa ry to o l for th e c o rre c t
o b se rv a tio n o f th e P assover. B ut th is k n o w led g e is p re se rv e d (h e says)
o n ly b y a sm all sch o larly elite, w h ile th e m a ss o f th e Jew s is ig n o ra n t o f
its w orkings. T he a u th o r p ro m ise s a c lea r a n d c o m p re h e n sib le a c c o u n t
o f th e m a tte r.
In §2 h e lists th e Je w ish m o n th s (b e g in n in g w ith N isan), gives th e n u m ­
b e r o f days for e a c h (n o t fo rg e ttin g th a t M a rc h e sh v a n a n d K islev h av e a
d iffe re n t n u m b e r o f days in d iffe re n t ty p e s o f y ears) a n d in d ic a te s th e
p la ce a n d le n g th o f th e first a n d se c o n d A d ar in a n in te rc a la te d year.
In §3 h e d iscu sses th e 19-year cycle a c c o rd in g to w h a t al-B ay ru n i la te r
calls th e g-b-t-b-g system , w ith a 1 3 -m o n th y e a r in th e 3rd, 5 th , 8th , 11th,
14th, 16th a n d 19th y e a r o f th e n in e te e n -y e a r cycle.
In §4 w e a re to ld th a t th e h o u r is d iv id e d in to 1080 p a rts. T he lu n a r
m o n th , fro m o n e m o la d to th e n ex t, is 29 days, 12 h o u rs, 793 p a rts. T he
le n g th o f th e 1 2 -m o n th a n d th e 1 3 -m o n th lu n a r y e a r a n d o f th e 19-year
cycle a re in d ic a te d in th e sa m e u n its.
§5 c o n ta in s a v e rsio n o f w h a t is la te r called th e ‘fo u r g a te s’, w h e re b y
k n o w led g e o f th e w e e k d a y a n d tim e o f th e m o la d le ad s to a d e te rm in a tio n
o f th e w e e k d a y o f th e n e w y e a r a n d th e c h a ra c te r o f th e year.
In §6 th e a u th o r gives th e le n g th o f th e so lar y e a r as 365 days a n d
5 h o u rs a n d in d ic a te s th e n u m b e r o f e la p se d y ea rs fro m th e c re a tio n o f
A d a m u n til th e c o m p le tio n o f 1135 Sel. ( 8 2 3 -4 CE), p re s u m a b ly th e d a te
o f c o m p o sitio n .
In §7 w e h av e ta b le s 5 w ith th e p o sitio n s o f th e sun, m o o n a n d p la n e ts
‘o n th e first d ay o f th e days o f A dam , a n d it w as a F riday1, th e n a t th e tim e
o f th e ‘b u ild in g o f th e te m p le ’, a n d finally a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e S eleucid
era. In th e fo rm e r tw o in sta n c e s th e su n a n d m o o n are in c o n ju n c tio n
a t 176°.
T he la st tw o se ctio n s a re th e m o s t difficult ones, w ith §8 e lu c id a tin g
a p ro c e d u re for d e te rm in in g th e m e a n p o sitio n o f th e s u n a n d m o o n o n
a n y given d ate, a n d §9 o ste n sib ly te llin g u s h o w to ca lc u late th e tim e o f
c o n ju n c tio n o f s u n a n d m o o n , in o th e r w ords: th e m o la d o f a n y m o n th .
In §8 th e a u th o r ta k e s th e n u m b e r o f days ela p se d sin ce th e b e g in n in g o f
th e c u rre n t 19-year cycle, m u ltip lie s a n d d ivides it b y a series o f c o n s ta n ts
le a d in g in th e e n d to a n u m b e r o f d eg rees a n d m in u te s, w h ic h w e th e n

5 These are not set out as tables in the manuscript, but are evidently to be read as such.
a d d to th e p o sitio n o f th e su n o r th e m o o n ‘fo r w h ic h I c a lc u la te d th e e ra ’,
p re su m a b ly m e a n in g th e figures giv en in th e ta b le in §7 fo r w h ic h e v e r
e ra w e a re using. T he re s u lt is ‘its m e a n p o sitio n a t th e risin g o f th e su n ’.
T his c a lc u la tio n o p e ra te s w ith tw o im p lic it a ssu m p tio n s : First, th a t
th e lo n g itu d e o f th e c o n ju n c tio n o f s u n a n d m o o n w ill b e th e sa m e a t th e
b e g in n in g o f every 19-year cycle, a n d th u s also a t th e e p o c h o f th e era.
T his a s s u m p tio n is (broadly) co rrec t. A n d seco n d , th a t th e tim e o f th e
c o n ju n c tio n (th e m o la d ) w ill b e th e sa m e a t th e b e g in n in g o f every cycle,
a n d th u s also a t th e e p o c h o f th e era. T his a s s u m p tio n is, h o w ev er, w rong.
B ut th e fac t th a t th e a u th o r is c o u n tin g th e w h o le n u m b e r o f days (n o t
th e su m o f days, h o u rs a n d fra c tio n s o f a n h o u r) fro m th e b e g in n in g
o f th e c u r r e n t cycle suggests th a t h e is really o n ly in te re s te d in d e te rm in ­
in g th e daily p o sitio n o f th e su n a n d m o o n w ith re g a rd to th e tw elv e signs
o f th e zo d iac a t a c o n v e n tio n a l tim e (‘a t th e risin g o f th e s u n ’), a n d n o t
w ith d e te rm in in g th e ir p rec ise p o sitio n in signs, deg rees, m in u te s, etc. a t
an y specific tim e o f th e day.
B ut th is ro u g h c a lc u la tio n se em s to a ssu m e th a t th e a c tu a l c o n ju n c tio n
o f su n a n d m o o n a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e e ra o f A d a m w as ‘a t th e risin g o f
th e s u n ’, m e an in g , p resu m a b ly , n o t tru e sun rise, b u t a t n o tio n a l su n rise,
six e q u in o c tia l h o u rs a fte r m id n ig h t. T his c o n tra sts w ith th e s ta te m e n t
in th e la te r Je w ish sources, a n d also in al-B ay ru n i a n d in Elias, th a t th e
m o la d o f th e c re a tio n is Friday, 14 h o u rs a n d 0 p a rts a fte r n o tio n a l su n set.
In o th e r w ords: al-X uw arizm i p u t th e m o la d o f th e c re a tio n n o t a t 6,14,0
b u t tw o h o u rs e a rlie r a t 6,12,0 (‘su n rise ’). T his m ig h t b e ta k e n as ev id en ce
th a t th e (later) ‘s ta n d a rd ’ m o la d w as n o t y e t g en e rally a c c e p te d in th e first
h a lf o f th e n in th ce n tu ry .
§9 tells u s h o w to ca lc u late th e m o la d o f a n y m o n th . W e ta k e o n ce
a g a in th e days e la p se d sin ce th e b e g in n in g o f th e c u rre n t cycle a n d m u l­
tip ly it b y th e n u m b e r o f c h e le q s in o n e day. T h e n w e d iv id e th e p ro d u c t
b y th e n u m b e r o f ch e le q s in th e lu n a r m o n th . T h e re su ltin g w h o le n u m ­
b e r gives u s th e n u m b e r o f ela p se d lu n a r m o n th s o f th e c u rre n t cycle.
T he re m a in in g ch e le q s c a n th e n b e c o n v e rte d in to th e n u m b e r o f days,
h o u rs a n d ch e le q s ‘w h ic h h av e p a s se d o f y o u r (c u rre n t) m o n th sin ce th e
c o n ju n c tio n ’. T his re c k o n in g w ill o nly w o rk if w e k n o w th e p re c ise tim e
o f th e m o la d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e cycle. P re su m ab ly w e a re e x p e c te d to
ca lc u late th is fro m th e d a ta given e a rlie r a b o u t th e e p o c h o f th e era.
W e are le ft th u s w ith th e s o m e w h a t d isc o n c e rtin g fac t th a t al-X u w arizm i
d o es n o t u n a m b ig u o u sly in d ic a te th e m o la d o f th e era, a n d th a t c o n s e ­
q u e n tly th e ru les th a t h e lays d o w n fo r d e te rm in in g th e N ew Y ear’s day
(th e la te r so-called fo u r gates) se e m to b e u n u sa b le . It h a s b e e n arg u e d
th a t th is m e a n s th a t th e lo n g se c tio n in w h ic h th e s e ru le s a re la id d o w n is
a te x tu a l in te rp o la tio n . B ut I th in k it is p o ssib le th a t al-X u w arizm i d o es a t
le a s t o b liq u e ly in d ic a te th e m o la d o f th e e ra in h is ta b le o f th e p la n e ta ry
p o sitio n s in se c tio n 7 (‘F riday1), su p p le m e n te d b y se c tio n 8 (‘a t th e risin g
o f th e s u n ’). In th is case th e v a rio u s se c tio n s o f th e tre a tis e w o u ld re s t o n
e a c h o th e r a n d n o n e o f th e m w o u ld b e su p e rflu o u s to th e a u th o r ’s o verall
a rg u m e n t.

2. Ib n B a m sa S al-Q a’in l (ca. 850)

T he tre a tise b y A b u l-H asa n ‘Ali b. ‘A b d A llah b. M u h a m m a d b. Bam saS

al-Q a’in i follow s in th e P a tn a m a n u s c rip t im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e o n e
b y al-X uw arizm i a n d it h a s v irtu a lly th e sam e title (‘T re atise o f th e d e ri­
v a tio n o f th e c h ro n o lo g y o f th e Je w s’). It to o w as p u b lis h e d in H y d era­
b a d in 1947.6 T h ere is also a s o m e w h a t id io sy n cratic E nglish tra n s la tio n
a n d c o m m e n ta ry b y A. C o h e n .7 T he e d itio n is n o t q u ite as b a d as th a t o f
al-X uw arizm i’s opus, b u t th e u n iq u e m a n u s c rip t is v ery c o rru p t. W e h av e
a c tu a lly n o b io g ra p h ic a l in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e a u th o r. H e is, h o w ev er,
c ite d in o n e o f th e m a th e m a tic a l trea tise s b y al-B ayruni a n d th is fac t led th e
e d ito r o f th e P a tn a co llea g u e ,8 a n d m o re re c e n tly F u a t S ezgin ,9 to m a in ­
ta in th a t al-Q a’in i w as a n o ld e r c o n te m p o ra ry o f al-B ayruni. B ut al-B ay ru n i
d o es n o t ac tu a lly say a n y th in g w h ic h im p lies th a t th e tw o a u th o rs w ere
c o n te m p o ra rie s. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e tre a tis e u n d e r in v e stig a tio n d o es
m e n tio n tw o refe re n c e d ates: rig h t a t th e b e g in n in g th e a u th o r m e n tio n s
th e y e a r 1163 S eleucid (85 1 -2 CE), a n d to w a rd s th e e n d h e m e n tio n s th e
y e a r 1162 S eleucid, w h ic h h e e q u a te s w ith th e Islam ic y e a r 236; th is e q u a ­
tio n h o ld s tru e b e tw e e n O c to b e r 850 a n d July 851. T his suggests th a t his
tre a tise w as w ritte n on ly a b o u t th ir ty y ea rs a fte r th e o n e b y al-X u w arizm i
a n d a c e n tu ry a n d a h a lf b efo re al-B ayruni.
T he tre a tise falls in to tw o u n e q u a l sectio n s: a lo n g first p a rt, a n d a m u c h
s h o rte r se c o n d p a rt, p re c e d e d b y th e w o rd bab (‘c h a p te r’). T h e title given

6 It is the second treatise in the collection of nine, and the third in the collection of
eleven mentioned above in footnote 2.
7 A. Cohen, ‘The Jewish calendar and its relation to the Christian holidays as described
by a Muslim mathematician-astronomer in 852 AD’, Indian Journal of History of Science
43.3 (2008), 353-379; also in Hebrew in Judea and Samaria Research Studies 16 (2007),
451-470.
8 See fn. 1.
9 F. Sezgin, Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums, 13 vols (vols 1-9, Leiden: Brill, 1967­
1984), vol. 6, p. 242.
in th e m a n u s c rip t le ad s o n e to b eliev e th a t th is is a tre a tis e a b o u t th e
Je w ish ca le n d ar, b u t in fac t its first p a r t is d e v o te d e n tire ly to a ra th e r
g a rb le d a c c o u n t o f C h ristian E aster c o m p u tu s. T he s h o rt se c o n d se c tio n
d o es give a v ery e le m e n ta ry a c c o u n t o f so m e o f th e e le m e n ts o f th e Jew ­
ish ca le n d ar: th e le n g th o f th e th re e ty p e s o f y e a r (co m p lete , in te rm e d i­
ate, d efective), th e c o m m o n a n d in te rc a la te d y ea rs a n d th e p o s tp o n e m e n t
ru le s (dehiyot), b u t h a s n o th in g a b o u t th e m a th e m a tic a l a n d a s tro n o m i­
cal fo u n d a tio n s o f Je w ish ch ro n o lo g y (le n g th o f th e lu n a r y ear, th e e p o c h
o f th e era, th e d e te rm in a tio n o f th e m o la d etc.). T he te x t th a t w e h av e
m a k e s th e im p re ssio n o f b e in g a b a d ly p re se rv e d fra g m e n t o f a larg er
w ork, o r p e rh a p s o f fra g m e n ts o f tw o d iffe re n t w o rk s n o t n ec essarily b y
th e sa m e a u th o r.

3. a n -N a y rlzl (ca. 9 0 0 CE)

T he n e x t te x t th a t I h av e lo o k e d a t is b y th e m a th e m a tic ia n a n d a s tro n o ­
m e r A b u l-‘A b b as al-F adl b. H a tim an-N ayrizi, w h o flo u rish e d a t th e tim e
o f th e c a lip h al-M u‘ta d id (8 9 2 -9 0 2 ) a n d is b e s t k n o w n for h is c o m m e n ­
ta ry o n E uclid’s E lem ents. 1° O n th e la st th re e p ag es o f th e E d in b u rg h m a n ­
u s c rip t o f al-B ayruni’s Chronology11 th e scrib e h a s c o p ie d o u t w h a t calls
its e lf a ta b le o f ‘th e festivals o f th e p e o p le o f th e c o v e n a n t ('a h li S-Sim m ah)
as c a lc u la te d b y th e sage A b u l-‘A bb as ( ...) an -N ay rizi’, fo llo w ed b y som e
re m a rk s o n h o w to u se th e ta b le. It is b a s e d o n a 9 6 -y ear cycle a n d gives
th e d a te a n d w e e k d a y o f th e p rin c ip a l C h ristia n festiv als (C h ristm as,
E piphany, E aster etc.), b u t also o f w h a t is h e re ca lle d ‘th e Je w ish P asso v er’
(fis h u l-yahud). B ut clo ser sc ru tin y rev eals th a t th e d a te s in th is co lu m n
are n o t th o se o f P assover, b u t o f th e C h ristia n lu n a XIV. T he in te r e s t o f
th e ta b le in th e p r e s e n t c o n te x t is th a t it sh o w s th a t e v e n a p ro fe ssio n a l
a s tro n o m e r a t th e e n d o f th e n in th c e n tu ry w as n o t clearly aw a re o f th e
d ifferen ce b e tw e e n th e Je w ish P asso v er a n d th e C h ristian p a s c h a l full
m o o n , p e rh a p s c o n fu se d b y a C h ristia n c o m p u tistic tra d itio n id e n tify in g
th e m w ith o n e a n o th e r.

1° See Sezgin, vol. 5, pp. 283-5; vol. 6, pp. 191-2.

ii See below, fn. 17.
 4. a l-M a scu d l (956 CE)

O u r n e x t a u th o r is th e fam o u s h is to ria n al-M as‘u d i in h is K ita b u t-ta n b lh i

w a l-’israf, w h ic h h e w ro te in 9 5 6 CE,i2 a n d w h ic h c o n ta in s a b r ie f b u t v ery
im p o r ta n t c o n te m p o ra ry a c c o u n t o f th e c a le n d a r c o n tro v e rsy b e tw e e n
th e R a b b an ites a n d A n an ites, m e n tio n in g S aadya b y n am e.

5. a l-B a yru n l (1000 CE)

A t th e e n d o f th e te n th c e n tu ry w e h av e th e m o st im p o r ta n t A rab ic
w o rk o n c a le n d a rs in g e n e ra l a n d th e Je w ish c a le n d a r in p a rtic u la r, th e
Chronology (al-’a&aru l-baqiyah ca n i l-quruni l-xaliyah), b y A b u R ay h an
M u h a m m a d b. A h m a d al-B ayruni (o r al-B iruni),i 3 w h ic h h e w ro te in 1311
S eleucid (1000 CE). T his b o o k is w ell k n o w n th a n k s to th e e d itio n ^ a n d
E nglish tra n s la tio n !5 b y E d u ard S ach a u in th e 1870s. In th e c o n te x t o f th e
c u r r e n t p ro je c t I h av e r e tra n s la te d th e se c tio n s specifically o n th e Je w ish
ca le n d ar, c o n s u ltin g th e tw o o ld e st m a n u sc rip ts , Is ta n b u l U m u m iy e 4667,
w h ic h h a s a re a d e r’s n o te d a te d R a m a d a n 6 0 3 (1207),i6 a n d E d in b u rg h
U niversity L ibrary Ms. 161, d a te d 707/1307-8,i7 n e ith e r o n e o f w h ic h w as
av ailab le to S achau. It c a n in fa c t b e d e m o n s tra te d th a t th e th re e late
m a n u s c rip ts u se d b y S ach a u all derive, d irec tly o r in d irectly , fro m th e
E d in b u rg h copy.
al-B ayruni discusses th e Je w ish c a le n d a r a t se v eral p o in ts in th is b ook,
b u t in m o s t d e ta il in c h a p te rs V a n d VII.
In c h a p te r V, 'O n th e n a tu re o f th e m o n th s w h ic h are u s e d in v ario u s
eras', th e a u th o r discusses th e p rin c ip a l c a le n d a r sy stem s w ith w h ic h h e

12 al-Mas‘udi (Abu l-Hasan ‘Ali b. al-Husayn), Kitabu t-tanblhi wa l-'israf, ed. M.J. de
Goeje, Bibliotheca geographorum arabicorum VII (Leiden: Brill, 1894), p. 219.
13 For the name, see provisionally my paper: ‘The Persian calendar’, Iran XXXIV (1996),
39-54, fn. 2.
14 Chronologie orientalischer Volker von Alberuni, herausg. von Eduard Sachau (Leip­
zig, 1878). There is now a new edition of the Chronology: al-'a&aru l-baqiyah 'ani l-quruni
l-xaliyah, tahqiq u ta‘liq i Parwiz i Azka’i, Tehran 2001, mainly based on Sachau, superfi­
cially collated with three manuscripts, with a Persian translation of the notes in Sachau’s
English translation and additional notes by the editor.
15 The Chronology of Ancient Nations, translated and edited, with notes and index, by
E. Sachau, London 1879.
16 H. Ritter, Istanbuler Mitteilungen I (1933), 74-5.
17 See Ashraf ul-Hukk et al., A descriptive catalogue of Arabic and Persian manuscripts
in Edinburgh University Library (Hertford, 1925), no. 161, for a very defective description
of the Ms.
w as fam iliar a n d gives a list o f th e m o n th s in each , a m o n g th e m th e m o n th s
o f th e Jew s, w ith a d isc u ssio n o f th e sy stem o f in te rc a la tio n , th e th re e
ty p e s o f years, a n d th e n a d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f th e d ifferen ces b e tw e e n th e
R a b b a n ite s a n d A n a n ite s o n th e issue o f w h e th e r th e c a le n d a r sh o u ld b e
b a s e d o n c a lc u la tio n o r o b se rv a tio n .
T he lo n g c h a p te r VII discusses in e x h a u stiv e d e ta il all th e m a th e m a ti­
cal a n d a s tro n o m ic a l p ro b le m s in v o lv ed in th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, w ith v a ri­
ous e x c u rsio n s (a s tro n o m ic a l c a lc u la tio n o f th e so lstices a n d eq u in o x es,
n a m e s o f th e p la n e ts a n d z o d ia c a l signs in v a rio u s lan g u ag es, etc.). A few
p ag es to w a rd s th e e n d o f th e c h a p te r a re m issin g in th e E d in b u rg h Ms.,
a n d c o n s e q u e n tly in S ach a u ’s ed itio n , b u t c a n n o w b e su p p lie d fro m th e
old Ista n b u l m a n u sc rip t.
L ater, in c h a p te r XIV, h e d escrib es in d e ta il th e festivals a n d fasts o f
th e Jew s, follow ed b y a d isc u ssio n o f th e ex c lu sio n ru le s (d eh iyo t) affect­
in g th e Je w ish N ew Y ear as w ell as f u rth e r d isc u ssio n o f th e d isa g re e m e n t
b e tw e e n Je w ish sects o n c a le n d a r m a tte rs.
al-B ayruni d iscu sses th e Je w ish c a le n d a r m o re su c cin c tly in h is a s tro ­
n o m ic a l c o m p e n d iu m a l-Q anunu l-M asU dl, w h ic h h e d e d ic a te d to th e
G h az n av id k in g M a s'u d (ru le d 1031-1041 CE ),18 a n d also in h is in tr o d u c ­
tio n to astro lo g y (K itabu t-ta fh lm f l ’a w a ’ili sin a 'a ti t-ta n jim ) P w h ic h c o n ­
ta in s a re fe re n c e d a te in A.H. 420/1341 S el./398 Y azd. (1029 CE), b u t th e se
b o o k s do n o t a d d su b sta n tia lly to th e in fo rm a tio n o n th e Je w ish c a le n d a r
c o n ta in e d in h is e a rlie r w ork.
O f th e m a n y im p o r ta n t p ie ce s o f in fo rm a tio n c o n ta in e d in h is g re a t
w o rk I w ill single o u t on ly th e fa c t th a t al-B ay ru n i is th e e a rlie s t a u th o r
w h o specifically m e n tio n s th e m o la d o f th e c re a tio n a t 6,14,0, a n d also
th e first a u th o r to give a n a c c o u n t o f th e Je w ish th e o ry o f th e fo u r se a ­
so n s (tqufot) a c c o rd in g to th e sy stem elsew h e re a sc rib e d to S am uel, w h ic h
d ivides th e so la r y e a r o f 365 days in to fo u r e q u a l p a rts o f 91 days a n d
7 h o u rs, b u t also a c c o rd in g to a n o th e rw ise a p p a re n tly u n k n o w n ‘le a rn e d ’
(m uhassil) m e th o d , w h ic h follow s P to lem y in d iv id in g th e y e a r in to fo u r
u n e q u a l seasons. T his m u s t n o t b e c o n fu se d w ith th e sy stem o f R. A da, o f
w h ic h al-B ayruni a p p e a rs to k n o w n o th in g .

18 Published in three volumes, Hyderabad/Deccan, 1954-6.

19 The Book of instruction in the elements of the art o f astrology, reproduction of a manu­
script, with a translation by R. Ramsay Wright (London, 1934).
 6 . Elias o f Nisibis (1018 CE)

Finally, I w o u ld like to d iscuss in a little m o re d e ta il a te x t w h ic h h as

n o t p rev io u sly b e e n e x a m in e d in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e Je w ish ca le n d ar,
n a m e ly a b ig b o o k o n h isto ric a l a n d te c h n ic a l ch ro n o lo g y b y a fam o u s
N e sto ria n c h r is tia n a u th o r, Elias b ish o p o f N isibis. It w as co m p ile d , as
th e a u th o r tells u s rep e ate d ly , in th e y e a r 1330 S eleu cid (1019 cE ), th a t is:
a b o u t 20 y ea rs a fte r al-B ayruni’s Chronology, b u t a d e c a d e o r tw o b efo re
th e sa m e a u th o r ’s Q anun. It is p re se rv e d in a u n iq u e m a n u s c rip t in th e
B ritish L ibrary (A dd. 7197) a n d is b ilin g u al, Syriac in o n e c o lu m n a n d A ra­
b ic in a n o th e r .20 T he Syriac v e rsio n o f th e w h o le b o o k w as e d ite d a n d
tra n s la te d in to L atin b y B rooks a n d C h a b o t u n d e r th e title O pus chrono-
logicum a n d p u b lis h e d in 1909 a n d 1910.21 t h e A rab ic v e rsio n h as n ev e r
b e e n p u b lis h e d in its e n tire ty ; its se c tio n s o n th e Je w ish c a le n d a r w ill b e
p rin te d fo r th e first tim e in m y m o n o g ra p h .
T he u n iq u e m a n u s c rip t is n o t d a te d , b u t is o b v io u sly v ery old. T he
Syriac te x t a n d th e la rg e st p a r t o f th e A rab ic te x t are c o p ie d in w h a t seem s
to b e th e sa m e h a n d . It is difficult to say th is w ith ce rta in ty , as th e tw o
co lu m n s a re w ritte n in tw o d iffe re n t scripts, b u t th e la y o u t o f th e ta b le s
suggests stro n g ly th a t th e sa m e scrib e is a t w o rk in b o th co lu m n s. T he
Syriac v e rsio n is w ritte n in w h a t is u su a lly called O ld N e sto ria n script,
w h ic h is a b o u t halfw ay b e tw e e n th e o ld E d essan E stran g elo a n d th e m o d ­
e rn E ast Syriac (N e sto ria n ) script, a n d c a n n o t b e d a te d v ery precisely.
T he A rabic v e rsio n h o w e v e r is in a very strik in g a rc h a ic scrip t, a lm o st
e n tire ly u n p o in te d , w h ic h c a n b e d e sc rib e d as tra n s itio n a l b e tw e e n Kufi
a n d N ask h — th o u g h I w o u ld say o n th e w h o le th a t it is clo ser to Kufi—
w h ic h c a n h a rd ly b e m u c h la te r th a n th e tim e o f c o m p o sitio n o f th e w ork,
th a t is: th e b e g in n in g o f th e e le v e n th ce n tu ry . It h a s b e e n re p e a te d ly b e e n
asserted22 th a t th e B ritish L ibrary m a n u s c rip t is in fac t a n a u to g ra p h , b u t
n o re a l a rg u m e n ts h av e ev er b e e n a d d u c e d to su p p o rt th is. I th in k it m o re
likely th a t th e m a n u s c rip t is a fair copy, p ro d u c e d b y a p ro fe ssio n a l scrib e
fro m th e a u th o r ’s ro u g h draft, v ery sh o rtly a fte r th e tim e o f c o m p o sitio n .
I say th is m a in ly b e c a u s e th e m ista k e s in th e m a n u s c rip t (th e re a re n o t

20 For a recent overview of this work, see W. Witakowski, ‘Elias bar Shenaya’s Chroni­
cle’, in Wout Jac. van Bekkum et al. (eds), Syriac polemics. Studies in honour o f GerritJan
Reinink (Leuven: Peeters, 2007), pp. 219-260.
21 Eliae metropolitae Nisibeni Opus chronologicum, edidit & interpretatus est E.W.
Brooks & I.-B. Chabot, 4 pts (Leuven: Peeters, 1909-10).
22 First explicitly in Friedrich Baethgen, Fragmente syrischer und arabischer Historiker,
Abhandlungen fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes VIII, 3 (Leipzig, 1884).
m a n y m istak es, b u t th e re a re so m e) h av e m o re th e c h a ra c te r o f co p y ists’
erro rs (for ex am p le: d ip lo g ra p h ies) th a n a u th o r ’s errors.
T he tw o v ersio n s (Syriac a n d A rabic) a re v ery close to o n e a n o th e r a n d
clearly p o in t to th e ir b e in g th e w o rk o f th e sa m e a u th o r. I do n o t th in k
th a t e ith e r o n e c a n b e said to b e th e original. It is e v id e n t th a t th e a u th o r
h a s c o m p ile d h is w o rk fro m a v a rie ty o f so u rces, b o th in Syriac a n d in
A rabic; in th e se ctio n s ta k e n fro m Syriac so u rce s th e Syriac v e rsio n is evi­
d e n tly th e o rig in al a n d th e A rabic a tra n sla tio n , w h e re a s in th e se ctio n s
ta k e n fro m A rab ic so u rce s I w o u ld m a in ta in th a t th e A rab ic v e rsio n is
th e o rig in al a n d th e Syriac a tra n sla tio n . I w o u ld also m a in ta in th a t th e
se c tio n o n th e Je w ish c a le n d a r is p ro b a b ly b a s e d o n o n e o r m o re A rab ic
sources, as is su g g e sted b y th e fa c t th a t th e A rab ic v e rsio n p re se rv e s som e
o f th e te c h n ic a l v o c a b u la ry m o re p rec isely th a n th e Syriac.23
E lias’ d e s c rip tio n o f th e Je w ish c a le n d a r o cc u p ie s th re e c h a p te rs, o f
w h ic h on ly th e se c o n d is c o m p le te in th e u n iq u e m a n u sc rip t, th e o th e r
tw o h a v in g lo st o n e o r m o re folios a t th e en d . In th e first c h a p te r (b eg in ­
n in g fol. 83r) h e d escrib es th e m a th e m a tic a l fo u n d a tio n s o f th e R ab b in ic
ca le n d ar: th e le n g th o f th e lu n a tio n in days, h o u rs a n d ch eleq s, th e ep o c h
o f th e e ra o f A d a m 3448 y ea rs b e fo re th e S eleu cid era, th e fo rm u la for
c a lc u la tin g th e m o la d o f T ishri for a n y year, th e ru les fo r d e te rm in in g
w h e th e r th e y e a r is sim p le o r in te rc a la te d . T h e n h e m e n tio n s th e ex clu ­
sio n ru les (th e y e a r c a n n o t b e g in o n S unday, W e d n e s d a y o r F riday) a n d
th e n cites th e ru le s for d e te rm in in g th e w e e k d a y o f th e N ew Y ear’s d ay
a n d th e q u a lity o f th e y e a r a rra n g e d in fo u r ‘g a te s’, w h e re b y th e A rab ic
v e rsio n u se s th e w o rd ‘g a te s’ (’abw ab), as in th e Je w ish so u rces, w h ile th e
Syriac v e rsio n sp e ak s o f ‘fo u r c a n o n s’ (qanone).
Intriguingly, Elias tells u s th a t h e h a d p rev io u sly d isc u sse d all o f th e se
m a tte rs in a s e p a ra te w o rk o n th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, o r r a th e r specifically
o n th e c ritiq u e o f Je w ish chronology. H e w rite s (fol. 84r):

Although the m easurem ent of the lunar m onth (as observed) am ongst the
Jews is correct, the calculation of their festivals is however n ot correct for
m any reasons w hich I have m entioned in a separate book, w here I eluci­
date the falsity of their doctrine th at Adam was created in the season of
the autum nal equinox, and th a t from Adam to the beginning of the era
of Dhu l-Qarnayn there are 3448 years. I also elucidate the reason that they
make the hour 1080 parts and why they do n ot m ake the beginning of Tishri
Sunday or W ednesday or Friday and why if the nativity (i.e., the molad) of
Tishri is (only) one cheleq earlier or later, th en the beginning of the year is

23 I quote the text according to the folios of the unique Ms., which are indicated in the
margins of the edition.
 advanced or delayed by (as m uch as) two days, and (I elucidate also) the
refutation 24 of (all) this point for point. Moreover, I elucidate th at their
calculation is n o t correct and that it is not in agreem ent w ith the opinion
of the sages of past times, and th at it is n o t ancient, as they claim. And
I also elucidate how they took it from the ancient Greek pagans,2 5 and who
was the first one who took it and transm itted it to the Jews and how they
established the foundation of Passover in ancient times and how it has been
corrupted and disturbed in this time (of ours),26 for it does n o t agree w ith
the opinion of those w ho established it, and everything w hich points to the
falsity of their opinion and their calculation.

U n fo rtu n a tely , th is ‘se p a ra te b o o k ’ d o es n o t se e m to h av e survived.

T he se c o n d c h a p te r (b eg in s fol. 85v) is c o n c e rn e d w ith th e c a lc u la­
tio n o f th e Ju lia n e q u iv a le n t o f th e m o la d o f N isan in a n y g iven y ear. T he
m o la d o f N isan is o f n o p a rtic u la r c o n s e q u e n c e fo r th e c a lc u la tio n o f
th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, fo r w h ic h on ly th e m o la d o f T ish ri is im p o rta n t, b u t
E lias’ in te r e s t in th e c o n ju n c tio n m a rk in g th e b e g in n in g o f N isan is evi­
d e n tly d ic ta te d b y a d esire to u se th e Je w ish sy stem to co n firm o r p o ssib ly
e v e n to c o rre c t th e c h r is tia n c a lc u la tio n o f th e p a s c h a l m o n th , a lth o u g h
h e d o es n o t say th is explicitly.
In th e th ir d c h a p te r (beg in s fol. 87v) Elias c o n s tru c ts a ta b le ‘fro m w h ic h
c a n b e k n o w n in w h ic h o f th e m o n th s o f th e A rab s falls th e Je w ish N isan
a n d th e ir o th e r m o n th s in a n y y e a r’. Since th e Je w ish a n d A rab m o n th s
b o th b e g in a t a b o u t th e tim e o f co n ju n c tio n , a n y giv en Je w ish m o n th w ill
o verlap w ith o n e A rab m o n th , give o r ta k e a co u p le o f days a t e ith e r end.
So, in th is se c tio n th e a u th o r is c o n c e rn e d w ith es ta b lish in g in w h ic h A rab
m o n th a n y Je w ish m o n th w ill ‘fall’, th a t is: w ith w h ic h m o n th it w ill for th e
m o s t p a r t coin cid e. T his sa m e so rt o f ro u g h e q u a tio n b e tw e e n Je w ish a n d
Islam ic m o n th s c a n b e o b se rv e d also in so m e o f th e G e n iz a d o c u m e n ts.
T h ere a re tw o o th e r p assag es in th e O pus chronologicum in w h ic h Elias
refers to th e Je w ish ca le n d ar. In th e first o f th e s e h e is d isc u ssin g th e
le n g th o f th e lu n a r m o n th . H e cites th e m e a s u re m e n t g iven b y P to lem y
o n th e a u th o rity o f H ip p arc h u s, a n d th e n c o n tin u e s (fol. 77r):

The ancient sages am ongst the Jews say in the book of Mishnah27 also of
Gamaliel, the Hebrew wise m an w hom the Apostle Paul m entions in the

24 Thus in the Arabic version, where, exceptionally,^ j \ is fully pointed, and also the
Syriac (sraya); Chabot’s “solutionem” is too bland.
25 Ar. as-sabi’ati l-yunaniyyin; Syr. hanpe d-yonaye.
26 Although this is all rather vague, what the author seems to be saying is that system
of calculation of the molad was ‘taken from the ancient Greek pagans’ a long time ago, and
was originally ‘correct’, but became corrupted in the recent past.
27 Thus (ba-ktaba d-misna) in the Syriac version. The words are missing in the Arabic.
 Acts of the Apostles, th at he agrees w ith this opinion w hen he makes this
statem ent: It is n o t possible that the lunar m onth be less than 29 days, and
half a day, and two thirds of an hour, and 73 cheleqs, w hereby in his opinion
and the opinion of all the sages of the Hebrews the hour is 1080 cheleqs.

Elias co n v e rts th is su m to 29 days, 12 h o u rs, 48 m in u te s a n d 4 0 seco n d s,

a n d rem a rk s:

This view does n o t differ from the view of H ipparchus and Ptolemy, the
correctness of w hich can be know n from the lunar eclipses w hich we shall
m ention afterwards.

T he T alm u d ic passag e to w h ic h Elias is re fe rrin g (B. RH 25a) is g en erally

re g a rd e d as p a rtia lly in te r p o la te d .^ It h as b e e n s ta te d th a t th e e a rliest
c ita tio n o f th is p assag e is b y b a r Hiyya, b u t in fac t Elias w ro te a b o u t a
c e n tu ry b e fo re th e tim e o f b a r Hiyya. Elias is p re su m a b ly w ro n g to id e n tify
th e G am aliel m e n tio n e d in th is passag e w ith G am aliel I, n a m e d as P au l’s
b e n e fa c to r in A cts 22.
T he la st p assag e th a t w e w ill b e lo o k in g a t is in th e ta b le o f h isto ric
e v e n ts fro m a b o u t th e tim e o f th e b ir th o f C h rist d o w n to th e a u th o r ’s
o w n tim e. T he ta b le is la id o u t in six co lu m n s. T he first th re e c o lu m n s
a re in Syriac: first th e y e a r (S eleucid b e fo re th e b e g in n in g o f th e Islam ic
era; th e n h ijri w ith its S eleucid e q u iv a le n t) sp e lt o u t in Syriac; se c o n d th e
so u rce fro m w h ic h Elias h as h is in fo rm a tio n ; th ir d a n a c c o u n t o f o n e or
m o re e v e n ts in th e y e a r in q u e stio n . T he la st th re e co lu m n s a re for th e
A rab ic te x t: first th e y e a r sp e lt o u t in A rabic; th e se c o n d co lu m n (o s te n ­
sibly fo r th e sou rce) is alw ays left b la n k ; th e la s t c o lu m n d escrib es th e
e v e n t o r e v e n ts in A rabic. H ow ever, v ery o fte n th e A rab ic co lu m n s in th is
ta b le h av e e ith e r b e e n left b la n k , o r else th e y w e re filled in su b se q u e n tly
by tw o o r th re e la te r h an d s.
T he e v e n t th a t in te re s ts u s is in th e b o x fo r th e y ea r 3 0 9 o f th e h ijra
(fol. 37v). This e n try is o nly in th e Syriac co lu m n s; th e A rab ic v e rsio n is
m issing. T he b o x w ith th e d a te reads: ‘T he y e a r 309 (o f th e h ijra h ), b e g in ­
n in g S atu rd ay 12 Iyar (M ay) o f th e y e a r 1232 o f th e G reek s [921 CE]’. T he
b o x for th e so u rce is b la n k . T he b o x fo r th e e v e n t read s:

In it there befell a division/disagreem ent (pulaga) betw een the Jews of the
W est and the Jews of the East concerning the calculation of their festivals.
And the Jews who are in the W est m ade the beginning (reset) of their year
Tuesday and those of the East (made it) Thursday.

28 Sacha Stern, Calendar and Community: A History o f the Jewish Calendar, 2nd century
BCE-10th century CE (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001), p. 201.
T his refers, o f course, to th e fam o u s c a le n d a r d isp u te b e tw e e n S aad y a a n d
B en M eir. T he d o u b le d a tin g o f th e Je w ish N ew y e a r o cc u rs in th e Jew ish
y e a r b e g in n in g in th e a u tu m n o f 9 22 CE. T he m o la d o f T ish ri in th a t y e a r
is 3,9,441 (T uesday), b u t sin ce th is is a fte r th e p re sc rib e d lim it 3,9 ,2 0 4 th e
B ab y lo n ian Jew s p o s tp o n e d th e N ew Y ear u n til T h u rs d a y 26 S e p te m b e r
922. T he Jew s ‘in th e W e st’ (P a lestin e? Egypt?) d id n o t a c c e p t th is a n d
c e le b ra te d th e N ew Y ear o n T u esd a y 2 4 S ep te m b er. B ut th is is in th e hijri
y e a r 310, n o t 309, as in d ic a te d in Elias. It co u ld b e th a t th e a u th o r h as
te le s c o p e d tw o even ts: first th e ‘d isa g re e m e n t’ a m o n g st th e Jew s a b o u t
th e fo r th c o m in g N ew Y ear (w h ich w o u ld h av e su rfa ce d a lre a d y in 921),
a n d th e n th e fa c t th a t th e Jew s o f th e E ast a n d th e W e st d id in fa c t ‘m ak e
th e b e g in n in g o f th e ir y e a r’ o n tw o d iffe re n t d a te s in 922. B u t p e rh a p s th e
e a sie st e x p la n a tio n for th e d isc re p a n c y is th a t th e a u th o r o r th e co p y ist
h a s sim p ly p u t th is in fo rm a tio n in th e w ro n g b o x o f h is grid.
To su m m arize : I h av e b e e n ex a m in in g te x ts sp a n n in g a p e rio d o f 2 0 0
years. D u rin g th is tim e th e re is a sig n ific an t c h a n g e in th e p e r c e p tio n o f
th e Je w ish ca le n d ar. W ith al-X uw arizm i, in th e early p a r t o f th e n in th
ce n tu ry , th e Je w ish c a le n d a r is still in a sta te o f flux. C e rta in e le m e n ts o f
th e R ab b in ic c a le n d a r are a lre a d y e stab lish ed : th e fixed 1 9 -y e a r cycle, th e
p o s tp o n e m e n t rules, th e P to le m a ic m e a su re o f th e m e a n lu n a tio n , an d ,
d e p e n d e n t o n all th e se, th e sy stem o f fo u r gates. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e
m o la d a t th e e p o c h o f th e e ra is n o t y e t fixed in its fin al form , an d , as a
resu lt, th e a rith m e tic fo u n d a tio n s o f th e w h o le sy stem are still u n c e rta in .
By th e b e g in n in g o f th e e le v e n th ce n tu ry , w ith al-B ay ru n i a n d h is c o n ­
te m p o ra ry Elias, all th e e le m e n ts o f th e R ab b in ic c a le n d a r are in place,
in p a rtic u la r, th e m o la d o f th e c re a tio n a t 6,14,0, w h e re b y Elias, a t least,
d w ells specifically o n th e fac t th a t th e R ab b in ic c a le n d a r is ‘n o t a n c ie n t,
as th e y claim ’, b u t a fairly r e c e n t in n o v a tio n . T he te s tim o n y o f o u r so u rces
a g rees th u s w ith th e G e n iz a fra g m e n ts in p o in tin g to th e te n th c e n tu ry
as th e decisive m o m e n t in th e e m e rg e n c e o f th e R ab b in ic c a le n d a r in its
m o d e rn form .

References

Manuscripts

Edinburgh University Library, MS 161

Istanbul Umumiye, 4667
London, British Library, Add. 7197
Printed Works
al-Mas‘udi (Abu l-Hasan ‘Ali b. al-Husayn), Kitabu t-tanblhi wa l-'israf, ed. M.J. de Goeje,
Bibliotheca geographorum arabicorum VII (Leiden: Brill, 1894).
Ashraf ul-Hukk, Mohammed et al., A descriptive catalogue o f Arabic and Persian manu­
scripts in Edinburgh University Library (Hertford: Edinburgh University, 1925).
Baethgen, Friedrich, Fragmente syrischer und arabischer Historiker, Abhandlungen fur die
Kunde des Morgenlandes VIII, 3 (Leipzig, 1884).
Bayruni, Abu Rayhan, Chronologie orientalischer Volker von Alberuni, herausg. von Eduard
Sachau (Leipzig, 1878).
------, The Chronology of Ancient Nations, translated and edited, with notes and index by
C.E. Sachau (London, 1879).
------, The Book of instruction in the elements of the art of astrology, reproduction of a manu­
script, with a translation by R. Ramsay Wright (London: Luzac & Co.), 1934.
----- , al-Qanunu l-Mas'udl, 3 vols (Hyderabad Deccan, 1954-56).
----- , al-'a&aru l-baqiyah 'ani l-quruni l-xaliyah, tahqiq u ta‘liq i Parwiz i Azka’i (Tehran,
2001). '
Catalogue o f the Arabic and Persian manuscripts in the Oriental Public Library at Bankipore,
Patna 1908 sqq.
Cohen, A., ‘The Jewish calendar and its relation to the Christian holidays as described by
a Muslim mathematician-astronomer in 852 AD’, Indian Journal o f History of Science
43.3 (2008), 353-379; also in Hebrew: Judea and Samaria Research Studies, 16 (2007),
451-470.
de Blois, F., ‘The Persian calendar’, Iran XXXIV (1996), 39-54.
Elias of Nisibis, Eliae metropolitae Nisibeni Opus chronologicum, edidit & interpretatus est
E.W. Brooks & I.-B. Chabot, 4 pts (Leuven: Peeters, 1909-10).
Hogendijk, J.P., ‘Rearranging the Arabic mathematical and astronomical manuscript Bank-
ipore 2468’,Journalfor the history of Arabic science 6 (1982), 133-159.
Kennedy, E.S., ‘Al-Khwarizmi on the Jewish calendar’, Scripta mathematica 27 (1964),
55-59.
Langermann, T., ‘When was the Hebrew calendar instituted?’, Assufot 1 (1987), 159-168
[Hebrew].
Ritter, H., IstanbulerMitteilungen I (Istanbul: 1933).
Sezgin, F., Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums, planned for 13 vols (vols 1-9, Leiden: Brill,
1967-1984).
Stern, Sacha, Calendar and community: A history of the Jewish calendar, 2nd century BCE-
10th century CE (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001).
Witakowski, W., ‘Elias bar Shenaya’s Chronicle’, in W.J. van Bekkum et aL (eds), Syriac
Polemics: Studies in honour of Gerrit Jan Reinink, Orientalia Lovaniensia analecta 170
(Leuven: Peeters, 2007), pp. 219-260.
 CHAPTER FIVE

THE JEW ISH CALENDAR CONTROVERSY OF 921-22:

RECONSTRUCTING T h e M a n u s c r i p t s A n d
t h e i r tra n s m is s io n h is to r y 1

M a rin a R u sto w a n d s a c h a s te rn

In th e la te su m m e r o f 921 CE, th e so n o f th e P a le stin ia n g a’o n M e’ir

a s c e n d e d th e M o u n t o f O lives d u rin g th e p ilg rim ag e festiv al o f s u k k o t
a n d a n n o u n c e d th e c a le n d a r d a te s for 921/22 th ro u g h 9 2 3 /2 4 . A cco rd in g
to h is p ro n o u n c e m e n t, P asso v er in 922 w o u ld fall o n a su n d a y . B u t th e
ge’o n im in Iraq h a d c a lc u la te d th e c a le n d a r differently, a n d a c c o rd in g to
th e m , P assover w o u ld fall th e follow ing T uesday.
T he d isa g re e m e n t b e tw e e n th e m c e n te re d o n th e b e g in n in g o f th e
m o n th o f T ishri in 923, b u t h a d a rip p le effect b e g in n in g w ith P asso v er
in 922. B oth th e Ira q i a n d P a le stin ia n ra b b in ic ca le n d ars, o v er th e co u rse
o f th e n in th ce n tu ry , h a d a d o p te d th e ru le o f m o la d za q e n , a c c o rd in g to
w h ich , if th e m o la d (lu n a r c o n ju n c tio n ) o f T ish ri o c c u rre d a fte r a c e rta in
h o u r, th e b e g in n in g o f th e m o n th (a n d th u s th e N ew Y ear) h a d to b e
p o s tp o n e d to th e n e x t d ay .2 T he Iraqis se t th e lim it a t m id d a y p recisely
(a t ‘7 h o u rs ’ o f th e 1 2 -h o u r d ay tim e p erio d ), w h ile th e P a le stin ia n s se t it a t
641 p a rts o f th e h o u r later. T his sm all d ifferen ce u su a lly d id n o t affect th e
c a le n d ar, b u t b e c a u s e th e m o la d o f T ish ri 923 o c c u rre d o n a s a tu rd a y a t

1 The research presented in this article was supported by a small Research Grant of
the British Academy. We are grateful to Ronny Vollandt for agreeing to serve our research
associate on the project for three months; Judith Olszowy-schlanger for her paleographic
expertise; Ben Outhwaite at the Cambridge University Library Genizah Unit for his
unstinting help and enthusiasm for the project; Helen Weller, at Westminster College,
Cambridge; David Kraemer, sarah Diamant, Warren Klein, and Amy Gerbracht Armstrong
at the Library of the Jewish Theological seminary of America; Arthur Kiron and Bruce
Nielsen at the Center for Advanced Judaic studies Library at the University of Pennsyl­
vania; susan Vick, at the Goldsmith Museum, Baltimore; Cesar Merchan-Hamann at the
Bodleian Library and the Oxford Centre for Hebrew and Jewish studies at the University
of Oxford; and Roni shweka, of the Friedberg Genizah Project. The images in this article
marked Bodl. are courtesy of the Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford. Images marked
ENA are courtesy of the Library of the Jewish Theological seminary of America, and from
the Elkan Nathan Adler Collection. Images marked T-s are from the Cambridge Univer­
sity Library, Taylor-schechter Collection, and are courtesy of the syndics of Cambridge
University Library.
2 s. stern, Calendar and Community: A History o f theJewish Calendar, 2nd Century B.C.E.
to 10th Century C.E. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 192, 195-6.
237 p a rts a fte r m id d ay , fo r th e Iraqis, th e N ew Y ear h a d to b e p o stp o n e d ,
w h e re a s fo r th e p a le stin ia n s it w as to r e m a in o n th e sa m e day.
T he h isto rical origin o f th e seem in g arb itra ry p alestin ian lim it o f ‘7 h o u rs
641 p a r ts ’ is u n k n o w n , a lth o u g h it c a n b e giv en a p la u sib le e x p la n a tio n .3
By th e 920s, how ev er, th e P a le stin ia n s th e m se lv e s h a d e n tire ly fo rg o tte n
its ra tio n a le , a n d in th e su m m e r o f 921, th e g a’on, M e’ir, o r h is son, a n d
th e p a le stin ia n fa c tio n d e fe n d e d th e ir c a le n d a r d e c isio n o n th e b asis n o t
o f th e in h e re n t tr u th o f th e ir c a le n d a r ca lc u latio n , b u t o f tw o re la te d tr a ­
d itio n s: th e early ra b b in ic in ju n c tio n th a t th e Je w ish y e a r b e in te rc a la te d
on ly fro m th e la n d o f Israel; a n d th e P a le stin ia n g a’o n ’s alleg ed ly a n c ie n t
p re ro g a tiv e o f d e c la rin g th e ca le n d ar. T he Iraqis, likew ise, r e to r te d n o t
w ith a n a rg u m e n t o f c o m p u ta tio n a l su p e rio rity , b u t w ith th e claim th a t
th e ir c o m p u ta tio n — a n a lg o rith m k n o w n as th e ‘fo u r g a te s’— w as a n
a n c ie n t tr a d itio n th a t co u ld b e tra c e d b a c k to th e B ab y lo n ian T alm u d . To
th is th e P a le stin ia n s re sp o n d e d , a t so m e p o in t in th e w in te r o f 921/2, w ith
a n a d a p ta tio n o f th e Iraq i ‘fo u r g a te s’ th a t fit th e ir o w n ru les, a so lu tio n
th a t m ig h t h av e satisfied b o th sides. B ut th e a rg u m e n t in s te a d quick ly
tra n s c e n d e d te c h n ic a l q u e s tio n s o f c a le n d a r c a lc u la tio n a n d b e c a m e a
d isp u te o ver w h o p o sse sse d th e a u th o rity to d e te rm in e a c a le n d a r th a t
w as to b e o b se rv e d u n ifo rm ly b y all Jew s, ev ery w h ere.
F or a n e n tire y e a r a n d p o ssib ly longer, Je w ish c o m m u n itie s in Egypt,
Syria, a n d Iraq w e re riv e n in tw a in as so m e fo llo w ed th e P a le stin ia n cal­
e n d a r a n d o th e rs th e Ira q i .4 T he Ira q i c a le n d a r a n d its ‘fo u r g a te s’ are
k n o w n fro m w o rk s o n th e Je w ish c a le n d a r fro m th e early tw e lfth c e n tu ry
o n w a rd s 5 to h av e b e c o m e th e d o m in a n t ra b b in ic c a le n d a r c a lc u la tio n in
all p a rts o f th e Je w ish w orld, a n d it c o rre sp o n d s to h o w th e Je w ish cal­
e n d a r is u n iv e rsa lly re c k o n e d tod ay . This, to g e th e r w ith th e fac t th a t th e
P a le stin ia n ca le n d ar, b y th e tw e lfth ce n tu ry , a p p e a rs to h av e fad e d c o m ­
p le tely fro m m e m o ry , are so m e o f th e re a so n s n e a rly all tw e n tie th c e n tu ry
sc h o larsh ip c o n s id e re d th e S a 'a d y a -B e n -M e ’ir co n tro v e rs y to h av e b e e n
th e v ery la st in s ta n c e o f c a le n d ric a l d ifferen ces a m o n g Je w ish c o m m u n i­
ties, th e co n flict t h a t fixed th e ra b b in ic c a le n d a r a n d s e ttle d th e issu e o n ce
a n d fo r all.

3 Stern, ibid. pp. 264-75.

4 One of the protagonists on the Iraqi side was Sa'adya ben Yosef al-DilasI al-FayyumI,
only later ga’on of the yeshivah of Sura in Baghdad (928-42, with interruptions). His cen­
trality in the controversy has, until now, been assumed; but his total absence from the
Book of the Calendar Controversy, one of the main sources for our understanding of these
events, has convinced us that this presumed centrality must be rethought.
5 See, for example, the articles by Ilana Wartenberg and Israel Sandman in this volume.
 N ew ev id en c e h a s m a d e it p o ssib le to re fu te th is v ie w decisively. In
2007, s a c h a s te r n a n d P ierg ab riele M a n cu so d isc o v ered a d iv e rg e n t r a b ­
b in ic c a le n d a r d a ta b le tw enty-five y ea rs a fte r th e C a le n d a r C ontroversy.
T his c a le n d a r w as im p lie d in th e e a rlie st e x ta n t m a n u s c rip t o f s h a b b e ta i
D o n n o lo ’s Sefer H a kh m o n i, in a n a s tro n o m ic a l ta b le t h a t m u s t h av e fo rm e d
p a r t o f th e o rig in a l w ork, sin ce D o n n o lo ’s te x t d escrib es it. T he ta b le p r o ­
v id e s a s tro n o m ic a l e p h e m e rid e s for th e m o n th o f ‘Elul’ in 946, w h e re a s
a c c o rd in g to th e Ira q i ca le n d ar, w h ic h h a d su p p o se d ly b e e n im p o s e d o n
th e e n tire Je w ish w o rld tw en ty -fiv e y ea rs earlier, th is m o n th sh o u ld h av e
b e e n T ishri. T he D o n n o lo m a n u s c rip t d e m o n s tra te s th a t a full g e n e ra tio n
a fte r th e C a le n d a r C ontroversy, th e Jew s o f s o u th e rn Italy still m a in ta in e d
a d iffe re n t c a le n d a r fro m th e Ira q i o n e .6
W a s D o n n o lo ’s in d e p e n d e n c e fro m th e su p p o se d ly h e g e m o n ic Iraq i
c a le n d a r d u e to h is g e o g ra p h ic d ista n c e fro m Ira q a n d th e tim e it m ig h t
h av e ta k e n for n ew s to s p re a d as far as Italy? T his is u n lik ely : c o m m u ­
n ic a tio n s ac ro ss th e e x p a n se o f th e Islam ic a n d B y zan tin e w o rld s, fro m
K h u ra san in th e e a st to al-A ndalus in th e w est, w ere fre q u e n t a n d re la ­
tively efficien t b y th e te n th ce n tu ry . T he D o n n o lo c a le n d a r th u s raises th e
q u e s tio n o f w h o really k n e w a b o u t th e C a le n d a r C o n tro v e rsy o f 921-22,
a n d w h o m ig h t h av e c a re d a b o u t it.
O th e r ev id en c e raises th is q u e s tio n as w ell. T he C airo G en iz a p re se rv e d
e v e n la te r ev id en c e o f c a le n d ric a l in d e p e n d e n c e , th is tim e fro m P ales­
tin e itself. In 1094, E vyatar h a-K o h en b. Eliyyahu, g a’o n o f th e P a le stin ­
ia n y esh iv a in Tyre (1083-1112, w ith a n in te r ru p tio n in 1 0 9 3 -9 4 ), w ro te
a p o le m ic a l tre a tise m o d e le d o n th e b ib lic a l b o o k o f E sth e r in w h ic h
h e c e le b ra te d h is tr iu m p h ov er a n Ira q i rival for h is office, a sc io n o f
th e exilarchal line n a m e d D avid b. D aniel. E vyatar d efe n d ed his claim
to th e g ao n ic c h a ir o n th e re a so n in g th a t h is Ira q i riv al w as d isq u alified
fro m th e P a le stin ia n g a o n a te b e c a u s e on ly th e P a le stin ia n g e’o n im p o s­
se ssed th e e so te ric se c re ts o f th e p r o p e r m e th o d o f c a le n d a tio n , th e so d
h a - cibbur, w h ic h th e y h a d rec eiv e d in a n u n b ro k e n c h a in o f tra n sm is sio n
stre tc h in g b a c k to th e fo u rth d ay o f c re a tio n .7 E ven if E vyatar’s a rg u m e n t

6 Oxford, Bodleian Library (hereafter Bodl.), Ms Heb. e 26.3 (recto); sacha stern and
Piergabriele Mancuso, ‘An Astronomical Table by shabbetai Donnolo and the Jewish Cal­
endar in Tenth-century Italy’, Aleph 7 (2007), 13-41.
7 Evyatar ha-Kohen b. Eliyyahu, Megillat Evyatar (Cambridge University Library, Taylor-
schechter Collection [hereafter T-s] 10 K 7.1 and T-s 12.729 ). see solomon schechter,
Saadyana: Geniza fragments of writings of R. Saadya Gaon and others (Cambridge, 1903),
pp. 83-106; Moshe Gil, ‘The scroll of Evyatar as a source for the History of the struggles
of the Yeshiva of Jerusalem during the second Half of the Eleventh Century: A New Reading
se em s to u s far-fetch ed , in o rd e r fo r h im to h av e m a d e it a t all, it h a d to
h av e se e m e d re a so n a b le for a P a le stin ia n g a’o n to ex ercise in d e p e n d e n t
c a le n d ric a l a u th o rity o n e h u n d r e d eig h ty y ea rs a fte r th e C a le n d a r C o n ­
tro v e rsy o f 921/22.
T he co n flict in 1094 m a y h av e b e e n p u re ly p o litical; th e re is n o evi­
d e n c e th a t E vyatar’s c a le n d a r differed fro m th e Iraq is’. B ut if E v y atar co u ld
claim th e so d h a -cibbur to h av e b e e n a P a le stin ia n secret, th e Iraq is m a y
n o t h av e su c c e e d e d in im p o sin g th e ir c a le n d a r c a lc u la tio n s o n Jew s ev ery ­
w h e re in 921/22, o r a t le a s t n o t p e rm a n e n tly .
Like th e D o n n o lo ta b le, E vyatar’s p o le m ic raises th e q u e s tio n o f w h e n
a n d to w h a t e x te n t th e C a le n d a r C o n tro v ersy o f 921/22 h a d b e c o m e
k n o w n to Jew s o u tsid e th e c o m m u n itie s d irec tly in v o lv ed in it, th a t is,
o u tsid e Iraq, P alestin e, a n d Egypt. A rm ed w ith th o se q u estio n s, in 2011,
w e d e c id e d to r e o p e n th e case o f th e C a le n d a r C o n tro v e rsy a n d fin d o u t
h o w — a n d h o w far— n ew s o f it h a d sp re a d d u rin g th e M id d le Ages.
T he m a in so u rce s fo r th e c o n tro v e rsy a re co p ies o f th e p o le m ic a l le tte rs
th e tw o sides e x c h a n g e d a n d copies o f a n Ira q i tre a tis e a b o u t th e c o n tro ­
versy, all p re se rv e d in th e C airo G eniza. T h o u g h all th e se te x ts d a te fro m
th e p e rio d o f th e co n tro v e rsy itself, th e co p ies th e G en iz a p re se rv e d w ere
w ritte n la te r. In th a t c h ro n o lo g ical d isc re p an c y , w e saw n o t a n im p e d i­
m e n t to k n o w led g e b u t a n o p p o rtu n ity : it w o u ld p e rm it u s to stu d y th e
m a n u s c rip ts as a rtifa c ts o f th e ir o w n tim e p erio d , ex a m in in g th e m fro m
th e p o in t o f view o f p a le o g ra p h y a n d codico lo g y in o rd e r to d e te rm in e
how , w h e n a n d w h e re th e y w ere c o p ie d a n d th e ir te x ts tra n s m itte d . W e
also w a n te d to d isco v er th e re a s o n fo r sc rib e s’ in te r e s t in th e se tex ts, or
w h e th e r th e re w ere sig n ific an t v a ria n ts a m o n g th e m a n u s c rip t w itn e sse s
th a t m ig h t h in t a t th e fre q u e n c y w ith w h ic h th e te x ts h a d b e e n co p ied
b efo re. W h a t follow s is a n in te rim re p o r t o n o u r p ro jec t.
T he te x ts — o r m o s t o f th e m — h a d a lre a d y b e e n p u b lis h e d b e tw e e n
1891 a n d 1915, in th e first flu sh o f G en iz a re se a rc h . Since th e n , sc h o larsh ip
o n th e c o n tro v e rsy h a s re fe rre d a lm o st exclusively to p r in te d e d itio n s o f
th e tex ts, esp ecially H ayyim Y ehFel B o rn ste in ’s ‘e d itio n ’ o f 1904.8 ‘E d itio n ’
is a m isn o m e r, b e c a u s e B o rn ste in w o rk e d n o t fro m th e m a n u s c rip ts th e m ­

of the Scroll’, in Jerusalem in the Middle Ages: Selected Papers, ed. B.Z. Kedar (Jerusalem:
Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi, 1979), pp. 81-106; and Marina Rustow, Heresy and the Politics o f Com­
munity: TheJews of the Fatimid Caliphate (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), pp. 337­
39. The passage is on T-S 10K7.1, fol. 2, lines 26-28.
8 H.Y. Bornstein, Mahloqet Rav Sa'adya Gaon u-Ven Meir [The Dispute between Saadya
Gaon and Ben Meir], in N. SokolowJubilee Volume (Warsaw: Shuldberg, 1904), pp. 19-189;
also published as a separate pamphlet.
selves b u t fro m th e p rev io u s e d itio n s o f o th e r scholars. T h ere w ere som e
a d d itio n a l finds in th e d e c a d e o r so follow ing B o rn stein ; b u t fo r th e rest,
for n e a rly a c e n tu ry , th e m a n u sc rip ts h av e b e e n e ith e r s tu d ie d p ie c e m e a l
o r ig n o re d c o m p le te ly .9
o u r first ta sk w as to fin d a n d stu d y all th e m a n u sc rip ts . B ut th e late-
n in e te e n th - a n d e a rly -tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry p u b lic a tio n s ra re ly in c lu d e d
shelf-m arks, so it to o k us n e a rly o n e y e a r to fin d th e m a n u sc rip ts , w h ic h
a re n o w sc a tte re d in all lib ra rie s a ro u n d th e w o rld . w e co u ld n o t h av e
d o n e so w ith o u t th e h e lp o f D r R o n n y v o lla n d t, w h o serv ed as o u r re se a rc h
a sso cia te for th e p ro jec t. A lth o u g h w e still c a n n o t claim to h av e id e n tifie d
every fra g m e n t fro m th e G en iz a re le v a n t to th e co n tro v ersy , a n d th e re are
tw o p u b lis h e d fra g m e n ts fo r w h ic h w e are still se a rc h in g ,10 w e n o n e th e ­
less n o w h av e m o re m a n u s c rip t fra g m e n ts th a n h a d h ith e rto b e e n k n o w n
to b e c o n n e c te d to th e c o n tro v e rsy — a lre a d y a n e t gain.
o u r m a n u s c rip t-h u n tin g w as m a d e m o re co m p lex b y th e fa c t th a t
w e in itially sp re a d o u r n e ts w ide, lo o k in g n o t o n ly a t th e m a in te x ts o f
th e con tro v ersy , b u t also a t te x ts to do m o re b ro a d ly w ith th e ra b b in ic
ca le n d ar, Je w ish c o m m u n a l p o lem ics, a n d p o le m ic s b y S a'ad y a b. Y osef
al-F ayyum i, w h o w as in v o lv e d in th e contro v ersy . A t first, w e th o u g h t th is
e x tra w o rk m ig h t b e in v ain , sin ce m u c h o f w h a t w e fo u n d co u ld p ro v e
irre le v a n t to o u r p ro jec t. B ut th e m e th o d quick ly y ie ld e d d iv id en d s. W e
c a m e to rea lize th a t so m e te x ts th a t w e re only ta n g e n tia lly re la te d h a d in
fa c t fo rm e d p a r t o f th e sa m e q u ire s w ith o u r tex ts, sin ce m e d ie v a l scrib es
te n d e d to co p y re la te d w o rk s in to th e sa m e m a n u sc rip t. C odico lo g ical
p ro je c ts m u s t th in k as m e d ie v a l scrib es th o u g h t a n d n o t re m a in fo cu se d
n a rro w ly o n c e rta in texts.
All in all, w ith V o lla n d t’s c o n sid e ra b le h elp , w e id e n tifie d eig h ty -o n e
fra g m en ts. o u r n e x t s te p w as to try to g ro u p th e m in to d is tin c t m a n u ­
scripts. T his w as challenging, b u t ag a in y ie ld e d g ain s w e h a d n o t a n tic i­
p a te d . P revious sc h o lars h a d a lre a d y m a d e so m e jo in s , so w e w e re n o t
sta rtin g fro m sc ra tch .

9 The first publication was by Alexander Harkavy, in 1891 (see next note); the last
major publication was by Alfred Guillaume, ‘Further documents on the Ben-Meir contro­
versy’,Jewish Quarterly Review, n.s. 5 (1914-15), 543-57, but a few additional documents were
published subsequently, one much later by Ezra Fleischer, ‘Literary Documents Concerning
the History of the Gaonate in Erez-Israel’ (Hebrew), Zion 49 (1984), 375-400.
10 The first was published in Alexander Harkavy, Zikhron la-rishonim ve-gam
la-aharonim, vol. 5 [Zikhron la-ga'on Rav Sa'adya] (St. Petersburg, 1891), pp. 218-20. The
second was published in Israel Levi, ‘Nouveaux fragments relatifs a Ben Meir’, Revue des
Etudes Juives 41 (1901), 229-232.
 O u r first a d v a n c e w as a sto ry o f c o m p le te se re n d ip ity . In 1924 B.M.
L ew in p u b lis h e d a co p y o f a le tte r th a t s a 'a d y a h a d s e n t to F u sta t in th e
9 20s; L ew in said th e m a n u s c rip t ca m e ‘fro m th e G en iz a co llec tio n o f m y
frie n d th e c h ie f ra b b i Israel Levi in P aris,’ b u t a fte r h is in itia l p u b lic a ­
tio n , it h a d n e v e r b e e n se e n again.11 L ew in h a d fu rth e rm o re c o n n e c te d
th is le tte r w ith a n o th e r le tte r o f sa 'a d y a , o r p o ssib ly a c o n tin u a tio n o f th e
sa m e one, c o n ta in e d in a folio fro m th e B o d leia n .12 T h en , in 1965, sh e ra g a
A b ra m so n re a liz e d th a t o n e o f th e m issin g se c tio n s b e tw e e n th e m w as
to b e fo u n d in a th ir d folio a t W e s tm in s te r College, C am b rid g e, w ritte n
in th e sam e h a n d as th e B odleian m a n u s c rip t. 13 Finally, in 1997, M o sh e
Gil p u b lis h e d all th re e as fra g m e n ts o f a single m a n u sc rip t; b u t sin ce th e
Isra e l Levi m a n u s c rip t w as still m issing, h e d id n o t see th e o rig in a l o f
th e in te rm e d ia te folio a n d p u b lis h e d it b a s e d o n L ew in’s e d itio n . 14
T h e n o n e d ay in 2 003, B en O u th w a ite a t th e C a m b rid g e G en iz ah U n it
rec eiv e d a n em a il fro m a synagogue in B altim o re, M ary lan d , saying th a t
th e y h a d a G e n iz a h fra g m e n t a n d w a n te d h e lp id e n tify in g it. 15 O u th w a ite
lo o k e d a t th e p h o to a n d re a liz e d th a t th e lo st Levi m a n u s c rip t w as n o lo n ­
ger lost. No o n e k n o w s h o w th e m a n u s c rip t r e a c h e d th e sy n ag o g u e in Bal­
tim o re ; it is p o ssib le th a t Isra el Levi h a d giv en it to L ew in to p u b lish , th a t
L ew in h a d k e p t it, a n d th a t L ew in’s d e s c e n d a n ts h a d th e n d o n a te d it to
th e synagogue, b u t th is is sh e e r sp e c u la tio n , a n d th e sy n ag o g u e’s arc h iv es
h av e so far n o t y ie ld e d a n y inform ation.16 so, th ro u g h little effo rt o f o u r
ow n, o u r e d itio n o f th is le tte r w ill b e th e first b a s e d o n all th e originals.
T he se c o n d jo in w e m a d e b a s e d o n o n e fo u n d in th e ex istin g lite ra tu re
b e g a n w ith a p u b lic a tio n b y A lfred G u illa u m e in 1915 c o n n e c tin g th e to rn
u p p e r h a lf o f a q u ire in C a m b rid g e (first p u b lis h e d b y s o lo m o n sc h e c h -
te r) w ith its to r n lo w er h a lf in Oxford.17 G u illa u m e’s jo in w as re m a rk ­
ab le given th e lo g istical difficulties in v o lv ed in early tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry
travel, th e a d v e n t o f th e G re a t W ar, a n d th e e x p e n se o f p h o to g ra p h y ; like
o th e r sch o lars o f th e p erio d , h e co u ld n o t easily c o m p a re m a n u sc rip ts , so

11 B.M. Lewin, ‘Kitab rosh ha-yeshivah al-fayyumi, z(ikhrono) l(ivrakha)’, Ginze Qedem 2
(1924), 33-35.
12 Bodl. Ms Heb. c 13.22.
13 Cambridge, Westminster College, Biblica 6.52.
14 Most recent publication in Moshe Gil, In the Kingdom o f Ishmael (Hebrew), 4 vols.
(Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 1997), vol. 2, doc. 8; see there for previous editions.
15 Chizuk Amuno Congregation, Baltimore, Maryland, Goldsmith Mus. ACC FIC 2005.7.
16 Haggai Ben-shammai, ‘Gilgulav shel qeta' genizah’, Ginzei Qedem n.s. 7 (2011), 227-30.
17 T-s 13K2.1-6, first published in s. schechter, ‘Genizah specimens. saadyana I’,Jewish
Quarterly Review, o.s. 14 (1901), 37-63, Texts IV, V, Va (53-59); Bodl. Ms Heb. d 74.27-31,
in Guillaume, ‘Further Documents’ (above, n. 10).
Figure 1: copy from ca. 1028 of a letter of Sa'adya to Fustat, including (first folio)
the formerly lost m anuscript from the collection of Israel Levi, now in Baltimore.
(Baltimore, Goldsmith Mus. ACCFIC 2005.7 + Cambridge, West. Coll. Biblica 6.52 +
Bodl. M S Heb. c 13.22.)

m a k in g jo in s d e p e n d e d o n th e te x ts b e in g p erfec tly c o n tin u o u s (w h ich

w as th e case h e re ), o r o n e m a d e draw in g s o r h a d ex c e lle n t v isu a l recall.
All in all, G u illa u m e p ie c e d to g e th e r tw o c o m p le te a n d tw o in c o m p le te
folios o u t o f six to ta l in th e quire.
U nlike G uillaum e, w e h a d th e b e n e fit o f th e F rie d b erg G en iz ah P ro je ct
w eb site, d ig ital p h o to g ra p h s, e le c tro n ic c o m m u n ic a tio n s a n d A d o b e P h o to ­
shop. T hese e n a b le d u s to b e in fo u r o r five lib ra rie s sim u lta n eo u sly , a t
le a s t virtually; to h av e sp e e d y ac cess to im ag es o f th e m a n u s c rip ts in o u r
co rp u s; a n d to see w h a t th e q u ire h a d lo o k e d like b e fo re b e in g to r n a p a rt.
W e w e re e v e n ab le to im p ro v e o n G u illa u m e’s jo in . V o lla n d t h a d fo u n d
th e sh e lf-m a rk o f a n u n p u b lis h e d fra g m e n t c a ta lo g u e d in th e F rie d b erg
P ro je c t d a ta b a se as o n e o f S a'ad y a’s c a le n d ric a l w orks. W e d u ly o rd e re d it
fro m C am bridge, a n d th e in s ta n t th e p h o to g ra p h arriv ed in o u r in b o x es,
 Figure 2: T-S 13K2.2v + T-S 309.68Bv

w e k n e w it w as th e lo w er h a lf o f th e se c o n d p ag e in th e q u ire. 18 T h ere is
still h a lf a p ag e o f th e q u ire m issing, b u t since it co m es a fte r th e e n d o f th e
te x t, th a t m issin g fra g m e n t is likely to b e a m e re b la n k sc ra p o f paper.19
T h ese tw o jo in s le ft u s w ith sixty -n in e m o re folios to p ie ce to g e th er.
O n ce w e s ta rte d fittin g th e p u z z le to g e th e r, th e w o rk p ro c e e d e d re m a rk ­
ab ly quickly: d u rin g a p e rio d o f a b o u t th re e m o n th s in th e sp rin g o f 2012 ,

18 T-S 309.68b + T-S 13K2.2.

19 The bottom half of T-S 13K2.6.
w e m a d e sev eral m o re jo in s. W e d id so b e c a u s e w e u s e d so m e m e th o d s
th a t m ig h t se e m c o u n te rin tu itiv e a t first: w e d e lib e ra te ly av o id ed u sin g
th e te x ts as o u r m a in ev id en c e an d , in ste a d , b e g a n w ith a p h y sic al c e n ­
sus o f e a c h folio e n te re d in to a d a ta b a se p ro g ra m to g e th e r w ith its m a te ­
rial ( p a rc h m e n t o r p a p e r) a n d m e a su re m e n ts. T his allo w ed u s to m a tc h
u p so m e o f th e m a n u s c rip ts b y size, ta k in g in to a c c o u n t v a ria tio n s o f u p
to o n e c e n tim e te r d u e to decay, shrin k ag e, a n d im p re c ise m e a su re m e n t.
T h e n w e c o u n te d th e n u m b e rs o f lin e s p e r page. (H ere, to o , th e re w as
so m e im p re cisio n , sin ce scrib es d id n o t alw ays h av e ex actly th e sam e
n u m b e rs o f lin es o n e a c h page.) Last, w e lo o k e d a t h a n d w ritin g , k e e p in g in
m in d th a t o n e c a n n o t alw ays d e m o n s tra te b e y o n d th e sh a d o w o f a d o u b t
w h e th e r tw o d iffe re n t te x ts a re in th e sa m e h a n d , a n d th a t a single te x t
c a n b e w ritte n b y th e sam e scrib e in tw o d iffe re n t sc rip ts (th is d escrib es
th re e bifolios o f a single te x t in P h ila d e lp h ia a n d O xford). In o th e r w ords,
p a la e o g ra p h y is n o t alw ays a reliab le gu id e to codicology. L ast o f all, w e
lo o k e d a t th e te x t, since m a n y o f th e m a n u sc rip ts w e p ie c e d to g e th e r c o n ­
ta in e d te x ts th a t w e re on ly loosely re la te d . In all, a n d in c lu d in g p rev io u s
sc h o lars’ jo in s, w e w ere ab le to r e c o n s tru c t sev en m a n u s c rip ts in to ta l,
a n d a n e ig h th c o n ta in in g Sefer h a -g a lu i.
O f th e se eight, le t u s offer tw o ex a m p le s in a d d itio n to th e tw o w e h av e
a lre a d y offered.
O ne o f th e m a n u s c rip ts w e h av e re c o n s tru c te d c o n ta in s th e co p y o f a n
early le tte r o f Ben M e’ir. T he m a n u s c rip t c o m p rises tw o p a r c h m e n t b ifo ­
lios (o n e a t th e B odleian, o n e n o w a t th e Je w ish T h eo lo g ical s e m in a ry o f
A m erica), p lu s se v eral single folios (also a t th e B odleian); it p ro b a b ly origi­
n ally c o n siste d a lto g e th e r o f fo u r bifolios fro m th e sa m e quire.2° In 1891,
A le x a n d e r H arkavy, w o rk in g in st. P etersb u rg , first p u b lis h e d th e B o d leian
p a r t o f th e m a n u s c rip t b a s e d o n a n in a c c u ra te tra n s c rip tio n s e n t to h im
b y A d o lf N eu b a u er, w o rk in g in O xford. G iven th e in a c c u ra c ie s in N eu-
b a u e r ’s tra n sc rip tio n , o n e m ig h t a ssu m e th a t h e m a y n o t h av e in te n d e d it
fo r p u b lic a tio n , b u t p re su m a b ly logistical ch a lle n g es p re v e n te d H arkavy
fro m ac ce ssin g th e original. H e th u s p u b lis h e d a m a n u s c rip t h e h a d n e v e r
seen. H e also k n e w th a t th e folios h e w as p u b lish in g fo rm e d a n in c o m p le te
q u ire w ith so m e te x t m issin g in th e m id d le, b u t h e co u ld n o t h av e k n o w n
a t th e tim e w h e re th e m issin g p ie c e m ig h t b e fo u n d .
It tu r n e d o u t t h a t th e m issin g bifolio w as e ith e r in E lkan N a th a n A d ler’s
p riv a te c o lle c tio n o f G en iz ah m a n u s c rip ts o r else still in th e G en iz ah

2° Bodl. Ms Heb. f 26.1-6 + New York, Jewish Theological seminary of America, Elkan
Nathan Adler Collection (hereafter ENA) 2556.2.
 .^ •»*** A \ p oab

'f V
IN W -'J .V * ®JV> 'r r * * n "VxV m > i r u o V
*h(A \* **»« J t T'v>JHt' k*y^ **:" * ^ v * * s f j r . 4
• * 'v - ._• v
vjai K« ^ *V ‘>t'* ■ r ^A^Va ^
„ !K r,u ' >■*-«•
Ju- *\» -Jj m^*a»w’3**v>Ka »f*r m r*'
.rv* t t n j - r j « p ^ y y r
* i'rtB 'rx »*•.««*. L -^.v.A - U 3< - ^ |\V r-rrv o .^ ,

•m > * ^ T k -w > c <

•>v^?r ■"«■"» >-v •”>

Figure 3: Oxford, Bodl. Heb. MS Heb. F.26.3b-4a, New York, JTS, ENA 2556.2
recto— after treatm ent

c h a m b e r itself, w a itin g to b e a c q u ire d b y A d ler (w h o m a d e tw o se p a ra te

trip s to Cairo, in 1888 a n d 1895). In 1914, A d ler h im s e lf p u b lis h e d it; b u t
h e d id n o t m e n tio n H arkavy’s p u b lic a tio n , e ith e r b e c a u s e h e d id n o t k n o w
o f it o r d id n o t see th e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e m .21 M ean w h ile, H ayyim
Y ehFel B o rn ste in d id see th e c o n n e c tio n , b a s e d o n ly o n th e p u b lis h e d ed i­
tio n s, a n d in 1922 p a rtia lly re p u b lish e d th e tex ts, b u t w ith o u t ev er h av in g
se e n e ith e r A dler’s m a n u s c rip t o r th e B odleian q u ire. A lth o u g h B o rn ste in
k n e w th e te x ts w ere c o n n e c te d , h e h a d n o co d ico lo g ical ev id en c e th a t
th e y h a d co m e fro m th e sam e m a n u sc rip t; in g en eral, B o rn ste in d id n o t
involve h im s e lf in th e q u e s tio n o f m a n u s c rip ts a t all .22
W e w e n t b a c k to stu d y all fo u r bifolios, b u t q u ick ly re a liz e d w e faced a
n e w p ro b le m : th e p a r c h m e n t o f th e A d ler bifolio (n o w in N ew York) w as
so p u c k e re d o n o n e side as to b e illegible, a n d it h a d b e e n p h o to g ra p h e d
th a t w ay for th e F rie d b erg d a ta b a se . T h a t w as h o w it re m a in e d u n til w e
ask ed th e lib ra ria n o f th e Je w ish T heolo g ical se m in a ry , D avid K raem er,

21 E.N. Adler, ‘Nouveaux documents sur la dispute entre ben Meir et saadia’, Revue des
Etudes Juives 68 (1914), 50-52.
22 H.Y. Bornstein, Divrei yemei ha-'ibbur ha-aharonim, part 2, in ha-Tequfa 16 (1922),
228-92 (on 264-65).
w h e th e r h is c o n se rv a to rs co u ld tr e a t th e m a n u s c r ip t a n d sm o o th it out.
N o t o n ly d id th e y ag ree to th is; th e y d id su c h a fine jo b th a t w e n o w h a d
a p ristin e bifolio in w h ic h every le tte r w as clearly visible.
F o r e a c h o f th e eig h t m a n u s c rip ts th a t w e re c o n stru c te d , th e re w as som e
sim ilarly c o m p lic a te d sto ry to do w ith th e m a n u sc rip ts , fo llo w ed b y o u r
r e a liz a tio n th a t th o se w h o h a d p u b lis h e d th e te x ts e ith e r h a d n e v e r se e n
th e m o r h a d little c o n c e rn fo r th e in fo rm a tio n th e y m ig h t y ield b e y o n d
th e w o rd s o n th e page. B ut th e co d ico lo g ical a n d p a le o g ra p h ic in fo rm a ­
tio n tu rn s o u t to b e e sse n tia l n o t ju s t to u n d e r s ta n d in g th e tra n sm is sio n
o f th e tex ts, b u t th e te x ts th e m se lv es. T he follow ing, fin al e x a m p le d e m ­
o n stra te s th is clearly.
O ne m a n u s c rip t c o n ta in s sev eral le tte rs o f S a'ad y a to h is fo llo w ers in
F u stat, in Ju d e o -A rab ic a n d H ebrew . It c o m p rises o n e b ifo lio a t th e B odle­
ian, a s e c o n d in P h ilad e lp h ia , a n d a th ird a n d fo u rth in C a m b rid g e .23 T h ese
th re e shelf-m ark s h a d n e v e r b e e n jo in e d befo re. Gil h a d p u b lis h e d ea c h
sep arately , in d ic a tin g th a t th e y w e re w ritte n in th e sam e h a n d , a c o n c lu ­
sion w e also re a c h e d , b u t h e d id n o t e sta b lish th e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n
th e m . 24
N o t on ly a re th e y c o n n e c te d : th e y are c o n tin u o u s. o n c e w e re c o g n iz e d
th a t th e bifolios b e lo n g e d to th e sam e m a n u sc rip t, w e w e re ab le to p ie ce
to g e th e r a c o n tin u o u s te x t, w ith th e P h ila d e lp h ia b ifo lio b elo n g in g in sid e
th e o x fo rd one. T he o x fo rd bifolio h a d b e e n p u b lis h e d as c o n tin u o u s text,
b u t n o w w e re a liz e d th a t it w as n o t c o n tin u o u s a t all, a n d also th a t it
b e lo n g e d in th e o p p o site o rd e r fro m th e o n e in w h ic h p rev io u s ed ito rs
h a d p u b lis h e d it (a n d in th e o p p o site o rd e r fro m h o w it is b o u n d a t th e
B odleian). As fo r th e P h ila d e lp h ia bifolio, n o w th e c e n te r o f o u r q u ire, w e
n o te d th a t th e tw o sides o f th e p ag e h a d n o t b e e n w ritte n in th e sam e
sc rip t: th e left side is in sq u a re script, a n d th e rig h t in se m i-sq u are script,
th o u g h th e scrib e seem s to h av e b e e n th e sam e. W e to o k th is as a clue
th a t th e te x t m ig h t n o t b e c o n tin u o u s, a n d o n ce w e s tu d ie d th e te x t, it
b e c a m e c lea r th a t, in fact, th e re h a d o n ce b e e n a n o th e r b ifo lio in th e c e n ­
te r o f th e q u ire, to fo rm a q u ire o f th re e bifolios to ta l. A p p a re n tly th e poor,
tire d scribe, a fte r w ritin g so m e p a r t o f th e m issin g bifolio, to o k a b re a k
a n d th e n b e g a n a g a in in clear, sq u a re script.

23 Bodl. MS Heb. f 56.82-83; Philadelphia, Center for Advanced Judaic Studies, Halper
332; T-S 6 Ja.1.
24 Gil, In the Kingdom of Ishmael, vol. 2, doc. 6.
 W e n o w h a d p a r t o f a q u ire w ith a m issin g c e n te rfo ld — w h ic h m e a n t
th a t all p re v io u s e d itio n s o f th e se fra g m e n ts w e re n o w u seless, b e c a u s e
th e y h a d a s su m e d th a t e a c h fra g m e n t w as a se lf-c o n tain e d , c o n tin u o u s
u n it. F u rth e rm o re , p rev io u s e d ito rs h a d a s su m e d th a t th e O xford bifolio
c o n ta in e d th e te x t o f one le tte r to S a'adya’s fo llo w ers in F u stat, a le tte r
w ith a c o n sid e ra b le n u m b e r o f re p e titio n s . It n o w b e c a m e e v id e n t th a t
it c o n ta in e d — to g e th e r w ith th e P h ila d e lp h ia a n d th e m issin g in n e r
b ifo lio s— th e te x t o f tw o le tte rs in H ebrew , w h ic h a p p e a r in fac t to b e tw o
d iffe re n t v e rsio n s o f th e sa m e le tte r (h e n c e a re p e titiv e im p re ssio n ). T he
d iscovery o f d iffe re n t v ersio n s o f th e sa m e le tte r h a s im p o r ta n t im p lic a ­
tio n s for o u r u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e te x tu a l tran sm issio n o f th e con tro v ersy ’s
te x ts in th e co u rse o f th e 10 th a n d early 11th ce n tu rie s, w h ic h w e h av e y e t
to e v a lu a te in a d e ta ile d a n d c o m p re h e n siv e w ay.
W h a t a b o u t th e tw o bifolios o f th is m a n u s c rip t th a t are n o w in C am ­
b rid g e? T h eir first p ag e b eg in s a t th e b e g in n in g o f a le tte r in Ju d eo -A rab ic,
w h ic h w o u ld b e c o n s is te n t w ith th e ir b e in g th e b e g in n in g o f a se ctio n .
T he la st p ag e c o n ta in s th e b e g in n in g o f a le tte r in H ebrew , a n d is d a m ­
ag e d a n d faded, w h ic h a t first m a d e it difficu lt for u s to u n d e r s ta n d h o w
it c o n n e c te d w ith th e o x fo rd a n d P h ila d e lp h ia bifolios. B ut close analysis
o f tra c e s o f in k fro m th e la st p ag e o f th e C a m b rid g e q u ire o n th e first
p ag e o f th e O x fo rd /P h ila d e lp h ia q u ire d e m o n s tra te d to u s th a t th e y w ere
o n ce a d ja c e n t. T hose in k tra c e s also e n a b le d u s to re c o n s tru c t m u c h o f
th e fad e d te x t fro m th e O x fo rd /P h ila d e lp h ia q u ire a n d to o b ta in a c o n ­
tin u o u s te x t fo r th e first o f th e tw o H eb rew le tte rs. T h a t le ft u s w ith a
m a n u s c rip t n o w co n sistin g o f tw o quires, th e first w ith tw o bifolios
(in C am b rid g e) a n d se c o n d w ith th re e (O x fo rd /P h ilad e lp h ia , a lth o u g h th e
c e n tra l b ifolio is m issing). W e im m e d ia te ly c h e c k e d to see w h e th e r th e re
co u ld b e a m issin g b ifolio in th e C am b rid g e q u ire as w ell to m a k e th e
q u ires sy m m etric al, b u t th e te x t d e m o n s tra te s th a t th e re is n o t; m e d iev a l
scrib es d id so m e tim e s m a k e q u ires w ith u n e q u a l n u m b e rs o f pages. T h a t
se em s to h av e b e e n th e case h ere.
O u r re c o n s tru c tio n o f th is m a n u s c rip t h as y ie ld e d a m o re a c c u ra te te x t
th a n is cu rre n tly available. This p ro ce ss w as ty p ic al o f th e p ro jec t: ev en
th o u g h o u r in itia l a im h a d b e e n q u ite m o d e s t— sim p ly to stu d y th e te x t’s
w itn e sse s codicologically a n d p alae o g ra p h ica lly a n d u n d e r s ta n d its tr a n s ­
m issio n h isto ry — w e d isc o v ered so m a n y p ro b le m s w ith th e ex istin g ed i­
tio n s th a t w e h a d to je ttis o n th e m a n d d e c id e to re e d it th e te x ts ourselves.
W e a re c u rre n tly a t w o rk o n c o m p le tin g th a t task.
A t th e m o m e n t, w e are p la n n in g fo r o u r e d itio n to in c lu d e d ip lo m a tic
e d itio n s o f e a c h m a n u s c rip t a n d a critica l e d itio n o f th e e n tire te x t. W e
h av e c h o s e n to p u rsu e b o th o p tio n s p rec isely b e c a u s e th e v a rio u s m a n u ­
sc rip ts h a d se rv e d p rev io u s e d ito rs o n ly as ev id en c e o f te x tu a l o v erlap a n d
v a ria tio n , n o t as h isto ric a l ev id en c e in its o w n right. T h o se e d ito rs fol­
lo w ed th e classical L a c h m a n n ia n m e th o d , in w h ic h m a n u s c rip t w itn e sses
serve th e e d ito r as ev id en c e o f a n U rte x t t h a t in m a n y cases is c le a n e r a n d
m o re ‘a u th e n tic ’ th a n an y o f th e surviving m a n u s c rip t w itn e sse s to th a t
tex t. W e th in k th a t su c h a p ro je c t is w o rth w h ile , b u t also w ish to e x a m in e
th e in d iv id u a l m a n u s c rip ts as p h y sic al a rtifa c ts a n d re c o rd s o f tra n s m is ­
sion in th e ir o w n right. W e are p ro ce ed in g , th e n , b o th sy n c h ro n ic ally a n d
d iach ro n ically .
W h a t c a n w e say a t th is p o in t a b o u t th e te x t’s tra n sm is sio n o v er tim e?
W h a t follow s are te n ta tiv e h y p o th e se s th a t a re su b je c t to revision.
First, th e d a tin g o f o u r m a n u sc rip ts . F or all th e m a n u s c rip ts b u t one,
w e h a d to rely o n p a la e o g ra p h ic d atings, for w h ic h w e c o n s u lte d J u d ith
O lszow y-S chlanger o f th e Ecole P ra tiq u e des H a u te s E tudes. W ith o u t
e x c e p tio n , sh e d a te d e a c h m a n u s c r ip t w e sh o w ed h e r to th e e le v e n th
ce n tu ry , e ith e r early o r late. O ne m a n u s c rip t ac tu a lly b o re a d ate: th e le t­
te r m e n tio n e d abo v e fro m S a'ad y a to th e c o m m u n itie s o f F u stat, w h ic h
is d iv id e d a m o n g co llec tio n s in B altim ore, C am b rid g e, a n d O xford. T he
B odleian se g m e n t o f th is m a n u s c r ip t fo rm s p a r t o f a p in q a s (c o m m u n a l
n o te b o o k o r arch iv e) fro m th e Ira q i Je w ish c o n g re g a tio n in F u stat, in to
w h ic h w e re also c o p ie d a n u m b e r o f c o n tra c ts a n d o th e r b u sin e s s item s,
o n e o f th e m d a te d (o n th e v erso o f o u r folio) v h w |0 T3 Dl1,
‘T h u rsd a y 27 N isan 1339’ (o f th e e ra o f co n tra c ts ), 25 A p ril 1028 CE.25 It
a p p e a rs, th e re fo re , th a t th is co p y o f th e le tte rs w as m a d e in o r a ro u n d
1028 (d a tin g it m o re p rec isely d e p e n d s o n a b e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e
c o n s tru c tio n a n d c o m p o sitio n o f th e p in q a s).
G iven th e d ates, a n d th e a b s e n c e o f a n y d ire c t s ta te m e n ts as to w h y
th e le tte rs w e re co p ied , w e h av e lo o k e d for c irc u m s ta n tia l ev id en ce. T he
first q u e s tio n w e a sk ed w as w h e n th e c a le n d a r c o n d itio n s th a t h a d g e n ­
e ra te d th e d e b a te in th e 9 2 0 s re c u rre d . T h ey re c u rre d ju s t a few y ea rs
later, in 9 2 6 /2 7 -9 2 7 /2 8 , b u t th e re is n o re c o rd o f a c o n tro v e rsy th e n —
o n e o f th e re a so n s g e n e ra tio n s o f p rev io u s sc h o lars b e lie v e d th a t th e
Iraqis h a d w o n th e b a ttle . T hey n e x t re c u rre d tw o h u n d r e d y ea rs later,
in 1107/08-1108/09 a n d 1144/45-1145/46, b u t n o t a t all in th e e le v e n th
ce n tu ry . T he co p y o f S a'ad y a’s le tte r m e n tio n e d ab o v e, m a d e in F u sta t
in 1028, w as th e re fo re c o p ie d d u rin g a tim e w h e n th e c a le n d ric a l issu es

25 Bodl. MS Heb. c 13.22.

w e re o f n o p ra g m a tic c o n c e rn w h atso ev e r. W h a t else w as h a p p e n in g in
F u sta t th a t m ig h t explain in te re s t in th e C alen d ar C ontroversy? T he 1020s
a n d 1030s w e re a p e rio d o f a c u te in te rn e c in e b a ttle s b e tw e e n th e P al­
e s tin ia n a n d Iraq i Je w ish co n g re g a tio n s o f E gypt a n d Syria— so a c u te
th a t o n 25 S ivan/9 Ju n e in 1029 CE, th e ga’o n o f Je ru sa le m , S h elo m o b e n
Y eh u d a (1025-51), tra v e le d to F u sta t to e x c o m m u n ic a te th e e n tire Iraq i
c o n g re g a tio n in a sp e cia l g raveside ce rem o n y . T he p r e te x t o n w h ic h h e
e x c o m m u n ic a te d th e Iraqis w as th a t th e y h a d b e e n b u tc h e rin g a n im a ls
in c o rrec tly ; b u t th e v itrio l w e n t m u c h f u rth e r th a n a n y single p e rc e iv e d
sin: as h e to ld h is colleague E frayim b. S h em a ry a in a le tte r, ‘Y our le tte r
a rriv e d o n 2 4 Sivan, a n d o n th e 2 5 th , o n th a t v ery M o n d ay , w e g a th e re d
in th e c e m e te ry in a large group, a n d w e b ro u g h t o u t T o ra h scrolls a n d
e x c o m m u n ic a te d every p ro m u lg a to r o f sin fu l sta tu te s a n d a u th o r o f v a n ­
ity a n d lies a n d th o se w h o fo m e n t q u arrels b e tw e e n b ro th e rs in o rd e r to
ac h ie v e th e ir d e sire s .’26 T his is ju s t o n e ex a m p le o f th e in fig h tin g b e tw e e n
th e P a le stin ia n a n d Iraq i R a b b a n ite c o n g re g atio n s d u rin g th is p erio d , b u t
th e re a re o th e rs. It th e re fo re sta n d s to rea so n th a t th e Ira q i R a b b a n ite s o f
F u sta t m ig h t h av e se e n fit to in c lu d e in th e ir c o m m u n a l p in q a s a copy
o f th e S a'adya-B en M e’ir c o rre sp o n d e n c e , le tte rs in w h ic h Iraq is a tte m p t
to sh o w P a le stin ia n s w h o c o n tro lle d th e Je w ish c a le n d a r n o t o nly in
F u sta t b u t e v e n in P ale stin e itself.
T his c irc u m s ta n tia l h y p o th e sis se em s w o rth p u rsu in g fo r tw o a d d itio n a l
reasons. First, o u r co d ico lo g ical w o rk le d u s to u n d e r s ta n d th a t so m e o f
th e te x ts w e re tr a n s m itte d to g e th e r w ith a p o le m ic a l te x t b y Sa'adya,
called Sefer ha-g a lu i in H eb rew a n d al-Kitab a l-ta rid in A rabic, w h ic h
h e w ro te a fte r h av in g b e e n d e p o s e d fro m th e g a o n a te o f S ura in 932 by
th e e x ilarch D avid b. Z akkai. In it, h e briefly refers to th e co n flict w ith Ben
M e’ir. B oth a re p o le m ic s th a t S a'ad y a c o m p o se d a g a in s t o th e r ra b b in ic
Jew s, b e th e y P a le stin ia n Jew s o r o th e r Iraqis. T he S a 'a d y a -B e n M e’ir te x ts
w ere, o n th e o th e r h a n d , n o t, as far as w e k n o w , co p ied w ith S a'ad y a’s
a n ti-Q a ra ite w ritin g s, d e s p ite th e d iffe ren ce s b e tw e e n th e Q araite a n d
R a b b a n ite ca le n d ars, d e s p ite S a'ad y a h av in g w ritte n a s e p a ra te p o le m ic a l
tre a tise a g a in st th e Q araite c a le n d a r ^ 7 a n d d e s p ite ev id en c e th a t S a'ad y a’s

26 T-S 20.102, ed. Gil, Palestine during the First Muslim Period, 638-1099, Hebrew
(Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 1983), vol. 2, doc. 79. For the wider context of this infighting,
see Rustow, Heresy, pp. 200-36.
27 T-S 10K2; Schechter, ‘Genizah specimens. Saadyana II’, Jewish Quarterly Review, o.s.
14 (1902), 197-249 (Text IX, 197-203).
a n ti-Q a ra ite w ritin g s w e re w id ely tr a n s m itte d a n d w ell k n o w n in th is
period.28 T he w o rk se em s to h av e fit, for th o se tr a n s m ittin g it, u n d e r th e
ru b ric o f in tra -R a b b a n ite p o le m ic , so it is log ical to lo o k fo r so m e o f
th e in te r e s t in co p y in g it in in tra -R a b b a n ite p o litic a l te n sio n s.
Second, o u r h y p o th e sis th a t th e tra n sm issio n o f th e S a'adya-B en M e ir
te x ts p la y ed a ro le in p o le m ic s b e tw e e n Iraq is a n d P a le stin ia n s m a y
fin d s u p p o rt in th e p ro v isio n a l o b se rv a tio n — w h ic h w e still n e e d to c o n ­
firm th ro u g h fu rth e r re se a rc h — th a t so m e m a n u s c rip ts a p p e a r to h av e
c o n ta in e d le tte rs fro m S a'ad y a a n d h is p a rty only, a n d o th e rs le tte rs only
fro m B en M e ir. Thus, o n e m a n u sc rip t consists o f a t le a st th re e le tte rs fro m
S a'ad y a to h is discip les in Egypt; b u t o th e rs a re co p ies o f th e ‘first le tte r’
o f B en M e ir.
Finally, it seem s th a t E vyatar G a’o n in 1094 m u s t h av e k n o w n a b o u t
th e S a'adya-B en M e ir le tte rs, a lth o u g h h e d o es n o t q u o te fro m th e m .
In d ee d , h e m a k e s a rg u m e n ts p rec isely c o n g ru e n t w ith Ben M e lr ’s claim s
o n b e h a lf o f th e P a le stin ia n ga’o n ’s p re ro g a tiv e to d e c la re th e c a le n d a r
a n d th e o b lig a tio n to in te rc a la te th e y e a r on ly fro m th e la n d o f Israel.
A fter all, E vyatar’s m a in p u rp o se in w ritin g h is m eg illa h w as to d e m o n ­
stra te h is su p e rio rity ov er h is Iraq i rival, m u c h as B en M e ir h a d d o n e o n e
h u n d r e d eig h ty y ea rs earlier. It is e v e n p o ssib le th a t a t le a s t o n e o f th e
la te -e le v e n th -c e n tu ry co p ies w e h av e c o m es fro m E v y atar a n d h is ca m p
w ith in th e P a le stin ia n yesh iv ah .
O ne la st p o in t b e fo re co n clu d in g . T he te x tu a l ev id en c e w e h av e re c o n ­
stru c te d so far p o in ts to th e p o ssib ility th a t th e te x ts w e re tr a n s m itte d
w id ely ov er th e co u rse o f th e su b s e q u e n t tw o c e n tu rie s, b u t n o t a t all
th e re a fte r. A n d su rely it is sig n ific an t n o t ju s t th a t th e s e m a n u s c rip ts
w ere co p ied , b u t also th a t a t a c e rta in p o in t, th e y cea sed to b e co p ied
a n d all m e m o ry o f th e c o n tro v e rsy w as lost. T h ere a re o n ly th re e e x te r­
n a l m e n tio n s o f th e con tro v ersy : b y S a'ad y a h im s e lf in th e 930s, b y Sahl
b. M a slia h o f P ale stin e tw o d e c a d e s la ter, a n d b y E lijah o f N isibis in th e
early e le v e n th c e n tu ry . 29 By th e tw e lfth ce n tu ry , all m e m o ry o f th e G re at
C a le n d a r C o n tro v e rsy h a d b e e n lost, to b e re d isc o v e re d b y sch o lars in th e
la te n in e te e n th ce n tu ry . W h a t d o es th is silence m e a n ? H ad th e issu e o f
th e c a le n d a r a n d o f Iraq i a u th o rity b e e n se ttle d a n d so th e te x ts lo s t th e ir
a p p e a l? T h a t is th e a rg u m e n t o n e finds in th e o ld e r sch o larsh ip . B ut it

28 S. Poznanski, The Karaite Literary Opponents of Saadiah Gaon, London: Luzac, 1908.
29 Bornstein, Mahloqet Rav Sa'adya Gaon u-Ven Meir, 7. On the latter, see article of
Frangois de Blois in this volume.
is also p o ssib le th a t tra n s m ittin g th e co n tro v e rsy c e a se d to h o ld in te r ­
e st b e c a u s e th e rab b in ic p o litics th a t h a d su s ta in e d th a t in te r e s t ce ased
to ex ist w ith th e C ru sa d e r c o n q u e s t o f P ale stin e a n d th e re a lig n m e n t o f
rab b in ic p o litics c e n te rin g o n Egypt. E gyptian rab b in ic a u th o ritie s co u ld
n o t h av e m a d e th e sa m e k in d s o f c a le n d ric a l a rg u m e n ts as P ale stin ian s
su c h as E vyatar. T he c o m p le te a m n e s ia reg ard in g th e co n tro v e rsy afte r
th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry is a n in trig u in g h isto ric a l p ro b le m fo r w h ic h w e only
h av e in fo rm e d p ie ce s o f sp e c u la tio n .
T h ere a re still m a n y u n a n s w e re d q u e s tio n s th a t w e h o p e to ad d ress.
For exam p le: w h a t, exactly, is th e te x t o f th e le tte rs? Is it a n u m b e r o f co l­
le ctio n s o f le tte rs c o m p ile d by sy nagogue officials w h o h a d access to th e
originals, o r a b o o k th a t so m e o n e sa t d o w n a n d c o m p o se d co llec tin g all
th e stages o f th e c o n tro v e rsy a n d d ra w in g o n ep isto la ry m a te ria l? W h y do
th re e o f o u r m a n u s c rip ts h av e le tte rs fro m o n e side o n ly — w ere th e y c o p ­
ie d b y in te re s te d p a rtie s w h o d id n o t care a b o u t th e c o u n te ra rg u m e n ts ?
C an w e d ra w u p a s te m m a o f th e te x t’s tra n sm iss io n to d e te rm in e h o w
w id e s p re a d in te r e s t in th e le tte rs w as? A n d finally, o n ce w e h av e a te x t
b a s e d o n th e d ire c t ev id en c e o f all th e m a n u sc rip ts , w ill th e re b e p o in ts o f
in te r p re ta tio n th a t w e m u s t radically revise? W e are c o n v in c e d th a t th e re
w ill b e sc o p e fo r ree v alu a tio n , p a rtic u la rly o n th e q u e s tio n o f h o w a n d
ev e n w h e th e r th e co n tro v e rsy w as ev e n tu a lly se ttle d ; b u t w e a re d e te r­
m in e d to k ee p a n o p e n m in d u n til w e h av e a p ro p e rly e d ite d text.

R eferences

Manuscripts
Baltimore, MD, Chizuk Amuno Congregation, Goldsmith Museum:
ACC FIC 2005.7
Cambridge, Cambridge University Library, Taylor-Schechter Collection (T-S):
6 Ja.1
10 K2
10K7.1
12.729
13 K2.1-6
20.102
309.68b
Cambridge, Westminster College:
Biblica 6.52
New York, Jewish Theological Seminary of America, Elkan Nathan Adler Collection (ENA):
2556.2
Oxford, Bodleian Library (Bodl.):
MS Heb. e 26.3
MS Heb. c 13.22
MS Heb. d 74.27-31
 MS Heb. f 26.1-6
MS Heb. f 56.82-83
Philadelphia, Center for Advanced Judaic Studies:
Halper 332

Printed Works
Adler, E.N., ‘Nouveaux documents sur la dispute entre ben Meir et Saadia’, Revue des Etu­
des Juives 68 (1914), 50-52.
Ben-Shammai, Haggai, ‘Gilgulav shel qeta' genizah’, Ginzei Qedem n.s. 7 (2011), 227-30.
Bornstein, H.Y., Divreiyemei ha-'ibbur ha-aharonim, pt 2, ha-Tequfa 16 (1922), 228-92.
------, MahloqetRav Sa'adya Gaon u-Ven Meir [The Dispute between Saadya Gaon and Ben
Meir], in N. SokolowJubilee Volume (Warsaw: Shuldberg, 1904), pp. 19-189.
Fleischer, Ezra, ‘Literary Documents Concerning the History of the Gaonate in Erez-Israel’
[Hebrew], Zion 49 (1984), 375-400.
Gil, Moshe (ed.), Palestine during the First Muslim Period, 638-1099 [Hebrew] (Tel Aviv:
Tel Aviv University, 1983).
------, ‘The Scroll of Evyatar as a Source for the History of the Struggles of the Yeshiva of
Jerusalem during the Second Half of the Eleventh Century: A New Reading of the Scroll’,
in B.Z. Kedar (ed.), Jerusalem in the Middle Ages: Selected Papers (Jerusalem: Yad Izhak
Ben-Zvi, 1979), pp. 81-106.
----- , In the Kingdom of Ishmael [Hebrew], 4 vols (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 1997).
Guillaume, Alfred, ‘Further documents on the Ben-Meir controversy’,Jewish Quarterly Review,
n.s. 5 (1914-15), 543-57.
Harkavy, Alexander, Zikhron la-rishonim ve-gam la-aharonim, vol. 5 [Zikhron la-ga'on Rav
Sa'adya] (St Petersburg, 1891).
Levi, Israel, ‘Nouveaux fragments relatifs a Ben Meir’, Revue des Etudes Juives 41 (1901),
229-232.
Lewin, B.M., ‘Kitab rosh ha-yeshivah al-fayyumi, z(ikhrono) l(ivrakha)’, Ginze Qedem 2
(1924), 33-35.
Poznanski, S., The Karaite Literary Opponents of Saadiah Gaon (London: Luzac, 1908).
Rustow, Marina, Heresy and the Politics of Community: The Jews o f the Fatimid Caliphate
(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008).
Schechter, S., ‘Genizah Specimens. Saadyana I’, Jewish Quarterly Review, o.s. 14 (1901):
37-63.
------, ‘Genizah specimens. Saadyana II’,Jewish Quarterly Review, o.s. 14 (1902): 197-249.
Schechter, Solomon, Saadyana: Geniza fragments of writings o f R. Saadya Gaon and others
(Cambridge, 1903).
Stern, Sacha, and Piergabriele Mancuso, ‘An Astronomical Table by Shabbetai Donnolo and
the Jewish Calendar in Tenth-century Italy’, Aleph 7 (2007), 13-41.
Stern, Sacha, Calendar and Community: A History of theJewish Calendar, 2nd Century B.C.E.
to 10th Century C.E. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
 CHAPTER SIX

THE HEBREW CALENDRICAL BOOKSHELF OF THE

EARLY TWELFTH CENTURY: THE CASES OF ABRAHAM BAR HIYYA
A N D JA C O B BAR SAMSON

Ilan a W a rte n b e rg

1. In tro d u ctio n

In th is artic le I ex a m in e tw o c e n tra l b o o k s o n th e Je w ish c a le n d a r w h ic h

w e re c o m p o se d in th e 1120s. T he first tr a c t w as w ritte n b y th e S p an ish
p o ly m a th A b ra h a m b a r H iyya in 1122/3, w h ic h is th e y e a r 4883 in th e
Je w ish c a le n d a r— th e la st y e a r in th e 2 5 7 th cycle. T ex tu al ev id en c e sug­
g ests th a t it w as w ritte n in N o rth e rn F ra n c e .1 A ro u n d th e sa m e tim e, Ja co b
b a r S am son, a w ell-k n o w n ra b b in ic sc h o lar fro m N o rth e rn F ran ce, a n d a
s tu d e n t o f th e fam o u s ex e g ete R abbi S o lo m o n Isaaci (RaSHi) fro m T royes
(1040-1105) also c o m p o se d a tre a tis e o n th e Je w ish ca le n d ar. A lth o u g h
b o th te x ts w e re w ritte n a ro u n d th e sa m e tim e, a n d p o ssib ly in g e o g ra p h i­
cal pro x im ity , I w ill sh o w th a t th e ir c o m p o sitio n w as n o t c o rre la te d .2
M y analy sis aim s to go b e y o n d a m e re ju x ta p o s itio n o f th e tw o tex ts.
In fact, I w ish to re fu te A v ra h am G ro ssm an ’s a s se rtio n th a t Bar S am so n
u se d Bar H iyya’s c a le n d ric a l w ork. G ro ssm a n ’s e x a c t claim is th a t a lth o u g h
th e re is n o ev id en c e given b y Bar S am so n for u sin g Bar H iyya’s tra c t, th is
is w h a t arises fro m c o m p a rin g th e tw o tex ts. It is tru e th a t n o w h e re in
Bar S am so n ’s c a le n d ric a l w o rk d o es o n e fin d Bar H iyya’s n a m e ex p licitly
m e n tio n e d w h e re a s o th e r so u rce s are in d ic a te d , fo r ex am p le, c a le n d ric a l
ru les b y S aadya G ao n (ca. 8 8 2 -9 4 2 ).3

1 The term used in the introduction to this book is Sarfat, which in the medieval
literature could refer to either Provence or Northern France.
2 The materials and analysis presented here belong to my joint work with Israel
Sandman on Bar Hiyya’s text and my own research on Bar Samson’s book. This is part
of the AHRC-funded project on medieval monographs on the Jewish calendar, carried
out at the department of Hebrew and Jewish Studies at University College London under
the direction of Sacha Stern. The excerpts from Bar Samson’s text presented here are my
own edition and translation and those taken from Bar Hiyya’s book are based on Israel
Sandman’s edition and translation. Apart from the edition that is currently being prepared
at University College London, there is an earlier edition: Avraham b. Hiyya (ha-Nasi), Sefer
ha-‘Ibbur, ed. H. Filipowski (London, 1851). I thank Sacha Stern and Israel Sandman for
helpful advice.
3 Oxford, Bodleian Library, Opp. 317, folios 93a-b, 95a, 96b, 97b and 99a.
 G ro ssm an specifies th a t h is c o m p a riso n w as m a d e b e tw e e n th e c o n ­
te n ts o f th e b o o k s a n d n o t th e ir la n g u a g e ,4 a n d th is is p rec isely w h e re his
a rg u m e n t fails. T h e m a tic sim ilitu d e in o u r c a le n d ric a l case is n o p ro o f o f
te x tu a l d e p e n d e n c e a t all sim ply b e c a u s e a n y tw o tre a tise s o n th e fixed
Je w ish c a le n d a r p o ssess a large c o m m o n c a le n d ric a l d e n o m in a to r b y th e
v ery n a tu re o f th is genre. In every tr a c t o n th e Je w ish c a le n d a r w e w ill
alw ays fin d so m e o f th e issu es th a t c o n s titu te th e k e rn e l o f th e Je w ish cal­
e n d a r su c h as m o la d o t,5 tequfot,6 a n d ru le s o f d e fe rm e n t .7 F u rth e rm o re , it
is a c tu a lly th ro u g h th e analysis o f th e languag e, th e u n d e rly in g p e rc e p tio n
o f th e c a le n d ric a l th e m e s a t h a n d , a n d o th e r fea tu re s, th a t d e p e n d e n c e
c a n b e ru le d out, as I w ill sh o w in th is article.

2. The Two A u th o rs

A b ra h a m b a r H iyya fro m B arcelo n a (ca. 1 0 6 5 -ca . 1136?) w as a prolific

w rite r o n a w id e ra n g e o f d o m a in s: m a th e m a tic s, a s tro n o m y , astrology,
th e Je w ish c a le n d a r a n d p h ilo so p h y . H e w as ev e n c ro w n e d th e ‘fa th e r o f
H e b re w m a th e m a tic s ’ b y th e la te m a th e m a tic ia n a n d lin g u ist G ad b e n
A m i S arfatti, b e c a u s e Bar H iyya w as th e first a u th o r w e k n o w o f w h o co m ­
p o se d m a th e m a tic a l tre a tise s in H ebrew . D ue to th e p a u c ity o f H eb rew
m a th e m a tic a l te rm in o lo g y a t h is tim e, Bar H iyya c o in e d h u n d re d s o f
te rm s, m a in ly in a rith m e tic a n d g e o m e try .8 Ja c o b b a r S am so n fro m N o rth ­
e rn F ran ce (ca. 1 0 7 0 -ca . 1140) w as a p r o m in e n t T alm u d ic sch o lar, w h o se
w o rk s h av e surv iv ed on ly in p a rt. W e sh all see th a t Bar S am so n ’s ca len d ri-
cal te x t reveals u n e x p e c te d n o n -triv ia l m a th e m a tic a l k n o w le d g e .9

4 Avraham Grossman, The Early Sages of France: Their Lives, Leadership and Works
(Jerusalem, 1995) [Hebrew], pp. 419-20.
5 Molad (plural: moladot) is the new moon.
6 Tequfah (plural: tequfot) refers to the equinoxes and solstices, the turning points
of the seasons. The term tequfah also appears in the notions of ‘the tequfah of Samuel’ and
‘the tequfah of Rav Ada’, which designate different lengths of the solar year, as will be
explained later.
7 I.e. rules that impede Jewish holidays from falling on certain days for religious reasons.
For example, the deferment rule LO aD u ROSH (or LO IDO ROSH) means that Rosh ha-
Shana, the Jewish New Year, may not fall on Sunday, Wednesday or Friday. For a detailed
discussion of the Jewish calendar, its rules and its history, see Sacha Stern, Calendar and
Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar, 2nd Century BCE-10th Century CE (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 2001).
8 For a detailed analysis of Bar Hiyya’s life, scientific and linguistic contribution see
Gad ben Ami Sarfatti, Mathematical terminology in Hebrew scientific literature o f the Middle
Ages (Jerusalem 1969) [Hebrew, with English summary], pp. 61-129.
9 Bar Samson’s life and oeuvre are described in Grossman, The Early Sages, pp. 411-29.
 3. The Two Texts

As far as w e know , Bar H iyya’s c a le n d ric a l w o rk Sefer h a - cIb b u r [T he Book

o n th e C a le n d a r ]10 h a s survived in 23 copies, so m e o f w h ic h a re fra g m e n ­
tary. Sefer h a JIb b u r is d iv id e d in to th re e d isc o u rses (□,“IONO). T he first
d isc o u rse is n o n -c a le n d ric a l in n a tu re . It covers b asic th e m e s in g eography,
cosm ology, a s tro n o m y a n d astrology. T he se c o n d d isc o u rse to u c h e s u p o n
th e k e rn e l o f th e Je w ish ca le n d ar: th e m o n th , th e y ear, cycles, m olad,
d e fe rm e n t ru le s ( n v m ) , d e te rm in a tio n o f th e ty p e o f y e a r ( n i y u p ) a n d
th e F o u r G ates (□ ’“lyw 'l ) . n T he th ird d iscou rse, w h ic h c o n ta in s som e
p o le m ic a l elem e n ts, d escrib es a n d d iscu sses th e le n g th o f th e so lar y ea r
a n d th e tw o sch em es: th e tequ fa h o f S am u el a n d th e teq u fa h o f Rav A d a
b a r A hava, as w ell as sa b b aticals, Ju b ile e s a n d p o le m ic s re g a rd in g th e tim e
o f C reatio n . T he la st tw o c h a p te rs are d e d ic a te d to n o n -Jew ish calen d ars:
G reek, E gyptian, M uslim , P e rsia n a n d C h ristian . Bar H iyya e la b o ra te s o n
th e ir stru c tu re a n d p re s e n ts c o n v e rsio n a lg o rith m s b e tw e e n th e m a n d
th e Je w ish ca le n d ar. T he C h ristian c a le n d a r a ttra c ts m o s t o f Bar H iyya’s
a tte n tio n — h e is n o t s h o rt o f p o le m ic a l d isc u ssio n s o n v ario u s m a tte rs,
e.g. Je su s’ d a te o f b irth .
Bar S am so n ’s c a le n d ric a l te x t h a s surv iv ed in o n e fra g m e n ta ry co p y i 2
w ith tw o, a n d po ssib ly th re e e x te rn a l citatio n s, w h ic h in c lu d e m a n y
m y stica l e le m e n ts a n d sh e d so m e lig h t o n th e c o n te n ts o f th e m issin g
m a te ria ls. 13 T he u n ic u m s ta rts in th e m id d le o f c h a p te r 2 4 a n d a b ru p tly

10 The Hebrew term 'Ibbur literally means ‘intercalation’, i.e. the addition of a day, or a
month to the year. In the context of the Jewish calendar, intercalation means the addition
of a second month of Adar in 7 out of 19 years of the cycle. The purpose of intercalation
is to correct the discrepancy between one solar year and 12 lunations, which amounts
to about 11 days. In the wider sense, 'Ibbur is also the term used both by Bar Hiyya and
Bar Samson, among other medieval authors, to designate the [Jewish] calendar and its
calculation. Since Bar Hiyya’s book encompasses the entirety of the Jewish calendar and
not just the operation of intercalation, it seems fitting to translate its title Sefer ha-'Ibbur as
The Book on the Calendar, or alternatively, The Book on the Calculation o f the Calendar and
not The Book on Intercalation. It must also be said that the title of the book may have been
given by later scribes, since it does not appear in all the surviving manuscripts. This matter
will be described in detail in our future publication—a monograph that will include an
edition, English translation and commentary of Bar Hiyya’s text.
11 The last two calendrical terms will be explained and demonstrated in the upcoming
examples.
12 Oxford, Bodleian Library, Opp. 317, folios 88a-99b. The copy was made in 1314/5 in
Ashkenazi hand.
13 For details see Grossman, The Early Sages, pp. 420-2. At the present state of my
research, I am less convinced than Grossman that the citation in ms. 1102 was indeed part
of Bar Samson’s calendrical work too.
e n d s sh o rtly a fte r th e b e g in n in g o f c h a p te r 40. In c h a p te r 39 w e le a rn
t h a t th e e n tire te x t co n sists o f th re e p arts: th e first c o n c e rn s th e sto ry o f
th e se v en days o f C reatio n . T he se c o n d p re s e n ts th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e
c a le n d a r (T Q ’y n H D ) [literally, ‘th e se c re t o f th e c a le n d a r’] a n d th e th ird
p a r t to u c h e s u p o n co sm o lo g ical a n d a s tro n o m ic a l m a tte rs. T he surviving
folios are p a r t o f th e se c o n d b o o k o n th e ca le n d ar. T h ey co v er c e n tra l
c a le n d ric a l th e m e s w h ic h in c lu d e th e p a tte r n o f in te r c a l a ti o n ^ th e teq u fa h
o f S am uel, d e te rm in a tio n o f th e m o la d fro m th e te q u fa h a n d vice versa ,
le n g th o f tequfot, th e d a n g e r o f d rin k in g w a te r o n th e teq u fa h days, d o m i­
n a tio n o f th e p la n e ts ov er th e h o u rs o f th e w eek, th e BaH aRaD epoch,15
th e stru c tu re o f th e Je w ish year, y e a r types, ru les o f d e fe rm e n t, a n d th e
F o u r G ates. T he scrib e o f m a n u s c rip t O p p e n h e im e r 317, S am uel, s ta rte d to
co p y th e th ir d a n d la st b o o k o n a s tro n o m y a n d astro lo g y (’W l p ^ n “I2D)16
b u t a fte r a few lin e s h e se em s to h av e c h a n g e d h is m in d , in s e rte d era su re
m a rk s ab o v e th e c o p ie d lin e s a n d w e n t o n to co p y in g a n o th e r tex t, Seder
O la m R abbah, a classical ra b b in ic w o rk o n b ib lic a l ch ro n o lo g y fro m th e
2 n d c e n tu ry CE.

4. T eq u fo t

In th e Je w ish c a le n d a r o n e finds tw o p a ra d ig m s o f tequfot: th e teq u fa h

o f S am u el a n d th e teq u fa h o f Rav A da b a r A hava. A cco rd in g to th e tequ-
f a h o f S am uel, th e le n g th o f th e so la r y e a r is 365 days a n d 6 h o u rs, th e
sa m e v alu e as in th e Ju lia n ca le n d a r, w h ic h is to o long. A te q u fa h is o n e
q u a rte r o f a so la r year. T he y e a r is d iv id e d in to 4 e q u a l te q u fo t a n d th e y
c o rre sp o n d to th e fo u r seasons: th e te q u fa h o f N isan (spring), T am m u z
(su m m e r), T ishri (a u tu m n ) a n d T ev et (w in ter). E ach teq u fa h is 91 days
a n d 7.5 h o u rs long.

14 I.e. the addition of a second month of Adar to the years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17 and 19 in the
19-year cycle, an operation which aims to harmonize the (almost) 11-days of discrepancy
between one solar year and 12 lunar months.
15 I.e. the starting point (zero point) of the calculation in the year of Creation, when
the molad of Tishri, according to tradition, occurred on 2d 5h 204p, which is equivalent to
Sunday 11:11:20 pm. In the Jewish calendar the day starts at 6pm of the previous evening,
thus the second day of the week starts at 6pm on Sunday.
16 The Hebrew title probably means ‘the last book’, as has been suggested to me by
Sacha Stern.
 S am uel, to w h o m th e te q u fa h o f S am u el is a ttrib u te d , w as a first-g e n er­
a tio n B ab y lo n ian A m o ran w h o is m u c h q u o te d in early ra b b in ic lite ra tu re .
T he p a tte r n o f th e h o u rs in w h ic h th e te q u fo t fall is fo u n d in th e B abylo­
n ia n T alm ud, bEruvin, 56a:

Samuel stated: The vernal equinox occurs only at the beginning of one of
the four quarters of the day viz., either at the beginning of the day or at the
beginning of the night or at midday or at midnight. The sum m er solstice
only occurs either at the end of one and a half, or at the end of seven and a
half hours of the day or the night. The autum nal equinox only occurs at the
end of three, or nine hours of the day or the night, and the w inter solstice
only occurs at the end of four and a half, or ten and a half hours of the day
or the night. The duration of a season of the year is no longer than ninety
one days and seven and a half hours; and the beginning of one season is
removed from th a t of the other by no more than one half of a planetary
hour. Samuel further stated: There is no vernal equinox falling under Jupiter
[i.e. in the hour of Jupiter] that does n o t break trees, and no w inter solstice
falling under Jupiter that does not dry out seeds. This, however, is the case
only w hen the new m oon occurred in a M oon hour or in a Jupiter hour.
[Soncino translation w ith modifications]
a m n b n n n in a m ’ynn n y n n x n NbN n b au |0’j n a ip n |’n bNiaw naN
NbN n b au n a n n a ip n |’n i nb’bn ’^nn in a m ’^nn in nb’bn n b n n n in
n b au n w n n a ip n |’n i nb’bn pm a m pn n ^ n a i ynw n in n ^ n a i n n x n in
n n u n a ip n |’n i nb’bn I’m a i’n pn m yw yw n n in m yw wbwn in NbN
pn i’n i nb’bn pm a i’n pn n ^ n a i nw yn in n ^ n a i y n n x n in NbN nb au
r a w a n a ip n i’n i n ^ n a i m yw ynw i a i’ nnNi a w n NbN naip n b n a ip n
n j’Nw pn^n n b auw |0’j n a ip n ib i’n bNiaw naN i nyw ’^n n^n n n n n n a
nN nw m ’a n j’Nw pn^n n b auw n n u n a ip n i b i’ni n u b ’Nn nN nnnw a
.pn^n in njnbn in njnb n’bn’Nn Nini a ’ynrn

Rav A da b a r A hava, is a sc rib e d w ith a m o re a c c u ra te m e a su re o f th e solar

year, b a s e d o n th e d ivision o f 235 lu n a tio n s, th e n u m b e r o f lu n a r m o n th s
in 12 p la in y ea rs a n d 7 in te rc a la te d ones, b y 19 years, w h ic h resu lts in a
solar y ea r le n g th o f 365 days 5 h o u rs a n d 997 p a rts (□’p b n ) a n d 48 in sta n ts
( a iy n ) . T here are 1,080 p a rts in o n e hour, a n d 76 in sta n ts in ea ch p art. T he
d u ra tio n o f e a c h averag e lu n a tio n is 29 days 12 h o u rs a n d 793 p a rts o f
th e h o u r. T he y e a r le n g th a c c o rd in g to Rav A d a is slightly s h o rte r th a n th e

17 An Amora designates a Talmudic sage who lived between the 3rd and the 5th century
CE, i.e. after the seal of the Mishna by Rabbi Yehuda ha-Nasi and before the seal of the
Talmud.
sc h e m e o f S am uel, a n d m o re a c c u ra te . T he le n g th o f e a c h teq u fa h is th u s
91 days 7 h o u rs 519 p a rts a n d 31 instants.18
T he teq u fa h o f S am u el is u se d on ly fo r tw o cu sto m s. T he first o n e is
ask in g for ra in (D'OW m nV ’NW) fro m 60 days a fte r th e teq u fa h o f T ishri
a n d th e se c o n d o n e is th e b le ssin g ov er th e S un ( n o n n rQ “Q ) every
28 years, w h e n th e su n su p p o se d ly re tu rn s to th e v ery sa m e celestial
c o o rd in a te as o n th e d ay o f its c re a tio n in th e b e g in n in g o f th e fo u rth
day, i.e. T u esd a y 6 p m . T he p e rc e p tio n o f a 2 8 - y e a r p e rfe c t so la r cycle is,
o f course, astro n o m ic a lly w ro n g , b u t th is fa c t d id n o t se e m to sp o il th e
m e d ie v a l (o r ev e n m o d e rn ) celebrations.19
G iven th a t th e le n g th o f th e y e a r a c c o rd in g to S am u el is 3 6 5 % days,
a fte r c a stin g o u t all 7s, i.e. w h o le w eeks, w e are left w ith 1% days. This
m e a n s th a t th e y e a r w ill c o m m e n c e o n e w e e k d a y a n d a q u a rte r a fte r th e
p rev io u s year. T he le n g th o f e a c h se aso n is 91 days a n d 7.5 h o u rs, w h ic h
is e q u iv a le n t to 7.5 h o u rs a fte r c a stin g o u t 7s. T his m e a n s th a t e a c h o f
th e fo u r te q u fo t w ill fall exactly 7.5 h o u rs a fte r th e p rev io u s on e, a n d a
cyclical p a tte r n c a n b e easily d isc ern ed . N ext, I w ill sh o w th a t Bar H iyya
a n d Bar S am so n p r e s e n t th is p a tte r n in v ery d iffe re n t w ays. H ow ever,
first I w o u ld like to d ra w th e re a d e rs ’ a tte n tio n to th e fac t th a t Bar
H iyya d iscu sses b o th te q u fo t a t g re a t le n g th , w h e re a s Bar S am so n o nly
m e n tio n s th e tequ fa h o f S am u el— a t le a st th is is th e case in th e surviving
folios. 20 T he follow ing c ita tio n s c o n c e rn in g th e te q u fa h o f S am u el rev eal
fu n d a m e n ta l d iffe ren ce s b e tw e e n th e a u th o rs:

18 According to Bar Hiyya, the tequfah of Rav Ada is an ancient, self-standing tradi­
tion. However, it is not found in the Talmud and thus, its attribution to a rabbinic figure
must have been posterior and deliberate. As explained to me by Sacha Stern, this measure
derives from the structure of the fixed Jewish calendar: a solar year length according to the
scheme of Rav Ada, 365d 5h 997p 48i, simply happens to be the result of the division of
235 lunations (the number of months in the 19-year cycle with 12 plain years and 7 inter­
calated years) by 19 (years). Thus, the figure 365d 5h 997p 48i does not serve to define the
structure of the Jewish calendar, but rather originates from it.
19 The Blessing over the Sun is based on bBerakhot, 59b. On the evidence of celebrations
in medieval Ashkenaz see Simha Emmanuel, ‘A Jewish-Christian Debate-France 1100’, Zion
63 (1998) [Hebrew], p. 145. I wish to thank Philipp Nothaft for this reference.
20 Clearly, the fact Bar Samson does not mention the tequfah of Rav Ada does not prove
that it was not known to him. As suggested to me by Sacha Stern, the mere fact that the
tequfah of Rav Ada is not found in the Talmud may have prompted Bar Samson to simply
ignore it, or perhaps he disagreed with it and thus his silence on the matter is polemical.
In any case, the name of Rav Ada is mentioned by bar Samson as one of several calendrical
authorities in the discussion of 19-, 28- and 532-year cycles, see Oxford, Bodleian Library,
Opp. 317, folio 89a.
B ar Hiyya:

Once all these traditions are transm itted to you and guarded in your heart,
proceed to count the tequfah according to the view of Samuel for any time
th at you desire. From here it will be clear to you th at the tequfah of Nisan
can never fall at any time except for the beginning of the night or midnight,
or at the beginning of the day or at midday. This is because, concerning the
days of the week, betw een one year [and the next], for the sun there are only
one-and-a-quarter days [i.e. betw een this year and the next one, modulo 7].
Thus, if the tequfah of the first Nisan [or: if the first tequfah] were at the
beginning of the night, it is know n th a t in the second [or: subsequent] year,
it w as at the middle of the second [i.e. next] night, after one-and-a-quarter
days, and by the third year it was at the beginning of the day, and by the
fourth year it was at midday. In the fifth year it returns to the night’s begin­
ning, as it was in the first year. This is the way of the tequfah of Nisan, w hich
occurred at the beginning of the eve of W ednesday. And it is known th at
the tequfah of Tammuz, w hich came after it, occurred at seven-and-a-half
hours into W ednesday eve. On account of this, the tequfah of Tammuz falls
either at seven-and-a-half hours or at hour one-and-a-half, w hether of the
day or of the night. The tequfah of the first Tishri occurred at three hours
into W ednesday daytime; and on account of this the tequfah of Tishri always
falls either at three hours or nine hours, w hether of the day or of the night.
And the tequfah of the first Tevet occurred at 10% hours of W ednesday day­
time; and on account of this the tequfah of Tevet will always fall either at
10% hours or four-and-a-half hours, w hether of the day or of the night. Now,
this entire revolution and circuit will be com plete every 28 years, returning
to the beginning. It is for this reason th a t they called [every] 28 years ‘the
Sun’s Great Cycle’— because in the course of every 28 years the day-and-a-
quarter by w hich the solar year is in excess of the days of the w eek is entirely
nullified/counted and cast out by 7s.21
n p rb n a ip n n n jo i x in in b n p n x ji i T ’n p tid o n b xn n n iD o n b3 r n ’w ii
dV p b n b au jd ’j n a ip n paw | x io ib m n n’n’i n x n n n x w np b in bxio w
paw ’ja o .Di’n ’x n n ix Di’n n b n n n i x nb’bn ’x n n i x nb’bn n b n n n d x ’3
n jiw x m jd ’j n a ip n d x i .p’m i d i’ d x ’3 pinw n ’o ’o nonb njw b n jw pn
Di’ m x n ’jw n nb’bn ’x n n n n ’n n ’jw n n jw n ’3 p n ’n nb’bn n b n n n n n ’n
n jw n n r n n i .Di’n ’x n n n ’p’m b i Di’n n b n n n n n ’n n ’w ’bwn njw bi p’m i
n a ip n an jo x in nr .n jiw x m n jw n n n ’n nw x3 nb’bn nb nnb n ’w ’o n n
'rn n n ’n n’m x n x n n rio n n a ip n w p n ’m .'t b’b n b n n n n n ’n n w x |D’j
n ^ n o i nipw 'rn i x n b au rio n n a ip n nr ’ja o n’n n i .'t b’bo n ^ n o i nipw
'an n n ’n n jiw x m n w n n a ip n i .nb’bn |’n Di’n |’n n ^ n o i n n x npwn ix
'un ix nipw 'an ix Dbipb n b au n w n n a ip n nr ’ja o n’n n i 't Di’o nipw
Di’o n ^ n o i nip w '’n n n ’n n jiw x m n n u n a ip n i .nb’bn |’ni Di’n pn nipw
nip w 'Tn i x n ^ n o i nip w '’n i x Dbipb n b au n n u n a ip n nr ’ja o n’n n i 't

21 Sefer ha-'Ibbur, 3:3.

 n jw 'n'a ban abw n’n’ n a p n n i nm b iib in bai .nb’bn |’n a i’n |’n n ^ n a i
nwN y ’nni a i’nw ’ja a n a n b bin i m rna n jw 'n'ab iNnp nr byi wNnb m rn’i
.njw 'n'a ban 'r'r n ^’ i iba n\nao ’ n a n n n jw n yinw n ’a ’a qm y Nin

Bar Sam son:

Now, allocate [literally, ‘give’; the m eaning is ‘there are’] 7 hours and a half
betw een one tequfah and the next. You will find the order of the tequfot
as follows: in the first year the tequfah of Nisan [falls] in the beginning
of eve of W ednesday in the first hour of the night [i.e. Tuesday at 6pm].
The tequfah of Tam muz [falls] at 7.5 hours of the night [i.e. W ednesday at
1:30 am]. The tequfah of Tishri [falls] at the third hour of the day. The tequ­
fah of Tevet [falls] at 10 and a half hours of the day. The sign is 1-7-3-10. In
the first year the pattern is 1-7-3-10. In the second year the tequfah of Nisan
falls at 6 hours of the night, Tammuz at 1 and a half hours of the day. Tishri
at 9 hours of the day. Tevet at 4 and a half hours of the night. The sign is
6-1-9-4. The third year: the tequfah of Nisan [falls] at 1 hour of the day. Tam­
m uz at 7 hours. Tishri at 3 hours. Tevet at 10 hours. The sign is 1-7-3-10. The
fourth year: the tequfah of Nisan [falls] at 6 hours of the day. Tammuz at
1 hour. Tishri at 9 hours. Tevet at 4 hours. The sign is 6-1-9-4. And this is
the order of all the years: the first is 1-7-3-10, the second 6-1-9-4. However,
in the first year of the cycle 1-7-3-10 starts at night and the sign 6-1-9-4 starts
during the day in the second year. But in the third year the sign 1-7-3-10
starts during the day. The sign 6-1-9-4 [starts] at night in the fourth year, and
so forth in the beginning of the second cycle. If you w ish to set a fixed nail
[i.e. to create a fixed way] to know w hich of these two signs is used in the
first year and w hich ones in the second, have a look at the letter at the begin­
ning of the sign. 1-7-3-10 starts by 1, w hich is odd [literally, ‘n o t a pair’ (n j’NW
HIT n n )], w hich serves for year 1 and 3, w hich are odd [numbers]. The sign
6-1-9-4 begins w ith 6, w hich is perfect [i.e. the sum of its proper divisors. lit­
erally ‘complete, or pure’ (n a n )] )and even [literally, ‘a pair’] in years 2 and
4, w hich are even [numbers]. A nother sign: ju st as 1 is prim e [i.e. divisible
only by 1 and by itself] so is the sign 1-7-3-10 is first, and starts by a 1.22
n jw : p n ia ip n n nno N ^an i n ^ n a i m yw 't n a ip n b n a ip n |’n in n n y i
'rn ria n n a ip n .nb’bn njiw Nn nyw n ’y ’nn ’b’b n b n n n |0’j n a ip n njiw Nn
'n 'a ’oi .a i’n n ^ n a i '’n n n u n a ip n .a i’n 'in ’nw n n a ip n .nb’bn n ^ n a i
.nb’bn m yw 'in |0’j n a ip n n’’jw n jw .'’ 'i't'n in n njiw Nn njw nw .'’ 'i 't
.nb’bn n ^ n a i 'nn n n u bwi .a i’n 'un ’nw n bwi .a i’n n ^ n a i nyw n ria n bwi
.'in ’nw n .'rn ria n .a i’n 'n n yw n |0’j n a ip n '’w ’bw njw .'n 'u 'n '1 'a ’oi
’nw n .'Nn ria n .a i’n m yw 'in |0’j n a ip n n ’y ’nn n jw .'a ’o '’'i't'n .'’n n n u
'n'u'Ni n’’jw '’'i't'n njiw Nn a ’jw n ba nno |ai .'ja ’o 'n'u'N'i .'nn n n u .'un
a i’n b’n n a 'n'u'N'i |a’oi .nb’bn '’'i't'n b’ n n a nirnab njiw N nn njw nw NbN
'n'u'N'i |a’oi .a i’n '’ 'i't'n 'a ’o b’n n a n ’w ’bwn n jw n ib’Ni .n’’jw n njw n
iw a j nN w ’ aN i .nb’bn i’nrin ’jw n n irn a n b n n n i '’y ’nnn n jw n nb’bn
njiw N nn n jw n in u b xn '’j a ’o ’jw n a nr’N nynb n yu b n y n ip n a o a m w yb

22 Oxford, Bodleian Library, Opp. 317, folio 88b.

 'Nn b’n n a w v j 't'n 'a ’o .ja ’on nb’n n bw m x n j r y in .n ’’jw n n jw n n r w
b’n n a w Y u 'n 'i 'a ’o .jit n u n i j ’ nw 'a n jw n i 'n n jw n w a w a jit n n n j’Nw
Dw s m x 'a ’o t i p i .jit n u n |nw 't n jw n i 'n n jw n .jit n n i n a n N’nw 'in
.'Nn b’n n a n DTip v j 't'n 'a ’o i d n ’jw x n 'Nnw

T he tw o e x c e rp ts m a y se e m sim ila r a t first sig h t b u t a close in s p e c tio n

rev e als g larin g differences. Bar H iyya p ro v id es th e g e n e ra l p a tte r n o f th e
teq u fa h o f S am u el a n d tru s ts h is re a d e rs to u n d e r s ta n d it. H e d o es n o t
fin d it n e c e ssa ry to p ro v id e a n y signs, m n e m o n ic s o r go in to d e ta ile d
e x p la n a tio n s, sim p ly b e c a u s e h e p ro b a b ly co n sid e rs th is p a tte r n v ery easy
to ca lcu late. Bar S am son, o n th e o n e h a n d , p ro v id es m a n y aid s for his
re a d e rs in th e fo rm o f signs.
O ne d isc ern s a few m a th e m a tic a l p e a rls a t th e e n d o f c ita tio n b y
Bar S am son, a n d th is sh e d s lin g u istic lig h t o n m y g e n e ra l a rg u m e n t
re g a rd in g te x tu a l d isc o n n e c tio n . First, Bar S am so n u se s th e te rm s ( n u n
JIT) a n d (JIT n u n WNW), literally ‘a p a ir’ a n d ‘n o t a p a ir’ to d esig n a te ev en
a n d o d d n u m b e rs, respectively. H ow ever, th e se a re n o t th e sta n d a rd w o rd s
in m e d ie v a l H e b re w m a th e m a tic s, a t le a s t n o t in th e Ib e ria n P e n in su la
o r Italy. T he c o m m o n te rm s th e re are (JIT) a n d (T I23), w h ic h d eriv e fro m
th e A rabic (^jj) a n d (■>>«), resp ectiv ely . T he te rm Bar S am so n u se s for
a n ‘o d d ’ n u m b e r m a k e s o n e w o n d e r w h e th e r it m a y h av e b e e n c re a te d
th ro u g h F ren ch : [u n n o m b re ] p a ir/ im p air.
Secondly, it is h ig h ly su rp risin g to fin d Bar S am so n ’s re fe re n c e to 6
as a p e rfe c t n u m b e r ( n a n ) . A p e rfe c t n u m b e r is a n im p o r ta n t n o tio n in
n u m b e r th e o ry . It d e sig n a te s a n u m b e r w h ic h is e q u a l to th e su m o f its
p ro p e r divisors. H ere: 6 = 1 + 2 + 3. T he n o tio n o f p e rfe c t n u m b e rs w as
a n d is n o t c o m m o n k n o w led g e e v e n for a m o d e rn h ig h ly e d u c a te d p erso n ,
u n lik e o th e r ty p e s o f n u m b e rs su c h as p rim e n u m b e rs . T his in d ic a te s th a t
Bar S am so n h a d a stro n g e r m a th e m a tic a l b a c k g ro u n d th a n o n e m a y h av e
ex p e cted . H e co u ld n o t h av e le a rn e d it fro m Bar H iyya b e c a u s e th e la tte r
d oes n o t m e n tio n th is te rm in h is c a le n d ric a l w ork.

5. The D a n g er o f the T eq u fah

A n o th e r c u s to m re la te d to th e te q u fa h is to a b s ta in fro m d rin k in g w a te r
d u rin g th e h o u rs b efo re a n d a fte r it, a c u s to m k n o w n to h av e b e e n p ra c ­
tic e d b y all layers o f so ciety in m e d ie v a l A sh k en a z b u t o n ly p a rtia lly
a m o n g S efardi Je w s .23 Ib n E zra (1089?-1164?) rid ic u les th is c u s to m in

23 For the full and complex analysis of this custom and its context, see Israel M. Ta-Shma,
‘The Danger of Drinking Water during the Tequfah—The History of an Idea’, Jerusalem
his Sefer h a -cIbbur, p o rtra y in g it as c o m p le te n o n se n se a n d scien tifically
w ro n g b e c a u s e th e teq u fa h o f S am u el is lo n g e r th a n th e tru e so lar year,
th u s a n y c a lc u la tio n s b y th is sc h e m e are w o rth less. Bar H iyya d escrib es it
as ‘th e c u s to m p ra c tise d in th e se la n d s ’ ( n b x n n ix n x n a m jn a n j o n p i ) ,
p ro b a b ly re fe rrin g to N o rth e rn F ran ce a n d n e ig h b o u rin g co u n tries.
H e ex p lain s th a t th is c u s to m w as n o t re fe rre d to in th e b o o k s o f th e e a r­
lie r sages, a n d th u s, o n e sh o u ld n o t b e c o n c e rn e d a b o u t it. Bar H iyya w as
o bviously n o t aw a re o f a re s p o n s u m o n th e m a tte r b y H ai G ao n (9 3 9 ? -
1039?), w h o w as th e h e a d o f th e P u m b a d ith a a c a d e m y in Baghdad.24 In
th is re sp o n su m , H ai G ao n ex p lain s th a t th e fo re fa th e rs’ w a rn in g n o t to
d rin k w a te r w as re la te d to th e n e e d to c o n s u m e sw ee t fo o d [to w elc o m e
th e n e w se aso n ], a n d w a te r w o u ld b e to o p lain . Bar H iyya claim s th a t
sin ce th e tim e o f th e tequfah, ju s t like th e tim e o f th e m olad, is given
ac c o rd in g to th e lo n g itu d e o f th e e a s te rn m e rid ia n o f in h a b ita tio n , so m e
p e o p le w ill n o t e v e n k n o w th e e q u iv a le n t tim e w h e re th e y live b e c a u se
th e y do n o t k n o w th e ir e x a c t lo n g itu d in a l p o sitio n . W ith in th e fixed
Je w ish ca le n d ar, as Bar H iyya explains, th e o n ly re a s o n it is im p o r ta n t to
k n o w th e tim e o f th e te q u fa h is fo r th e re c ita tio n o f th e p ra y e r fo r ra in o n
th e 6 0 th d ay a fte r th e teq u fa h o f T ishri ‘in th e s e la n d s ’ ( n b x n n i x i x n ) .

Likewise, in my esteem, the custom th at is practiced in these lands, in w hich

one refrains from drinking w ater at the time of the tequfah, consists of non­
sensical matters. Indeed, one is unable to know the time of the tequfah in
one’s location unless one knows the distance of his location in longitude
from the eastern extremity. It is n o t possible for all people [to possess this
knowledge]. W ere we to find a m ention of this m atter in the w ords of [our]
predecessors, it would be incum bent upon us to investigate it, and to pro­
vide a reason for it. Now, however, since it is n o t found in their words, we
should n o t be concerned about it. 25
npw n D’o m nw b xbw no nw o d t x w n b xn m x n x n anun an jo n p i
d x lo ip o n n a ip n n npw npTb bi3’ d t x j’x ’3 ’j ’pn Dn ’x n n n m n a ip n n
.d t x b ib nr p n ’ xb i .rn ro n n^po i n x n io ip o p m o no3 pTi’ n’n’ xb

Studies in Jewish Folklore 17 (1995) [Hebrew], 21-3. Also see Elisheva Carlebach, Palaces
of Time: Jewish Calendar and Culture in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press [Belknap Press], 2011), p. 163, and Elisheva Baumgarten, ‘“Remember that
Glorious Girl”: Jephtah’s Daughter in Medieval Jewish Culture’,JQR 97, no. 2 (2007), 180­
209. I wish to thank Elisheva Carlebach for these references.
24 One does find, however, a citation of Hai Gaon by Bar Hiyya in Sefer ha-'Ibbur, 3:7.
For details see Sacha Stern, ‘Fictitious Calendars: Early Rabbinic Notions of Time, Astron­
omy, and Reality’,JQR 87, no. 1/2 (1996), 111.
25 Sefer ha-'Ibbur 3:3; Ta-Shma, ‘The Danger of Drinking Water’, pp. 21-32.
 ib n n b i in |’’yb ub n’n a ’jiw N n ’nnnn |inar nrn i’jy b a ’N sia u ’’n ib’Ni
.i’by w inb ub |’N a n ’nnnn N s a j u ’ nw |i’a n n y bnN .a y u

In c o n tra st, Bar S am so n g e n u in e ly b eliev e s in th e d a n g e r o f th e teq u fa h

a n d e v e n p ro v id es ‘p ro o f te x t’ to s u p p o rt h is view , p re s e n tin g exegesis o f
fo u r b ib lic a l even ts, e a c h a c c o u n tin g for th e d a n g e r b e h in d every on e
o f th e fo u r tequfot:

The procedure of tequfah, w h at is it and w h at danger is there? It is already

w ritten in the [part describing the sun’s] m otion. 26 A part from that, see
w hat I have found, th a t there are those who rely upon Scripture. The tequfah
of Nisan, why? Since all the w aters of Egypt turned into blood and becam e
afflicted, and so did all the w aters in the world. And still now at th at ju n c­
ture they turn into blood at a given instant.27 The tequfah of Tammuz, why?
Since while God was telling Moses and Aaron: ‘tell the rock before their eyes
to yield its w ater’ [Numbers 20:8] Moses hit it and blood gushed out, it is
w ritten: ‘He struck the rock so th a t w ater gushed out’ [Psalm 78:20]. And
there is no other discharge than th at of blood since it is w ritten: ‘if a w om an
has a discharge of blood for m any days’ [Leviticus 15:25] all the w aters in the
world were afflicted w ith blood at th a t hour. The tequfah of Tishri. In th at
juncture A braham w as about [lit. ‘cam e’] to slaughter his son and the knife
was dripping blood. The tequfah of Tevet is due to the slaughter of Jephtah’s
daughter. 28 Since at that juncture too all the w aters of the w orld turned into
blood. And still now, it is n o t possible for the world [to be] w ithout a small
am ount of blood in those junctures, and He [God?] afflicts [th e m ].. .29
nnb iib n n n bsN nna n n in a N’n Nbn ?w’ n ja o n a i it n a n a ip n n n w ya
baw ’ab ?nab |0’j n a ip n .N npan by i’a a io w w ’w ’n N s a 30[nr n xn ]
in pna in iN n |” n yi .abiynw n ia ’a ba |a ia a ipbi anb ia a n j a ’n s a ’a ’a
nw ab n"npn 'a x w nyw nw ’ab ?nab ria n n a ip n .y in ’ab anb n ia a n n a
in 'jw an u a a nri nw a in a n .1’a ’a |nji a n ’j ’yb ybon bN an nnn i :pnN bi
a ’nn a ’a ’ n an nir nir’ ’a nwNi 'jw an NbN nn’r i’ni .a ’a inir’i m s nan
Nn pnan iniN nw .’nw n n a ip n .ann abiynw n ia ’a ba nyw nniN n ipbi
n n u ’nw ’ja a n n u n a ip n .an n b a x a n n a u a ’u i u n i n uinw b annnN
’N |’’nyi .anb abiynw n ia ’a ba ia a n j Nin a i pnan iniN nw .n n a ’ n n bw
.npba Nini .a ’pnan iniN n an n is n ’s Nbn abiyb nwaN

26 This is probably a reference to the description of the sun’s motion described in the
missing first book. See Ta-Shma, ‘The Danger of Drinking Water’, p. 27.
27 Or perhaps, very quickly, within an infinitesimally small interval of time.
28 While in Ashkenazi tradition Jephthah’s daughter is slaughtered, in medieval
Spanish exegesis it was bloodless. For a detailed analysis of these traditions, including the
connection to the story of the sacrifice of Isaac, the danger of the tequfah within the larger
context, midrashic (homiletic) interpretations and the Christian perspective on the matter
see Baumgarten, ‘Remember that Glorious Girl’, pp. 180-209.
29 Oxford, Bodleian Library, Opp. 317, folio 89a.
30 In the manuscript we find nNn nr. Inversion is marked by the scribe using two dots
over nr and one dot over nNn.
 6 . M o lad C alculation

A n o th e r d iv e rg e n ce b e tw e e n th e te x ts c o n c e rn s th e o rd e r o f p re s e n ta tio n
a n d m e th o d o lo g y . Bar H iyya first p re s e n ts th e c a lc u la tio n o f m o la d o t i.e.
th e d e te rm in a tio n o f th e n e w m o o n b a s e d o n th e av erag e lu n a tio n o f 29
days 12 h o u rs a n d 793 p a rts. F or him , th e m o la d o t serve as a referen c e
p o in t fo r a n y fu rth e r ca lc u latio n . O nly la te r d o es Bar H iyya te a c h th e
c a lc u la tio n o f th e tequfot.31 Bar S am son, o n th e o th e r h a n d , says th a t
th e tequfah (o f N isan) is to b e c a lc u la te d first a n d fro m th e re su lt th e
tim e o f th e m o la d is to b e d e te rm in e d . A lth o u g h th e o p e ra tio n s are
c o m m u ta tiv e , i.e. th e re su lts o f th e m o la d o t a n d te q u fo t w ill b e th e sam e
reg a rd le ss if o n e is c a lc u la te d b efo re th e o th e r, it is h a rd to ig n o re th e
d iffe re n t c a le n d ric a l p e rc e p tio n s involved. T his m a tte r raise s y e t a n o th e r
se rio u s d o u b t re g a rd in g a d ire c t c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e tw o trac ts. Bar
H iyya also p ro v id es n u m e ro u s a lg o rith m s to v erify th e re s u lt o f th e m o la d
c a lc u la tio n a n d h e ex p lain s th e logic b e h in d it. Bar S am so n d o es n o t go
m u c h b e y o n d p ro v id in g dry, te c h n ic a l rules.

7. The Four Gates

W h e n given th e tim e o f m o la d o f T ishri in a p la in o r a n in te rc a la te d year,

th e F o u r G ates p ro v id e th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f th e y e a r re p re s e n te d b y its
sign | o ’D. For ex am p le, th e sign 'n '3 'a m e a n s th a t R osh h a -S h a n a w ill
b e c e le b ra te d o n T uesday, P asso v er o n T h u rsd ay a n d th e y e a r is o rd erly
(n~ITD3), i.e. 3 54 d ay long. E ach g ate re p re s e n ts a fittin g d ay for R osh ha-
S h an a (M onday, T uesday, T h u rsd a y a n d S atu rd ay ) o r for P asso v e r (S u n ­
day, T uesday, T h u rsd a y a n d Saturday).32
T he F o u r G ates, w h ic h are o f B aby lo n ian origin, w ere b a s e d o n th e
m o la d o f T ishri. T h ere is also ev id en c e o f a d iffe re n t fo u r-g ates sc h em e
b a s e d o n th e m o la d o f N isan, w h ic h m a y h av e b e e n P a le stin ia n in origin.
It is first fo u n d in a n u m b e r o f early tw e lfth -c e n tu ry w o rk s fro m N o rth e rn

31 Molad calculations appear in Sefer ha-'Ibbur 2: 6 and the calculations of the tequfah
of Samuel and Rav Ada are presented in 3:3 and 3:4, respectively.
32 The various time intervals of the moladot in the four gates are determined by using
the deferment rules lo ADU Rosh and molad zaqen, i.e. if molad of Tishri occurs after
midday, then 1 Tishri is postponed to the next day. One also needs the rules of 3-4-5 [= the
distances between 1 Tishri and the following one in a deficient, plain and full year] and
5-6-7 [= the distances between 1 Tishri and 1 Nisan in a deficient, plain and full year].
F ran ce a n d Italy su c h as Ja c o b b a r S am so n ’s c a le n d ric a l w o rk d isc u sse d in
th is article, a n d also in M a h zo r Vitry a n d M id ra sh S ekh el Tov.33
In fact, a th o ro u g h e x a m in a tio n o f Bar S am so n ’s te x t rev eals b o th
sch em es, i.e. a c c o rd in g to th e m o la d o f T ish ri a n d N isan, w h ic h a re eq u iv ­
a le n t. Bar S am so n a ttr ib u te s th e sc h e m e a c c o rd in g to th e m o la d o f T ish ri
to S aadya a n d th e o n e a c c o rd in g to th e m o la d o f N isan to R abbi M esh u -
la m b a r M oses (e le v e n th century).3 4 H e p re s e n ts all fo u r ru le s o f d efe r­
m e n t to g e th e r w ith th e ir ‘tra n s la tio n ’ to th e m o la d o f N isan. Bar S am so n ’s
p re s e n ta tio n is in p ro se a n d h e d o es n o t e x p la in th e ra tio n a le b e h in d th e
schem e.3 5
Bar H iyya, o n th e o th e r h a n d , on ly p re s e n ts th e F o u r G ates a c c o rd in g to
th e m o la d o f Tishri. H e d o es n o t a ttr ib u te th e sc h e m e to S aadya o r a n y o n e
else. As a good m a th e m a tic ia n , Bar H iyya ex p lain s to h is re a d e rs h o w to
calc u late th e F o u r G ates fro m sc ra tc h a n d h e e v e n p ro v id es a ta b le w ith
a su m m a ry o f th e n u m e ric a l re su lts to m a k e th e s c h e m e accessib le to all
readers.3 6 H e m a y h av e a c tu a lly b e e n th e first to do so.

8. A d d itio n a l D iscrepancies

Finally, I w ish to m a k e so m e m o re g e n e ra l o b se rv a tio n s re g a rd in g th e tw o

texts, w h ic h f u rth e r c o rro b o ra te m y claim o f th e ir in d e p e n d e n c e :

(1) In Bar H iyya’s tre a tis e w e fin d ta b le s a n d d iag ram s, b u t n o n e in th e

surviving folios o f Bar S am so n ’s tex t. Bar H iyya’s c a le n d ric a l te x t is far
m o re stru c tu re d a n d m e th o d ic a l in c o m p a riso n to Bar S am so n ’s 37 Bar
S am so n ’s style a n d s tru c tu re are m o re flu id in n a tu re . H e a d d re sses
h im s e lf to th e n o n -m a th e m a tic a l rea d ers, p ro v id in g m a n y signs a n d
m n e m o n ic s, r a th e r th a n m a th e m a tic a l fo rm u lae. N ev erth eless, ev en
if Bar S am so n ’s te x t show s n o ev id en c e fo r a n y a b s tra c t m a th e m a tic a l
p e rc e p tio n , th e re are su rp risin g ex a m p le s o f m a th e m a tic a l n o n -triv ia l
k n o w led g e th a t th e a u th o r p o ssesses, as w e h av e se e n above.

33 Stern, Calendar and Community, p. 272.

34 Emmanuel, ‘A Jewish-Christian Debate’, p. 144.
35 Oxford, Bodleian Library, Opp. 317, folio 97b.
36 Sefer ha-'Ibbur 2:9, 2:10.
37 This, however, is not true when we compare Bar Hiyya’s calendrical text to his
astronomical or mathematical works, which manifest a more rigid structure and scientific
precision.
(2) Bar H iyya’s la n g u ag e te n d s to b e concise, scien tific a n d factu al, ev en
w h e n h e d iscu sses m a tte rs o f philological, p h ilo s o p h ic a l o r th e o lo g ic al
n a tu re . Bar S am son, o n th e o th e r h a n d , is c o n s ta n tly u sin g elev a ted
p ro se a n d o ften em p lo y s a p o e tic to n e , ev en w h e n d escrib in g a p u rely
te c h n ic a l m a tte r.
(3) S om e o f Bar H iyya’s m a th e m a tic a l a n d o th e r scien tific te rm in o lo g y
h a s stro n g links to th e A rabic language, a n d as w e know , h e is th e co in er
o f m a n y scientific H eb rew term s, m a n y o f w h ic h cam e v ia Arabic.38 O n
th e o th e r h a n d , Bar S am son is u sin g sev eral m a th e m a tic a l te rm s th a t
m a y h av e in v o lv e d ca lq u e fro m th e F re n c h lan g u ag e as w e h av e seen
in th e case o f th e w o rd ‘a n e v e n [n u m b e r]’ (ilT r Q — u n n o m b re p air).
I h av e n o t b e e n ab le to d isc e rn a n y in flu e n c e o f th e A rab ic in his
v o cabulary.
(4) Bar H iyya o fte n p ro v id es proof, o r a t le a st so m e e x p la n a tio n , to m o s t
o f h is te ac h in g s. H e u se s scientific m e a n s b u t a t tim e s h e re so rts to
S crip tu re, i.e. b ib lic a l v erse s are o fte n u se d to d e m o n s tra te scien tific
claim s. Bar S am son u se s b ib lic a l v erse s m o stly to e n h a n c e th e literary
v alu e o f h is w ritin g or, a t tim es, to ‘p ro v e ’ a c a le n d ric a l p o in t, su c h as
in th e ex a m p le w e h av e se e n re g a rd in g th e d a n g e r o f th e tequfah. He
is also v ery k e e n o n p ro v in g th e p o w e r o f n u m b e rs th a t a re re la te d to
th e ca le n d ar. F or ex a m p le , for th e 21-year lu n a r cycle, 21 is exactly th e
su m o f th e a lp h a n u m e ric a l v alu e o f th e first le tte r in e a c h b o o k o f
th e P entateuch.39
(5) Bar H iyya’s te x t h a s a n u n d e rly in g p o le m ic to n e b u t th is is n o t th e
case in th e w ritin g o f B ar S am son.

9. Conclusion

T he analy sis o f th e c a le n d ric a l tre a tise s b y Bar H iyya a n d Bar S am so n sug­

gests th a t th e re is n o p a lp a b le c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e m b e y o n d th e m e re
fa c t th a t th e y sh a re m a n y c a le n d ric a l th e m e s th a t are p a r t a n d p a rc e l o f th e
Je w ish ca le n d ar. H ow ever, as I e x p la in e d in th e b e g in n in g o f th is article,
th is w o u ld b e th e case fo r a n y se t o f c a le n d ric a l tra c ts. T h e p assag e s a n d
ex a m p le s w e h av e e x a m in e d in th is a rtic le in d ic a te p ro fo u n d divergences
in style, language a n d ca le n d ric al p erc ep tio n , w h ic h m a k e an y d e p e n d e n c e
b e tw e e n th e tw o te x ts h ig h ly im p ro b a b le , in fac t im p o ssib le.

38 I am well aware that I may have just coined the word ‘coiner’!
39 Oxford, Bodleian Library, Opp. 317, folio 89a.
 References

Manuscript
Oxford, Bodleian Library, Opp. 317, ff. 88a-99b.

Printed Works
Avraham b. Hiyya (ha-Nasi), Sefer ha-'Ibbur, ed. H. Filipowski (London, 1851).
Baumgarten, Elisheva, ‘“Remember that Glorious Girl”: Jephtah’s Daughter in Medieval
Jewish Culture’,Jewish Quarterly Review 97, no. 2 (2007), 180-209.
Carlebach, Elisheva, Palaces of Time: Jewish Calendar and Culture in Early Modern Europe
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press [Belknap Press], 2011).
Emmanuel, Simha, ‘A Jewish-Christian Debate-France 1100’, Zion 63 (1998) [Hebrew],
143-156.
Grossman, Avraham, The Early Sages of France: Their Lives, Leadership and Works (Jerusa­
lem, 1995) [Hebrew].
Sarfatti, Gad ben Ami, Mathematical terminology in Hebrew scientific literature of the Mid­
dle Ages (Jerusalem 1969), [Hebrew, with English summary].
Stern, Sacha, Calendar and Community, A History o f theJewish Calendar 2nd Century BCE-
10th Century CE (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001).
------, ‘Fictitious Calendars: Early Rabbinic Notions of Time, Astronomy, and Reality’,Jew­
ish Quarterly Review 87, no. 1/2 (1996), 103-129.
Ta-Shma, Israel M., ‘The Danger of Drinking Water during the Tequfah—The History of an
Idea’,Jerusalem Studies inJewish Folklore 17 (1995) [Hebrew], 21-33.
 CHAPTER SEVEN

SCRIBAL PREROGATIVE IN M ODIFYING CALENDRICAL TABLES

Israel M. S a n d m a n

1. In tro d u ctio n

1.1 Scribal T ransm ission o f P a ra te xt

T his p a p e r is a b o u t p ra c tic e s o f m e d ie v a l a n d early m o d e rn H eb rew

scribes. O ften, w e focus on ly o n th e w o rk s th a t th e scrib es tra n s m itte d ,
p ay in g sc a n t a tte n tio n to th e scrib es th e m se lv es, th e ir w ork, a n d th e ir
d ecisive ro le in d e te rm in in g th e c o n te n t a n d fo rm o f th e w o rk s as w e
k n o w th e m . In th is la ck o f a tte n tio n to ‘scrib ality ’, w e m is ta k e th e w o rk s
as w e k n o w th e m for th e w o rk s as th e a u th o rs w ro te th e m (= a u th o ria l/
o rig in al tex ts; u rte x ts); a n d w e m iss v ita l c h a p te rs o f in te lle c tu a l h istory,
c h a p te rs th a t lin k a u th o ria l w o rk s w ith th e ir re c e p tio n o v er c e n tu ries,
c o n tin e n ts, a n d cu ltu res, o fte n o th e rw ise u n k n o w n c h a p te rs th a t u n c o v e r
in te lle c tu a l, religious, a n d social re a litie s o f th e s e cu ltu res.
Specifically, th is p a p e r is a b o u t p ra c tic e s o f th e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d
scrib es in tr a n s m ittin g tab les, d iagram s, a n d sim ila r e le m e n ts th a t lie o u t­
side th e m a in b o d y o f a w o rk ’s tex t. In th e c u rre n t c o n te x t o f a ca le n d ric al
w o rk (o n w h ic h see b elo w ), th e se e le m e n ts a re p a rtic u la rly a b u n d a n t a n d
rich. T ables, diagram s, a n d th e like h av e re c e n tly co m e to b e in c lu d e d
u n d e r th e ru b ric o f ‘p a ra te x t ’.1 T he p a r a te x t th a t I a m c o n s id e rin g co n sists
o f b o th te x tu a l a n d g ra p h ic asp ec ts; a n d w h ile I an a ly z e b o th , m y m a in
focus is o n th e te x tu a l a sp e c ts o f p a ra te x t. If w e carefu lly an a ly z e o nly
th e m a in texts, in v e stin g s c a n t a n a ly tic a l effo rt in p a ra te x t, th e n w e m iss
so m e o f th e b e s t clues to th e scope o f sc rib a l p rero g ativ e. Scribally co p ied
p a ra te x ts d isp lay te n s io n b e tw e e n faith fu l a d h e re n c e to a n d in n o v a tiv e
d iv e rg e n ce fro m th e p a ra te x ts as p re s e n te d in m a n u sc rip ts fro m w h ic h
th e scrib es co p ied (= ‘ex e m p la rs’), a n d u ltim a te ly to a n d fro m th e p ara-
te x ts as p re s e n te d in a u th o ria l m a n u sc rip ts . In d ee d , th o se m a n u s c rip ts

1 Further expanding the meaning of Gerard Genette’s term, from his monograph Para-
texts: Thresholds of Interpretation.
w h ic h are o u ts ta n d in g in th e ir te x tu a l d iv e rg e n ce fro m th e u r te x t are
likew ise o u ts ta n d in g in th e ir p a ra te x tu a l d iv e rg e n ce fro m th e d iag ram s,
ta b les, a n d sim ila r p a ra te x tu a l e le m e n ts o f th e a u th o ria l m a n u sc rip t. As
w e sh all see p a rtic u la rly in cases w h e re p a r a te x t d iv erg es fro m p a ra m e te rs
se t o u t o r im p lie d in th e tex t, p a ra te x tu a l e le m e n ts a re fre e r th a n m a in
te x t to diverge fro m th e e x e m p la r a n d /o r th e original.
T his p a p e r is c o n s tru c te d w ith ex a m p le s fro m th e sc rib a l tra n sm is sio n
o f p a ra te x tu a l e le m e n ts in a single w ork, th e (u n title d ) c a le n d ric a l w o rk o f
A b ra h a m b a r H ayya (w ritte n in F rance, in th e y e a r 1123, o fte n re fe rre d to
as “TQyn ~[BV/seper h a - cibbur).2 I a m p a r t o f a re se a rc h te a m th a t, a m o n g st
o th e r en d e a v o u rs, is critically editing, tra n sla tin g , a n d c o m m e n tin g u p o n
th is w o rk .3 T his a n d p rev io u s e d ito ria l w o rk h av e b e e n m a k in g it ev er
m o re clea r to m e th a t every m a n u sc rip t, b e in g p ro d u c e d th ro u g h m u lti­
ple facets o f in te n s e h u m a n in v o lv e m e n t, h a s h u m a n sto rie s im b e d d e d
w ith in , w a itin g to b e d isc e rn e d a n d u n p a c k e d ; a n d th a t th e se sto ries
b e c o m e e v e n ric h e r w h e n b ro u g h t in to d ialo g u e w ith th e sto rie s im b e d ­
d ed in o th e r m a n u sc rip ts.

1.2 Scribal Variation

In m y ed ito ria l w ork, I h av e b e e n n o tic in g n o t o n ly th a t scrib es w h o to o k

m a n y lib e rtie s w ith th e m a in te x t to o k m a n y lib e rtie s w ith th e p a ra te x t
too, b u t also th a t acro ss th e b o a rd scrib es fe lt a little fre e r to ta k e lib e r­
tie s w ith th e p a ra te x t th a n w ith th e m a in tex t. T hus, te x tu a l w itn e sses
th a t c o n fo rm to o n e a n o th e r o n th e m a in te x t m a y (d u e to in te n tio n a l
ch o ices a n d n o t on ly to erro rs) n e v e rth e le ss d iv erg e fro m o n e a n o th e r o n
th e p a ra te x t. T his m e a n s th a t scrib es m u s t h av e h a d d iffe re n t sta n d a rd s
o f fidelity to th e e x e m p la r for p ro se a n d for tab les. F or th e p ro se, m o st
sc rib e s 4 u n d e r c o n s id e ra tio n in th is te s t case (viz. th e tra n s m issio n o f b a r
H ayya’s c a le n d ric a l w ork) a im e d a t literal, a lm o st alw ays w o rd -fo r-w o rd
fidelity to th e e x e m p la r ,5 w h ile for ta b les, ca p tio n s, lay o u t, la rg e r le tte rs

2 Which, simply, is semantically equivalent to ‘calendrical work’ (but literally means

‘book of intercalation/pregnancy’ (inserting an additional unit into the calendar)).
3 Many thanks to my fellow team members, Professor Sacha Stern and Dr Ilana Warten-
berg, for their impact on this paper. Unqualified references in this paper are to bar Hayya’s
calendrical work; and quotes from that work are taken from our edition-in-progress.
4 The main exceptions are Oxford Bodleian Oppenheimer 183 & Russian State Library,
Moscow, Guenzburg 406 or their antecedents.
5 But the fidelity to exemplars still left room, in some cases, for grammatical correc­
tions, choices of -Im or -In masculine plural endings, and the adoption of various spell­
fo r b eg in n in g s o f sectio n s, ru b rics, a tte n tio n -g e ttin g sym bols, lin e a tio n o f
ite m s in lists, etc. th e y so m e tim e s w e re w illing to d ev iate fro m th e ex a ct
w o rd in g , stru c tu re , a n d la y o u t o f th e exem p lars, th e ir fid elity to th e e x e m ­
p la r b e in g m e re ly in te rm s o f m e a n in g a n d s u b s ta n c e .6 c o m p a ris o n s to
te x t a n d sim ila r p a r a te x t in o th e r lite ra ry g en re s w ill h av e to b e m a d e in
o rd e r to d e te rm in e w h e th e r o r n o t th is p e rm issiv e n e ss ste m s fro m th e fac t
th a t in c a le n d ric a l w o rk s m u c h o f th e c o n te n t o f th e tab les, e v e n w h e n
m odified, c a n b e v erified m a th e m a tic a lly , a n d th u s b e v erified as o b je c­
tively c o rre c t e v e n if d iv e rg e n t fro m th e o rig in al c o n te n t.
E ven w ith in th e lim ita tio n s o f th e p r e s e n t sam p lin g , m a n u sc rip ts differ
in th e d eg re e to w h ic h th e ir ta b le s in c o rp o ra te in n o v a tio n s. F u rth e rm o re ,
ev en th e m o s t in n o v a tiv e ta b le s e m b o d y te n s io n s b e tw e e n in n o v a tio n
a n d co n serv atism , d iv e rg e n ce fro m a n d c o n fo rm ity to th e rec eiv e d v e r­
sion: o n e m a y p re se rv e th e rec eiv e d fo rm a n d c h a n g e so m e c o n te n t, w h ile
a n o th e r m a y p rese rv e th e rec eiv e d c o n te n t, b u t in a c h a n g e d form .
T h ere is a n a d d itio n a l d im e n sio n to th is v a ria tio n . In so m e cases, v a ri­
a tio n se em s to b e m o tiv a te d b y d iffering c o n c e p tu a l sta n ce s. E x am p les
in c lu d e: th e ch o ice o f w h ic h religious festivals a re liste d in tab les; th e m il­
le n n iu m in to w h ic h ca lc u la tio n s a re p ro je c te d , p o ssib ly reflec tin g differ­
in g u n d e rs ta n d in g s o f m e ssia n ic a n d p o st-m e ssia n ic eras, o n e o f w h ic h is
n o t in k e e p in g w ith th e a u th o r ’s ex p licit sta te m e n ts ; a n d th e n u m e ric a l
in c re m e n t b y w h ic h cycles a re m u ltip lie d , p o ssib ly reflec tin g th e p rio riti­
z a tio n o f m a th e m a tic a l sim p lic ity ov er o th e r factors.

2. Case S tudies

2.1 D isregardin g E xem plar; O rienting on th e B asis o f E xtern a l Factors

In P a rt 1, C h a p te r 1 o f h is c a le n d ric a l w ork, A b ra h a m b a r H ayya first offers

a p ro se d e s c rip tio n o f a d ia g ra m illu stra tin g th e q u a d ra n ts a n d clim es o f
th e in h a b ite d h a lf o f th e E arth. N ext, h e d raw s th e d iag ram . A lth o u g h th e
p ro se specifies m a n y d etails o f th e illu stra tio n , it d o es n o t in d ic a te h o w

ing conventions; all of these were innovated in some manuscript families and individual
manuscripts.
6 In his Unveiled Faces of Medieval Hebrew Books: The Evolution of Manuscript
Production—Progression or Regression? M. Beit-Arie, the doyen of medieval Hebrew
manuscript study, has studied this comprehensively in regard to layout, letter-size, and the
like, but not regarding actual modifications of the wording of the text, and particularly not
with regard to the wording of the paratext (see below note 11).
th e d ia g ra m is to b e o rie n te d to th e page. Is it east, n o rth , so u th , o r w e st
th a t is s u p p o se d to b e to w a rd s th e to p o f th e p ag e? Bar H ayya’s a u to ­
g ra p h h as n o t survived, a n d b e tw e e n th e v a rio u s m a n u s c rip t co p ies all
fo u r p o ssib le o rie n ta tio n s are re p re se n te d . (See figures 1-4.) O bviously, in
his a u to g ra p h , b a r H ayya u s e d o n e o f th e fo u r p o ssib ilities. Likew ise, e a c h
sc rib a l co p y em p lo y ed o nly o n e o f th e fo u r p o ssib ilities. D esp ite th e se
p re c e d e n ts, so m e cop y ists clearly felt n o c o m p u lsio n to a d h e re to th e
o r ie n ta tio n o f th e ir re sp e c tiv e ex em p lars, th u s le a d in g to th e a c tu a liz a tio n
o f th e fu lle st p o ssib le v a rie ty o f o r ie n ta tio n s .7
In th is flexible, ‘o p e n ’ e n v iro n m e n t, in w h ic h th e v ary in g o rie n ta tio n s
o f th e co m p ass d ire c tio n s m u s t h av e b e e n d e te rm in e d largely b y e x te rn a l
fa c to rs ,8 w e n e v e rth e le ss do fin d so m e a d h e re n c e to ex em p lars. In p a r­
tic u la r, in e a c h in sta n c e o f a n id e n tifia b le m a n u s c rip t fam ily ,9 th e fam ily
m e m b e rs sh a re th e sa m e o rie n ta tio n . T hus, e a c h fam ily is b a s e d u p o n a
co p y th a t w as re s p e c te d a n d a d h e re d to b y la te r scribes, ev en re g a rd in g
th is so rt o f n o n -te x tu a l d etail. T ak e n w ith o th e r d a ta th a t I h av e b e e n
a c c u m u la tin g , th is d e ta ile d a d h e re n c e w ith in m a n u s c rip t fam ilies o f
scrib es to th e ir ex e m p lars, in c o n tra s t w ith th e n o n -u n ifo rm ity o f d e ta il

7 South on top: Italian family (Jewish Theological Seminary of America [= JTS] 5512; Rus­
sian State Library, Moscow, Guenzburg [= Guenzburg] 509; Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana
[= Vatican], Urbinati, ebreo 48; Vatican, Neofiti 30; British Library [= BL], Additional
26899; BL, Oriental 10538; and family ‘cousin’, Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurentiana,
Or. 491); Byzantine Family (Bibliotheque nationale de France [= BnF], heb 1061 & Vatican
ebreo 386); and Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich [= Munich], Cod. hebr. 36.
North on top: BL Oriental 10776 (possibly filled in by a later hand); and Oxford Bodleian,
Oppenheimer [= Ox Opp] 183.
East on top: Ashkenazic family (JTS 2500 & JTS 2564); JTS 2596; Jewish National and
University Library, Jerusalem [= JNUL], Heb. 8° 1990; and Filipowski (both in his manu­
script, Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute of Religion, Cincinnati [= HUC-JIR], 898,
and in his printed edition, London 1851).
West on top: BnF, heb. 805 (folio 56b).
(Circle drawn but not filled in: Guenzburg 406; space left, but nothing drawn: Munich,
Cod. hebr. 91).
8 Cf. Akbari, Suzanne Conklin, ‘From Due East to True North: Orientalism and Orien­
tation’, in The Postcolonial Middle Ages, ed. Jeffrey Jerome Cohen, St. Martin’s Press, New
York: 2000. On pp. 21-23 she discusses the putting of east, the direction from which light
appears, at the top; at the bottom of p. 23 she begins discussing the social history of the
ideological shift from east-west to north-south orientation (much of which fits with
the views of Abraham bar Hayya, author of the calendrical work in question); and by
p. 30 she introduces the datum of ‘the increasing practical use of the [north-pointing]
magnetic compass during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries’, which, together with
the ideological shift, gradually effected a (non-simplistic, non-linear) relocation of north
to the top of the page.
9 In three cases noted above (note 7), multiple manuscripts share many particular fea­
tures, including geographic affiliation and textual idiosyncrasies.
e v id e n c e d o u tsid e o f m a n u s c rip t fam ilies, p o in ts to th e g re a t im p o rta n c e
th a t m e d ie v a l a n d early m o d e rn H eb rew scrib es gave to a u th o rita tiv e
(as o p p o se d to (in a c c e ssib le /n o n -e x ta n t) a u th o ria l) co p ies o f w o rk s ,10 a n d
to th e ex iste n ce o f c o o rd in a tio n w ith in sc rib a l c u ltu re .n

2.2 A d d in g or C hanging D etail

T he sc rib a l co p ies o f th is sa m e d ia g ra m d e m o n s tra te a f u rth e r fe a tu re

o f sc rib a l a ttitu d e : ev e n w h e n th e a u th o r d o es give specific in stru c tio n s,
a lth o u g h m a n y scrib es do a b id e b y th e m , so m e scrib es e m b e llish th e m ,
a n d so m e d isreg a rd th e m . In th e p ro se d e s c rip tio n o f th is d iag ram , b a r
H ayya sta te s, ‘I d iv id e d e a c h o n e o f th e s e q u a d ra n ts in to 15 divisions. In
th e o n e div isio n I w ro te ‘six’; in th e se c o n d — ‘12’; a n d so on, in se q u en c e,
u n til, in th e 15th division, I r e a c h e d 90, w h ic h is th e a m o u n t o f p a rts (i.e.
d eg rees) in to w h ic h e a c h a n d every q u a d r a n t is d iv id ed .’i 2 W h ile m o st
scrib es a d h e re d to th is p ro c e d u re , th e scrib e o f O x O p p 183 em b ellish ed ,
ad d in g a stro k e fo r e a c h a n d every deg ree (see figure 3); a n d w h o e v e r
filled in p a r t o f th e d ia g ra m in BL Or. 10776 fo llo w ed a d iffe re n t p ro c e ­
d u re, div id in g e a c h q u a d r a n t in to se g m e n ts o f 10 r a th e r th a n 6 d eg rees
(see figure 5).

10 See MS BL Or. 832, colophon on folio 69b, where the scribe states that he copied
the work that ends on that page ‘from the copy upon which we rely’ (Heb. “IWN 3n3nQ
1’bp D’30D}).
11 To gauge the pervasiveness of the ‘family’ phenomenon, note that at least 11 of 22—
viz. half—of the extant manuscripts of this work are identifiable as belonging to fami­
lies; and it is altogether possible that more of them belong to families that can no longer
be identified (due to a lack of extant witnesses). (As will be seen below, some unique
features are shared by Ox Opp 183, JTS 2596, and some glosses in Vatican Neofiti 30.
Although these do not constitute a family, they do point to the existence of one.)
M. Beit-Arie (‘Publication and Reproduction of Literary Texts in Medieval Jewish Civili­
zation: Jewish Scribality and Its Impact on the Texts Transmitted’, in Transmitting Jewish
Traditions: Orality, Textuality, and Cultural Diffusion, eds. Yaakov Elman and Israel Ger-
shoni. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), is, on the contrary, sceptical about the
existence of organized medieval Hebrew scribal culture. However, his conclusions are
based upon only those manuscripts containing colophons, which are in the minority; and
his conclusions are not based upon the critical editing of works from manuscripts, the
process of which reveals these familial affinities.
12 Hebrew: 'a'1 ’jwai '1 in a n pbna ’nanai D’pbn 'i'oa n m p n ib^a bo ’npbm
p p bo p ’bN pbn’ -iwn D’pbnn m o N’n nwN 's bw 'i'u pbna ’npmw ip n o n bp 731
.ppi
2.3 B alance B etw een C hange a n d Preservation: C hanging Span,
Increm ent, or L a yo u t f o r Ideological, M a th em a tica l, Com m on-Sense, or
A esth etic R easons

As b a r H ayya discusses in 3:3, a c c o rd in g to th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e R ab b in ic

sage S am uel, th e le n g th o f a so la r y e a r is 36 5 % days exactly. As b a r H ayya
d iscu sses in m a n y c h a p te rs, a n d in d e ta il in 2:2, th e R abbis ag ree th a t th e
av erag e tim e sp a n o f a lu n a r cycle is 29 days, 12 h o u rs, a n d 793/1080 p a rts
o f a n h o u r. T he ‘19-Year C ycle’, d isc u sse d b y b a r H ayya in m a n y ch a p te rs,
a n d in re la tio n to th e v ie w o f S am u el in 3:3, is a m e c h a n is m b y m e a n s o f
w h ic h to h a rm o n iz e a c c u m u la te d a n n u a l so la r cycles— w h ic h in d iv id u ­
ally do n o t c o rre sp o n d to a n ex a ct n u m b e r o f lu n a r cycles— w ith ca le n ­
d a r y ea rs w h ic h are m a d e u p o f lu n a r m o n th s . T his is d o n e b y a rra n g in g
12 y ea rs o f 12 lu n a r m o n th s e a c h a n d se v en y ea rs o f 13 lu n a r m o n th s ea c h
ov er th e sp a n o f th e 19-year cycle. H ow ever, a c c o rd in g to S am u el’s m e a s ­
u r e m e n t o f a so la r y ear, e v e n a t th e e n d o f a 19-year cycle, th e s u n ’s cycle
a n d th e m o o n ’s cycle w ill still n o t b e p erfec tly h a rm o n iz e d . R ath er, ‘y o u
w ill b e le ft w ith a n h o u r a n d 485 p a rts (= 4 8 5 /1 0 8 0 h o u r), b y w h ic h th e
solar y e a r ex ceed s th e lu n a r y e a r in e a c h a n d every cycle’ (Bar Hayya,
3:3).!3 W ith e a c h a n d every cycle, th is sm all d isc re p a n c y is m u ltip lie d . O ne
ca n c h a rt its g row th, ov er tim e, fro m a sm all d isc re p a n c y in to a n ev er
la rg e r one. In 3:3, Bar H ayya d o es in fa c t illu stra te th is p ro g re ssio n , b y
m e a n s o f tw o ta b les: ‘I h av e d e lin e a te d six ta b le s fo r y ou. O n tw o o f th e m ,
I h av e w ritte n w h a t is a c c u m u la te d fro m th e h o u r a n d 485 [p arts] p e r
cycle fro m th e c re a tio n o f th e w o rld u n to 315 c y c le s . . . O n th e o n e ta b le I
h av e w ritte n w h a t is a c c u m u la te d fro m th e m in m u ltip lie d cycles, a n d o n
th e se c o n d I h av e w ritte n w h a t is a c c u m u la te d in th e p la in (= in d iv id u al)
cycles___’!4
N o te b a r H ayya’s ex p licit a n d im p lic it p a ra m e te rs:

(1) h e is co v e rin g th e s p a n fro m c re a tio n to 315 19-year cycles, viz. to th e

y e a r 5985 AM;
( 2 ) th e ta b le o f m u ltip lie d cycles sh o u ld w o rk in m u ltip le s th a t w ill ev en ly
r e n d e r 315 cycles;

'3 Hebrew: b3a n o b ruw by n an raw - wn D’pbn 'n V m nyw ^ ’a - nw’

mtnai mtna.
'4 Hebrew: bib 'n 's'm nywa papjn |n a mrnb ’jwa ’r n r o mrnb nww ^ ’r o o - ’w
.mbiflan r imtn a a Dna papjn in x n niba ’r a r o i . . . "ntn a 'n'’'w Dbiy m n a a w mtna
...nioiw sn r imtn a a papjn ’jwn mba ’r o r o i
(3) th e n u m b e r o f (h o riz o n ta l) ro w s in e a c h ta b le sh o u ld c o n fo rm to th e
a m o u n t n e e d e d to d isp lay th e re le v a n t d ata;
(4) (c o u n te r-in tu itiv e ly ) h e calls th e ta b le o f m u ltip lie d cycles ‘th e on e
ta b le ’, a n d th e ta b le o f in d iv id u a l cycles ‘th e se c o n d ’— d e sp ite th e fact
th a t th e form er, m u ltip lie d v alu es a re d eriv e d fro m th e la tte r, in d i­
v id u a l ones.

B etw een o n e m a n u sc rip t a n d an o th e r, how ever, ea c h o f th e se p a ra m e te rs is

d isregarded. N evertheless, ev en w h e n disregardin g th e se p ara m ete rs, m a th ­
em atical calcu latio n s are alm o st alw ays co rrectly re a p p lie d to th e n e w
p aram eters.
S cribal re la tio n to a u th o ria l p a ra m e te rs falls in to tw o g ro u p s, o n e su b ­
su m in g ite m s 1-3, a n d th e o th e r c o n sistin g o f ite m 4. Ite m 4 is s tra ig h t­
forw ard : It is stran g e th a t th e a u th o r p la ce s th e m u ltip le s b efo re th e
in d iv id u als fro m w h ic h th o se m u ltip le s a re c o n s titu te d . T hus, w ith
th e e x c e p tio n o f th e scrib e o f G u e n z b u rg 509, th e scrib es o f th e Ita lia n
fam ily v ery logically rev e rse th e o rd e r (see figure 21). (Seem ingly, th e la te r
m a n u sc rip ts o f th a t fam ily follow th e le a d o f th e ir p red e cesso rs, w h ic h are
th e ir ex em p lars.) W ith , o n th e o n e h a n d , th re e d is tin c t te x tu a l tra d itio n s
(1— th a t w h ic h is tr a n s m itte d in O x O pp a n d JTS 2596; 2— th e A sh k en a zic
fam ily; 3— P aris 1047) as w ell as o n e o f th e w itn e sse s o f a fo u rth te x tu a l
tra d itio n (G u e n z b u rg 509, fro m th e Ita lia n fam ily— fig. 21) in co n fo rm ity
to th e a u th o ria l p ro se d escrip tio n , an d , o n th e o th e r h a n d , m o s t b u t n o t
all o f th e w itn e ss in th e fo u rth te x tu a l tra d itio n (th e Ita lia n fam ily) d iv erg ­
in g fro m th e a u th o ria l p ro se d escrip tio n , it is clea r th a t th e a u th o ria l v e r­
sion is p re se rv e d in th e fo rm e r set, n o t th e la tte r set.
R eg ard in g ite m s 1-3, too, th e a u th o ria l o rig in al is easy to d e te c t. T he
a u th o ria l o rig in a l is p re se rv e d in th e diverse w itn e sse s c o n s istin g o f
th e Ita lia n Fam ily, P aris 1047, JTS 2 500, a n d u su a lly JTS 2 5 6 4 (th e la tte r
tw o c o n s titu tin g th e A sh k en a zic Fam ily), w h ic h co n fo rm to th e a u th o ria l
p a ra m e te rs, a n d n o t in th e single tra d itio n re p re s e n te d b y O x O pp, JTS
2596, a n d a gloss in N eofiti (a m e m b e r o f th e Ita lia n Fam ily), w h ic h do
n o t c o n fo rm to th e a u th o ria l p a ra m e te rs. O x O p p a n d JTS 2 5 9 6 diverge
fro m th e a u th o ria l o rig in a l in th e follow ing w ays:

( 1 ) th e y c o n tin u e th e c a lc u la tio n for ov er a n a d d itio n a l m ille n n iu m —

in ste a d o f calculating to th e y ea r 5985, th e y calcu late to th e y e a r 7106;
( 2 ) in th e ta b le o f m u ltip lie d cycles, th e y do n o t w o rk in m u ltip le s o f a
n u m b e r th a t even ly re n d e rs 315 cycles, viz. in m u ltip le s o f 15 as in th e
o th e r m a n u sc rip ts , b u t r a th e r in m u ltip le s o f 17;
(3) in a d d itio n , they, a g lo ssato r in N eofiti, a n d JTS 2 5 6 4 (th e la tte r tw o
on ly p artially ) su p p ly excessive ro w s o f c a lc u la tio n in th e ta b le o f
in d iv id u a l cycles, g oing b e y o n d b o th 15 a n d 17.

Ite m 3, th e in c lu sio n o f excess ro w s in th e ta b le o f in d iv id u a l cycles,

m a n ife st in slightly d iffe re n t w ays in e a c h o f th e se fo u r m a n u sc rip ts ,
m a y u ltim a te ly b e a ttr ib u te d to a single facto r: th e a e sth e tic s o f h av in g
para llel-lo o k in g ta b le s o n th e page. T hus, th e n u m b e r o f ro w s in th e ‘T able
o f In d iv id u a l C ycles’ is in c re a se d to m a tc h th e n u m b e r o f ro w s in th e
‘T able o f M u ltip lied Cycles’, b o th ta b les b e in g d isplayed side-by-side. This
e x p la n a tio n w o rk s in th re e o u t o f th e fo u r cases. In JTS 2596, e a c h ta b le
h as 22 ro w s o f ca lc u la tio n s (see figure 6 ). In N eofiti, w h ic h ex em p lifies
th e s ta n d a rd (= a u th o ria l) la y o u t in w h ic h th e m u ltip lie d cycles ta k e u p 21
ro w s o f ca lc u la tio n s a n d th e in d iv id u a l cycles ta k e u p 15 ro w s o f ca lc u la­
tio n s, six ro w s are a d d e d a t th e b o tto m o f th e 15 in d iv id u a l cycles (alb e it
w ith on ly p a rtia l in fo rm a tio n ), ev e n in g o u t b o th ta b le s to 21 ro w s (see
fig. 21).i5 In JTS 2564, th e g oal o f v isu a l p a ra lle lism is clear: th e v e rtic a l
lin e s o f tw o p a ra lle l tab les, e a c h o n e c o n sistin g o f five v e rtic a l co lu m n s,
a re d ra w n to th e b o tto m o f th e page, a lth o u g h th e d a ta ru n o n ly a b o u t
% o f th e w ay d o w n th e page; a n d in th e m u ltip lie d ta b le th e d a ta is filled
in (w ith so m e la c u n a e ) for on ly 19 row s (row s 15 a n d 16 are m issing, th u s
th e e x p e c te d 21 a re re d u c e d to 19), th is b e in g m a tc h e d b y ex actly 19 row s
in th e in d iv id u a l ta b le (see figure 7). Sim ilarly, JTS 2 5 0 0 (w h ich , to g e th e r
w ith th e ju st-d is c u sse d JTS 2564, c o n s titu te s th e A sh k en a zic Fam ily) a n d
P aris 1047 h av e p a ra lle l g rids fo r b o th ta b le s — a lth o u g h , in co n fo rm ity
w ith th e a u th o ria l v ersio n , th e y leave th e b o tto m six ro w s o f th e ta b le
o f in d iv id u a l cycles b la n k (see figure 8). O x O pp, h o w ev er, is slightly
m o re com plex. It c o n ta in s a d isp a rity o f o n e: th e m u ltip lie d cycles r u n
fo r 22 row s, w h ile th e in d iv id u a l cycles r u n fo r 21 ro w s (see figure 9). It
is p o ssib le th a t in th is tra d itio n , first th e n u m b e r o f in d iv id u a l ro w s w as
in c re a se d to 21 , to m a tc h th e n u m b e r o f m u ltip lie d row s, a n d o n ly a fte r­
w a rd s w as th e n u m b e r o f m u ltip lie d ro w s in c re a se d to 22. If so, O x O pp

15 The gloss in Neofiti, while not done in an aesthetically pleasing manner, was presum­
ably carried over from an exemplar that was ultimately motivated by aesthetics. As many
glosses in Neofiti, this gloss notes readings preserved in the alternate manuscript tradi­
tion, which we find represented by Ox Opp (and in some cases by JTS 2596—although a
number of these glosses, which do not exactly match either Ox Opp or JTS 2596, demon­
strate that neither one of these manuscripts is the source for the glosses in Neofiti).
p re se rv e s a n in te rm e d ia te stage o f d e v e lo p m e n t, w h ile JTS 2 5 9 6 p rese rv e s
a fu rth e r stage o f d e v e lo p m e n t.
W hy, h o w ev er, w as a n a lte rn a te v e rsio n d e v e lo p e d (p re se rv e d in Ox
O pp a n d JTS 2596), in w h ic h ( 1 ) th e c a lc u la tio n is c o n tin u e d fo r o v er a n
a d d itio n a l m ille n n iu m , a n d ( 2 ) th e ta b le o f m u ltip lie d cycles d o es n o t
w o rk in m u ltip le s o f a n u m b e r th a t evenly re n d e rs 315 cycles (viz. n o t 15 b u t
17)? Also, are th e se tw o an o m alies directly linked? I do n o t h av e a defin itiv e
a n s w e r to th e s e q u e stio n s, b u t I h av e so m e p o ssib le ex p lan a tio n s:

(A) In h is o p e n in g s ta te m e n t to 2:6, S eco n d P a rt— ta b le s illu stra tin g

th e m o ld d o t (= lu n a r c o n ju n c tio n s ),^ Bar H ayya gives ta b le s ru n n in g
‘fro m th e b e g in n in g o f th e w o rld ’s c re a tio n u n til th e w o rld re a c h e s 6 0 0 0
y e a rs___I co u ld h av e a d d e d [m o re], b u t I re lie d u p o n th e w o rd s o f o u r
Sages (o f b le sse d m e m o ry ), w h o said, “T he w o rld exists fo r 6 0 0 0 y e a rs” ’
(b S a n h e d rin 9 7 a & parallels). T he ta b le s w e are d e a lin g w ith h ere , to o ,
fro m 3:3, e n d w ith th e y e a r 5985, th e final cycle p rio r to th e y e a r 6 0 0 0 .
O n ce th e e s c h a to n arrives, b y th e y e a r 6 0 0 0 , th e s e c a lc u la te d cycles w ill
n o lo n g e r b e in u se .n T he d a ta for in d iv id u a l y ea rs fro m 5985 to 6 0 0 0 a re
a tta in e d b y sim p ly a d d in g th e v alu es fro m th e ta b le o f in d iv id u a l cycles
to th e v alu es fo r 5985. T hus, h ere, too, as in 2:6, Bar H ayya h a s n o n e e d to
ca lc u late a n y fu rth e r. H ow ever, th e re is a n a lte rn a te v ie w in th e T alm u d :
‘T he H oly B lessed O ne w ill re n e w H is w o rld on ly a fte r 7 0 0 0 y e a rs’ (b San-
h e d rin 97b). T he c a lc u la tio n in Ox O pp a n d JTS 2 5 9 6 to th e y e a r 7106 AM
m a y reflec t a d h e re n c e to th is la tte r view . F u rth e rm o re , th is a lte rn a tiv e
m a y originally h av e go n e to th e m u ltip le o f cycles p rio r to th e y e a r 7 0 0 0
(as th e sta n d a rd , a u th o ria l v e rsio n goes to th e m u ltip le o f cycles p rio r to
6 0 0 0 ), h av in g la te r b e e n u p d a te d to th e first in c re m e n t b y w h ic h it w o u ld
ex c ee d th e y e a r 7000, in k e e p in g w ith th e n u a n c e o f th e T alm u d ic s ta te ­
m e n t ‘a fte r 7 0 0 0 y e a rs’. U sing th e in c re m e n t o f 15, it w o u ld h av e re q u ire d
24 ro w s o f m u ltip le cycles to a p p ro a c h th e y e a r 7 0 0 0 , a n d 25 ro w s to
ex c ee d it. By u sin g th e in c re m e n t o f 17 r a th e r th a n 15 m u ltip lie d cycles,

16 Sing. moldd, “the conjunction of the moon with the sun in a single one of the firma­
ment’s parts”—2:6, First Part.
17 Various interpretations are given to this passage: the world will entirely cease (in
which case calendrical calculations, too, will cease); the world will not cease to exist, but
will be radically altered in some way (cf. the passage adduced below: “The Holy Blessed
One will renew (mahaddes—WinQ) His world”) (in which case nature as we know it, upon
which the calendar is based, will be obsolete, or Torah law will revert to its ideal state,
including the ad hoc (and not the fixed) calendar).
a p p ro a c h in g th e y e a r 7 0 0 0 re q u ire s o n ly 21 ro w s— th e sam e n u m b e r o f
ro w s as th e sta n d a rd , a u th o ria l ta b le. U sing 17 m a y h av e b e e n e m b ra c e d
b e c a u s e it is a w ay to c h a n g e th e v a lu e w h ile p re se rv in g th e lay o u t. As
m e n tio n e d above, th e p re se n c e in O x O p p o f o n ly 21 ro w s in th e ta b le o f
in d iv id u a l cycles m a y b e ev id en c e th a t o rig in ally th is a lte rn a tiv e c o u n t
c o n siste d o f on ly 21 row s; i.e. (as m e n tio n e d ab o v e) o rig in ally it w e n t o nly
to th e m u ltip le cycle p rio r to th e y e a r 7 0 0 0 . In th is case, th e ch o ice o f th e
y e a r 7 0 0 0 is d irec tly lin k e d to th e ch o ice o f th e in c re m e n t 17.

(B) A ltern ativ ely , th e re a s o n for th e u se o f 17 r a th e r th a n 15 m a y b e d u e

to n u m e ric a l n e a tn e ss. U sin g m u ltip le s o f 15 fo r th e ‘T able o f M u ltip lie d
c y c le s’ re su lts in a r e m a in d e r o f ov er 21.5 h o u rs p e r cycle, re n d e rin g th e
follow ing list o f re m a in d e rs o f days: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 , 7, 8, 9, 9, 10, 11, 12,
13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. N o te th a t n in e is re p e a te d in th is list (in a d d itio n
to th e fac t th a t th e list b eg in s w ith 0). U sing 17, h o w ev er, w ith ju s t o ver
% h o u r re m a in d e r p e r cycle, re n d e rs th e fo llo w in g n e a te r list o f o n e d ay
p e r in c re m e n t: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 , 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
22. In th is case, th e ch o ice o f th e in c re m e n t 17 h a s n o th in g to do w ith
th e ch o ice o f th e y e a r 7000.

2.4 M o d ifyin g Fields f o r w h ich D a ta A re P rovided

O ne o f b a r H ayya’s ta b le s in 2:10 lists th e days u p o n w h ic h relig io u s fes­

tivals b e g in o r occur. H e gives th is d a ta for y ear-ty p es, 14 in all ,18 ca te g o ­
riz e d b y th e follow ing criteria: th e w e e k -d a y o f R osh H ash a n ah ; w h e th e r
th e y e a r is defective, orderly, o r full (see b e lo w se c tio n 2.7, p a rtic u la rly
n o te 34); th e w ee k -d a y o f P assover; a n d w h e th e r th e y e a r is p lain , o r in te r ­
c a la te d (w ith tw o m o n th s o f ’A dar). T his ta b le o cc u rs in 11 m a n u sc rip ts:
all se v en m e m b e rs o f th e Ita lia n Fam ily; O x O pp; JTS 2596; P aris 1047;
a n d P aris (BnF, h eb .) 805 (see figure 10). A cc o rd in g to th e g e n e ra l c o n s e n ­
sus o f m a n u sc rip ts , w e c a n p o s it th a t o rigin ally th e fo llo w in g fields w ere
in c lu d e d : 1) th e in c e p tio n o f R osh H a sh a n a h a n d T a b e rn a c le s (= Sukkot);
2) T he F ast o f G edaliah; 3) Y om K ippur; 4) th e in c e p tio n o f th e m o n th o f
M a rh e sw an ; 5) th e in c e p tio n o f th e m o n th o f Kislew; 6 ) th e first ca n d le
o f H a n u k k a h ; 7) th e in c e p tio n o f th e m o n th o f T eb et; 8 ) th e fast o f th e
10th o f T ebet; 9) th e in c e p tio n o f th e m o n th o f S abat; 10) th e in c e p tio n o f

18 Although in theory more year-types are possible, he gives data for only those 14 year-
types which occur in actuality.
th e first m o n th o f ’A dar; 11 ) th e in c e p tio n o f th e se c o n d m o n th o f ’A dar;
12) th e F ast o f E sther; 13) th e F east o f L ots (P u rim ); 14) th e in c e p tio n o f
th e m o n th o f N isan a n d P assover; 15) th e in c e p tio n o f th e m o n th o f ’Iyyar;
16) th e in c e p tio n o f th e m o n th o f Siw an; 17) P e n te c o st (S a b u 'o t); 18) th e
in c e p tio n o f th e m o n th o f T am m u z; 19) th e fast o f th e 17th o f T am m u z;
20 ) th e in c e p tio n o f th e m o n th o f ’Ab; 21 ) th e fast o f th e n in th o f ’Ab;
22) a n d th e in c e p tio n o f th e m o n th o f ’Elul. H ow ever, in so m e m a n u sc rip ts
so m e o f th e fields a re varied : P aris 805 lists R osh H a sh a n a h a n d T a b e r­
n ac le s sep arately ; P aris 1047 lists R osh H a sh a n a h b u t n o t T ab e rn a cles
(w h ich is id e n tic a l to R osh H a sh a n a h , a n d th u s n e e d n o t b e ex p lica te d );
JTS 5512 d o es n o t list Y om K ip p u r (w h ich is in v a riab ly th e 1 0th d ay fro m
th e in c e p tio n o f R osh H a sh a n a h , a n d c a n easily b e d e d u c e d th e re fro m );
P aris 8 05 a n d G u e n z b u rg 509, tw o a p p a re n tly u n r e la te d m a n u sc rip ts , a d d
th e ‘D ay o f th e W illow ’ (th e se v e n th d ay o f T ab e rn a cles, a n d th u s easily
d e d u c e d th e re fro m ); F lo re n ce lists o nly one, g en e ric ’A dar; a n d JTS 2596
a d d s a m y stery ro w a t th e b o tto m o f th e ch a rt, giving th e days o f th e w ee k
for a n o cc asio n c a p tio n e d sim p ly b y th e sy m b o l for ‘z e ro ’ (in a d d itio n to
ch a n g in g th e fo rm a ttin g , b y in se rtin g a b la n k c o lu m n b e tw e e n th e d a ta
for re g u la r y ea rs a n d in te rc a la te d years, a n d b y listin g th e c a p tio n s tw ice,
o n ce a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e re g u la r years, a n d ag a in a t th e b e g in n in g o f
th e in te rc a la te d y ears) (see figure 11).

2.5 P reserving Form W hile V arying C ontent

In h is ‘C o n c lu sio n ’, b a r H ayya p re s e n ts a ta b le listin g th e days o f th e w ee k

o n w h ic h so la r m o n th s beg in , th ro u g h th e ‘G re a t Cycle’ o f 28 years. In
b o th stre a m s o f surviving w itn e sse s— O x O pp a n d th e Ita lia n Family19—
th e ta b le s a re id e n tic a l in form : d a ta a re p re s e n te d in 28 ro w s x 14 col­
u m n s, to p p e d b y a ro w o f h ea d in g s. T his a g re e m e n t w o u ld in d ic a te th a t
th is fo rm w as rec eiv e d fro m th e a u th o ria l original. H ow ever, in c o n te n t,
th e ta b les are n o t id entical: th e y vary in th e fields th a t are in c lu d e d in th e
h e a d in g s o f th e 14 co lu m n s. T his in d ic a te s th a t a t le a s t o n e o f th e se
stre a m s (if n o t b o th ) c o n ta in s v a ria tio n fro m th e a u th o ria l original. In a
ta b le listin g d a ta b y solar m o n th s , o n e w o u ld e x p e c t 12 co lu m n s, o n e p e r
m o n th . A n d in d e e d , in e a c h strea m , 12 o f th e co lu m n s a re th u sly o cc u ­
p ied . E ach so la r-c a le n d a r m o n th is listed, a c c o m p a n ie d b y th e n u m b e r o f

19 In five of seven the witnesses: sub-group A = JTS 5512, Urbinati, & BL 29899; and
sub-group B = BL 10538 & Neofiti. See figures 12-14.
days th a t it co n tain s. T he d ifferen ces b e tw e e n th e tw o stre a m s o c c u r in:
1 ) th e v a rio u s y ea r-e ra s listed; a n d 2 ) th e w ay o f re p re s e n tin g th e v aria b le
n u m b e r o f days in F ebruary, w h ic h (in th is ca le n d a r) h as 28 days in th re e
o u t o f fo u r years, a n d 29 days ev ery f o u rth year.
In th e Ita lia n Fam ily, th e first c o lu m n (b e g in n in g fro m th e rig h t) lists,
sim ply, th e n u m b e r o f th e y e a r in th is cycle,20 ru n n in g fro m o n e to 28. In
c o n tra st, in Ox O p p th e first tw o co lu m n s a re u se d to n o te tw o d iffe ren t
y ea r-e ra s, respectively, b o th o f w h ic h a re fitte d to th e 28 y e a r cycle: th e
‘E ra o f D o c u m e n ts/C o n tra c ts’ = th e S eleucid era; a n d th e A n n o M u n d i
re c k o n in g = fro m creation.21 W h e re a s th e 2 8 -y ear cycle b e g in s w ith th e
w o rld ’s c re a tio n , a n d th u s its co lu m n , w h ic h is th e se c o n d c o lu m n o f th is
ta b le, b eg in s w ith th e n u m b e r one, th e S eleu cid e ra b eg in s in y e a r 23 of
th e cycle, a n d th u s th e first c o lu m n o f th is ta b le b eg in s w ith y e a r seven,
it re a c h e s 28 in ro w 22, a n d s ta rts o v er fro m n u m b e r o n e in c o lu m n 23.
I do n o t k n o w w h e th e r th e a u th o ria l o rig in a l c o n ta in e d th e S eleu cid era,
w h ic h w as d ism isse d as irre le v a n t in th e p ro g e n ito r o f th e Ita lia n Fam ily,
o r w h e th e r th e o rig in a l d id n o t c o n ta in th e S eleu cid era, w h ic h w as in tr o ­
d u c e d in to (th e p ro g e n ito r of) Ox O pp d u e to its rele v an c e in a p a rtic u la r
tim e a n d place. In e ith e r case, w e d isc e rn h o w so cial re a lity m o d ifies th e
c o n te n t o f a n a u th o ria l lite ra ry w o rk ,22 a n d p a rtic u la rly th e c o n te n t of
a table.23
As o u tlin e d above, w e c a n p ro je c t a n u r-ta b le c o n sistin g o f 14 co lu m n s;
a n d w e c a n p ro je c t th a t th e scribes o f b o th te x tu a l tra d itio n s w ish e d to
co n fo rm to th is stru c tu re . T he ch a llen g e o f a scrib e w h o w ish e s to k eep
th e re c e iv e d stru c tu re w h ile m o d ify in g th e c o n te n t— th is in n o v a tiv e n e ss
m a y ap p ly to b o th tra d itio n s o r to on ly o n e o f th e m — is h o w to fit th e
d e sire d d a ta in to th e rec eiv e d stru c tu re . Since w e h av e a lre a d y se e n w h ic h
n o n - m o n th d a ta e a c h tra d itio n in c lu d es, a n d h o w m a n y co lu m n s th is
o ccu p ies, w e see h o w m a n y co lu m n s r e m a in fo r th e m o n th -d a ta . In Ox
O pp, 12 co lu m n s re m a in fo r 12 m o n th s , o n e o f w h ich , F eb ru ary , c o n ta in s a

20 Called the ‘Solar Cycle’, as distinct from the 19-year cycle, which bar Hayya entitles
the ‘Lunar Cycle’.
21 The various eras and their correspondences are discussed by bar Hayya in 3:8.
22 Texts of literary works that are not ‘authorial’ (viz. that are not products of single,
individual authors, but rather are works that were compiled by many people, often over
generations) are very open—unless they attain canonical status (cf. the masoretic text of
the Bible).
23 The logical next question, viz. why tables in particular are open to modification,
deserves full-scale analysis in its own right. Is it because they may not have been con­
sidered bone fide ‘text’, because scribes may have wished to make the tables useful for
contemporary, local users, and / or for other / additional reasons?
c o m p le x ity re g a rd in g its n u m b e r o f days; a n d in th e Ita lia n Fam ily, 13 col­
u m n s re m a in fo r th e sa m e d ata. In O x O pp (if it is in n o v a tiv e ), th e n e e d
to co n fo rm to th e 1 4 -c o lu m n p ara d ig m , a n d to do so w ith o n ly 12 c o lu m n s
av ailab le for 12 m o n th s , in c lu d in g th e c o m p le x m o n th o f F eb ru ary , is d e a lt
w ith b y h av in g a single co lu m n fo r F ebruary, listin g its n u m b e r o f days
as 28% , an d , for every fo u rth year, ad d in g , 'H 3 , th e a b b re v ia tio n fo r th e
H eb rew n w ia i/k d b u s d = ‘e m b o lism ic ’ (see figure 12). In th e Ita lia n F am ­
ily (if it is in n o v a tiv e ), th e n e e d to fit 12 m o n th s in to 13 co lu m n s is d e a lt
w ith b y h a v in g tw o co lu m n s fo r th e c o m p le x m o n th o f F eb ru ary , th e first
o f w h ic h is to p p e d b y th e n a m e ‘F e b ru a ry ’ a n d th e n u m b e r o f days in a
s ta n d a rd F ebruary, ‘28’, a n d th e se c o n d o f w h ic h h a s n o h e a d in g w h a t­
soever, an d , in every fo u rth row , in d ic a te s n w ia i/k d b u s d = em b o lism ic.
In su b -g ro u p B (see above, n o te 19), th e F e b ru a ry e m b o lism ic c o lu m n is
a rra n g e d in th e c o rre c t o rd e r (see figure 13). H ow ever, in su b -g ro u p A
(ibid.) (see figure 14), w h e re th e list o f m o n th s b eg in s w ith O cto b er, a n d
th e se c o n d F e b ru a ry c o lu m n is in s e rte d follow in g D e c e m b e r r a th e r th a n
follow ing F ebruary, w e fin d th e follow ing in te re s tin g n o te : ‘T h e e m b o lism
in th is ta b le in th e m o n th o f F e b ru a ry in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e v ie w o f th e
p e o p le o f S d ra p a t (i.e. F ran ce) w as m is ta k e n ly w ritte n a t th e m o n th o f
D e c e m b e r’.24 R ead in g th is n o te carefully, o n e fin d s tw o d is tin c t p o in ts.
T he first p o in t is a n a c k n o w le d g e m e n t th a t th e se c o n d F e b ru a ry co lu m n is
o u t o f se q u en c e. T he fa c t th a t in s te a d o f c o rre c tin g th e erro r, scrib es ch o se
to tr a n s m it b o th th e e rro r a n d th e n o te a c k n o w led g in g it illu stra te s th e
d eg re e o f fidelity e x e rcise d w ith in th e Ita lia n Fam ily. T h e se c o n d p o in t,
n o t re la te d to th e first, is th a t th e p ra c tic e o f h av in g a se p a ra te c o lu m n to
n o te th e o c c u rre n c e o f a n in te rc a la te d F e b ru a ry is ‘in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e
v ie w o f th e p e o p le o f S d ra p a t/F ra n c e ’. A p p aren tly , for th e Ita lia n scrib e a t
th e h e a d o f su b -g ro u p A, th is w ay o f in d ic a tin g a n in te rc a la te d F eb ru ary
(viz. in a se p a ra te c o lu m n ) w as foreign. N everth eless, h e d id n o t ch a n g e
w h a t h e received, b u t p re se rv e d it w ith a n e x p la n a to ry gloss— ag a in illu s­
tra tin g th e fidelity to th e e x e m p la r in h e re n t in th e Ita lia n Fam ily. B ear­
in g in m in d th e fa c t th a t b a r H ayya, a lth o u g h S ep h ard ic (= a n Ib e ria n
Jew ), c o m p o se d th is w o rk in S d ra p a t,/France a t th e b e h e s t o f th e reg io n a l

24 Hebrew: wTina m yoa a r o j r a n s ’wjn ryT by n a n s wTina ntn mba w n ’3 n

n a ’SH. The exact region intended in medieval Hebrew by the toponym Sdnpat is vari­
able. It sometimes refers to France in general, sometimes to most of France excluding the
southern regions, and sometimes to a particular region of France.
ra b b is ,25 it is v e ry p o ssib le th a t th e in d ic a tio n o f in te rc a la te d F eb ru ary in
a se p a ra te , se c o n d c o lu m n is th e original, a u th o ria l fo rm a t. 26

2.6 Flexibility o f Layout, Captions, a n d S ym b o ls (P articularly Z ero)

W h ile scrib es co n s iste n tly try (w ith o v erall success) to a c c u ra te ly convey

th e d a ta c o n ta in e d in th e ta b les, th e y v ary in th e ir fid elity to th e c a p tio n ­
in g a n d la y o u t o f th e s e tab les, e x h ib itin g th e a c c u s to m e d te n s io n b e tw e e n
in n o v a tio n a n d co n serv atism . Illu stra te d b y ta b le s fro m 3:4, th e follow ing
fe a tu re s sta n d o u t: m o s t m a n u s c rip ts u se c o m p a ra b le la y o u t a n d c a p tio n ­
ing; JTS 2596 differs in m a n y w ays; th e p ra c tic e for re p re s e n tin g ‘z e ro ’ is
n o t y e t finalized.
A ll m a n u s c rip ts h av e fo u r tab les, c o in c id in g w ith th e y e a r’s fo u r td q u p o t
(sing. tdqupa, h e re = so lstices / eq u in o x es), laid o u t as tw o sets o f tw o. In
all b u t JTS 2596, e a c h ta b le h a s six co lu m n s across, giving th e follow ing
d a ta in th is order: th e y e a r w ith in th e 19-year cycle; th e day; h o u r; p a rt;
a n d in sta n t; o f w h ic h lu n a r m o n th o f th e Je w ish c a le n d a r in w h ic h th e
tdqupa o cc u rs (see figures 15 & 16). (All th is is g iven in a c c o rd a n c e w ith
th e v ie w giv en in th e n a m e o f R ab b i ’A da b. ’A h ab a, th is v ie w b e in g th e
th e m e o f 3:4.) In JTS 2596, th e y e a r w ith in th e 19-year cycle is liste d o nly
o n ce for e a c h p a ir o f tab les, re su ltin g in six co lu m n s in th e first ta b le o f
e a c h p a ir b u t on ly five co lu m n s in th e se c o n d ta b le o f e a c h p air. A lso, th e
m o n th o f th e lu n a r, Je w ish c a le n d a r is m o v e d fro m th e fin al row , afte r
all o f th e sm a lle r u n its (viz. days, h o u rs, p arts, in sta n ts), to th e co lu m n
p re c e d in g th e s e sm a lle r u n its. (In th e first ta b le o f e a c h p air, th is is
c o lu m n tw o, follow ing th e y ear; a n d in th e se c o n d ta b le o f e a c h p air, in
w h ic h th e y e a r is n o t re p e a te d , th is is c o lu m n o n e.) F u rth e rm o re , in th is
m a n u sc rip t, th e 19-year cycle b eg in s o n e y e a r b efo re it d o es in th e
o th e r m a n u scrip ts: th e d a ta for th e final year, Y ear 19, in o th e r m a n u sc rip ts
is given for Y ear O ne in th is m a n u scrip t; th e d a ta for Y ear O ne in o th e r
m a n u sc rip ts is given for Y ear Two in th is m anuscript.27 (See figure 17.)
A n u m b e r o f m in o r v a ria n ts ex ist b e tw e e n v ario u s m a n u sc rip ts in th e
e x a c t w o rd in g a n d la y o u t o f th e c a p tio n s. S om e o f th e se v a ria n ts are sim ­
p ly errors, w h ile o th e rs r e p r e s e n t th e flexib ility th a t so m e scrib es felt to

25 See his introduction.

26 If this was the French practice around 1123, when the work was written and the table
designed; this bears further investigation.
27 Further investigation is required to determine whether this is simply an error, or
whether it is intentional, embodying a conceptual difference.
b e th e ir p re ro g a tiv e in d e p a rtin g fro m th e ir ex e m p lars. I sh all d escrib e
th e la tte r. O x O pp, m o s t m a n u sc rip ts o f th e Ita lia n Fam ily, a n d P aris 1047
c o n ta in th re e ro w s fo r th e c a p tio n s. T he first ro w c o n ta in s th e c a p tio n
‘T he Taqupd o f [X]28 a c c o rd in g to R abbi ’A da’; th e se c o n d — ‘Its D istan ce
fro m th e M o la d ’ (= c o n ju n c tio n o f th e m o o n a n d su n ); a n d th e th ird co n ­
ta in s th e six h e a d in g s ‘Y ear o f th e Cycle, Day, H our, P art, In sta n t, M o n th
[o f th e Tdqupd]’.29 T he a tte s ta tio n o f th is v e rsio n in th is v a rie ty o f m a n u ­
sc rip ts p o in ts to th e p ro b a b ility th a t th is re p re s e n ts th e a u th o ria l original.
Tw o m a n u s c rip ts o f th e Ita lia n Fam ily, BL 10538 a n d N eofiti, c o m b in e
th e c a p tio n s fro m row s o n e a n d tw o in to o n e row . JTS 2 5 6 4 a n d JTS 2596
c o m p le te ly o m it th e c a p tio n fo u n d e lsew h e re in ro w tw o. To th e c a p tio n
o f ro w one, JTS 2 5 6 4 a d d s R abbi ’A d a’s p a tro n y m ic , ‘b a r ’A h a b a ’; a n d JTS
2 596 in se rts ‘th e v ie w o f b e tw e e n ‘a c c o rd in g to ’ a n d ‘R ab b i ’A d a’.30 T h ere
is in te n tio n a l v a ria tio n in th e c a p tio n o f th e ‘M o n th s’ co lu m n , to o . Ox
O pp a n d JTS 2596 b o th o m it th e w o rd s ‘o f th e S easo n ’. Ox O p p read s, ‘T he
N am e o f th e M o n th ’, w h ile JTS 2596 rea d s, sim ply, ‘M o n th s ’.
M a n u sc rip ts th a t ag ree in o th e r re sp e c ts differ o v er th e re p re s e n ta tio n
o f ‘z e ro ’. In so m e m a n u sc rip ts , ‘z e ro ’ is r e p re s e n te d b y a b la n k sp a ce (see
figure 16),31 a n d in o th e rs — b y a sp e cia l sy m b o l (see figure 17)32— in o n e
m a n u sc rip t, JTS 2564, th is is e x e c u te d w ith v ary in g d eg re es o f su ccess— or
w ith a h o riz o n ta l d a s h (see figure 15).33 T his in d ic a te s th a t c o n te m p o ­
rary c o n v e n tio n s a n d rec eiv e d fo rm s vie w ith o n e a n o th e r fo r r e p re s e n ta ­
tio n o n th e page, th a t c o n te m p o ra ry c o n v e n tio n s m a y b e u n o b tru siv e ly
a b s o rb e d in to te x tu a l tra n sm issio n , th a t w e m u s t q u e s tio n th e re la tio n
b e tw e e n w h a t w e see a n d th e ‘u rte x t’, a n d th a t b y an a ly z in g th e s e m a n u ­
sc rip ts w e c a n trac e, in so m e sm all w ay, th e e m e rg e n c e o f th e r e p r e s e n ta ­
tio n o f ‘z e ro ’ o v er v ario u s tim es, p laces, a n d cu ltu res.

2.7 S u p erim p o sin g E xtern a l S tru ctu re onto In d ig en o u s D a ta

In th e c o n c lu sio n o f h is w ork, A b ra h a m b a r H ayya in c lu d e s a ta b le giv­

in g ‘signs’ (= s h o rth a n d n o ta tio n ) o f th re e d ata: th e w e e k d a y w h e n R osh

28 viz. Spring, Summer, Autumn, or Winter; in Hebrew n au ,’nwn ,TlDn , p ’}/NIsan,

Tammuz, Tisri, Tebet.
29 Lit. ‘Days, Hours, Parts, Instants, Months’; the Hebrew and English idioms differ.
30 Viz. ‘according to the view of Rabbi ’Ada’; Heb. an nplb, in contrast to the
standard N1 N anb.
31 The Italian Family with the exception of Guenzburg 509.
32 Ox Opp, JTS 2596, JTS 2564, & Guenzburg 509.
33 BnF heb. 1047, for example folio 51a.
H a sh a n a h occurs; w h e th e r th e y e a r is defectiv e, orderly, o r fu ll ;34 a n d th e
w e e k d a y o n w h ic h P asso v er b egins. As for th e y ea rs co v e red in th e tab le,
th e a u th o r in fo rm s us, ‘I m a d e o n e ta b le in w h ic h I w ro te th e ‘sig n s’ o f th e
y ea rs fro m th e b e g in n in g o f [19-year] cycle 258 (= 4 8 8 4 AM = 1123/4 CE),
w h ic h is a p p ro a c h in g u s in th e u p c o m in g y e a r (m ay it b e for good), to th e
e n d o f [19-year] cycle 280 (= 5320 AM = 1559/60 CE)— th is c o n s titu tin g
23 cycles.’35 T hus, o n e w o u ld e x p e c t a ta b le w ith 19 ro w s o f d a ta fo r th e
19 y ea rs o f th e cycle, a n d 23 co lu m n s o f d a ta fo r th e 23 cycles co v ered
(w ith o n e m o re c o lu m n a t th e b e g in n in g , in d ic a tin g th e n u m b e r o f th e
y e a r w ith in th e 19-year cycle). In stea d , in b o th tra d itio n s th a t p rese rv e
th is ta b le, O x O pp (see figure 18) a n d th e Ita lia n F am ily (see figure 19),36
a lth o u g h w e do find, as ex p e cted , 19 ro w s o f d a ta fo r th e 19 y ea rs o f th e
cycle, v ertically th e re a re on ly 14 c o lu m n s for th e 23 cycles covered.
T he d a ta fo r th e full n u m b e r o f 23 cycles are p re s e n te d b y h av in g th e col­
u m n s do d o u b le -d u ty : d a ta in th e co lu m n s a re v alid fo r n o t o n ly o n e b u t
tw o cycles, as in d ic a te d in th e captions.37 T his is p re d ic a te d o n th e id e a
th a t v a rio u s cycles sh a re id e n tic a l data.
O x O pp arra n g e s th e cy c le -c ap tio n s as follow s:

258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 274

271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 0 0 0 0

T his se tu p c o n ta in s sev eral se e m in g a n o m alies: a t th e e n d o f th e to p row ,

th e c y c le -n u m b e r ju m p s fro m 270 to 274, r a th e r th a n c o n tin u in g in th e
p a tte r n o f in c re m e n ta l in c re a se b y one; in th e se c o n d row , th e fin al fo u r
b o x e s a re u n u se d ; a n d 274 occu rs tw ice, o n ce a t th e e n d o f th e to p row ,
a n d th e n ag a in in th e fo u rth b o x o f ro w tw o. By an a ly z in g th e d a ta c o n ­

34 A lunar cycle is approximately 29 % days. Since months must consist of full days,
not fractions of days, some lunar months are fixed to be 29 days, while others are fixed
to be 30 days. Whereas 10 of the 12 months (or, in an intercalated year, of the 13 months)
are fixed so that year in, year out, each one has its fixed number of days, there are two
months, Marheswan and Kislew, that are variable: both can have 29 days, resulting in the
least possible number of days in the year = a ‘defective’ (or: ‘deficient’) year; both can have
30 days, resulting in the most possible number of days in the year = a ‘full’ year; or one can
have 29 days, and the other—30 days, maintaining the pattern of alternation between 29
and 30 = an ‘orderly’ year. (See bar Hayya 2:8.)
35 Hebrew: nywl tr ip djdjh 'r'y'n "mno w ana o w n ’jo io n T o r o iriN mb ’r w p
n rm n o 'a'a |n nwN 'a'n m tra ^id ip n aio l naan.
36 Except for Guenzburg 509.
37 For example, the data in the second cycle-column applies to both cycle 259 and
cycle 272.
ta in e d in th e 19 ro w s th a t follow d o w n w a rd fro m th e s e c a p tio n s, th e se
a n o m a lie s in th e c a p tio n s c a n b e a c c o u n te d fo r logically: it is m a th e m a ti­
cally tru e th a t th e d a ta for cycle 271 are id e n tic al to th o se for cycle 258, a n d
th u s th e re w as n o n e e d to p r e s e n t cycle 271 in its o w n co lu m n ; a lth o u g h
th e d a ta fo r cycles 261 a n d 274 m a th e m a tic a lly c o in cid e in m o s t y ea rs
o f th e cycles, in y ea rs 9-11 th e y do n o t— a n d th u s, cycle 274 n e e d e d to
b e liste d se p a ra te ly (in d ee d , it w as n o t a c c u ra te to in d ic a te ‘cycle 274’
b e n e a th cycle 261); an d , sin ce b a r H ayya ex p licitly s ta te d th a t h e is giving
d a ta th ro u g h cycle 280, th e re is n o re a so n to list cycles 2 8 1 -2 8 4 (re g a rd ­
less o f w h e th e r th e y c o in cid e m a th e m a tic a lly w ith th e cycles th a t w o u ld
b e liste d ab o v e them ).38
In th e Ita lia n Fam ily, how ev er, th e cy c le -c ap tio n s are a rra n g e d as
follow s:

258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271

271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284

Superficially, th is looks n ic e r th a n th e a n o m a lo u s se tu p in Ox O pp. H ow ­

ever, in su b stan ce , th is v e rsio n is m o re p ro b le m a tic . Yes, it lo o k s n icer, in
th e to p row , to p ro c e e d fro m 270 to 271, a n d for th e fin al fo u r b o x es o f
ro w tw o to b e filled in. H ow ever, th is raise s q u e s tio n s a n d p ro b lem s: w h y
r e p e a t 271 in th e first b o x o f ro w tw o if it w as a lre a d y giv en in th e la st b o x
o f ro w o n e? Also, in every y e a r b u t one3 9 o f th e 19-year cycle, th e d a ta
g iven b e n e a th th e c a p tio n ‘cycle 271’ a t th e e n d o f ro w o n e a re d iffe ren t
fro m th e d a ta given b e n e a th th e c a p tio n ‘cycle 271’ a t th e b e g in n in g o f
ro w tw o — a n d th u s th e ta b le e m b o d ie s a gross c o n tra d ic tio n . A d d itio n ­
ally, b a r H ayya explicitly s ta te d th a t h e is giving d a ta th ro u g h cycle 280.
A ll th e s e m a n u sc rip ts c o n ta in th is s ta te m e n t in th e ir p ro se sectio n , a n d
five o u t o f six c o n ta in th is in fo rm a tio n in th e ta b le ’s u p p e r m o s t ca p tio n .
(In BL 26899, ho w ev er, th e c a p tio n sta te s, ‘. . . t o th e e n d o f cycle 2 8 4 ’, a n
o b vious m is-c o rrec tio n , in te n d e d to h av e th e u p p e r m o s t c a p tio n co n fo rm
to th e [m ista k e c o n ta in e d in] th e final fo u r c a p tio n s in ro w tw o o f cycle-
n u m b e rs (see figure 20).) T hus, a e sth e tic s aside, th e re w as n o su b sta n tiv e
re a so n to list cycles 281-284.4° A n d th u s w e c a n c o n c lu d e th a t th e v e rsio n

38 Thanks to my colleague Dr I. Wartenberg for the following (inter alia): of the four,
only in cycle 283 do all data coincide mathematically with that of its partner, cycle 270.
39 Year 16 is the exception.
4° This is more glaring since, as noted above, the values are mathematically correct for
cycle 283 only.
in Ox O pp is c lo ser to th e a u th o ria l o rig in al th a n is th e v e rsio n in th e Ita l­
ia n Fam ily, w h ic h w as m is-c o rrec te d .
H ow ever, w e are still le ft to p u z z le o v er th e ch o ice to u se th e d o u b le d -
u p-cycle fo rm a t fo r th e p re s e n ta tio n o f th e d ata, giving th e d a ta in o nly
14 co lu m n s. W h o ch o se th is fo rm a t, a n d w hy? In iso latio n , th e e x ta n t pal-
a e o g ra p h ic a l e v id e n c e — th e o c c u rre n c e o f th is fo rm a t in b o th Ox O pp
a n d th e Ita lia n Fam ily, w h ic h a re u n ite d in b e in g th e o n ly m a n u s c rip t
tra d itio n s th a t c o n ta in th is se c tio n y e t w h ic h h e re a n d elsew h e re are c o n ­
siste n tly d iv e rg e n t fro m o n e a n o th e r — w o u ld in d ic a te th a t th e fo rm a t is
in d e e d a u th o ria l. If it is a u th o ria l, w e n e e d to figure o u t w h y th e a u th o r
u se d th is fo rm a t. A sim p le a n s w e r w o u ld b e th a t o th e rw ise th e la y o u t
w o u ld b e unw ieldy, viz. 22 ro w s b y 2 4 co lu m n s (in c lu d in g c a p tio n row s
a n d co lu m n s). H ow ever, th e p a le o g ra p h ic a l ev id en c e is n o t all th a t w e
have; it d o es n o t o c c u r in iso latio n . T he 1 4 -c o lu m n fo rm a t is close b u t
n o t id e n tic a l to th e fo rm a ttin g o f ‘T he Cycle (H eb. V u p /7 g g u l) o f R abbi
N a h sh o n ’,41 a n a lte rn a te sy stem fo r ca lc u la tin g th e fixed c a le n d a r (in large
cycles o f 13 x 19-year cycles, viz. a large cycle o f 247 y ears), w h ic h re n d e rs
resu lts th a t as a ru le a re id e n tic a l to th o se r e n d e re d b y th e sy stem u se d
by b a r H ayya. T he fac t th a t in h is co m p re h e n siv e w o rk o n th e ca le n d ar,
b a r H ayya d o es n o t m e n tio n a n y th in g a b o u t th e Cycle o f R ab b i N a h sh o n
in d ic a te s th a t b a r H ayya w as n o t aw a re o f th is a lte rn a te system . A n d
th e fa c t th a t th e 14-colum n ta b le is se t u p sm o o th ly a n d se q u e n tia lly fo r
13 cycles b u t (w h e n p ro p e rly d o n e ) th e cycle lis te d in th e 14th co lu m n
b re a k s th e se q u e n tia l o rd e r m a y in d ic a te th a t th e 1 4 -colum n ta b le is a
(c u m b e rs o m e ) a d a p ta tio n o f R abbi N a h sh o n ’s cycle, w ith w h ic h b a r H ayya
w as a p p a re n tly u n fam iliar; a n d th u s it w as a d a p te d b y so m e o n e else, a fte r
b a r H ayya— b u t close e n o u g h to th e so u rce to h av e m a d e its w ay in to th e
tw o v ery d iffe re n t tra d itio n s.

3. Conclusions

A t th e b e g in n in g o f th is p ap e r, I s ta te d m y b a sic co n c lu sio n s. U n d erly ­

in g th e te n s io n b e tw e e n in n o v a tio n a n d p re se rv a tio n e m b o d ie d in th e se
ex am p les, th e re is cre ativ e te n s io n b e tw e e n th re e c o n c e p ts o f c o rre c t­
n ess: fidelity to o n e ’s ex em p lar; fidelity to a c o n je c tu ra l id e a l u rte x t, w h ic h

41 Thanks to my colleague Professor Sacha Stern for calling my attention to this. For
the Cycle of Rabbi Nahshon, see R. Sar-Shalom, Sa'drlm b-Luah ha-'Ibrl [Tables for the
Hebrew Calendar], p. 71.
e n tails fixing p e rc e iv e d m ista k e s in th e ex e m p la r; a n d fid elity to a n ex tra-
te x tu a l id e a l— w h e th e r th e la rg e r p ro g ra m m e / g o al u n d e rly in g th e w ork,
a n id eo lo g y th a t conflicts w ith a s p e c ts o f th e o rig in al w ork, o r th e d esire
to m a k e th e w o rk re le v a n t to a c o n te m p o ra ry , lo c alize d a u d ie n c e . T he
la tte r fo rm o f fidelity m a y call for d iv e rg e n ce fro m th e a u th o r ’s original.
T h ese co n flictin g c o n c e p ts o f c o rre c tn e ss sh a p e th e te n s io n in th e sc rib e’s
p e rc e p tio n o f h is role.
W e h av e se e n th a t o u t o f tw o h ig h ly re fin e d v e r s io n s ,^ th e o n e e m b o d ­
ie d in O x O pp ev id en c es m o re w illin g n ess to ch an g e, m odify, a n d in n o ­
v a te aw a y fro m th e a u th o ria l original, w h e re a s th e o n e e m b o d ie d in th e
Ita lia n F am ily is m o re d e d ic a te d to p re se rv in g th e a u th o ria l original. This
is tr u e in b o th th e ir p a ra te x tu a l e le m e n ts, as d e m o n s tra te d in th is p ap e r,
a n d in th e ir tex ts, as I h av e se e n in m y e d ito ria l w ork, th e e la b o ra tio n
u p o n w h ic h re q u ire s a p a p e r o f its ow n.

42 Ox Opp contains substantial innovation, but I do not wish to get into the grey area of
whether it should be termed a different ‘recension’. This decision would require a semantic
study of the term ‘recension’, and an objectified evaluation of the nature of the manu­
script’s innovation.
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Figure 9: The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, MS O ppenheim er 183,

f. 29a, detail (Note that the last four rows of the table on the left (individual
cycles) are m athem atically unnecessary, and th a t the two tables rem ain visually
asymmetrical)
Figure 10: BnF MS hebreu 805, 110b, table
 r> s j << 6 /< -i / S ? r>
iP P fit p -£/L h & XI
r 1 / ~v f l y j A TT

Figure 11: Courtesy of the Library of the Jewish Theological Seminary, MS 2596, 36b, detail (Note
th a t the field for the bottom m ost row is defined as ‘zero’; and note th at the field-captions are
repeated in each set of columns.)
 1
* w M ^ \
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■n.

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Figure 12: The Bodleian Library, University of oxford, Ms o p p en h eim er 183, f. 41a,
detail (captions 1, 2 and 7 (from right to left) read: ‘l i m a n n u w ; n n w b l i m a n n u w
j a m DI’ n"3 - ’-3 3 [...] ;ablp nN ’-a b ; [...]’ = ‘the years of the cycle according to the
count of contracts / docum ents (= Seleucid era); the years of the cycle according to
the creation of the world; [...] February, 28 days and %; [ ...] ’. In the third row down
of data for February, after the day-indicator, it says, ‘133’, an abbreviation of n ^ !3 3 =
‘em bolism ic’— for the adding of the 29th day to the m onth)
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Figure 13. © The British Library Board, Oriental M anuscript 10538, f. 88b, detail. (First colum n (from right, no
caption), year of cycle; sixth column, ‘February 28’ (Heb. n"3 n n a ) ; seventh colum n (no caption), either
symbol for null, or the w ord ‘em bolism ic’ (Heb. rWDD / kabusa), noting in w hich years February does n ot
have or does have an additional day)
Figure 14: Courtesy of the Library of the Jewish Theological Seminary, MS 5512,
47 a, detail (from right to left, colum n 1, Years of the Solar Cycle’ (n n n n “lim n ’2W);
columns 4-7, ‘December 31, [blank— for extra day in February, w here every three
years have a '3, presum ably for p T O 3 / kasidran = according to their order, and
every fourth year has nw i33 / kabusa = ‘em bolism ic’], January 31, February 28’
(Heb. 'n'3 r a n f l ,'N'b r u ’’ ,[____] ,'N'b n n ’XH); bottom line: ‘The embolism
in this table in the m onth of February in accordance w ith the view of the people
of France was m istakenly w ritten at the m onth of December’ (Heb. m i l WD’3n
n n ’XH ^ T in n m y u a n r a j n a -^ ’^ j n n y r by r a n a ^ T in n nm )
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c

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IM'J ■njo tv 0* -a “ y*tn ->J / a
•; ' ’ i 1 '— 4

Figure 15: BnF MS hebreu 1047, 51a, detail (Note that ‘zero’ is indicated by a horizontal
dash: see right side, 2nd row from the bottom , third colum n from the right)
 SCRIBAL PREROGATIVE IN MODIFYING CALENDRICAL TABLES
F 3V N IX iu n p ii
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Figure 16: © The British Library Board, MS A dditional 26899, 51b, detail (Note th at ‘zero’ is indicated by leaving the square
blank, 2nd row from the bottom , third colum n from the right)
Figure 17: Courtesy of the Library of the Jewish Theological Seminary, MS 2596,
48a, detail (Note that ‘zero’ is indicated by a special symbol: right-hand table,
bottom row, fourth column from the right)
 .. ' t

------ ------ *].........1

r ~ v
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1*1 av ->/C> /V t»? :*& Iff 2** w
(9* ^rr zro ft* lr / _jrr ?vr ,»*•/ Jf -*
W

Figure 18: The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, MS O ppenheim er 183, f. 40a, detail
(Note: the symbol for ‘zero’ in the second level of each of the captions of the last four columns
(from right to left); the jum p, in first level of the last two captions, from 270 to 274 (Heb. '“i'y
to ' t V “i); (and the letter ' y after year three of the cycle, presum ably abbreviating TQy / ‘ibbur
= interclaion))
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4 * ' A
r

•V eb W A p r o i> j
H or .V e b 4 *c» r i%
i

Figure 19: Courtesy of the Library of the Jewish Theological Seminary, MS 5512, 45a.
(Note: the upper caption indicates '[...] through the end of cycle 280 (Heb. 's 't )’;
the cycles indicated in the top row, last two colum ns (from right to left) progress
increm entally from 270 to 271 (heb. V t to 'N 'p'l), and the first colum n of the sec­
ond row of cycles begins w ith 271 (heb. V p 'l ) ; the second row of cycles does not
end five from the end, w ith 280 (heb. 'fl'l), b u t continues to the end of the table,
ending w ith 284 (heb. 'l'fl'"l))

Figure 20: © The British Library Board, MS Additional 26899, 63a, detail (note the
inclusion of the 'T at the end (= extreme left), increasing the value by four, to 284)
 o">nf'ry-"rnrb) r&pr’Yjp.-'nil
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frizr 7 r iy? r &•> ?j)V> -A*
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y’*£>?■&r* ** so* ;

Figure 21: MS Neofiti 30, f. 74a, detail; © 2013 Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.
(Note: contrary to the author’s ordering of tables, the individual cycles are placed
before the m ultiplied cycles; furtherm ore, six rows have been added by a glos­
sator, visually making the two tables equal in length)
 Credits f o r Im a g e s 43

Courtesy of the Library of the Jewish Theological Seminary (JTS): Images

1, 6, 7, 8, 11, 14, 17 & 19; taken, respectively, from: JTS MS 2596, f. 2a; ibid.
f. 45a; ibid. MS 2564, f. 81a; ibid. MS 2500, f. 78b; ibid. MS 2596, f. 36b; ibid. MS
5512, f. 47a; ibid. MS 2596, f. 48a; & ibid. MS 5512, f. 45a.

Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF): Images 2, 10, & 15; taken, respectively,
from BnF MS hebreu 805, f. 56b; ibid. f. 110b; & ibid. MS hebreu 1047, 51a.

The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford: Images 3, 9, 12, & 18; taken, respec­
tively, from The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, MS O ppenheim er 183: f.
2b; f. 29a; f. 41a; & f. 40a.

Florence, The Biblioteca M edicea Laurenziana: Image 4; taken from Florence,

The Biblioteca M edicea Laurenziana, MS. Or. 491, c. 22r.

© The British Library Board (BL): Images 5, 13, 16, & 20, taken, respectively, from:
BL MS Oriental 10776, f. 14b; ibid. MS Oriental 10538, f. 88b; ibid. MS Additional
26899, f. 51b; & ibid. f. 63a. By perm ission of Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana (Vati­
can), w ith all rights reserved: Image 21; taken from MS Neofiti 30, f. 74a.

R eferences

Manuscripts
Cincinnati, Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute of Religion
MS 898
Florence, The Biblioteca Medicea Laurentiana
MS Or. 491
Jerusalem, Jewish National and University Library
MS Heb. 8° 1990
London, British Library
MS Additional 26899
MS Oriental 832
MS Oriental 10538
MS Oriental 10776
Moscow, Russian State Library
MS Guenzburg 406
MS Guenzburg 509

43 Many thanks to Warren Klein of the Library of the Jewish Theological Seminary
of America, Rahel Fronda and Samantha Sherbourne of the Bodleian Libray, University of
Oxford, Leonardo Meoni and Dina Giuliani of the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Flor­
ence, and Several members of the British Library staff, including Jackie Brown, Sara Tagh-
dimi, and others.
Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
MS Cod. Hebr. 36
MS Cod. Hebr. 91
New York, Jewish Theological Seminary of America
MS 2500
MS 2564
MS 2596
MS 5512
Oxford, The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford
MS Oppenheimer 183
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF)
MS heb. 805
MS heb. 1061
Vatican, Biblioteca Apostolica
MS Neofiti 30
MS Urbinati ebreo 48
MS Urbinati ebreo 386

Printed Works
Abraham bar Hayya, Seper ha-'ibbur, ed. by Hirsch Filipowski (London, 1851).
Akbari, Suzanne Conklin, ‘From Due East to True North: Orientalism and Orientation’, in
Jeffrey Jerome Cohen (ed.), The Postcolonial Middle Ages (New York: St. Martin’s Press,
2000), pp. 19-34.
Beit-Arie, Malachi, ‘Publication and Reproduction of Literary Texts in Medieval Jewish
Civilization: Jewish Scribality and Its Impact on the Texts Transmitted’, in Yaakov
Elman and Israel Gershoni (eds), TransmittingJewish Traditions: Orality, Textuality, and
Cultural Diffusion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), pp. 225-247.
------, Unveiled Faces of Medieval Hebrew Books: The Evolution o f Manuscript Production—
Progression or Regression? (Turnhout: Brepols, 2003).
Genette, Gerard, Paratexts: Thresholds o f Interpretation (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1997).
Sar-Shalom, Rahamim, Sd'arim b-Luah ha-'Ibri [Tables for the Hebrew Calendar] (revd ed.)
(Jerusalem: Mossad Harav Kook, 2009).
 ASTRONOMICAL TABLES OF ABRAHAM BAR HIYYA

R ay m o n d M ercier

A b ra h a m b a r Hiyya, ac tiv e in B a rc elo n a in th e early 12th ce n tu ry , w as th e

a u th o r o f a n u m b e r o f w orks, in c lu d in g

1. Sefer H esbon M a h lek o t ha-K okabim , t h e c a lc u la tio n o f th e m o tio n s o f

th e sta rs, d a te d 4896/1136. t h i s is a n in tro d u c tio n to h is a s tro n o m ic a l
ta b les, L u h o t ha-N asi.
2. S u ra ha-ares, t h e f o r m o f th e e a r th , a n e le m e n ta ry in tro d u c tio n to
astro n o m y .

H ere w e a re c o n c e rn e d n o t on ly w ith th e ta b le s L u h o t h a -N a si, b u t also

w ith a n o th e r se t v ery closely re la te d to th is, a n d clearly in s p ire d b y it.
A lth o u g h th e ta b le s o f Bar H iyya are th e focus o f th is article, it is n e c e s ­
sary to m a k e so m e p re lim in a ry re m a rk s a b o u t th e J e w ish c a le n d a r as it is
n o rm a lly defined.

1. The Jew ish C alendar

T he details o f th e p rac tica l ca le n d a r are com plex, b u t in th e se rem a rk s w e

a re c o n c e rn e d n o t so m u c h w ith th e se q u en c e o f m o n th s, b u t w ith th e m e a n
m o tio n o f th e su n a n d m o o n w h ic h fo rm th e scientific b asis o f th e system .
T he defining ev en ts o f th e ca le n d ar are th e m o la d (iVlO, literally b irth ), th e
tim e o f c o n ju n c tio n o f m e a n su n a n d m oon, a n d th e fo u r teku fo t ( n a ip n ,
literally circuit), w h e n th e m e a n su n is 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, o f w h ich th e first
is T ekufat N isan. T he W o rld E ra o f th e Jew ish ca le n d ar b eg in s w ith M olad
T ishri w h ic h o ccurs a t 5h 204ch afte r su n se t o n -3 7 6 0 O ct 6 (JD 347997).1 Six
m o n th s la te r w e have T ekufat N isan, a t 6 p m o n -3 7 5 9 A pril 1 (347174.25),
follow ed b y M olad N isan, 9h 642ch afte r th a t. T hese tim e s a re illu strate d
in th e follow ing diagram s, w h ic h sh o w th e su ccessio n o f days a n d nights.
Since th e Jew ish day b eg in s a t su n se t M olad T ishri is 5 h after th e s ta rt o f
M o n d ay O ct 7, T ekufat N isan is th e sta rt o f W e d n e sd a y A pril 2, a n d M olad
N isan occurs 3 h 6 4 2 ^ after th e m id n ig h t o f A pril 1/2.

i The unit ch, chalakim (D’pVn) is 1/1080 hour.

 Molad Tohu
AD -3760 Oct 6 Oct 7
347997 347998
1 Tishri 1
Sunday Monday

->■ 1 ^ - 2d 5h 204ch
TM=Molad Tishri
347997;27,58,20
Molad Nisan (Tekufat R. Ada)
AD -3759 April 1 April 2
348174 348175
1 Adar 29 Nisan 1
Tuesday Wednesday Thursday

■<— 29d 3h 151ch 9h 642ch

Tn =Tekufat Molad
Nisan Nisan
348174515 Tm +6M=348174;38,59,10

Figure 1: The m olad and tekufah defining the W orld Era of the Jewish calendar

In Fig. 1 th e d ia g ra m sh o w s th e su c ce ssio n o f days a n d n ig h ts ,------ , = ,

c e n tre d o n m id n ig h t. F ro m th e se d efin in g fe a tu re s w e d eriv e th e g en e ral
ex p re ssio n s fo r th e m e a n su n a n d m o o n . Since th e Ju lia n D ay h a s a n in te ­
ger v alu e a t N oon, th e T ek u fat N isan is a t

Tn = 348174.25,

a n d th e M o lad N isan a t

Tm = 348174.25+(9+642/1080)/24
= 348174.6497685 ...
= 348174+16842/25920.

T he m e a n sy n o d ic m o n th is M = 2 9 .5 3 0 5 9 4 . . . = 29;31,50,8,20 =
7 6 5 4 3 3 /2 5 9 2 0 days. T he le n g th o f th e y e a r a c c o rd in g to th e sy stem a sso ­
c ia te d w ith th e n a m e o f Rav A d a2 is Y = 235M /19 = 36 5 .2 4 6 8 2 2 2 . . . T he
daily m o tio n o f th e su n is 360/Y d eg re es p e r day, a n d th e daily m o tio n
o f th e e lo n g a tio n o f th e m o o n is 36 0 /M , so th a t th e d aily m o tio n o f th e
m o o n is 360/Y + 360/M . T he sy n o d ic m o n th is th a t co m m o n ly u sed , b y
P tolem y, fo r ex am p le, a n d th e le n g th o f th e y e a r scarcely differs fro m his.

2 Ada b. Ahavah, H3HN 13 N1 N, a scholar of the Talmudic period.

T hus a t a g e n e ra l tim e T (in days, o n th e Ju lia n D ay scale) w e h av e th e
m e a n su n a n d m e a n m o o n :

sun = sun1(T-TN), w here sun1 = 360/Y,

m oon = sun1(T-TN)+(m oon1-su n 1)(T-TM), w here m oon1 = 360/Y + 360/M.

T he ex p re ssio n for th e m o o n c a n b e tra n s fo rm e d so as to re fe r it also

to th e in itia l d a te TN.

m oon = sun 1(TM-Tn)+moon1(T-TM) = sun^TM-T^+moon^T-Tn+Tn-TM )

= m oon1(T-TN)+(sun1-m o o n 1)(TM-T N) = m oon1(T-TN)+m oon0

w h e re th e c o n s ta n t m o o n 0 is c a lc u la te d as follow s.

m oon 0 = (sun 1-m o o n 1)(TM-TN) = -(360/M )(9+642/1080)/24

= -4.873476 . . . = 355;7,35,29.

T hese p a ra m e te rs are su m m a rise d in T able 1.

Table 1: The m ean sun and m ean m oon of the

Jewish calendar

Epoch 348174.25

radix daily m otion

sun 0 360/Y
m oon 355;7,35,29 254x360/(235M)

1.1 D eviation Curves

T he analy sis o f a n a s tro n o m ic a l system , d e fin e d b y m e a n s o f th e fu n d a ­

m e n ta l ex p re ssio n s fo r th e m e a n lo n g itu d es, is fu rth e re d b y a d isp lay o f
th e deviation curves. E ach d e v ia tio n is th e m e a n lo n g itu d e re d u c e d b y its
m o d e rn v alue, a n d th e n in e curves, fo r th e sun, m o o n , lu n a r ap o g ee, lu n a r
n o d e a n d th e p la n e ts, sh o w th e v a ria tio n in th e d e v ia tio n o v er tim e. I give
a n in tro d u c tio n to th is in th e o p e n in g se c tio n o f a v o lu m e o f p a p e rs ,3
a n d th e p ro g ra m devplo gives th e d e v ia tio n cu rv es for a large n u m b e r
o f sy stem s .4
W ith th e s e tw o f u n d a m e n ta l fo rm u lae for th e m e a n s u n a n d m o o n w e
c a n deriv e th e d e v ia tio n curves for th e Je w ish ca le n d ar. T his re p re s e n ts
th e e sse n tia l scientific c o n te n t o f th e Je w ish ca le n d ar.

3 Mercier (2004).
4 The program devplo is available at www.raymondm.co.uk.
T he d e v ia tio n cu rv es d isp lay th e su n a n d m o o n in re la tio n to m o d e rn cal­
cu latio n s. F or e a c h cu rv e b o th th e slo p e a n d th e y e a r w h e n th e y cro ss th e
y e a r axis h av e significance. t h e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n th e slo p es m e a su re s
th e e rro r in th e sy n o d ic m o n th , a n d th is is essen tially z e ro b e c a u s e th e
sy n o d ic m o n th o f th e c a le n d a r is v ery p rec ise in d e e d . t h e c o m m o n slope
its e lf m e a su re s th e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n th e daily m o tio n o f su n (a n d m o o n )
a n d th e m o d e rn ca lc u la tio n ; th e slo p e is n eg a tiv e sin ce th e tru e tro p ic a l
y e a r is s o m e w h a t s h o rte r th a n th a t u se d in th e ca le n d ar. A lth o u g h th e
tw o curves h av e th e sa m e slo p e th e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n th e m w ill v ary as
th e m e rid ia n o f re fe re n c e varies. A s th e curv es a re sh o w n h e re th e m e rid ­
ia n h a s b e e n a s su m e d to b e 45, th e G re en w ic h lo n g itu d e o f B aghdad. a
p re c ise d e te rm in a tio n show s th a t th e curves c o in cid e w h e n th e m e rid ia n
is 42;36, th e m e rid ia n a t w h ic h th e m o d e rn c a lc u la tio n o f th e lu n a tio n
co in cid e s w ith th e m o lad .
In o rd er to situ ate th is re su lt in th e c o n te x t o f th e tim e w e n e e d to
co m p are th is re su lt w ith th e p to le m a ic system s a n d early A rabic canons,
su ch as th a t o f al-B attani. In T able 2 w e h av e th e calcu latio n s b ased
o n th e th re e P to lem aic sources, th e M u m ta h a n Z lj (ca 830, Baghdad),
a n d th e Z lj o f al-B attani, (ca 880, Raqqa). A p art fro m th e A lm agest, P tol­
em y c o n stru c te d tw o o th e r system s, th e H a n d y Tables o n th e E ra o f Philip
(-3 2 3 N ov 12), a n d th e Inscriptio Canobi o n th e E ra o f A u g u stu s (-2 9 A ug 31).
In ea ch case th e tim e is rec k o n ed fro m tru e n o o n o f th a t era, a n d as a resu lt
th e o p tim u m m eridians, a n d th e in te rv al fro m th e tim e o f th e m olad, are
all different .5
In th is ta b le w e h av e th e o p tim u m m e rid ia n s fo r e a c h c a n o n to g e th e r
w ith th e interv als o f lu n a tio n relative to th e m olad. It also show s th a t th e
m e rid ia n o f th e m o la d is th e sam e w h e th e r d e te rm in e d d irec tly fro m
th e ca le n d ar, o r in d ire c tly b y c o m p a riso n w ith o n e o f th e c a n o n s. T his is
o n ly to b e e x p e c te d sin ce all th e s e so u rce s u se th e sam e sy n o d ic m o n th .
T he final c o lu m n sh o w s th e p o sitio n o f th e m o la d o n th e a n c ie n t scale o f
lo n g itu d e , o b ta in e d b y a d d in g th e in te rv a l o f th e m o la d to th e m e rid ia n
o f th e ca n o n ; fo r e x a m p le w ith th e A lm a g est, 12;0+60;30=72;30. It is v ery
in te re s tin g to see th a t th e lo n g itu d e o f th e m o la d a c c o rd in g to th e Z lj o f
a l-B attan i ag rees w ith th e p o sitio n o f B aghdad. W h ile su c h ca lc u latio n s
m u s t b e in te r p re te d w ith ca u tio n , th e y do sh o w a t le a st th a t th e m e rid ia n
o f th e m o la d lay in th e reg io n b e tw e e n J e ru sa le m (66;30) a n d B aghdad
(80;0), co n s iste n tly w ith th e o p tim u m G re en w ic h m e rid ia n 42;36.
S te rn a rg u e d th a t th e tim e o f th e m o la d m ig h t w ell h a v e b e e n ro u n d e d
o ff fro m th e tim e o f m e a n c o n ju n c tio n a c c o rd in g to th e A lm a g e st,

Table 2: Calculations of the m olad in relation to astronom ical canons

can o n O ptim um Interval Green­ Longitude of Longitude

G reen­ from the wich the m eridian of the molad
w ich molad m eridian of the canon (ancient
m eridian of molad scale)

Jewish calendar 42;36

Ptolemy 30;54 12;0 42;54 Alexandria: 72;30
Almagest 60;30
Modern: 29;55
Ptolemy Handy 39;6 3;30 42;36 Alexandria: 64;0
Tables 60;30
Ptolemy 34;54 8;0 42;54 Alexandria: 68;30
Inscriptio Canobi 60;30
M um tahan Zlj 45;24 -3;1,30 42;22 Baghdad: 80;0 76;58,30
Modern: 45;0
Zlj of al-Battani 35;30 6;42 42;12 Raqqa: 73;15 79;57
Modern: 39;3

5 The time scales used by Ptolemy are discussed at greater length in Mercier (2011),
pp. 108-116.
n e g le c tin g th a t is, th e sm a ll in te rv a l o f 0;48 h o u rs, o r 12;0 d e g re e s .6 T his
a r g u m e n t w o u ld b e s tr e n g th e n e d if th e c o m p a ris o n is m a d e w ith th e
H a n d y Tables, w h e re th e in te rv a l is a m e re 3;30 d eg re es, o r 0;14 h o u rs.
C e rta in ly b o th o f th e s e c a n o n s h a d a w id e in flu e n c e , e x te n d in g b e y o n d
A le x a n d ria in to th e sy ria c w o rld , so it easy to b e lie v e th a t th e Je w ish
c o m m u n ity m ig h t h av e c o m e u n d e r th a t in flu e n c e . T h e la te r d isc u ssio n s
in th e H e b re w w o rk s a c k n o w le d g e a c le a r d e p e n d e n c e o n P to lem y , n o t
o n ly fo r th e lu n a tio n , b u t fo r th e le n g th o f th e y ear. A t a la te r tim e ,
a l-B a tta n i is in v o k e d fo r th e sak e o f h is o b s e rv a tio n s , as w h e n Isaac
Isra eli c a rrie s o u t a re v isio n o f th e c a le n d a r. As I p o in t o u t b elo w , in th e
stu d y o f Isaa c Isra e li’s Y esod O lam , h e d o e s n o t a t tr ib u te th e d e te r m in a ­
tio n o f th e b a s ic p a r a m e te r s o f th e Je w ish c a le n d a r to A ra b ic so u rces,
b u t o n ly to ‘o u r a n c ie n ts ’ (W JlD lp ).
T he Je w ish c a le n d a r p re sc rib e s a n a r ra n g e m e n t o f th e lu n a r m o n th s
in a se q u e n c e o f 12 a n d 13 m o n th years, alo n g w ith th e in tia l m o la d
a t Tm. T his is all th a t is n e e d e d to ac h ie v e th e in te rc a la tio n fo r w h ic h
th e c a le n d a r is d esig n ed ; th is in te rc a la tio n satisfies th e c o n d itio n th a t th e
sp rin g e q u in o x o cc u rs n o la te r th a n N isan 15. T h e tim e o f th e e q u in o x is
e x p re sse d b y T ek u fat N isan, a n d o n e c a n co n firm th a t w ith th e te k u fa h
as d e fin e d in th e s ta n d a rd c a le n d a r th is c o n d itio n is fulfilled, fo r all years.
N ev e rth ele ss th e in c lu sio n o f th e te k u fa h is n o t ac tu a lly p a r t o f th e p ra c ­
tic a l c a lc u la tio n o f th e c a le n d a r d ate, sin ce th e in te rc a la tio n is a lre a d y
a c h ie v e d w ith o u t re fe re n c e to th e te k u fa h . A lth o u g h th e te k u fa h is o n ly a
le fto v er fro m a n early p e rio d o f th e h isto ry o f th e ca le n d a r, it is clea r th a t
it h as b e e n fixed in su c h a w ay th a t T ek u fat N isan ag rees w ith th e ru le o f
in te rc a la tio n .
T he C h ristian E aster c o m p u tu s, w h ic h is d esig n ed to solve p rec isely
th e sam e p ro b le m , w o rk s w ell in th e early c e n tu rie s in th e sen se th a t th e
lu n a x iv alw ays falls a fte r th e sp rin g eq u in o x . T his w as a c h ie v e d in A lex­
a n d r ia w h e re th e c o o p e ra tio n o f th e ‘p a g a n ’ a s tro n o m e rs w as so u g h t. W as
it e v e n p o ssib le th a t th e Je w ish c o m m u n ity in A lex an d ria, o r elsew h ere,
also d re w o n th e E aster c o m p u tu s?
T he y e a r w h e n th e curves p ass th ro u g h zero is th a t y e a r w h e n th e m e a n
s u n o f th e c a le n d a r ag rees w ith its m o d e rn ca lc u latio n . T he cu rv es v a n ­
ish n e a r th e y e a r 930, so th a t e v id e n tly b e fo re th e y e a r 9 3 0 th e m e a n
sp rin g e q u in o x falls la te r th a n th a t in d ic a te d b y th e T ek u fat N isan, a n d
e a rlie r a t la te r tim es. As to th e tr u e sun, if w e n o te th a t a t th e tim e o f th e

6 Stern (2001), pp. 207-8.

e q u in o x it is a p p ro x im a te ly 1.9° in excess o f th e m e a n . It is o n ly n e c e s ­
sary to im a g in e th e d e v ia tio n curve o f th e m e a n su n sh ifte d d o w n w a rd b y
th a t a m o u n t, w h e n it w o u ld th e n cross th e axis a ro u n d th e y e a r 50 0 . O ne
sees th a t b e fo re th e y e a r 5 0 0 (ap p ro x im a tely ) th e sp rin g e q u in o x b y th e
true su n falls la te r th a n th a t in d ic a te d b y th e te k u fa h . In o th e r w o rd s
th e d a te o f T ek u fat N isan ag rees w ith th e tr u e d a te o f S p rin g E q u in o x
(M ar 18/19) a ro u n d th e y e a r 500. Besides, a c c o rd in g to th e c a le n d a r cal­
c u la tio n T ek u fat N isan also falls o n M a r 18 a ro u n d th e y e a r 500. If th e
a u th o rs o f th e c a le n d a r h a d ta k e n close a c c o u n t o f th e re a l sp rin g eq u in o x
w h e n d esig n in g th e c a le n d a r th e y w o u ld n o t h av e arriv e d a t th e p re s e n t
sc h e m e m u c h b efo re th e y e a r 5 0 0 .7 T his is h o w e v e r a b ig ‘if’, sin ce w e do
n o t k n o w h o w in fa c t th e Je w ish c o m m u n ity h a d d e te rm in e d th e sp rin g
eq u in o x . A cco rd in g to th e A lm a g e st th e e q u in o x w as th e n o n M ar 20, a n d
fro m th e 4 th c e n tu ry th e C h ristian c o m p u tu s w as b a s e d o n th e a s su m p ­
tio n o f a sp rin g e q u in o x o n M ar 21.8 W ith su c h co n fu sio n it is d o u b tfu l
th a t a n y firm c o n c lu sio n c a n d ra w n fro m th e se sim p le c o n s id e ra tio n s
a b o u t th e d a te o f o rigin o f th e ca le n d ar. In a n y case th e p ra c tic a l c a lc u la­
tio n o f a d a te in th e Je w ish c a le n d a r a c tu a lly m a k e s n o u se o f th e te k u fo t,
a n d c o n s id e ra tio n s o f th e te k u fo t c a n n o t really in d ic a te th e p e rio d w h e n
th e c a le n d a r w as cre ate d . T he te k u fo t a re really o n ly a relic o f a n ea rlier
stage, a stage w h ic h is still n o t u n d e rsto o d .

2. The Jew ish C alendar A cco rd in g to a l-K h w a rezm l

A m o n g A rab ic tra c ts re la te d to th e Je w ish c a le n d a r th e re is o n e o f sp e ­

cial in te re st, w ritte n b y M u h a m m a d ib n M u sa K h w arezm i (ca. 7 8 0 -
ca. 850).9 H ere h e refers th e in itia l m o la d to th e E ra o f A d am , b u t th is
is on ly 12 syn o d ic m o n th s la te r th a n th e M o lad T ish ri u se d to d efin e th e
W o rld era, so th a t th e re is in fa c t n o re a l d ifferen ce. T h e d a te o f co m p o si­
tio n o f th e tr a c t is given as S eleu cid 1135, AD 8 2 3 -4 . H e also gives th e y ea r
le n g th as 35975351/98496 = 3 6 5 .2 4 6 8 2 ... T his is essen tially e q u a l to th e

7 When Mahler (1916), pp. 472-3, determined the ‘best’ year for the Jewish calendar by
comparing the time of spring equinox (by the true sun) with the tekufa, he arrived at the
year 497, which agrees with the present considerations.
8 Grumel (1958), p. 36.
9 The Arabic text, Fl istikhraj ta’rlkh al-yahud, one of eleven Arabic texts in the manu­
script Bankipore Arabic 2468, of the Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna, India. It
was published along with the other texts by the Oriental Publications Bureau, Hyderabad,
Dekkan, India, 1948. There is a summary and analysis by Kennedy (1964). See further the
article by Frangois de Blois in this volume.
Era Adami
AD -3759
Sep 21 Sep 25 Sep 26
348347 348351 348352
1 Elul 24 1 Elul 29 2 Tishri 1
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

t« - 5d 14h -> t
tA =Molad Adam (348351+20h)

Figure 3: The molad and tekufot defining the Era of Adam of the Jewish calendar

y e a r d e fin e d above, 235M /19, b u t in te re stin g ly it is n o t ab so lu tely id e n tic a l

to th a t, b u t th e d ifferen ce o cc u rs on ly in th e 18th p la c e o f a sex ag esim al
e x p a n sio n .10
K h w arezm i gives th e p o sitio n s o f sun, m o o n a n d p la n e ts a t th re e d ates,
th e b e g in n in g o f th e E ra o f A dam , th e b u ild in g o f th e T em p le, a n d th e
b e g in n in g o f th e S eleucid era, re fe rre d to as D h u ’l-Q arnayn.

Table 3: M ean positions given by Khwarezmi; the purpose of the underlined

num bers is explained below

-3759 Sep 25 Friday -521 Sep 17 -311 Sep 30

JD 348351 1531022 1607738

sun 5,26 5,26 6,18;31,38
m oon 5,26 5,26 4,6;45,49
apogee 1,5 9,26;40,16 7,26;17,19
saturn 8,15 10,22;9 8,8;24,6
jupiter 6,5 3,7;42,34 3,12;52,38J33
mars 1,6 1,15;26,7 8,12;14,46
venus 4,25 7,12;11,47 2,1;22,3
mercury - 33;19,39 7,10;1,38
node 0,14 4,26;34,51 4,23;41,27

T he te x t gives “5,26”, 176;0, as th e p o sitio n o f su n a n d m o o n , b o th o n first

d ay o f th e E ra o f A dam , s ta te d to b e Friday, a n d a t th e tim e o f th e b u ild in g
o f th e T em ple. T he first Je w ish T em p le w as c o n s tru c te d u n d e r Solom on,
b u t w e s h o u ld ra th e r a ssu m e h e re a refe re n c e to th e S eco n d T em p le
w h ic h w as c o n s tru c te d in th e P ersian p e rio d a fte r th e re tu r n fro m th e
C aptivity. T his re b u ild in g b e g a n u n d e r Cyrus, b u t th e n faltered , a n d w as

10 35975351/98496 = 2,46,33,9,11;/29,21,36; = 6,5;14,48,33,35,47,22,6,18,56,50,31,34,44,12

,37,53,41,1,33,2,54,41,0, 235M/19 = 13,52,45,45,55;/2,16,48,0; = 6,5;14,48,33,35,47,22,6,18,56,
50,31,34,44,12,37,53,41,2,56,19,29,16,30.
re s u m e d in th e s e c o n d y e a r o f D ariu s ( -5 2 0 to - 4 8 4 ) a c c o rd in g to E zra 4,
th a t is in -521. T he c a lc u la tio n fro m th e m e a n su n a n d m o o n o f th e Jew ­
ish ca le n d ar, a c c o rd in g to th e fo rm u lae d e riv e d ab o v e, y ield s re su lts in
c o m p le te a g re e m e n t w ith th e se d ates, as sh o w n in T able 4.

Table 4: M ean sun and m oon given by Khwarezmi, com pared w ith calculation

Text -3759 Sep 25, -521 Sep 17,

348351, 20;0,0h 1531022, 14;21,0h
A.M.1 Elul 29 Friday A.M. 3239 Elul 29 Friday
Molad Tishri 6,14,0 Molad Tishri 6,8,377

sun 5,26 175; 1,56.37 176;33,51.40

m oon 5,26 175; 1,56.41 176;33,53.14

T he d a te s in e a c h case a re ex actly e q u iv a le n t to M o lad T ishri; 6,14,0 is

14 h o u rs a fte r s u n s e t o n th e T h ursday, th a t is 20 h o u rs a fte r n o o n ; 6,8,377
is 8+377/1080 = 8;21 h o u rs a fte r s u n s e t o n th e T h u rsd ay , th a t is 14;21 h o u rs
afte r n o o n .
T he c h ro n o lo g y o f th e P e rsia n p e rio d is in c lu d e d in th e K ing List o f th e
P to le m a ic co rp u s, th e C a n o n o f Kings, xavwv ^aaiX suv, w h ic h in tu r n is
likely to b e th e so u rce o f A rabic K ing lists, for ex a m p le th a t o f al-B attan i,
w h e re P to lem y ’s list is ex actly re p ro d u c e d .11 It is re a so n a b le to a ssu m e
th a t al-K h w arizm i h a d access to su c h a K ing List.
It is a n o th e r m a tte r w ith th e o th e r p o sitio n s g iv en b y K h w arezm i. T he
n u m b e rs u n d e rlin e d in th e ab o v e T able 3 are th o se w h ic h are su b je c t to
p o ssib le m is re a d in g o r m isco p y in g b e c a u s e o f th e a m b ig u ity in th e p la c ­
in g o f th e d o ts ab o v e o r b e lo w th e c h a ra c te r. T h u s w e m u s t allo w ro o m
fo r u n c e r ta in ty w ith 8 o r 3 in th e u n its p la c e ( ^ , ), a n d w ith 10 o r 50
( . j , J ) w h e n m in u te s o r se co n d s a re rea d . In sp ite o f th e allo w an c e for
th e am b ig u o u s re a d in g s I h av e n o success in in te rp re tin g a n y o f th e se
lo n g itu d es, e ith e r for th e p la n e ts a t a n y o f th e th re e d ates, o r fo r th e su n
a n d m o o n in -311. It is tru e , a t least, th a t o n -311 Sep 28, A.M. 3 4 5 0 T ishri
23, w e do h av e th e s u n a t 189;44,32.38 a n d th e m o o n a t 125;21,57.86, so
th e re is so m e a p p rix m a te re a liz a tio n o f th e p o sitio n s in th e te x t, a n d a
su g g e stio n th a t in th e p o sitio n o f th e su n 6,18;31,38 th e c o rre c t te x t m a y
h av e b e e m 6 ,8 ;___

11 The Ptolemaic King List is given in Mercier (2011), Vol. 1b, pp. 65-68, with references
to Usener’s edition. That of al-Battani is found in Nallino (1903), pars secunda, pp. 1-3.
 By w ay o f ex p lo rin g th e d a ta in th is tab le, o n e w o u ld ex pect, for ex a m ­
ple, to fin d a t le a st c o n siste n cy in th e im p lie d ra te s o f m o tio n d eriv ed from
th e tw o intervals, -3 7 5 9 to -521, a n d -521 to -311. This m u s t b e th e case
w h a te v e r th e ex a c t m e an in g , th a t is, if in ste a d o f th e m e a n p la n et, p e rh a p s
its a n o m a ly or c e n tre is m e a n t. O ne m a y co n sid e r also th a t th e first d ay
o f D h u ’l Q arn ay n m ig h t h av e b e e n a m o n th earlier, to su it th e p ra c tic e o f
al-B attan i’s Zij. 12 H ow ever I do n o t find ev en th e b asic co n siste n cy b e tw e e n
th e tw o in te rv als o f th e tab le, a n d it w o u ld se e m th a t th e p re s e n t te x t is
m u c h co rru p ted , a t le a st in th e se n u m b e rs, ev en th o u g h th e p o sitio n s o f
th e su n a n d m o o n a t th e first tw o d a te s are clear a n d co rrect. H ow ev er w e
ca n a t le a st co n c lu d e th a t th e sy stem re p o rte d b y al-K h w arezm i w as like
th a t w h ic h w e le a rn a b o u t fro m la te r Je w ish w riters, su c h as Bar Hiyya,
in th a t ru les for th e p la n e ta ry longitudes, d eriv ed so m e h o w fro m o n e o f th e
A rabic zijes, w ere a tta c h e d to th e b asic Je w ish calen d ar.
T he tr a c t h a s a se c tio n w h ic h ex p lain s th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e m e a n
su n a n d m e a n m o o n for a giv en day. T he d aily lu n a r m o tio n is g iv en as
1316736/35975351 = 360/27.3216 ..., w h ic h is e q u a l to 360/Y + 360/M ,
as e x p la in e d ab o v e . 13 T he p ro c e d u re re q u ire s o n e to k n o w th e n u m b e r
o f days e la p se d fro m th e ep o c h . H ow ever th e te x t d o es n o t e x p la in h o w
th is is to b e fo u n d , b u t refers confu sin g ly o n ly to ‘lu n a r d ay s’ o b ta in e d
a fte r a d d in g 9 to th e c o m p le te d y ea rs fro m D h u ’l-Q arn ay n . 14 T h u s th e ru le
as s ta te d h e re is in c o m p le te .

3. B a r H iyya

The ta b les o f Bar H iyya ac c o m p a n y his tre a tise o n th e ca lcu latio n o f th e

m o v e m e n t o f th e stars, Sefer H esbon M a h leko t ha-K okabim (|U W n 1 2 0
□’M ia n n o V n o ), w h ic h serves as a ca n o n for th e tables, b u t th e tab les
them selves, L u h o t ha-N asi m m V ) a re n o t fo u n d in th e sam e m a n u ­
scripts. T he Sefer H esbon has b e e n e d ite d a n d tra n sla te d b y M illas Vallicrosa,15
w h o also gave a list o f th e tables, a n d a tra n sc rip tio n o f a sm all n u m b e r
o f th e m . T he ta b les are to b e fo u n d in a n u m b e r o f H eb rew m a n u scrip ts,

12 Kennedy (1964, p. 56) quotes the rather careless remark of Pingree, ‘the positions as
given in the third set correspond well with the mean planetary longitudes and anomalies
at the zero point of the Seleucid Era’, but this may be disregarded.
13 The number 1316736 is given in error in the printed text as 1016736, which has to be
emended, as Kennedy showed.
14 Is there an error in the rule to ‘add 9’? The Seleucid year number (modulo 19) is 9
greater, not less, than the year number in the Jewish cycle.
15 Millas Vallicrosa (1959).
s u p p le m e n te d b y o n e very im p o rta n t L atin m a n u scrip t. T he H eb rew v er­
sion is fo u n d in a n u m b e r o f copies, a n d o f th e se I a m fam iliar w ith Paris
BNF m ss h e b re u x 1038, 1045, 1046, O xford B odley H unt. 327, M arsh 114.
T he L atin m a n u s c rip t is c a m b rid g e UL H h.6.8 Vol. 1, (12th ce n tu ry ).
Vol. 2 o f th a t m s also co n sists o f a s tro n o m ic a l te x ts a n d tab les, b u t o f th e
13th ce n tu ry , a n d all u n r e la te d to Bar Hiyya. T he ta b le s in Vol. 1 c o n s ist o f
tw o d istin c t p arts, fols 1-41, 41-77. T he la tte r se t is th e L atin v e rsio n o f th e
ta b le s o f Bar Hiyya, w h ile th e fo rm e r is a d is tin c t sy stem also c o m p o se d b y
Bar H iyya, o r a t le a st a ttr ib u te d to him , b u t w ith a d iffe re n t ep o ch , a n d n o t
fo u n d , as far as I know , in H ebrew . I gave a s u m m a ry in d ic a tio n o f th e se
te x ts in a n ea rlie r p u b lic a tio n . 16 Vol. 1 ca rrie s th e title Tabule revolutionis
solis e t lune a lio ru m q u e p la n e ta ru m varie, c u m aliis. 2 ° fo . tabula.

4. Tables o f 1104

T he tab les as described in Sefer H esbon are for th e ep o ch N oon 1104 Sep 21:

1104 Sep 21 = Hebrew 4865 Elul 29 = Arabic 497 Dhu’l-Hijja 29 (J.D. 2124558).

T his m a rk s n o t o n ly th e first y e a r o f th e Je w ish cycle 257, b u t also th e

c o m p le tio n o f b o th Je w ish a n d M u slim years.
T he o p e n in g se c tio n o f th e H e b re w tr a c t h a s ta b le s for th e Je w ish cal­
en d a r, follo w ed b y ta b le s fo r th e c o n v e rsio n b e tw e e n A rab ic o r S eleucid
a n d ‘E g y p tian ’ years, a n d b e tw e e n th e H eb rew c a le n d a r a n d th e o th ers.
T h e n th e re a re o th e r u tilitie s, su c h as a ta b le fo r sex ag esim al m u ltip lic a ­
tio n , a n d ta b le s o f sines, d e c lin a tio n , ta n g e n ts, e q u a tio n o f tim e, o b liq u e
a sce n sio n s. T he ta b le s o f th e S eleu cid c a le n d a r in c lu d e m o n th n a m e s in
H eb rew tra n s c rip tio n as follow s

Table 5: Hebrew Transcription of Latin m onth nam es

■ an1™ ■ a jn ■’j ” ■’■ as o iN n

O ctober November December January February March
^■ o n r rx n m i’ n ’Vi’ n rax ■ ajniw
April May June July August September

T he L atin v e rsio n h a s n o n e o f th e s e item s, e x c e p t fo r th e c o n v e rsio n

b e tw e e n A n n o D o m in i a n d S eleucid to E gyptian, b u t is co n fin e d to ta b le s
re q u ire d for th e m e a n a n d tru e m o tio n s.

16 Mercier (1987).
 .
n
U
J

■n^n T\*on
j r u n o 'f i ^ f u i j n j T K u 6 ’ W \ j n n u n n o n -\^nh ro ttrt& v trw * o y w »ju»3.i rofi -p ro
© o*it>-»ni
l s*w y ***• i o tw n p ri ijm 1
anaomtf jWTiin»o»jt:* a
T7 — l |f S } «

•
1» ■»
\ a
T
n ^> 3

U t
V *
W VtiOTfvA?
rvt»
n V * w
;»3n iiw ^
at* a>Kia I ' O t t i 3 ->' V'^fc/ a *U 3^'agTt>»
IU v
f » 4 » U J 4 i>» i»ai 4 V*T' |M j r> » V ^ nfcr
”
V 1
a

' 70 T
n

>
' D *3 T ^ V u T -T i*» v#T| v t ^ » H K)P ' *t' n ncrp u
^ ' a ' r n w w i ^ 4* J 'T n ~ra 0#*~ i « (Ajof (j>
» a* ^ 1 t» i j v ,■» i ZJ -a Ur y too ah tv* i «*• tj M>f ny
3^ T *»• m r* v r n )4 j » t Vuj v» r ->-» l» rt»p
i» 14J » n oj* fc n* 4 /Vf n
p» •9 n » ib^) n d »*t r id** Xn n»>
w*’ J f j y
13 ayy 3 n ^»ajp
9 3 nW'*o * 4>*) v* * o T*» * al» ^3 '9r<b»p
j v T 30 1 D y R ' ^ J • *• ***'%%»;* k’ si* 13* t>v K* -l» »•> - V ' j t
UJ ”
■
WT 3 •rVl*> J- a* t 9 W 5 w L) 1 t** 3 ' J * i* ^ f v r t

’ ; V 13 3 «*•«»»* 4» i099t>P .»» i 3 -» 1' * J * T t

> M

M.
T- rv> *>fV r u » r -,.
oj ^»u» ■»r*>vn)
#4*.^r r*> yv ■»• *TJ U A3f py»
K» K3 \*v • l> r > w f f
J”
___ _
> • * T A ojwr> |>4, ro *o »• i** V 3 * 4 T «•**
«
u**T-r ww 1' f* K 3L» pp r
13 •A
n r» p -n o
*w oT M ▼ 1*» 'noribi ' n*-3r» p n- " o i * . ,v» n* to H3 4 f Jw'
K n 1? \X>Y9 0' T*»4»n»*» i)iv >wfc>/ M l J O pi to* 1 ►i) m*3>.»
V * K ~
9 >> t'to 9 fy fr U »J a * 4 r r* w
TD n W >*> 3 /O ,31**,'
* n*> * ~r T 3 J ’ U 33 3A»*».»3
l*WL.’aW 7
{?* rgr
»• i/rjt
U j 1*~0£
■JJ 1*» ’S »j ^ jo p to 33 o
*sr* H T n-> n wu ■ o u -^ p o ^ »i> /i**
M
-j 3 _>
n » i>
o 3 T
rj?' 1
AJ
u **
J ’ 3 *V ~r>iVis d rr*> 4J ^
'« • a w VJ 0(0 W j w . ,■ *
*43* a rv ▼s'*"3uo mJVV9*fit : i C f

'I'D a V3-rVvx, W
- i ! h f r , .
j'VyH+r

Plate 1: Paris, Bibliotheque nationale fonds hebreu 1046, fol. 12r

 Table 6 : Hebrew text of the m ean sun in steps of 19 years, w ith Radix, and in
steps of single years; BNF m s hebreu 1046 12r

nan

D’wTni m u n a i n r a i n n D’jw n ’j u ’nn n a n ib n a

m una d ’jw d ’jw naoa n ra in a d ’jw naoa

m una D’jw
n ra in a

D’’jw D’nnw m bpa D’’jw D’nnw m bpa

nD na ujw N Tap w nwn 1
j b ujw n NJ nD n ap u’ 2
T’ 1’ ujw a a na

c
Tppi7 3
ub N ujw T Nb n app TJ 4
T Ta njw n ND Nb nop IP 5
uD nb uw 1 N’ TJ aop n^ 6
aj T’ njw T n T’ u jp T’p 7
n’ a njw n nj ub F 8

ab
p

p
aa na Tjw u na n jp nJp 9
n Tb Tjw ’ nb nD nap Npp 10
nb u’ Tjw N’ aD na ap *p 11
TJ T Tjw n’ a’ N’ ibp un 12
nD J uw a’ T Tb Nbp nDn 13
Ta nb uw T’ TJ 1J TDp Tan 14
N’ ND uw 1U Ta u’ nDp ion 15
lb 1 uw i’ nb na T’p n an 16
N nj njw T’ nD n a’p Tw 17
ID Tb njw n’ 1U nD np aDw 18
NJ nD njw u’ 1 NJ ap n aw 19
TJ a’ u^ Now 20
ia lb T^ aw 21
ib UJ ua u^w 22
ID nD na n ’n 23
T’ na 0 Tbn 24
T n Ip un 25
TJ b Np npn 26
na aj 10 T^n 27
nb i’ no a’p n 28
nD ub TJ nbpn 29

17 In the column of degrees the entry Tpp was omitted in BNF 1046, so that the subse­
quent entries in lines 4-28 were displaced upward by one row, leaving a blank in row 28.
The correct text is given, for example, in BNF 1045, fol. 16.
4.1 M ea n M otion

T he ta b le s o f m e a n m o tio n s are c o n s tru c te d for th e E g y p tian ca le n d ar,

th a t is fo r a y e a r o f 365 days, a n d m o n th s o f 30 days. In sp ite o f th e u se
o f E gyptian y ears th e re is n o u se h o w e v e r o f a n E g y p tian Era, su c h as
th e E ra o f P hilip. In stea d , v ario u s ta b le s are p ro v id e d fo r th e c o n v e rsio n
o f th e S eleucid o r A rabic d a te in to so m a n y E g y p tian y ea rs m o n th s a n d
days, c o u n te d fro m th e E ra o f th is system , th e first y e a r o f th e Jew ish
cycle 257.

4.2 S un

As a n ex a m p le o f th e ta b le o f m e a n m o tio n s, T able 6 sh o w s a tra n s c rip ­

tio n o f p a r t o f th e ta b le o f th e m e a n s u n fro m BNF m s h e b r e u 1046 12r;
th is p ag e o f th e m a n u s c rip t is sh o w n in P late 1. T his gives th e su n for th e
y ea rs fro m th e e p o c h in m u ltip le s o f 19, u p to 532, in c lu d in g th e radix,
a n d th e m o tio n in in d iv id u a l y ea rs 1 to 19. T he p a r t tra n s c rib e d in T able 5
show s on ly th e co lu m n s for th e m e a n s u n in co lle c te d y ea rs a n d in d i­
v id u a l y ears. T he f u rth e r co lu m n s in fol. 12r give th e m o tio n s o f th e m e a n
su n in m o n th s (1-13), as w ell as in days (1-30 ), h o u rs (1-24), p a rts o f h o u r
(n p w ’p b n ) (1-60, in ste p s o f 2 ).
T he title s in th e ro w s are sh o w n in T able 6 .

sun

M otion of the m ean sun in collected and individual years and m onths

individual years num ber of individual collected years num ber of

years collected years

T he c o rre sp o n d in g ta b le o f th e m e a n s u n in th e L atin v ersio n , H h . 6 .8,

fol 41, e x te n d s on ly 9 ro w s b e y o n d th e radix , a n d d isp lay s a n u m b e r o f
a rith m e tic a l errors. It is clea r th a t w e do n o t h av e a sim p le w o rd for w o rd
tra n sc rip tio n , b u t r a th e r a re c a lc u la tio n , a n d o n e w h ic h w e n t b a d ly w ro n g
a fte r th e first 3 row s, w h e n th e successive d ifferen ce 355;22,50 w as n o t
observed. T he e rro n e o u s e n trie s are u n d e rlin e d .
N o te also th a t in th e H eb rew ta b le th e n u m b e r o f d eg re es is w ritte n as
a n u m b e r u p to 359, w h e re a s in th e L atin th is is e x p re ssed as signs a n d
degrees.
 Table 7: M otion of sun in steps of 19 years; com parison betw een Hebrew
(BNF hebreu 1046, 12r) and Latin (41r)

Hebrew transcription Latin

years differences
1 0 0 Tap WiWn Root 187;0,0 6,7;0,0
2 NJ 33 33p U’ 19 182;22,50 6,2;22,50 355;22,50
3 a na Tpp nb 38 177;45,40 5,27;45,40 355;22,50
4 n ■pp TJ 57 173;8,31 5,21;58,6 354;12,26
5 N3 Nb nop IP 76 168;31,21 5,17;20,46 355;22,40
6 N’ tj ■op n^ 95 163;54,11 5,12;43,46 355;23,0
7 3 T’ 5,8;6,36
np

J ’p 114 159;17,2 355;22,50

8 3J Ub TIP ■bp 133 154;39,52 5,3;29,26 355;22,50
9 3a 3 Jp 3jp 152 150;2,42 4,28;52,16 355;22,50
10 3b n3 nap
2;

171 145;25,32 4,24;15,6 355;22,50

p

In T ables 6 a n d 7 th e zero sign is w ritte n as in BNF h e b re u 1046. Else­

w h e re in BNF h e b r e u 1046 a n d BNF h e b re u 1038 it is w ritte n also as a
p la in circle; in BNF h e b r e u 1045 it is e ith e r a p la in circle, o r a d o t w ith
a m a cro n . In th e L atin m a n u s c rip t it is e ith e r b y a p la in circle o r a sign
sim ila r to t, e v id e n tly re su ltin g fro m a cursively w ritte n circle to g e th e r
w ith th e m a c ro n .18
T he ta b le o f m e a n su n for successive y ears, u p to 19, is a lm o st erro r-free
in b o th H eb rew a n d Latin.

Table 8: Comparison of tables of m ean sun in steps of 1 year; Hebrew (BNF hebreu
1046, BNF hebreu 1045, 16r, BNF hebreu 1038, 25r), Latin (41r), and Ptolemy. In
BNF hebreu 1046 the entry for year 6 was w ritten UW (356)

Hebrew years Latin ptolemy

n3 na UJW N 1 359;45,25 11,29;45,25 359;45,24,45,21,8,35

cn

J b UJW 3 2 359;30,50 11,29;30,50

0
3

,7
4

4
;

T’ 1’ UJW ■ 3 359;16,14 11,29;16,14 359;16,14,16,3,25,45

ub N UJW T 4 359;1,39 11,29;1,39 359;1,39,1,24,34,20
T Ta nJW n 5 358;47,4 11,28;47,4 358;47,3,46,45,42,55
U3 3b nJW 1 6 358;32,29 11,28;32,29 358;32,28,32,6,51,30
■J T’ nJW T 7 358;17,53 11,28;17,53 358;17,53,17,28,0,5

18 This sign, which originates in Greek astronomical papyri, is encoded in Unicode

as 1018A GREEK ZERO SIGN. It is included in Unicode after a proposal of the present
author.
Table 8 (cont.)

Hebrew years Latin Ptolemy

n’ ■ nJW n 8 358;3,18 11,28;3,18 358;3,18,2,49,8,40

■a n a TJW U 9 357;48,43 11,27;48,43 357;48,42,48,10,17,15
n Tb TJW ’ 10 357;34,8 11,27;34,8 357;34,7,33,31,25,50
3b U’ TJW N’ 11 357;19,32 11,27;19,32 357;19,32,18,52,34,25
TJ T TJW 3’ 12 357;4,57 11,27;4,57 357;4,57,4,13,43,0
33 J UW ■’ 13 356;50,22 11,26;50,22 356;50,21,49,34,51,35
Ta nb UW T’ 14 356;38,47 11,26;35,47 356;35,46,34,56,0,10
N’ N3 UW 1U 15 356;21,11 11,26;21,11 356;21,11,20,17,8,45
ib 1 UW 1’ 16 356;6,36 11,26;6,36 356;6,36,5,38,17,20
N 3J nJW T’ 17 355;52,1 11,25;52,1 355;52,0,50,59,25,55
13 Tb nJW n’ 18 355;37,26 11,25;37,26 355;37,25,36,20,34,30
NJ 33 TJW U’ 19 355;22,51 11,25;22,51

B oth H eb rew a n d L atin v ersio n s is error-free, a p a r t fro m o n e e rro r in BNF

h e b re u 1046. T he successive d ifferen ce is 359;45,25 in m o s t years, b u t
359;45,24 in every 4 th year. T he tru e so u rce o f th e s e e n trie s is a p p a r e n t
w h e n it is n o tic e d th a t th e daily m o tio n is sim p ly t h a t o f P to lem y ’s A lm a g ­
est. P to lem y (iii, 3) gives th e a n n u a l m o tio n in m u ltip le s o f years, 1 to 18.
Bar H iyya h a s sim p ly a d d e d a f u rth e r row , sin ce h e w a n ts to m e e t th e
n e e d s o f th e H eb rew c a le n d a r w ith its 19-year cycle. T h e a n n u a l m o tio n s
given b y Bar H iyya are clearly d eriv e d fro m th e row s in th e A lm a g est,
r o u n d e d off a c c u ra te ly to tw o sex ag esim al p laces.

4.3 M oon

T h e ta b u la tio n in c lu d e s th e m e a n m o o n , th e lu n a r a n o m a ly a n d th e
e lo n g a tio n , a ll o f w h ic h a re g iv e n b y P to le m y . F o r th e n o d e , h o w e v e r,
w h e r e P to le m y ta b u la te s m o o n - n o d e (d a ily m o tio n 13;13,45.7) Bar
H iyya ta b u la te s th e n o d e its e lf (d a ily m o tio n 0;3,10,41,15,26,7). T h e
ta b le s o f a n n u a l m o tio n o f th e firs t th r e e q u a n titie s a re c o p ie d d ire c tly
fro m th e A lm a g e s t, r o u n d e d as w ith th e m e a n su n . F o r th e n o d e , h o w ­
ever, th e r e a re se rio u s e rro rs in th e H e b re w te x t (13v), b u t n o t, c u r i­
ously, in th e L a tin ( 5 0 r - 5 0 v ) .
 Table 9: The m ean lunar node, BNF hebreu 1046, f 13v

D’WTnni niU iw ani n r a i n n D’jw 3 ’I n n w nt iln a

niUiwa D’jw n r a i n a D’jw D’jw

n m in a

D’’jW D’T3W n ilv a D’jW D’’jW D’T3W n ilv a

n iu n a
N 3 U’ N 1 3 Nl Usp wnwn
3 a nl 3 2 N3 Nj n U’ 1
J nj J 3 ul N’ T’T nl 2
T 3 U’ T 4 nj Nl N3T Tj 3
n a nl n 5 i’ 3j n3T IV 4
1 nj 1 6 ul 3’ ilT ns 5
T 3 TV T 7 jj 3l jaT T’P 6
n a is n 8 3’ Jj jt 7

Jl
U i’P u 9 Nl J’ njT 3 jp 8
’ 3 n lp ’ 10 ua Tl non NVP 9
N’ a TJp N’ 11 n Tj 3VT sp 10
3’ TVp 3’ 12 13 T’ an UT 11
J’ 3 Jsp J’ 13 na Tl T2 T n3T 12
T’ a 3’T T’ 14 J nj TST Tan 13
iu 3lT 1U 15 33 1U 3W IDT 14
1’ 3 nvn 1’ 16 Na nl UW n an 15
T’ a VT T’ 17 Uj nj TW TW 16
n’ naw n’ 18 n’ 1’ T3W J3W 17
U’ 3 T U’ 19 il ll Nlw 3aw 18
nj lj n lw NOW 19
J’ T’ law aw 20
3l Tl jjw USW 21
j Tj n ’n 22
u n’ n Tln 23
n3 nl 1U un 24
ia nj 33 nVn 25
n’ U’ l T sn 26
J3 Ul Tl J’p n 27
3a Uj Ta 3 lp n 28

In th e c o lu m n o f d eg re es for th e in d iv id u a l years, th e d eg re es a n d m in ­
u te s fo r th e y ea rs 1 -3 are re p e a te d in lin es 4 - 6 , a co p y in g e rro r th a t h as
re s u lte d in a d o w n w a rd d isp la c e m e n t b y th re e ro w s o f m o s t o f th e follow ­
ing. H o w ev er th e la st tw o ro w s a re co rrect. T he sa m e fa u lt is fo u n d in BNF
h e b re u 1045, w h ile in BNF h e b re u 1038 th is ta b le is m issing. T h ere is n o
e rro r in th e L atin versio n .
Table 10: Com parison of tables of m ean node in steps of 1 year; BNF hebreu 1046
(13v) and Latin (50r). The degrees and m inutes for the years 1-3 are repeated in
lines 4 -6 . However the last two rows are correct

Hebrew years Latin Ptolemy

" ' 0

1 20 19 1 0,19;20,1 0,19;20,0,58,53,52,35
2 40 38 2 1,8;40,2 1,8;40,1,57,47,45,10
3 0 58 3 1,28;0,3 1,28;0,2,56,41,37,45
4 20 19 4 2,17;20,4 2,17;20,3,55,35,30,20
5 40 38 5 3,6;40,5 3,6;40,4,54,29,22,55
6 0 58 6 3,26;0,6 3,26;0,5,53,23,15,30
7 20 77 7 4,15;20,7 4,15;20,6,52,17,8,5
8 40 96 8 5,4;40,8 5,4;40,7,51,11,0,40
9 0 116 9 5,24;0,9 5,24;0,8,50,4,53,15
10 20 135 10 6,13;20,10 6,13;20,9,48,58,45,50
11 40 154 11 7,2;40,11 7,2;40,10,47,52,38,25
12 0 174 12 7,22;0,12 7,22;0,11,46,46,31,0
13 20 193 13 8,11;20,13 8,11;20,12,45,40,23,35
14 40 212 14 9,0;40,14 9,0;40,13,44,34,16,10
15 0 232 15 9,20;0,15 9.20;0,14,43,28,8,45
16 20 251 16 10,9;20,16 10,9;20,15,42,22,1,20
17 40 270 17 10;28,40,17 10,28;40,16,41,15,53,55
18 0 348 18 11,18;0,18 11,18;0,17,40,9,46,30
19 20 7 19 0,7;20,19 7;20,18,39,3,39,5

H ere w e see a g a in th a t th e L atin te x t is n o t m e re ly a faith fu l tra n s c rip tio n

fro m th e H ebrew , b u t sh o w s signs o f revision. All th e e n trie s a re a c c u ­
ra te ly r o u n d e d fro m th e P to le m a ic valu es, c a lc u la te d fro m th e P to lem aic
daily m o tio n o f th e n o d e 0;3,10,41,15,26,7.

4.4 P lanets

T he ta b le s o f p la n e ta ry m e a n m o tio n a re g iven in BNF h e b re u 1046 fol.

19-26, a n d in H h . 6.8 fol. 4 5 -4 9 . For ex am p le, th e ta b le fo r S a tu rn is sh o w n
h ere . As w e h av e se e n a lre a d y in th e case o f th e s u n a n d th e m o o n th e
ra te s o f m o tio n o f th e p la n e ts a re ta k e n fro m th e A lm a g e st. T his is illu s­
tr a te d b y th e m o tio n for in d iv id u a l years, w h e re th e e n trie s h av e b e e n
carefu lly r o u n d e d fro m th e 6 sex ag esim al p la ce s g iv en in th e A lm a g e st,
w ith b u t o n e erro r, in th e ro w fo r 6 years. T he te x ts sh o w n h e re are fro m
H e b re w (14r), a n d L atin (45r).
Table 11: M ean longitude of Saturn in steps of 19 years, w ith radix, and in steps
of 1 year (14r)

’Nnyw

D’w nn m uiw ai n r a i n a D’jw y Niwn ’Nnyw ib n a

m una d ’jw naoa n ra in a d ’jw naoa

D’JW D’JW
m una n ra in a

D’’Jw D’nyw m bpa D’’Jw D’nyw m bpa

nD j’ y N n n un w nwn
na ID nD y ub yD rop u’ 1
y a ib j n’ rb nb 2
ib JJ na n ua NJ ybn rJ 3
r NO n nD 1 np IP 4
nD D yp i nJ D ibw nx 5
na jb na r jb nb un n ’p 6
N’ ra rx n n J Na 7

jb
p
nb ’P u ja n n ’w y jp 8
UJ j’ yDp ’ n’ u’ la p Npp 9
jd rD nbp N’ jJ jb nJ *p 10
ra a la p y nD na xn un 11
N’ nj nJp j’ j j jo p nDn 12
nb r Npp n’ nb r’ nb ran 13
UJ D ja p 1U m yb ion ion 14
JD nb npp i’ na ia ubp n an 15
ra ra rn r’ yD N y’ nw 16
N’ N Dn n’ rJ 1U Nan jDw 17
nb n’ ybn u’ Nb b i’p yaw 18
i na naw Now 19
Na uJ Dn aw 20
r’ n’ jx uxw 21
NJ nD nDw n ’n 22
ID ja rxp rbn 23
N nJ uo un 24
lb y’ yw npn 25
N’ rD npp n xn 26
Na Na ia j ’p n 27
ND ij npp ybpn 28
1J ’ NJp NJpn 29

T he c o m p a riso n w ith th e A lm a g e st show s clearly th e o rig in o f th is ta b le

fo r th e first 18 row s. T he L atin v e rsio n ex h ib its th e sa m e rela tiv e in d e p e n ­
d e n c e as se e n in th e p rev io u s exam ples.
Table 12: Com parison of m ean longitude of Saturn in steps of 19 years, Hebrew
(14r) and Latin (45r) and Ptolemy

Hebrew years Latin Almagest

24 13 12 1 0,12;13,24 12 13 23 56 30 30 15
48 26 24 2 0,24;26,48 24 26 47 53 1 0 30
12 40 36 3 1,16;,40,1 36 40 11 49 31 30 45
36 53 48 4 1,18;53,36 48 53 35 46 2 1 0
0 7 61 5 2,1;7,0 61 6 59 42 32 31 15
24 20 72 6 2,13;,20,24 73 20 23 39 3 1 30
48 33 85 7 2,25;33,48 85 33 47 35 33 31 45
11 47 97 8 3,7;47,11 97 47 11 32 4 2 0
35 0 110 9 3,20;0,35 110 0 35 28 34 32 15
59 13 122 10 4,2;13,59 13 59 25 5 2 30
2
2
1
23 27 134 11 4,14;27,23 134 27 23 21 35 32 45
47 40 146 12 4,26;40,47 146 40 47 18 6 3 0
11 54 158 13 5,8;54,11 158 54 11 14 36 33 15
35 7 171 14 5,21;7,35 171 7 35 11 7 3 30
59 20 183 15 6,3;20,59 20 59 7 37 33 45
8
3
1

23 34 175 16 6,15;34,23 175 34 23 4 8 4 0

47 47 207 17 6,27;47,47 207 47 47 0 38 34 15
11 1 220 18 7,10;1,11 220 1 10 57 9 4 30
35 14 232 19 7,22;14,35

T he situ a tio n is th e sa m e w ith th e o th e r p la n e ts; in every case th e m e a n

m o tio n is d eriv e d fro m th e A lm a g est.
T he in itia l v alu es o f all th e s e m e a n lo n g itu d e s a re h o w e v e r n o t ta k e n
fro m th e A lm a g est, b u t ra th e r, as w e w ill see, Bar H iyya h a s fo u n d th e se
in th e Zij o f al-B attam .

Table 13: Radices of the tables of 1104 of Bar Hiyya

Radices 1104 Sep 21

sun 187;0,0
solar apogee 75;30,0
m oon 187;6,48
lunar anomaly 351;17,37
lunar apogee 195;49,11
node 160;28,58
Mercury 212;54,9
Venus 94;34,36
Mars 351;55,22
Jupiter 213;36,12
Saturn 256;8,4
4.5 D eviation Curves

F ro m th e s e ra d ic e s a n d th e p to le m a ic ra te s o f m o tio n w e h av e a t o n ce th e
se t o f d e v ia tio n curves.
T he slo p es o f th e cu rv es d e p e n d o n th e ra te s o f m o tio n , a n d so a re th e
sam e as th o se o f th e A lm a g est. H ow ev er th e s e cu rv es n o w cro ss th e zero
axis in th e reg io n o f th e 1 2 th -1 3 th ce n tu rie s. To b e p rec ise, th e curves
for su n a n d m o o n fit b e s t a t th e m e rid ia n 39;36 in th e y e a r 1214, a n d it is
p e rh a p s su rp risin g th a t th e o p tim u m m e rid ia n is n o t su ite d to Bar H iyya’s
lo c a tio n in A n d alu sia, b u t to th e M iddle East.
Bar H iyya h im s e lf asse rts th a t th e m e rid ia n o f re fe re n c e o f h is ta b le s
is for Je ru sa le m , w h ic h h e ta k e s to b e se v en h o u rs, 105°, fro m th e e a st­
e rn lim it .19 N e ith e r s ta te m e n t ag rees w ith th e facts th a t a re clea r fro m his
tab les. O n th e scale o f lo n g itu d e em p lo y ed b y al-B attan i J e ru sa le m is a t
66 °, th a t is 4;24 h o u rs fro m th e E a ste rn lim it.
H ow ev er th e re a re ev e ry w h e re in d ic a tio n s o f d e p e n d e n c e o n al-B attan i,
su c h as th e ta b u la tio n a t o n e p o in t o f th e d ifferen ces b e tw e e n th e daily
ra te s o f m o tio n b e tw e e n P to lem y a n d a l-B attan i (BNF h e b r e u 1046,
fol. 3 9 -4 0 ). F u rth e r, th e e q u a tio n s o f th e m o o n a n d th e p la n e ts are
c o p ie d d irec tly fro m al-B attan i. In h is c o m m e n ta ry o f th e Sefer H esbon,
M illas V allicrosa p o in ts o u t th e m a n y p ro c e d u re s e v id en tly c o p ie d fro m

Figure 4: Deviation curves for the m ean longitudes of the tables for 1104

19 Millas Vallicrosa (1959), p. 54.

al-B attani. T he e q u a tio n o f th e sun, how ev er, h a s b e e n c a lc u la te d to ag ree
w ith th e m a x im u m a d o p te d b y P tolem y, a lth o u g h it differs fro m th a t o f
th e A lm a g est, in th a t th e ta b u la tio n is given in ste p s o f o n e d eg ree a n d to
a n ac cu rac y o f seco n d s.
It is easy to d e m o n s tra te th a t th e ra d ic e s o f Bar H iyya’s m e a n lo n g i­
tu d e s are d eriv e d fro m th e Zij o f al-B attan i. In T able 14 b e lo w w e h av e
th e m e a n lo n g itu d e s c a lc u la te d fo r N o o n 1104 S ep t 21, th e e p o c h d a te
o f th e tables.
I t is a strik in g fa c t th a t w e h av e a n a lm o s t p e rfe c t a g re e m e n t b e tw e e n
th e ra d ic e s e m p lo y e d b y Bar H iyya a n d th e c a lc u la tio n fro m th e m e a n
lo n g itu d e s fro m th e Zij o f al-B attani. O f co u rse th e tw o sy stem s w ill b e in
d is a g re e m e n t a t a n y o th e r d a te sin ce th e re sp e c tiv e ra te s o f m o tio n are
v ery d ifferent.
T he d e v ia tio n cu rv e s o f Bar H iyya v a n is h to w a rd s th e y e a r 1200 a n d
o n e m ig h t h a v e h a d th e im p re ssio n , j u s t fro m th a t, t h a t a d ju s tm e n ts
h a d b e e n m a d e b y B ar H iyya to im p ro v e a g r e e m e n t w ith th e s ta te o f
th e sky a ro u n d h is o w n tim e . T he tr u th h o w e v e r is t h a t Bar H iyya h a s
d e te r m in e d h is ra d ic e s n o t b y o b se rv a tio n , b u t b y c a lc u la tin g fro m th e
ta b le s o f a l-B a tta n i fo r th e e p o c h d a te o f 1104. It is c le a r fro m th e d e v ia ­
tio n cu rv e s fo r th e A lm a g e s t t h a t th e ta b le s o f P to le m y a re in n o w ay
s u ita b le fo r th e tim e o f Bar H iyya, a n d y e t h e in c o rp o r a te d th e r a te s o f
m o tio n fro m P to lem y .

Table 14: The radices of Bar Hiyya com pared w ith calculation from al-Battani

Bar Hiyya (1104) al-Battani

Sep 21 Noon 1104 Sep 21 Noon

sun 187;0,0 186;57,26.84

solar anomaly 108;42,22 101;19,18.23
solar apogee 78;17,38 85;38,8.61
m oon 187;6,48 187;4,11.38
lunar anomaly 351;17,37 351;17,32.68
lunar apogee 195;49,11 195;46,38.70
node 160;28,58 160;31,43.94
moon-node 26;37,50 26;32,27.44
elongation 0;6,48 0;6,44.53
Mercury 212;54,9 212;49,2.14
Venus 94;34,36 94;28,18.45
Mars 351;55,22 351;57,13.51
Jupiter 213;36,12 213;36,11.89
Saturn 256;8,4 256;9,2.81
-4 0 0 -2 0 0 0 200 400 GOO 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

• 4 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Figure 5: Deviation curves for the Alm agest

-400 -2 0 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

-400 -2 0 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Figure 6 : Deviation curves for al-Battani

4.6 The D ependence on P tolem y

Since h e w as p re p a re d to a c c e p t so m u c h o f th e sy stem o f a l-B attan i o n e

h a s to ask w h y h e in c o rp o ra te d th e ra te s o f m o tio n o f th e A lm a g e st? T he
a n sw e r su rely lies in th e fa c t th a t th e le n g th o f y e a r em p lo y ed b y P to lem y
so closely a p p ro x im a te s th a t o f th e Jew ish ca le n d ar. By c o m b in in g th e se
tw o v ery d iffe re n t c a n o n s Bar H iyya h as c re a te d a n a stro n o m ica l system
o f sun, m o o n a n d p la n e ts w hich is conform a b le w ith h is Jew ish calendar.
W e h av e a lre a d y se e n in th e tr a c t b y al-K h w arezm i th a t th e re w as a t th a t
tim e su c h a system , w h ic h e x te n d e d th e Jew ish c a le n d a r to in c lu d e th e
lo n g itu d e s o f th e p la n e ts.
In th e Sefer H esbon M a h le k o t h e ex p lain s w h y h e h as a d o p te d th e P to le­
m a ic sy stem o f th e sun, fo r h e ev e n b eliev e s th a t P to lem y h as fo llo w ed th e
r a b b in ic a l te ac h in g .

,D T iiu sN n ’n ^ n w xn o r a b u n nyTb n a n n ruw ’a ’ n a o a n D o m o u n i

n a n n n jw ’a ’ pnw nn im o i b"T u ’m nn nyT by ib in m m nnn inyTw ’ja a
ib n a T inyT n ’n p i m nyn n o nj nj Dn’byw nnnN nn n t n nn ’nnT by
b"T '’nm n nyT xinw n^Tjn n t n nn ’n n x ib in njnb
We follow the calculation of Ptolemy, preem inent am ong astronomers,
because he alm ost always agrees w ith that of our Rabbis, agreeing, as regards
the solar year, w ith Rabbi Ada bar Ahaba, upon w hich the science (TIO, liter­
ally secret) of the calendar is constructed. Similarly, his opinion as regards
the m ovem ent of the m oon is that it follows the aforem entioned Rabbi Ada,
th a t is our Rabbis. (Millas Vallicrosa (1959), Hebrew p. 46, Spanish p. 52)

In h is tre a tise o n th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, Sefer ha-Ibbur, Bar H iyya d ev o tes

o n e se c tio n to th e le n g th o f th e y e a r (B ook 3 Ch. 1). H e rev iew s th e h isto ry
o f th e d e te rm in a tio n , fro m B ab y lo n ian efforts th ro u g h H ip p a rc h u s a n d
P to lem y . H e n o te s th a t th e le n g th o f th e y e a r as g iv e n b y H ip p a rc h u s
a n d P tolem y, 3 6 5 .2 5 -1 /3 0 0 , is v ery close to th a t a s su m e d for th e Je w ish
ca le n d ar, w h ic h is th e re a so n w h y h e h a s c h o s e n to u se P to lem y ’s m e a n
m o tio n o f th e su n (a n d th e o th e rs) in h is tab les.
T his is n o t th e on ly in sta n c e w h e re a Je w ish a u th o r h a s d e c la re d th a t
th e re w as a n a n c ie n t Je w ish so u rce for scien tific k n o w led g e, fo r Jo se p h u s
w rite s in h is Jew ish A n tiq u ities Book I, 167-8.

He [Abraham] introduced them [Egyptians] to arithmetic, and transm itted

to them the laws of astronomy. For before the coming of A braham the Egyp­
tians were ignorant of these sciences, w hich thus travelled from the Chaldae-
ans into Egypt, w hence they passed to the Greeks. (Book I viii; Loeb ed.)

Bar H iyya w as o f co u rse aw a re o f th e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n th o se tw o sys­

te m s, a n d w e n t so far as to p ro v id e a d e ta ile d ta b u la tio n o f th e d ifferen ces
in th e m e a n m o tio n s. T his w a s given in a series o f ta b le s for sun, m o o n ,
a n d th e p la n e ts, la id o u t like th e o th e r tab les, fo r m u ltip le s o f years,
m o n th s , etc. In th e m s BNF h e b re u 1046 fols. 3 9 r-4 0 v , th e first o f th e s e
ta b le s (39r) is h e a d e d ,

o r a b u a npnb n a n n b n a bp ’jx n n b x npnb m w n n n b i n a n ib n a m n i n

Deficit in the mean motion o f the sun and moon according to al-Battdnl com­
pared with the motion o f the sun [and moon] according to Ptolemy.20

T he w o rd m m n m u s t h av e th e se n se o f deficit, a n d in su b s e q u e n t ta b le s
o f th is section, th e w o rd u s e d is j n o n , deficit. T he ta b u la tio n sh o w s th e
d ifferen ce b e tw e e n th e ra te s o f m o tio n , in se co n d s p e r a n n u m , p re s e n te d
for cycles (m a h zo ro th ), years, m o n th s a n d days, fo llo w in g th e sa m e fo rm a t
as in th e o th e r ta b le s o f m e a n m o tio n .
T able 15 lists th e excesses, d eriv e d in e a c h case fro m th e a m o u n t given
for 19 years. T h ese a re c o m p a re d w ith c a lc u la tio n s fro m th e A rab ic te x t
o f al-B attan i a n d fro m its H e b re w v ersion. T h ere is clearly so m e s u p p o rt
fo r th e c o n c lu sio n th a t Bar H iyya e m p lo y e d th e H eb rew v ersio n , as se en
in th e d ifferen ces fo r th e n o d e a n d th e p la n e ts. T h e H e b re w v e rsio n o f
al-B attan i is d isc u sse d below . I a m u n a b le to say w h y h e h a s g o n e to su ch
le n g th s to p ro v id e a th o ro u g h ta b u la tio n o f th e d ifferen ces in th e ra te s o f
m e a n m o tio n s.
If B ar H iyya h a d d eriv e d h is p a ra m e te rs fro m al-B attan i in th e H eb rew
v e rsio n h e w o u ld h av e h a d to allo w for a sh ift in th e m e rid ia n , since, as
w e w ill see, th e H eb rew v e rsio n in v o lv e d a sh ift w e stw a rd o f 33;30 d eg rees

Table 15: Excess of al-Battani’s m ean m otions over Ptolemy’s in

seconds per annum

BNF h ebr 1046 Annual Ptolemy- Ptolemy-Battani

39r-40v difference al-Battani (Arabic)
(seconds) (Hebrew)

sun and m oon 21;40 21;39 21;40

node 21;0 20;59 23;28
Saturn 14;16,28 14;13 14;1
Jupiter 14;50,28 14;51 15;4
Mars 21;4,50 21;6 20;22
Venus (arg) 21;34,38 21;51 21;39
Mercury (arg) 9;44,0 9;42 4;37

20 The word 'Dbna appears as p b n a in BNF 1046, but is correctly written in BNF 1045
fol. 64r.
fro m R aqqa. T he ta b le s for 1104 w ere, how ev er, c o rre c t fo r a m e rid ia n
essen tially e q u a l to th a t o f th e A rabic al-B attan i. T h ere is, th e re fo re , a n
u n re so lv e d p ro b le m h ere. It m ig h t b e reso lv e d b y p o stu la tin g a n e a r­
lie r H eb rew v e rsio n o f al-B attani, like th e o n e w e know , b u t w ith o u t th e
c h a n g e in m e rid ia n .

4.7 True L o ngitudes

In o rd e r to ca lc u late th e tru e lo n g itu d e s o f th e sun, m o o n a n d p la n e ts w e

n e e d th e ta b le s o f th e ir e q u a tio n s a n d th e ir ap o g ees. H ere a g a in w e h av e
a m ix tu re o f p a ra m e te rs fro m P to lem y a n d al-B attan i.
T he a p o g e es a n d n o d a l p o in ts o f th e p la n e ts are g iven in th e H eb rew
te x t (BNF h e b r e u 1046, 16v). T h ere is n o m e n tio n o f th e ir v a lu e s in th e
L atin v ersio n , b u t it is p o ssib le th a t th e y w e re in te n d e d to b e sh o w n in
th e b la n k ta b les, H h . 6.8 fols 5 9 r-6 1 v (th e re is n o folio n u m b e re d 61 in th e
m a n u sc rip t).
T he a p o g e es are given also in th e Sefer H esb o n , b u t e x p re ssed w ith
g re a te r p re c isio n .21
As p a r t o f th is ju g g lin g b e tw e e n th e tw o so u rces, Bar H iyya h a s p ro ­
p o se d a p o g e es o f th e su n a n d p la n e ts w h ic h do n o t ag ree w ell w ith e ith e r
source, esp ecially in th e case o f th e sun. T h ese a p o g e es are sh o w n in T able
16, w h e re o n e sees in p a rtic u la r th e o d d v a lu e for th e a p o g e e o f th e sun,
a b o u t 10 less th a n th e c o rre c t v alue.

Table 16: Apogees and nodes of sun and planets in the Tables
of Bar Hiyya (1104)

Tables Sefer Hesbon al-Battani

sun apogee 75;30 75;30 85;38,9

Saturn apogee 243;0 243;53,12 247;52,9
node 273;0 273;0
Jupiter apogee 172;0 172;22,8 167;52,9
node 172;0 172;0
Mars apogee 126;0 126;21,52 130;22,9
node 126;0 126;0
Venus apogee 75;0 75;30 85;38,9
node 165;0 165;0
Mercury apogee 205;0 201;0 204;52,9
node 215;0 215;0

21 Millas Vallicrosa (1959), 66.

T ables o f th e e q u a tio n s a re fo u n d in b o th H eb rew a n d L atin v ersio n s.
W ith o n e e x c e p tio n all th e ta b le s o f e q u a tio n s are ta k e n d irec tly fro m
al-B attan i. T he e x c e p tio n is th e e q u a tio n o f th e su n in th e H eb rew v ersio n .
In th a t case th e ta b u la tio n is in ste p s o f o n e d eg ree, w ith c a lc u la tio n to a n
a c cu rac y o f seco n d s, w ith a m a x im u m o f 2;23,0. T his c o n tra s ts w ith th e
A lm a g e st w h ic h ta b u la te s in ste p s o f 6 d eg re es to a m a x im u m o f 2;23, a n d
th e H a n d y Tables w h ic h ta b u la te s in ste p s o f o n e d eg ree, to a m a x im u m
o f 2;23, b u t to a n ac cu rac y o f m in u te s only.

4.8 H ebrew Version o f a l-B a tta n i

T he Zij o f a l-B a tta n i w as p r e p a re d in R a q q a in Syria in th e 9 th c e n t­

ury. T he A rab ic te x t survives, a n d w as e d ite d b y N allin o in a w ell-k n o w n
p u b lic a tio n , w h e re it w as a c c o m p a n ie d b y a d e ta ile d c o m m e n ta ry b y
Schiaparelli.22 W e k n o w th a t it w as n o t on ly av ailab le in A n d alu s ia b u t
w id ely c o n s u lte d th e re .
T he v e rsio n o f al-B attan i in H eb rew is o n e th a t I fo u n d in th e tw o m ss
M u n ic h h e b 343 fol. 1 82v-200v; h e b 386 fol. 15v seq. I h a d o b se rv e d th a t
it w as th e H eb rew v e rsio n o f th a t Zij w h ic h w as u s e d b y G em istu s P le th o n
in th e early 15th ce n tu ry , a n d w h e n I d isc u sse d th a t I w as n o t su re w h e n
th is H eb rew v e rsio n w as m ade.23 N ow it a p p e a rs th a t it m a y h av e b e e n
k n o w n to Bar H iyya in th e early 12th.
As th e d o c u m e n ta tio n sta n d s, how ev er, o u r o n ly co p y o f th e H eb rew
v e rsio n is in th e 15th c e n tu ry m a n u sc rip ts , su c h as BSB 343. M s BSB h e b r
343 is d e sc rib e d b y M o ritz S te in sc h n e id e r. 24 T his is a co llec tio n in 277
folios o f a v a rie ty o f H e b re w a s tro n o m ic a l w orks. T h e m a jo r ite m s w ere
id e n tifie d b y S tein sch n e id er, b u t h e d id n o t single o u t th e se c tio n 183­
197v as a H e b re w v e rsio n o f th e p rin c ip a l ta b le s a l-B attan i’s Zij, a d a p te d to
th e L atin ca le n d ar. T his in c lu d e s th e ta b le s o f m e a n lo n g itu d es, apo g ees,
a n d e q u a tio n s. To b e sure, th is d o es n o t in c lu d e th e w h o le o f th e ta b u la r
p a r t o f th e Zij, n o r d o es it in c lu d e th e tex t, w h e re a l-B attan i gives in s tru c ­
tio n s o n th e u se o f th e ta b les. T he a ttr ib u tio n to a l-B attan i (’jn n b tf ) is
given re p e a te d ly a t th e h e a d o f e a c h tab le.
T he c a le n d a r in u se is th e L atin c a le n d a r w ith e p o c h is 1341 F eb 28. T he
m o n th n a m e s are as follow s:

22 Nallino (1903).
23 Mercier (1998), 254.
24 Steinschneider (1895).
 Table 17: M onth nam es in the Hebrew version of al-Battani

ona b,_aN ’Na JU ’b u W INN

March April May June July August
,-a a u w nrnupiN ’n n a n u ’■ aaon ’■ p^m ■’’■32
septem ber October November December January February

T h ese tra n s c rip tio n s o f th e L atin m o n th n a m e s h e re differ n o ta b ly

fro m th o se fo u n d in th e ta b le s o f Bar Hiyya, w h ic h w e re g iven ab o v e in
T able 5.
T he rad ic es in th e ta b le s o f m e a n m o tio n h av e b e e n c a lc u la te d for
th e e p o c h 1341 Feb 28, a y e a r re fe rre d to in th e ta b le s b riefly as ‘3 4 0 ’. T he
e n trie s a re ta b u la te d fo r th e first d ay o f successiv e L atin years, o v er a ran g e
o f 4 0 years, as w ell as for th e u s u a l sm a lle r in terv als. In th e c a lc u la tio n o f
th e ra d ic e s for th e n e w ep o c h , th e re h as b e e n a sh ift w e stw a rd e q u iv a le n t
to 2;14,4 h o u rs, o r 33;31 degrees, a t le a s t as im p lie d b y th e lu n i-so la r e lo n ­
gatio n ; it is likely th a t th e sh ift w as ta k e n as th e ro u n d figure 33;30. This
d o es n o t p o in t u n iq u e ly to th e lo c a tio n in th e W e st for w h ic h th e n e w
v e rsio n w as m a d e , b u t M ilan is o n e possibility , as w e see fro m th e list o f
lo n g itu d e s ta k e n fro m th e Zij o f al-K ashi. 25

Table 18: Radices of the Hebrew version of al-Battani

Hebrew version Calculated Hebr -calc

1340 for 33;30 West

sun 346;56,56 346;57,0.82 -0;0,4,49

solar anom aly 257;41,50 257;43,55.57 -0;0,1,55
solar apogee 89;15,6 89;13,5.25 0;2,5,34
m oon 128;54,40 128;54,43.22 -0;0,5,36
lunar anom aly 31;21,50 31;21,46.47 0;0,3,31,48
lunar apogee 97;32,50 97;32,56.75 0;0,6,45
node 267;29,58 267;44,6.35 -0;14,8,21
m oon-node 221;24,42 221;10,36.88 0;14,5
elongation 141;57,44 141;57,42.41 0;0,1,35,24
Mercury 105;4,0 104;49,32.73 0;14,27,16
Venus 217;3,4 217; 1,21.48 0;1,42,31,12
Mars 250;36,21 250;36,50.40 -0;0,29,24
Jupiter 192;57,11 192;58,17.80 -0;1,6,48
saturn 269;6,39 269; 6,41.17 - 0;0,2,10,12

25 Kennedy (1987), pp. 556-567.

It is clea r th a t th e ra d ic e s h av e b e e n c a lc u la te d for th e m e rid ia n 33;30
to th e W est, a n d th e on ly d e p a rtu re s involve th e n o d e a n d M ercury, b y
a b o u t 0;14 degrees.
In ev itab ly th e re are so m e v ery sm all, if u n in te n d e d , d ifferen ces in th e
ra te s o f m o tio n , c o m p a re d w ith th o se o f th e A rab ic tex t. For ex a m p le
th e lu n a r n o d e is ta b u la te d h e re w ith th e m o tio n 1r 26;49,13 in 20 y ea rs
(7305 days), w h ile in th e A rabic so u rce it is 1r 26;48,23. T he d ifferen ce
a m o u n ts to 2.5" p e r a n n u m . In th e case o f S a tu rn th e A rab ic te x t gives
1r 129;25,24 in 20 years, w h ile th e H e b re w v e rsio n gives 1r 129;25,32. This
a m o u n ts to th e sm all d ifferen ce o f 0.4" p e r a n n u m . T h ese sm all differ­
en c e s allo w us, how ev er, to d e te rm in e th a t it m a y h av e b e e n th e H eb rew
v e rsio n o f a l-B attan i w h ic h w as u se d b y Bar Hiyya.
In th is H eb rew v e rsio n th e a p o g e es are p la c e d rela tiv e to th e sun, b u t
th e a p o g e e o f th e su n is also given as 89;15,6, so th a t w e h av e th e p la n e ta ry
ap o g e es rela tiv e th e zero p o in t o f lo n g itu d e.
In h is Zij al-B attan i gives th e a p o g e e o f th e su n a n u m b e r o f v alues.
In th e in s tru c tio n s fo r th e tr u e su n w e h av e 82;14, fo r th e y e a r 880, b u t
o th e r v alu es are given elsew h ere, alw ays w ith in a few m in u te s o f th a t.26
It is in te re s tin g th a t th e p o sitio n s o f th e p la n e ta ry a p o g e es relativ e to
th e su n w o u ld b e th e sam e in th is H eb rew v e rsio n if w e ta k e th e o rig in al

Table 19: Apogees used in the Hebrew version of al-Battani

Apogee Apogee Al-Battani

relative
to sun
Pi
n
rz

’§ r a w o n 5,12;12,0 Saturn apogee 162;12 251;27,6 244;28

u

u ’jn 7,2;12,0 node: +50 +50

rt
Pi
n
*-

U’ UD u pns o n 2,22;12,0 Jupiter apogee 82;12 171;27,6 164;28

U’ ’ U u ’jn 2,10;12,0 node: -13 -20

U 1U § o n x a o n 1,15;2,0 M ars apogee 45;2 134;17,6 126;58

U 1U ’§ u ’jn 1,15;2,0 node: 0 0

n a n 0,0,0 Sun apogee 0;0 89;15,6 82;14

h ju on 0,0;0 Venus apogee 0;0 89.15,6 82;14
J u ’jn 3,0;0,0 node: +90 +90
U’ UD J uuid o n 3,29;12,0 Mercury apogee 119;12 208;27,6 201;28
U’ UD — u ’jn 0,29;12,0 node: -90 +270

26 Nallino (1903), 44, 214-219.

p o sitio n as 82;16. T h u s th e a p o g e e o f S atu rn rela tiv e to th e su n is g iven as
162;12, w h ile in th e A rabic v e rsio n w e w o u ld h av e 2 44;28-82;16 = 162;12.
In th e H eb rew te x t th e so la r a p o g e e is given as 89;15,6 (fol. 187v), w h ile
th e a n n u a l m o tio n is 1° in 66 years. T he d ifferen ce 89;15,6-82;16 = 6;59,6
w o u ld a c c u m u la te in 168379 days, o n th e a s s u m p tio n o f th e m o tio n o f
1 ° in 66 years, w h e re th e y e a r is u n d e rs to o d as th a t im p lie d b y th e zij
(3 6 5 .2 4 0 5 5 6 ...). T he e p o c h o f th e ta b le s in th e A rab ic te x t is 880 M a r 1
(2042538), a n d le a d in g to 2042538+168379 = 2210917, th a t is 1340 Feb 28.
T h ere is th e re fo re c o m p le te co n siste n c y w ith th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e so lar
a p o g e e a n d th e p la n e ta ry a p o g e es if th e o rig in al so la r a p o g e e is ta k e n
as 82;16.

4.9 Eclipse Tables

In th e L atin m a n u sc rip t, p la c e d b e tw e e n th e ta b le s o f e q u a tio n s o f th e

m o o n a n d th e e q u a tio n s o f th e p la n e ts, th e re is a sm all n u m b e r o f ta b le s
re le v a n t to th e c a lc u la tio n o f syzygies a n d eclipses, as w ell as a ta b le for
th e c o n v e rsio n fro m A n n o D o m in i to E g y p tian years. T his se c tio n is
p la in ly in c o m p le te , sin ce th e re are, fo r ex am p le, n o ta b le s o f p arallax . T he
H eb rew original, o n th e o th e r h a n d h a s a c o m p le te se t o f eclip se tab les,
fol. 2 6 v -2 8 v , a n d ta b le s o f parallax, fol. 2 9 v -3 2 r.

(5 5 v -5 6 r) T ab u la c o n iu n c tio n is solis e t lu n e in a n n is egipciis co llectis e t

in a n n is m u n d i collectis p e r 19 a n te m e d iu m d ie m in ic iu m
T ab u la p re v e n tio n is solis e t lu n e in a n n is egipciis e t in a n n is m u n d i col-
le ctis p e r 19
(5 6 v -5 7 r) T ab u la p re v e n tio n is e t c o n iu n c tio n is solis e t lu n e in a n n is
egipciis
T ab u la p re v e n tio n is e t c o n iu n c tio n is solis e t lu n e in m e n sib u s egipciis
(57v) A d in v e n ie n d u m a n n o s e g ip to ru m p e r a n n o s a le x a n d ri v el p e r
a n n o s d o m in i. 3r
T ab u la a d s c ie n d u m d ire c tio n e s p la n e ta ru m q u e sta tio n e s e t retro g rad io -
n e s in o m n i die
(58r) [u n title d ] A ta b le a p p a re n tly o f ‘e x a lta tio n s’; c o m p a re P e d e rse n
RA11, P a rt 4, p. 1592.
(58v) T ab u la m o tu s solis e t lu n e d iv ersu s in u n a h o ra
T ab u la eclipsis lu n e in lo n g itu d in e longiori
(59r) T ab u la eclipsis L une in lo n g itu d in e p ro p io ri
 Plate 2: Cambridge University Library ms Hh. 6.8 vol. 1, fol. 13v

5. Tables o f 1110

In th e L atin m s H h. 6 .8 , fols 1 -4 0 v th e re is a n o th e r se t o f ta b le s closely

re la te d , like th e T ables o f 1104, to th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, a n d in c lu d in g
a g a in th e fam iliar ta b le s o f m e a n sun, m o o n a n d p la n e ts . T h ese a re said
to b e a c c o rd in g to Sevasortha, th a t is Bar Hiyya, w h o w as k n o w n as Sahib
al-S urta. If th e re is a H e b re w o rig in al it is n o t k n o w n to m e, b u t I a m
in c lin e d to su p p o se th a t th e re is n o n e, r a th e r th a t th is is a n o rig in al
c o m p o sitio n w ith in th e Jew ish c o m m u n ity o f T oulouse. It w ill b e d e m ­
o n s tra te d th a t th e m e a n su n a n d m o o n d iffer fro m th a t o f th e Jew ish
c a le n d a r on ly b y a sh ift o f m e rid ia n fro m B ag h d ad to T o u lo u se, w h o se
m e rid ia n s differ b y 47°.
T he m a te ria l in c lu d e s ta b le s for c a le n d ric a l co n v ersio n , trig o n o m e tri­
cal ta b les, a n d d e ta ile d ta b le s re la te d to th e Jew ish ca le n d ar, fo llo w ed b y
ta b le s o f th e m e a n m o tio n s o f th e sun, m o o n a n d p la n e ts , as w ell as th e ir
e q u a tio n s. T he se c tio n e n d s w ith ta b le s o f th e g eo g ra p h ica l c o o rd in a te s o f
se le c te d places, a n d finally w ith ta b le s o f ac ce ssio n a n d recessio n . T h ere
is n o e x p la n a to ry te x t as such, on ly tab les.
A n u m b e r o f th e tab les, p a rtic u la rly th o se fo r c a le n d ric a l c o n v e rsio n
a n d trig o n o m e try are to fo u n d as p a r t o f th e T o le d an tab les. It is co n v e­
n ie n t h e re to list th e se a c c o rd in g to th e ir titles, w ith cro ss re fe re n c e s to
th e v ery c o m p re h e n siv e e d itio n o f T o le d a n m a te ria l b y F ritz P e d e rse n . 27
It is im p o r ta n t h o w e v e r to d istin g u ish th is system , g ro u n d e d in th e Jew ­
ish ca le n d ar, a n d c re a te d for T oulouse, fro m th e v e rsio n o f th e T o le d an
T ables for T o u lo u se .28 In th a t case th e ta b le s o f m e a n lo n g itu d e s w ere
sid e re a l lo n g itu d e s q u ite u n r e la te d to th e sy stem fo u n d h ere.
H ere w e h av e a listing, w ith so m e c o m m e n ts, o f th e ta b u la r m a te ria ls
t h a t a re giv en a t th e c o m m e n c e m e n t o f th e T ables fo r 1110.

(1r) T ables fo r th e c o n v e rsio n fro m th e H ijra Era, w ith y ea rs in th e ran g e

1(30)600:

anni alexandri ante annos arabum bissextiles [Seleucid]

anni iazadirz qui sunt absque bissexto post annos arabum [Yazdajird]
anni chilzilenuz et sunt bissextiles ante annos arabum [Diocletian]
anni diluvii solares [Kaliyuga]

T he first th re e are listed in th e e d itio n o f th e T o led an tab les as ACUa. 29 The

fo u rth ta b le h e re gives th e c o rre sp o n d in g K aliyuga y ea rs fro m AH 330,
K aliyuga 4043. T his c o n v e rsio n to th e In d ia n y e a r is n o w h e re to b e fo u n d
in th e T o le d a n m a te ria l g a th e re d b y p e d e rse n , a lth o u g h it is e n tire ly

27 Pedersen (2002).
28 Pedersen (2002), p. 22 and passim.
29 Pedersen (2002), Part 3, p. 906.
n a tu ra l to fin d it in th is g ro u p , in v ie w o f th e in flu e n c e o f In d ia n m a te ria ls
in A n d a lu sia in th e p rev io u s ce n tu ries.

(1r) C o n tin u a tio n o f th e ta b le s for th e c o n v e rsio n fro m th e H ijra Era:

anni domini collecti isti sunt qui transierunt ante annos arabum [Anno
Domini]
anni lunares collecti, anni solares collecti isti su n t anni qui pro radice
p o nuntur quae ante annos arabum [Era]
anni diluvii solares [Kaliyuga]

T o le d a n ta b le s AC11b .30

(1v) C o n tin u a tio n w ith d etails o f th e n u m b e r o f days in in d iv id u a l A rab ic

years.

anni arabum expansi ad om nes annos

anni iazadi— expansi et sunt absque bisextili
tabula m ensium et dierum

T o le d a n ta b le s AC11b.3i

(2r) In itia l days o f th e m o n th s , b e g in n in g in S ep te m b er.

Tabula extractionis principii unius cuiusque m ensis christianorum diebus

septim anie

T o le d a n ta b le s AD41; it is ta k e n d irec tly fro m al-B attan i, w h e re th e cycle

o f 28 y ea rs is clearly s ta te d to b e g in w ith S eleucid y e a r 1.32 H ere, h o w ev er,
n o th in g is said a b o u t th e situ a tio n o f th e 2 8-year cycle in th e S eleu cid Era,
a n d in th e a b s e n c e o f a n y su c h in d ic a tio n th e ta b le w o u ld b e u seless.

(2 v -3 v ) T ab u la a rc u s e t co rd e d im id ie id e st sinus.
This is th e sine tab le ta k en directly from al-Battani; T oledan tables BA1233

(4r) U m b ra sig n o ru m
T his is th e sh a d o w ta b le, 12 c o t (x). T he a ltitu d e c o lu m n is h e re n a m e d
a la d il id est a ltitudinis, w h e re a la d il is p re su m a b ly al-‘a d il < I C o m p are

30 Pedersen(2002), Part 3, p. 910.

31 Pedersen(2002), Part 3, p. 911.
32 Pedersen(2002), Part 3, p. 940.
33 Pedersen(2002), Part 3, pp. 957-959.
o U i* )l (al-‘id a d a), th e a lid a d e a tta c h e d to th e b a c k o f a n astro lab e ,
e m p lo y e d to m e a su re th e a ltitu d e o f a n object. T o le d an ta b le s BC21.34

(4v) T ab u la dyversi m o tu s solis e t lu n e in u n a h o ra

T his is em p lo y ed in th e c a lc u la tio n o f eclipses; T o le d an ta b le s JA11.35

(4v) T ab u la de a n n is p la n e ta ru m
O f a stro lo g ica l in te re st; T o le d a n ta b le s RC11.36

(5r) Solar d ec lin a tio n .

T ab u la d e c lin a tio n is solis ce rtissim e p ro b a ta q u o d u n iv e rsita s d eclin a-
tio n is ab eq u in o c c io d ie i sit 23 g ra d u u m e t 33 m in u to ru m e t 30 secu n -
d a ru m ex p ro b a tio n e sa p ie n tissim i a z a rc h e l p e r c e rta in g e n ia
T o le d an ta b le s BA21.37

(5v) H ec e s t ta b u la a d in v e n ie n d u m g ra d u m a s c e n d e n tis in q u e s tio n e p e r

h o ra m n o ta m
A ta b le o f astro lo g ica l in te re st, n o t in c lu d e d in th e T o le d an m a teria l.

(6r) H ec e s t ta b u la a d in v e n ie n d a m d iffe re n tia m h o ro s c o p o ru m in o m n i

re g io n e e t d ic itu r a a ra b is g e d u a l fu d h u l elm itale.
T o le d an ta b le s BC12.38

(6v) T ab u la su p e rflu ita tis id e st re s id u o ru m a s c e n s io n u m u n iv e rse te rre.

H ec ta b u la e s t ju n g e n d a c u m ta b u la solis a lb u th e t lu n e.
T o le d an ta b le s BC11.39

F ro m th is p o in t th e ta b le s are specifically c o n c e rn e d w ith th e Je w ish cal­

e n d a r a n d are u n r e la te d to th e T o le d a n m a te ria l.

(7r) T ab u la a d m e d iu m civ itatis to lo se a d sc ie n d a m n a tiv ita te m lu n e (7r)

34 Pedersen(2002), Part 3, p. 993.

35 Pedersen(2002), Part 4, p. 1412.
36 Pedersen(2002), Part 4, p. 1597.
37 Pedersen(2002), Part 3, p. 964.
38 Pedersen(2002), Part 3, p. 990.
39 Pedersen(2002), Part 3, p. 988.
Table 20: Time of the m olad in successive years from year one of the W orld Era

an n i m undi Nativitatis lune Nativitatis lune

Anni 19 anni anni dies hora puncta secundas anni anni dies hora puncta secundas
dupli m undi expansi collecti
per 15 collecti per 19

Radix 2 8 2 30 1 19 2 16 33 3
1 15 285 0 16 18 20 2 38 5 9 6 6
2 30 570 6 0 34 10 3 57 1 1 39 9
3 45 855 4 8 50 0 4 76 3 18 12 13
4 60 1140 2 17 5 50 5 95 6 10 45 16
5 75 1425 0 1 21 40 6 114 2 3 18 19
6 90 1710 5 9 37 30 7 133 4 19 51 23
7 105 1995 3 17 53 20 8 152 7 12 24 26
8 120 2280 2 2 9 10 9 171 2 4 57 29
9 135 2565 0 10 25 0 10 190 5 21 30 33
10 150 2850 5 18 42 50 11 209 1 14 3 36
11 165 3135 4 2 58 40 12 228 4 6 36 39
12 180 3420 2 11 14 30 13 247 6 23 9 43
13 195 3705 0 19 30 20 14 266 3 15 42 47
14 210 3990 6 3 46 10 15 285 5 8 15 50
15 225 4275 4 12 3 0
16 240 4560 2 20 17 50
17 255 4845 1 4 33 40
18 270 5130 6 12 47 30
19 285 5415 4 21 5 20
20 300 5700 3 5 21 10

T h ese are ta b le s w h ic h re c o rd th e tim e o f th e m o la d in su ccessiv e y ea rs

b e g in n in g w ith th e M o lad Tishri. T he L atin n a tiv ita s is th e lite ra l re n d e r ­
in g o f m o la d (iVlO, b irth ). T he rig h t h a n d ta b le re c o rd s th e successive
m u ltip le s o f 2 d 16;33,20h, e n d in g w ith th e m u ltip le 15 tim e s th a t: 15 x (2d
16;33,3,20) = 5 d 8;15,50. T he le ft h a n d ta b le co n sists o f m u ltip le s o f th e la st
q u a n tity a d d e d to 2d 8;2,30h. T he b a sic q u a n tity 2d 16;33,3,20h is 19 x Y,
w h e re Y is th e le n g th o f th e y e a r a c c o rd in g to A da, th a t is 235M /19, w h e re
M = 29;31,50,8,20. W e h av e 19 x 235M /19 = 6 9 3 9 d + 16;33,3,20 h; 6939
less m u ltip le s o f 7 is th e w ee k d ay 2, T uesday. In th e s e ta b le s th e fra c tio n
o f th e h o u r is e x p re ssed as a sex ag esim al in s te a d o f in s te a d o f ch e la k im
(□’pV n) a n d re g a ‘im (□,y ;n ); in te rm s o f th o se u n its th e ra d ix 2 d 8;2,30h
is 2 d 8 h 45ch. As s ta te d in Fig. 1 th e tim e o f M o lad T ish ri in th e s ta n d a rd
c a le n d a r is 2 d 5 h 2 0 4ch, th a t is M o n d a y 5 h 2 0 4 c h = 11;11,20h a fte r N oon.
This differs fro m th e R adix in th is ta b le 2d 8;2 ,3 0 h b y 3;8,50. T his is th e
d iffe ren ce in h o u rs b e tw e e n th e m e rid ia n o f th e s ta n d a rd Je w ish c a le n d a r
a n d th e m e rid ia n o f th e s e ta b le s fo r T oulo u se; e x p re ssed in d eg re es th is
is 15 x 3;8,50 = 47;12,30. T his in te rv a l B ag h d ad - T o lo sa = 47 is co n firm e d
b y th e list o f p laces, fol. 38v, w h e re B aghdad is p la c e d a t lo n g itu d e 80 a n d
T o u lo u se a t 33. T hese ca lc u la tio n s co n firm in c id e n ta lly th a t th e tim e is
m e a s u re d fro m N oon, n o t fro m su n set.

(7v) T ab u la n a tiv ita tis lu n e a d m e d iu m civitatis to lo se

Table 21: Time of m olad in successive m onths

Tabula ad sciendam nativitatem lune tabula ad [sciendam] nativitatem lune

nativitas lune nativitas lune

anni 19 anni dies horas puncta secundas menses m enses dies horas puncta secundas
com m uni
vel embolismi

1 Com 4 8 48 40 1 1 1 12 44 3

2 Com 1 17 37 20 2 2 3 1 28 6
3 Emb 0 15 10 3 3 3 4 14 12 10

12 Com 2 12 40 12 12 12 4 8 48 40
13 Com 6 21 28 0 13 5 21 43 [32] 43

T his ta b le gives th e m o la d a fte r th e passag e o f so m a n y y ea rs w ith in

th e 19-year cycle. In th e th ird row , for ex a m p le , w h e n 3 y ea rs h av e b e e n
c o m p le te d th e to ta l o f m o n th s is 2x12+13 = 37. Since th e le n g th o f th e
m o n th is M = 29;31,50,8,20, th e to ta l p e rio d is 37M = 1092;37,55,8,20.
T he e n try in th e ta b le is in days c o n g ru e n t to 7, p lu s h o u rs ex p re ssed
sexagesim ally. T he n u m b e r o f days 1092 = 0 (m o d 7), a n d th e n u m b e r
o f h o u rs is 24x0;37,55,8,20 = 15;10,3,20,0. In th is ta b u la tio n o n ly th e first
tw o te rm s o f th e fra c tio n are in clu d ed .
T he se q u e n c e o f c o m m o n a n d e m b o lism ic y ea rs is

com, com, emb, com, com, emb, com, emb, com, com, emb, com, com, emb,
com, com, emb, com, emb.

T he e n trie s d e p e n d o nly o n th e sy n o d ic m o n th a n d th e refe re n c e to T olosa

is irre le v an t.
T he se c o n d p a r t o f th e ta b le c o u n ts m u ltip le s o f M, e x p re ssed in th e
sa m e way.
( 8r) T ab u la co llec ta ex 1 h o ra e t 26 p e t 56 s in o m n ib u s a n n is 19 co llectis
s e c u n d u m sa m u e le m m a g iste r iu d e o ru m ta b u la re v o lu tio n is s e c u n d u m
sa m u e le m

Table 22: Excess of Julian year over Jewish year

anni 19 anni dies horas puncta secundas anni anni dies horas puncta secundas
m undi expansi expansi
collecti

15 285 0 21 44 10 1 19 0 1 26 56
30 570 1 19 28 20 2 38 0 2 53 53
45 855 2 17 12 30
60 1140 3 14 56 40 15 285 0 21 44 10

315 5985 19 0 27 30

T his is a ta b le th a t displays th e excess o f th e J u lia n y e a r (S am uel) o v er th e

Je w ish y e a r (A da) in 19 years: 24x19x (365.25 - Y) = 1;26,56,40 h o u rs.
T he e n trie s are b a s e d o n th is ex a c t value, b u t w ith th e th ird sex ag esi­
m a l p la ce ig n o red . T hus 2x1;26,56,40 = 2;53,53,20. T h e ta b u la tio n o f a n n i
e x p a n si ru n s ov er 1(1)15, a n d th e a n n i m u n d i co llecti 15(15)315, w ith o u t
erro rs o r a p p ro x im a tio n , b e c a u s e in th is p a r t th e th ird p la c e is alw ays 0 .
Bar H iyya h a s a sim ila r ta b le in Sefer ha-Ibbur, Book, Ch. 3 .40

(8 v -9 r)

tabula revolutionis nizan distantia nativitatis lune

tabula revolutionis tam m us distantia nativitatis lune
tabula revolutionis tisiri distantia nativitatis lune
tabula revolutionis tevez distantia nativitatis lune

T hese fo u r ta b le s re c o rd th e d ista n c e to e a c h te k u fa h fro m th e p re c e e d in g

m o la d , in th e first cycle, w h e re th e te k u fo t are c a lc u la te d a c c o rd in g to th e
Ju lia n y e a r (sy stem o f S am uel). In T able 23 w e h av e th e te x t o f th e first o f
th e s e tab les, alo n g w ith th e ca lc u latio n , w h ic h in v o lv es c o n v e rsio n o f th e
h o u r to a sexagesim al.

40 See also Mahler, p. 511.

 Correct Correct converted to sexagesimal Text

anni menses dies horas Ch dies horas puncta secundas tercia anni menses dies horas puncta secundas tercia

1 azar 22 3 151 22 3 8 23 20 1 azar 22 3 14 23 20

2 nizam 3 11 642 3 11 35 40 0 2 nizam 3 11 35 40 0
3 veazar 14 8 846 14 8 47 0 0 3 azar 14 8 47 0 0
4 azar 25 5 1050 25 5 58 20 0 4 azar 25 5 58 20 0
5 nizam 6 14 461 6 14 25 36 40 5 nizam 6 14 25 36 40
6 veazar 17 11 665 17 11 36 56 40 6 azar 17 11 36 43 20

RAYMOND MERCIER
7 azar 28 8 869 28 8 48 16 40 7 azar 28 8 48 56 40
8 veazar 9 17 280 9 17 15 33 20 8 azar 9 16 11 33 20
9 azar 2 14 484 2 14 26 53 20 9 azar 2 14 26 53 20
10 nizam 1 22 975 1 22 54 10 0 10 nizam 1 22 54 10 0
11 veazar 12 20 99 12 20 5 30 0 11 azar 12 20 5 30 0
12 azar 23 17 303 23 17 16 50 0 12 nizam 23 17 16 50 0
13 nizam 5 1 794 5 1 44 6 40 13 azar 5 1 44 6 40
14 veazar 15 22 998 15 22 55 26 40 14 nizam 15 22 55 26 40
15 azar 26 20 122 26 20 6 46 40 15 azar 26 2 6 36 40
16 nizam 8 4 613 8 4 34 3 20 16 nizam 8 4 34 3 20
17 veazar 19 1 817 19 1 45 23 20 17 azar 19 1 45 22 20
18 nizam 0 10 228 0 10 12 40 0 18 nizam 0 10 12 40 0
19 veazar 11 7 432 11 7 24 0 0 19 azar 11 7 46 13 20
S uch ta b le s are given b y Bar H iyya in h is Sefer ha-Ibbur, B ook 3, Ch. 3,
b u t w ith th e d ifferen ce th a t th e re h e ex p resses th e tim e in c h e la k im a n d
re g a ‘im , w h ile h e re th e tim e is ex p re ssed as a s e x a g e s im a l 41 In T able 23
w e h av e th e c o rre c t ta b u la tio n fo r N isan, to g e th e r w ith th e c o n v e rsio n to
sex ag esim al a n d th e te x t o f th e p r e s e n t ta b le. T he e rro n e o u s e n trie s a re
u n d e rlin e d . In a d d itio n it is to b e n o te d th a t v eA d ar is sim p ly tr e a te d as
A dar. S uch a ta b u la tio n , c a lc u la te d fo r th e sy stem o f S am uel, is o n ly v alid
for th e first cycle.

(9v-11r)

Tabula revolutionis, Tabula revolutionis nizan secundum Ravadan, Remotio

vel distancia nativitatis lune a revolutione
Tabula revolutionis, Tabula revolutionis tam m uz secundum Ravadan, Remo­
tio vel distancia nativitatis lune a revolutione
Tabula revolutionis, Tabula revolutionis tisiri secundum Ravadan, Remotio
vel distancia nativitatis lune a revolutione
Tabula revolutionis, Tabula revolutionis tevez secundum Ravadan, Remotio
vel distancia nativitatis lune a revolutione

F o u r ta b le s c o n s tru c te d like th e p rev io u s fo u r (8 v -9 r) d isp lay in g th e in te r ­

v al d ista n c e to e a c h o f th e te k u fo t fro m th e p re c e e d in g m o la d , b u t n o w
fo r th e re g u la r Je w ish year, th e sy stem o f Rav A da. Since th e y e a r le n g th
is c o n g ru e n t w ith th e 19 y e a r cycle, th e se ta b u la tio n s are c o rre c t for an y
cycle. In T able 2 4 w e h av e th e te x t o f th e first o f th e s e tab les, alo n g w ith
th e calculation, w h ic h involves co n v ersio n o f th e h o u r to a sexagesim al. The
u n d e rlin e d e n trie s in d ic a te erro rs in th e c o n v e rsio n to th e sexagesim al;
th e re is also a fin al c o lu m n o f zeros, w h ic h serves n o p u rp o se.
Such ta b le s a re given b y Bar H iyya in h is Sefer ha-Ibbur, B ook 3, Ch. 4,
b u t w ith th e d ifferen ce th a t th e re h e ex p re sses th e fra c tio n o f th e h o u r
in ch e la k im a n d re g a ‘im , w h ile h e re th e fra c tio n o f th e h o u r is ex p re ssed
as a sexagesim al.4 2 In T able 24 w e h av e th e c o rre c t ta b u la tio n for N isan,
to g e th e r w ith th e c o n v e rsio n to sex ag esim al a n d th e te x t o f th e p re s e n t
ta b le. T he e rro n e o u s e n trie s are u n d e rlin e d . S uch a ta b u la tio n , ca lc u la te d
fo r th e sy stem o f A d a is v alid for every cycle, sin ce th e y e a r in th is sy stem
is c o n g ru e n t w ith th e 19 y e a r cycle. T he erro rs in th is ta b le are ty p ic al o f
th o se in th e o th e r th re e ta b le s o f th is group.

41 See also Mahler, p. 512, column 3.

42 See also Mahler, p. 515, column 3.
 194
anni Correct Converted to sexagesimal text

1 azar 29 3 151 0 29 3 8 23 20 0 0 0 azar 29 3 8 23 20 1 7 3 0

2 nizam 10 11 559 48 10 11 31 5 26 18 56 50.53 nizam 10 11 30 54 46 19 56 50 0
3 veazar 21 8 681 20 21 8 37 50 52 37 53 41.05 azar 21 8 34 0 52 37 53 41 0
4 nizam 2 17 9 68 2 17 0 32 58 56 50 31.58 nizam 2 17 0 32 58 56 50 31 0
5 nizam 13 14 131 40 13 14 7 18 25 15 47 22.11 nizam 13 14 7 15 8 35 47 22 0
6 veazar 24 11 253 12 24 11 14 3 51 34 44 12.63 azar 24 11 14 1 16 34 44 13 0
7 nizam 5 19 661 60 5 19 36 45 57 53 41 3.16 nazam 5 19 36 45 57 53 41 3 0

R A Y M O N D
8 veazar 16 16 783 32 16 16 43 31 24 12 37 53.68 azar 16 16 43 30 31 34 44 13 0
9 azar 27 13 905 4 27 13 50 16 50 31 34 44.21 azar 27 13 50 16 50 31 34 44 0
10 nizam 8 22 233 52 8 22 12 58 56 50 31 34.74 nizam 8 22 12 58 56 50 31 35 0
11 veazar 19 19 355 24 19 19 19 44 23 9 28 25.26 azar 19 19 19 44 12 37 53 41 0

M E R C IE R
12 nizam 1 3 763 72 1 3 42 26 29 28 25 15.79 nizam 1 3 42 29 49 28 25 16 0
13 nizam 12 0 885 44 12 0 49 11 55 47 22 6.32 nizam 12 0 49 11 45 15 47 22 0
14 veazar 22 21 1007 16 22 21 55 57 22 6 18 56.84 azar 22 21 55 57 7 22 6 19 0
15 nizam 4 6 335 64 4 6 18 39 28 25 15 47.37 nizam 4 6 18 29 28 25 15 47 0
16 nizam 15 3 457 36 15 3 25 24 54 44 12 37.89 nizam 15 3 25 24 57 22 6 19 0
17 veazar 26 0 579 8 26 0 32 10 21 3 9 28.42 azar 26 0 32 10 21 3 9 28 0
18 nizam 7 8 987 56 7 8 54 52 27 22 6 18.95 nizam 7 8 54 52 27 22 6 19 0
19 veazar 18 6 29 28 18 6 1 37 53 41 3 9.47 azar 18 6 1 37 53 41 3 9 0
(11v u p p e r ) H ec ta b u la e s t in c e p ta in 183 d e c e m n o v e n a ri in a n n is col-
le c tis p e r 12, ta b u la c o lle c ta ex 1 h o r a e t 26 p e t 57 s in a n n is co llec tis
e t e x p a n sis

Tables 25: Distancia ortus lunae, 11v

anni 19 Distancia ortus lune anni 19 Distancia ortus lune

anni anni mundi dies hore puncta secunda anni anni dies hora puncta secunda
19 collecti expansi collecti

12 228 0 17 23 20 1 19 0 1 26 57
24 456 1 40 2 38 0 2 53 53
0

4
6

144 2736 8 17 38 0 12 228 0 17 23 20

T his is c o n s tru c te d like th e ta b le o n 8r; b a s e d o n th e excess o f th e Ju lia n

y e a r (S am uel) ov er th e Je w ish y e a r (A da) in 19 years: 24x19x(365.25 - Y)
= 1;26,56,40 h o u rs. N o t o nly a re th e p ro d u c ts te rm in a te d in th e se c o n d
sex ag esim al place, b u t th e re are m a n y erro rs in th e left h a n d ta b le afte r
th e 5 th row . In sp ite o f th e title th e ta b le is u n r e la te d to th e cycle 183
(w h ich b eg in s in -3 0 2 ).
11v (low er) Tw o tab les: th e first p re s e n ts ‘d is ta n c ia rev o lu tio n is lu n e ’,
w ith days a n d h o u rs in T ishri a n d M a rc h e sv a n fo r y e a r 1(1)19. T his is
clearly b a s e d o n th e in te rv a l fro m M olad T ish ri to T ek u fat T ishri, as ta b u ­
la te d in th e th ir d se c tio n 10v o f th e ta b le s o n 9v-11r, u n d e r th e h e a d in g
R em o tio v el d ista n c ia n a tiv ita tis lu n e a re v o lu tio n e . H ere, h o w ev er, th e
h o u rs h av e b e e n in c re a se d b y 12 h o u rs, a n d p e rh a p s r o u n d e d off, since
n o m in u te s o r se co n d s a re show n. T h e p u rp o se o f th is ta b le is n o t clear.

Table 26: Distance from Molad Tishri to Tekufat Tishri

anni 19 menses Distancia revolutio lune

dies hore p u n cta secunda

1 tisiri 5 12 [blank] [blank]

2 tisiri 16 9
3 tisiri 26 6
4 tisiri 8 15
5 tisiri 19 12
6 marchesvan 0 21
7 tisiri 11 18
8 tisiri 22 15
Table 26 (cont.)

anni 19 menses Distancia revolutio lune

dies hore pu n cta secunda

9 tisiri 3 23
10 tisiri 14 21
11 tisiri 25 18
12 tisiri 7 2
13 tisiri 17 23
14 tisiri 28 21
15 tisiri 10 5
16 tisiri 21 2
17 marchesvan 2 11
18 tisiri 13 8
19 tisiri 24 5 [blank] [blank]

Table 27: Tabulation of Paschal term

anni 19 term inus quatuor term inus term inus

tem pora pasche pentecoste

dies m enses dies m enses dies m enses

1 13 [14] februarius 3 aprilis 22 maius
2 2 februarius 23 marcius 11 maius
3 21 februarius 11 aprilis 30 maius
4 10 februarius 31 marcius 19 maius
5 29 [mar 1] februarius 19 aprilis 7 junius
6 18 februarius 8 aprilis 26[27] m aius
7 7 februarius 28 marcius 16 m aius
8 26 februarius 16 aprilis 4 junius
9 15 [16] februarius 5 aprilis 24 m aius
10 4 [3] februarius 24 marcius 13[12] m aius
11 23 februarius 13 aprilis 1 junius
12 12 februarius 2 aprilis 21 m aius
13 1 [2 ] februarius 22 marcius 10 maius
14 20 februarius 10 aprilis 29 maius
15 9 februarius 30 marcius 18 maius
16 28 februarius 18 aprilis 6 junius
17 17 februarius 6 aprilis 25 maius
18 6 [5] februarius 26 marcius 14 m aius
19 25 [24] februarius 14 aprilis 2 junius

T he se c o n d ta b le is o f p a rtic u la r in te re st, a n d re p re s e n ts a c a lc u la tio n

re la te d to th e C h ristia n E aster.
O ne d o es n o t e x p e c t to fin d in th is m a te ria l, d e v o te d as it is to th e Jew ­
ish ca le n d ar, a ta b le specifically re la te d to th e C h ristia n E aster. T he y ea rs
a re th o se o f th e Je w ish cycle, a lth o u g h w h e n u s e d in th e E aster c o n te x t
th is cycle is re fe rre d to as cyclus lunaris. T his cycle is w id e s p re a d in co n ­
ju n c tio n w ith E aster tab les, a n d is, for ex am p le, liste d in p a ra lle l w ith th e
d ec e m n o v e n a lis cycle in th e E aster T able o f D ionysius E xiguus .43
T he c e n tra l co lu m n lists th e d a te o f th e T erm in u s P asche. A lth o u g h m e a n t
to re p re se n t N isan 14 o f th e Jew ish calendar, th e d ates o f lu n a x iv a re a p ro d ­
u c t o f th e ex trem ely co m p lex d ev e lo p m e n ts w ith in th e C h ristian co m m u n i­
tie s in Syria, A lex an d ria a n d Rom e. It is unlik ely th a t th e d ates o f luna xiv,
as d e te rm in e d b y th e c h ris tia n c o m p u tu s m akers, ag re ed exactly w ith th e
d ate o f p assover as d e te rm in e d in th e Jew ish c o m m u n itie s o f A lex an d ria
or elsew here, for th e c h ris tia n ca lcu latio n o f E aster w as fo u n d e d n o t o n
a n exact know ledge o f Jew ish p rac tice a t th e tim e, b u t ra th e r o n a n o tio n a l
schem e. O ne c a n confirm easily th a t th e se d ates for th e P asch al te rm differ
fro m N isan 14 o f th e fixed Jew ish calendar. In a th o ro u g h ex a m in a tio n o f th e
v ario u s a n c ie n t p ro p o sals G rum el lists a large n u m b e r o f d ifferen t cycles of
lu n a x iv, b u t ev en w ith th is m u c h h isto rical d a ta it is fo u n d th a t th e list
o f d ates in th is ta b le disagrees w ith ea c h o f th e cycles given b y Grumel.44
T he d a te s in th e co lu m n s T e rm in u s Q u a tu o r T e m p o ra a n d T erm in u s
P e n te c o ste a re exacly 7 w eek s e ith e r side o f th e T e rm in u s P asche. T he
d a te s in th e la st c o lu m n re q u ire on ly tw o co rrec tio n s, in y ea rs 6 a n d 10 .
T he d a te s in th e first co lu m n , how ev er, c a n n o t a ll b e co rrec t, b u t a n e m e n ­
d a tio n d e p e n d s o n th e d istrib u tio n o f Ju lia n le ap y e a rs in th e cycle. T he
in itia l y e a r o f th e cycle is u n k n o w n , b u t sin ce it w as a s su m e d th a t y e a r 5
w as a le ap y e a r w e c a n su ggest p o ssib le e m e n d a tio n s o n th e a s su m p tio n
th a t th e first y e a r is also a le ap year, le t u s say 1124 (as a s su m e d in th e ta b le
o n 12r; see th e re m a rk s below ). W h a te v e r y e a r is trie d th e d a te for y e a r 5 is
M ar 1, n o t Feb 29. T hese e m e n d a tio n s a re sh o w n as [m a r 1], etc.
A r a th e r sim ila r ta b le w as p re s e n te d b y M ax im u s th e C o n fesso r (early
7 th c e n tu ry ) in h is C om putus E cclesiasticus. T h ere again, in sp ite o f a n
ex p licit a p p e a l to th e Je w ish m o n th s , h is a r g u m e n t d o es n o t m a k e u se
o f th e a c tu a l d a te s o f th e Je w ish P assover o r Y om K ippur, b u t o n ly to a
n o tio n a l sc h em e. H ere th e series o f P asc h al d a te s is th e A le x a n d ria n cycle,
liste d a c c o rd in g to th e d ec em n o v en a lis, a n d th e first c o lu m n is 8 w eek s
p rio r to th e P asc h al d ates. T his te x t is cu rre n tly th e su b je c t o f a d o c to ra l
d iss e rta tio n b y J e a n L e m p ire 45

(12r) T a b u la re v o lu tio n is m u n d i in q u a tu o r p a rtib u s a n n i

43 Grumel (1958), p. 47.

44 Grumel (2958), pp. 54-55.
45 Lempire (2007a, 2007b). The Greek text was earlier printed in Migne, Patrologia
Graeca, Vol. 19, cols 1217-1280.
 CO
00

Table 28: Hour and weekday of tekufot in the system of Samuel for the cycle 258 (1123-1141)

anni 19 revolutio tisiri revolutio tevez revolutio nizam revolutio tam m uz

RAYMOND MERCIER
revolutio revolutio revolutio revolutio

dies hore dies dies hore dies dies hore dies mensis dies hore dies
ebdom ade mensis ebdom ade mensis ebdom ade ebdom ade mensis

1 3 3 4 3 10 s 5 3 18 8 4 1s 11
2 4 9 14 4 16 s 16 [5] 0 10[20] 5 7s 22

19 4 15 21 4 22 s 24 5 6 27 5 13 s 30
T his is a ta b le in fo u r p arts, m a rk in g th e h o u r a n d w ee k d ay o f th e fo u r
te k u fo t for th e 19 y ea rs o f th e cycle 258 (1123-1141), a c c o rd in g to th e sys­
te m o f S am uel. This cycle n u m b e r is n o t s ta te d b u t it is th e o n ly o n e for
w h ic h th e s e h o u rs a n d w ee k d ay s a re co rrect. T he h o u r is g iven in th e
u su a l Je w ish m a n n e r as c o u n te d fro m su n se t, a n d “s” is u n d e rs to o d as
sem is, m e a n in g % h o u r. As a n e x a m p le w e ta k e th e e n try for T e b e t in
y e a r 2. T he e n try “4, 16 s, 16” is to b e in te r p re te d as:

year 2 of the cycle 258, W ednesday [day 4] Tebet 16, 16% hours

T his m o m e n t is T e b e t 15, th a t is 1124 D ec 23, 22;30 h o u rs a fte r n o o n , w h e n

th e m e a n su n b y th e sy stem o f S am u el is 270.
T here are a few errors, su ch as th e day N isan 20 in th e seco n d row , w h ich
is given as N isan 10; th e w eek d ay is blank, b u t is easily fo u n d to b e 5.

5.1 A stro n o m y in th e Tables o f 1110

T he a s tro n o m ic a l p a r t p ro p e r (fols. 13v) b eg in s w ith ta b le s o f th e m e a n

sun, e n title d m ed iu s cursus p la n e ta ru m se c u n d u m sevasorta a d m e d iu m
civitatis tolose (fol. 13v).46 T he ta b le s o f m e a n m o tio n o f th e sun, m o o n
a n d p la n e ts o cc u p y fols. 13v-2 0 r, th e ta b le s o f e q u a tio n s fols. 2 0 v -3 8 r;
th e e q u a tio n o f th e su n is m issing. T he ta b le s o f m e a n m o tio n b eg in
w ith th e sun, m o o n , lu n a r ano m aly .

(13v) M ed iu s c u rsu s p la n e ta ru m s e c u n d u m se v a so rta a d m e d iu m civ itatis

to lo se

Table 29: M ean m otions in steps of 20 years for sun, moon, lunar anom aly

anni m edium solis m edium lune Portio Lune

dom ini in annis dom ini in annis domini in annis domini
collecti collectis per 20 collectis per 20 collectis per 20

1109 11 13 17 59 [2 15 41 28 0 19 43 38
1129 11 13 21 54 6 29 9 48 1 29 25 37
1149 11 13 25 49 11 12 38 8] 3 9 7 36
1169 11 13 29 44 3 20 6 28 4 18 49 35
1189 11 13 33 39 8 9 34 48 5 28 31 34
1209 11 13 37 34 0 23 3 8 7 8 13 33
1229 11 13 41 29 5 6 31 28 8 17 55 32
1249 11 13 45 24 6 29 34 48 9 27 37 31

46 The fol. 13v is shown in Plate 2. In this ms the folios 12v, 13r are blank.
Table 29 (cont.)

anni m edium solis m edium lune Portio Lune

domini in annis domini in annis domini in annis domini
collecti collectis per 20 collectis per collectis 20

re
2
0
1269 11 13 49 19 11 13 3 8 11 7 19 30
1289 11 13 53 14 3 26 31 28 0 17 29
1309 11 13 57 9 8 9 59 48 1 26 43 28
1329 11 14 1 4 0 23 28 8 3 6 25 27
1349 11 14 4 59 5 6 56 28 4 16 7 26
1369 11 14 3 54 9 20 24 48 5 25 49 25

In t a b l e 29 th e c o llec te d Ju lia n y ea rs a re a t in te rv als o f 20 years, 7305

days. t h e first th re e lin e s o f th e lu n a r ta b le a re b la n k , b u t a re c o m p le te d
b y sim p le e x tra p o la tio n fro m th e rest, in d ic a te d b y [ ].
t h e r e follow ta b le s fo r th e lu n a r n o d e, s a tu rn , Ju p ite r, M ars, V enus,
M ercury. t h e s e a re ta b u la te d fo r in d iv id u a l years, m o n th s , days, h o u rs,
m in u te s.
t h e e q u a tio n o f th e su n is m issing. t h e ta b le s for th e o th e r e q u a tio n s
are ta k e n fro m al-B attani. W h e re a l-B attan i p ro v id e d a ta b le fo r th e e q u a ­
tio n o f su n a n d m o o n to g e th e r, h e re w e h av e o n ly th e lu n a r p a rt. t h e
ta b le s for th e p la n e ta ry e q u a tio n s in c lu d e n o w also th e s ta tio p rim a,
w h ic h is given elsew h e re b y al-B attani.
t h e e x a c t e p o c h is 1110 F eb 28, a d a te w h ic h is re fe rre d to h e re as ‘1109’,
th a t is 1109 y ea rs c o m p lete. t h e ta b le s a re a rra n g e d for th e L atin ca le n d ar,
so th a t fro m th e e p o c h d a te in successive y ea rs w e h av e 365, 366, 365,
365, . . . days, in th e u s u a l fo u r-y ea r cycle. t h i s c o n tra sts w ith Bar H iyya’s
tab les, L u h o t ha-N asi, for th e e p o c h 1104, w h ic h is d esig n ed for th e Egyp­
tia n ca le n d ar, w h e re every y e a r is 365 days.
t h e refe re n c e to S avasorda, th e fam iliar b y -n a m e o f Bar Hiyya, leaves
no d o u b t a b o u t its in sp ira tio n , a lth o u g h th e re is n o re a so n to b eliev e th a t
th is L atin w o rk w as c o m p o se d b y h im , a n d it is m o re likely to h av e b e e n
c o m p o se d b y a n asso cia te . t h e s e ta b le s fo r 1110 in th e C a m b rid g e m s a re
n o t w ritte n in th e sa m e h a n d as th o se o f th e ta b le s o f 1104, a lth o u g h th e y
follow w ith o u t in te r ru p tio n fro m fol.41r, a fte r th e t a b le s o f 1110.
t h e m e a n lo n g itu d e s h av e a c h a ra c te r sim ila r to th a t o f th e ta b le s
o f 1104, in th a t th e ra te s o f m o tio n follow th e A lm a g est, w h ile, h o w ev er,
th e ra d ic e s a re d e te rm in e d b y so m e o th e r m e a n s. In s u m m a ry w e h av e th e
p a ra m e te rs as follow s.
 Table 30: M ean longitudes of the tables of 1110

Radix M otion in 7305 days Daily m otion

1110 Feb 28

sun 343;17,59.00 7200;3,55.00 0.9856352194

m oon 75;41,28.00 96253;28,20.00 13.1763822344
Apogee 235;57,50.00 813;46,21.00 0.1113993840
node -304;45,59.00 -386;55,15.00 -0.0529665754
Mercury 59;6,24.00 29894;30,6.00 4.0923342460
Venus 35;14,35.00 11703;39,45.00 1.6021440794
Mars 314;9,43.00 3828;15,22.00 0.5240597004
Jupiter 17;41,37.00 607;12,32.00 0.0831223667
Saturn 320;38,54.00 244;37,59.00 0.0334884402

T he d e v ia tio n cu rves are sh o w n in Fig. 7.

-400 -200 0 200 400 600 aoo 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

500 In...i..........mlu.........mum. .i........I un............... In............... in.. i.......... uii.i

-600 -' m'miTTfTTn'riTTTpTnTrTTrpiTTnTTTpriTn'nTT|TTnrrnT|Trn rrrrrjrri 111111111111111111111111111111111111-

-4 0 0 -2 0 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Figure 7: Deviation curves of the Tables of 1110

T he strik in g fe a tu re o f th is sy stem is th a t th e luni-solar p a r t is id en tica l

to the Jew ish calendar, a p a r t fro m a c h a n g e o f m e rid ia n . O n e o n ly n e e d
c o m p a re th e curves fo r su n a n d m o o n in th is display, Fig. 7, w ith Fig. 2,
th e d e v ia tio n curves for th e Je w ish ca le n d ar. In o th e r w o rd s th is sy stem
is v ery clearly a n e x a m p le o f th e Je w ish c a le n d a r e x te n d e d to in c lu d e
th e p la n e ts. T he v ery slig h t d iffe ren ce b e tw e e n th e ra te s o f so la r m o tio n
b e tw e e n th e s ta n d a rd Je w ish c a le n d a r a n d th e A lm a g est, d o es n o t d istu rb
th is co n c lu sio n . T he T ables fo r 1104 h av e a sim ila r g e n e ra l c h a ra c te r, b u t
in th a t case th e ra d ic e s h a d b e e n d esig n ed to ag ree w ith al-B attan i, w h ile
h e re th e ra d ic e s h av e b e e n d e te rm in e d in so m e o th e r w ay, n o t y e t clea r to
m e. T he lu n i-so la r p a r t in Fig. 7 is ex tra cte d , a n d sh o w n in Fig. 8.
T he re q u ire d c h a n g e o f m e rid ia n is in lin e w ith th e m e rid ia n s o f B agh­
d a d a n d T olosa in c lu d e d in th e list o f p la ce s o n fol. 38v: B ag h d ad 80,
T olosa 33. T he d ifferen ce 8 0 - 3 3 = 47 is e q u iv a le n t to 3;8 h o u rs. F or th e
Je w ish c a le n d a r a t th e d a te 1110 F eb 28, c a lc u la te d for 3;8 h o u rs w est, w e
h av e su n 343;20,45, m o o n = 75;38,46. T hese differ n eg lig eab ly fro m th e
ra d ic e s o f th e su n a n d m o o n in th e se ta b le s as liste d in T able 24.
T he o u ts ta n d in g p ro b le m w ith th e s e m e a n lo n g itu d e s is th a t o f d e te r­
m in in g th e ir source. I do n o t see h o w th e rad ic es em p lo y ed h e re co u ld
h av e b e e n d eriv e d fro m al-B attan i, in c o n tra s t to th e situ a tio n w ith ta b le s
o f 1104. O ne m ig h t also in v e stig a te a p o ssib le re la tio n w ith th e T o le d an

•400 -200 0 200 400 600 000 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

■5“ — iiiiiiii|iiiiiiiii|iiiiiiiii|iiiiiiiii|iiiiiiiii|iiiiiiiii|iiiiiiiii|iiiiiiiii|iiiiiiiii|iiiiiiiii|iiiiiiiii —
•400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1000 1800

BAR h iy y a (1110) (mean)

Mendian 4 750
Deviations. Precesswn separate

Figure 8: The luni-solar part of the Tables of 1110, identical to the Jewish calendar
ta b le s , especially as th e se d e p e n d o n th e sy n o d ic d ifferen ces d eriv e d
fro m th e Zij o f al-B attan i, as I ex p la in e d in a n artic le o f a c c e ssio n a n d
re c essio n .47

5.2 Tables o f Places

F ollow ing o n fro m th e ta b le s o f e q u a tio n th e re are tw o in te re s tin g item s.

O n 3 8 v -3 9 r th e re a re tw o d is tin c t lists o f p laces, w ith lo n g itu d e s a n d
la titu d e s. B oth o f th e se a re fro m to le d a n m a te ria l, a n d a re e d ite d b y
Pedersen.48 t h e first is a single c o lu m n b e g in n in g w ith B aghdad, p la c e d
a t 80 a n d e n d in g w ith to lo s a a t 33. t h i s is sig n ific an t in su p p o rtin g th e
m e rid ia n sh ift em p lo y ed in th e v e rsio n o f th e Je w ish c a le n d a r re p r e ­
s e n te d in th e se tab les. t h e o th e r listin g u se s a n o th e r scale o f lo n g itu d e,
w ith B ag h d ad a t 70, a n d th is is close to th e s ta n d a rd list o f p la ce s in th e
to l e d a n m a teria l.

5.3 A ccession a n d Recession

t h e final ite m , 3 9 v -4 0 v , p re s e n ts ta b le s for a c c e ssio n a n d r e c e s s io n 49

W h ile th is is so m e th in g th a t is w id ely av ailab le in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e
to l e d a n tab les, a n d k n o w n fro m th e tr a c t De m o tu octave spere, th e p r e ­
s e n ta tio n h e re h a s a n u n u s u a l fea tu re , in th a t th e m o tu s octave spere is
re fe rre d to th e e ra o f th e d iluvium . A little e x a m in a tio n co n firm s th a t
th is is n o n e o th e r th a n th e In d ia n K aliyuga w h ic h w e m a y ta k e as m id ­
n ig h t -3101 F eb 17/18 (JD 588465.5). A t th a t p o in t th e m o tu s is giv en as
31;8,21,19,13. t h e a n n u a l m o tio n im p lie d b y th e ta b u la tio n is 0;5,19,15,45,6
p e r 365 days, e q u iv a le n t to 2;34,58,50,56,52 p e r 30 A rab ic years. In th e
fam iliar p re s e n ta tio n for th e A rabic c a le n d a r th is is alw ays ro u n d e d
to 2;34,58, a n d th e ra d ix is th e n given a t th e H ijra (1948438) as 1;34,2,
w h e re a s fro m th is ta b u la tio n it is im p lie d as 1;34,18. t h i s is th e re fo re a
m o s t in te re s tin g te x t, a n d a n tic ip a te s in a n u n e x p e c te d w ay th e p re s e n ­
ta tio n o f th e m o re s o p h is tic a te d m o d e l o f p re c e ssio n fo u n d in th e L atin
A lfonsine tab les, w h e re a g a in th e sa m e E ra D iluvii is u se d , m e a n in g ag ain
th e K aliyuga. t h e r e is n o o th e r m e n tio n o f th is E ra in th e to le d a n m a te ­
rial, ev e n th o u g h Z a rq a la refers to In d ia n sources, su c h as th e S in d h in d ,
d eriv e d fro m th e B ra h m a sp h u ta sid d h a n ta .

47 Mercier (1996).
48 Pedersen (2002), Part 4, pp. 1512, 1518.
49 Pedersen (2002), Part 4, p. 1549. No other table of this motus is tabulated for
EraDiluvii.
 6. The Y esod O lam o f Isa a c Israeli

Isaac Israeli (early 14th ce n tu ry ), in h is Y esod Olam, is w ell aw a re o f th e

p ro b le m o f esta b lish in g th e m e rid ia n o f th e Je w ish c a le n d a r.50 H e tre a ts
th e c a le n d a r as o n e w o u ld tr e a t a n y a s tro n o m ic a l system , w h e re it w as
u n d e r s to o d th a t o n e h a d to k n o w th e tru e m e rid ia n o f referen c e, so
t h a t o n e co u ld a d a p t th e sy stem to a n o th e r lo c atio n . In Book 4 c h . 3 h e
ex p lain s th a t h e refers tim e s o f th e m o la d a n d te k u fo t to th e m id p o in t
(‘n a v e l’) o f th e e a rth ( p a n TOO DlpO), w h ile H asa n th e Ju d g e (|NOn
l’’i n ) , Isaac b. R ekufiel (Vtf’aip T p p n x ’) a n d A b ra h a m b a r H iyya ch o se
th e e a s te rn lim it o f th e e q u a to r, a n d w h ile Isaac b e n B aru ch (T3 p n x ’
J I “Q ) (fl 1200) a c c e p ts Je ru sa le m o r m id -P ale stin e .
In B ook 4 c h . 7 h e goes to so m e le n g th s to p ro v e th a t th e tr u e m e rid ia n
o f refe re n c e is a t th e m id p o in t, th a t is, a t th e g eo g ra p h ica l lo n g itu d e 9 0 °
o n th e scale o n w h ic h to le d o is a t 28°. F or th a t p u rp o se h e se lec ts lu n a r
eclipses o b se rv e d in to le d o , o n e o b se rv e d b y h im s e lf (5 0 6 9 E lul 14 = 1309
A ug 21), a n d th re e o th e rs o b se rv e d b y Isaac b e n Sid h a -H a z a n (T D p p n x ’
p n n ) , as c o m m a n d e d b y K ing D o n A lfonso in to le d o : (5 0 2 6 t e b e t 14 =
1265 D ec 24, 5 0 2 6 ta m m u z 14 = 1266 Ju n e 19, 5 0 2 7 t e b e t 14 = 1266 D ec
14). H e w o rk s b a c k fro m th e o b se rv e d tim e o f tru e o p p o s itio n (ta k e n as th e
m id p o in t o f th e eclipse) to fin d th e tim e o f m e a n o p p o sitio n . A lth o u g h
h e gives n o d etails o f w h a t is in fa c t a co m p lex ca lc u latio n , th e re su lts are
a c c e p ta b ly p rec ise. t h e lu n a r eclip se occu rs in th e m id d le o f th e m o n th ,
so th a t as c a lc u la te d fro m th e ca le n d ar, th e tim e o f m e a n o p p o sitio n is
m id w a y b e tw e e n th e tim e s o f th e m o la d s a t th e b e g in n in g a n d e n d o f th e
m o n th . O n c o m p a riso n o f th e s e tim es, d eriv e d fro m th e o b se rv a tio n a n d
fro m th e c a le n d a r resp ectiv ely , h e finds a g re e m e n t w h e n th e tim e d eriv ed
fro m th e o b se rv a tio n is re fe rre d to th e ‘m id -p o in t’, ta k e n as 62 d eg rees
e a s t o f to le d o (9 0 ° -2 8 ° ). Since th e m o d e rn lo n g itu d e o f to le d o is -4 ° , h e
is in fac t fin d in g th a t th e m o la d o f th e c a le n d a r is su ite d to th e m e rid ia n
a t th e m o d e rn lo n g itu d e o f 58°, 14° e a st o f B aghdad.
Since h e is c o m p a rin g tim e s o f m e a n o p p o sitio n , h e co u ld h av e p ro ­
c e e d e d m u c h m o re d irec tly , b y m e a n s o f a c o m p a ris o n o f th e tim e o f
th e m o la d w ith th e tim e o f th e m e a n c o n ju n c tio n d eriv ed fro m o n e o f th e
fam iliar can o n s, su c h as th a t al-B attani, a w o rk w h ic h h e e v id en tly k n o w s
w ell, a n d w h o se re c o rd o f a lu n a r eclip se (883 Ju ly 23) is n o te d b y h im .
For ex am p le, w ith h is first eclipse, 5 0 6 9 E lul 14, th e m o la d o f th e m o n th is

50 th e Yesod Olam was published by Goldberg (1848), Hebrew text and with a summary
of each chapter in German.
5,6,906. T his m e a n s th a t th e m e a n c o n ju n c tio n o cc u rs 6 + 9 0 6 /1 0 8 0 h o u rs
a fte r s u n s e t o n T h u rsd a y 1309 A ug 6, w h ic h is 12;50,20 h o u rs a fte r n o o n
o n T hursday. A cc o rd in g to a l-B attan i th e m e a n c o n ju n c tio n o f 5 0 6 9 Elul
o cc u rs a t 12;23,29 h o u rs a fte r n o o n , d iffering fro m th e m o la d b y 0;26,51
h o u rs. T his im p lies th a t th e m e rid ia n o f al-B attan i is to th e w e st o f
th e m e rid ia n o f th e c a le n d a r b y 15x0;26,51 = 6;42,45 deg rees. H e k n o w s th e
m e rid ia n o f al-B attani, w h ic h h e gives as 1 h 126 h w e st o f th e m id p o in t,
t h a t is 16;45 degrees. H en ce th e m e rid ia n o f th e m o la d is 16;45-6;42,45 =
10;2,15 d eg rees w e s t o f th e m id p o in t, w h ic h is 80°, th e lo n g itu d e o f B agh­
d a d o n th is scale. In th a t w ay Isaac Israeli co u ld easily h av e e sta b lish e d
w h a t h e w a n te d , a n d w ith o u t th e v a rio u s erro rs th a t w ere a c c u m u la te d in
th e an aly sis o f th e eclipses.
He also se t a b o u t to revise th e Je w ish c a le n d a r in th e lig h t o f o b se r­
v a tio n s m a d e b y al-Z ark ala (A bu Ish aq Ib ra h im ib n Y ahya, k n o w n as
al-Z arkala). Isaac Israeli refers to th e o b se rv a tio n s m a d e b y th is A n d a lu ­
sia n a s tro n o m e r in T oledo a ro u n d th e y e a r 1075, a n d h e ch o se a n o b se r­
v a tio n o f th e a u tu m n e q u in o x o f 1075 Sep. 17 to b e u se d as a b asis fo r a
re c a lc u la tio n o f th e te k u fo t o f th e Je w ish ca le n d ar. T h e d etails are g iven
in Book 4, C h a p te r 15, o f th e Y esod O lam . T he re s u lt le d to p u ttin g b a c k
th e tim e o f th e te k u fo t b y a n a m o u n t v ery close to 12 h o u rs, a n d w ith th e
re su lt th a t th e lo n g itu d e o f th e su n w as in c re a se d b y a b o u t o n e h a lf
degree. As p a r t o f th is rev isio n h e also d e te rm in e d th e lu n a r n o d e a n d
ap o g ee. T he d e v ia tio n curves a re sh o w n in Fig. 9.

Figure 9: Deviation curves for the Jewish calendar as revised by Isaac Israeli
 In a d d itio n to th is Isaac Israeli also p ro d u c e d a n o th e r c o m p le te se t o f
ta b les, th is tim e fo r th e sun, m o o n a n d p la n e ts. T his w as p re s e n te d in
h is w o rk T he G ate o f H ea v en (D’OWn ~iyw), so m e ta b le s o f w h ic h a re
in c lu d e d in th e Y esod O lam . T his w o rk h as b e e n c o n s u lte d in th e C am ­
b rid g e UL m s A dd. 3913. It is e v id e n t th a t h e re ag a in h e relies o n th e w o rk
o f al-Z arkala, b u t a t th e sa m e tim e all th e ra te s o f m o tio n are q u ite stric tly
fro m th e A lm a g est.
A lth o u g h Isaac Israel show s h is d e p e n d e n c e o n th e w o rk o f v ario u s
A rabic re se arch e s, h e n o w h e re suggests th a t th e Je w ish c a le n d a r as origi­
n ally d e fin e d d e p e n d e d o n th e ir w ork, b u t h e a ttrib u te s th e b asic p a ra m ­
ete rs o f th e Je w ish c a le n d a r to th e a n c ie n ts (W JlD lp ).

7. Conclusion

T he s tu d y o f Bar H iyya’s a s tro n o m ic a l ta b le s L u h o t h a -N a si in v o lv es a n

e x p lo ra tio n o f b o th H eb rew a n d L atin sources. T he H e b re w so u rce is P aris
BNF m s h e b re u 1046, a n d th e L atin so u rce is C a m b rid g e UL m s H h.6.8
Vol. 1. O th e r H eb rew so u rce s are also k n o w n , in c ld in g BNF m ss h e b re u x
1038, 1045, O xford B odley H u n t. 327, M a rsh 114, b u t th e L atin m a te ria l
is u n iq u e to th e C a m b rid g e m s. In fa c t th e L atin m s in c lu d e s n o t o n ly a
L atin v e rsio n o f th e L u h o t h a N asi, w h o se e p o c h d a te is 1104 Sep 21, w ith
E gyptian years, b u t a n o th e r se t o f ta b le s fo r th e e p o c h d a te 1110 F eb 28,
for th e Ju lia n ca le n d a r. T he T ables o f 1104, th a t is th e L u h o t ha-N asi, h av e
m e a n m o tio n s w h o se ra te s a re th r o u g h o u t th o s e o f p to le m y ’s A lm a g e st,
w h ile th e rad ic es a re d e te rm in e d b y th e p o sitio n s d eriv e d fro m th e Zij o f
al-B attan i fo r th e e p o c h d ate. T he ch o ice o f th e P to lem aic ra te s o f m o tio n
clearly d e p e n d e d o n th e b e lie f o f Bar H iyya th a t th e le n g th o f y e a r u se d
in th e A lm a g e st w as th a t o f th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, a t le a s t in th e sy stem
a s so c ia te d w ith Rav A da. A p a rt fro m th a t, m u c h o f th e L u h o t is d eriv e d
d irec tly fro m al-B attan i. T he T ables o f 1110 are d e sc rib e d as se c u n d u m
Sevasorta, th a t is in sp ire d b y Bar Hiyya, also em p lo y th e P to le m a ic ra te s
o f m o tio n . T h e ra d ic e s are explicitly d e te rm in e d for th e m e rid ia n o f T o u ­
louse, a n d in p a rtic u la r, th e m e a n su n a n d m o o n are id e n tic a l w ith th e s e
tw o u n d e rly in g m o tio n s o f th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, m e re ly sh ifte d fro m th e
o rig in al m e rid ia n o f B ag h d ad to th e m e rid ia n o f T oulouse. T h ese T ables
th e re fo re r e p r e s e n t a m o st im p o r ta n t e x a m p le o f a sy stem in w h ic h the
Jew ish ca len d a r is u se d as a basis f o r a f u l l a stro n o m ica l system . S uch a
sy stem m u s t h av e b e e n k n o w n ea rlie r to al-K h w arezm i, as w e le a rn fro m
a n in th -c e n tu ry tr a c t o f his, a lth o u g h in th a t case w e h av e essen tially n o
in fo rm a tio n a b o u t its p a ra m e te rs.
 A ck n o w le d g em e n t

T he im ag e o f BnP h e b re u 1046 12r in P late 1 is re p ro d u c e d b y p e rm is ­

sio n o f th e B ib lio th e q u e n a tio n a le de F rance. T he im ag e o f C a m b rid g e UL
H h.6.8 13v in P late 2 is re p ro d u c e d b y k in d p e rm issio n o f th e S yndics o f
c a m b rid g e U n iv ersity Library.

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 THE SA B B A T H EPISTLE BY ABRAHAM IBN EZRA:
ITS PURPOSE AND NOVELTY

A n n e C. K in ere t Sittig

1. In tro d u ctio n

t h e S a b b a th Epistle b y A b ra h a m ib n Ezra, first p u b lis h e d in full in th e

1830s (ed. p ip e rn o 1830, ed. L u zzatto 1839), is a n in trig u in g te x t a b o u t
th e p ro p e r tim e to b e g in o b se rv a n ce o f th e s a b b a th .1 in th is p a p e r i sh all
p r e s e n t th e S a b b a th E pistle, e x a m in e its a rg u m e n ta tio n a n d d iscu ss w h y
A b ra h a m ib n E zra m a y h av e w ritte n th is trea tise .
W h a t is th e S a b b a th E pistle? F ro m a lite ra ry p e rsp e c tiv e th e te x t is
h a rd to classify as e v e n th e m o s t b a sic ca te g o risin g q u e s tio n s c a n n o t
b e a n s w e re d u n am b ig u o u sly . is it fictio n o r n o n -fic tio n ? la r g e p a rts are
n o n -fic tio n b u t th e sta tu s o f o th e r p a rts re m a in s u n c e rta in . is it p o e try or
p ro se? it is m o stly p ro se b u t d o es c o n ta in a p o em . its lin g u istic style a n d
its re a so n in g sh o w a large v a ria tio n . W h a t is its to p ic ? T he b e g in n in g of
th e s a b b a th is p re s e n te d as its m a in issue b u t q u ite a few o th e r, seem in g ly
u n re la te d , to p ic s are ra ise d as w ell. W h o w e re th e in te n d e d a u d ie n c e ? T he
a n s w e r re m a in s u n c le a r. W h a t w e do k n o w — in te r alia, fro m its c h a ra c te r­
istic te rm in o lo g y — is th a t its a u th o r w as a lm o st ce rta in ly th e re n o w n e d
Bible c o m m e n ta to r, sc h o lar a n d p o et, A b ra h a m b e n M e ir ib n Ezra.
A b ra h a m ib n E zra’s co lo p h o n s a n d in tro d u c to ry p o e m s p e r m it a p a rtia l
re c o n s tru c tio n o f h is b io g rap h y . in th e c o n te x t o f th e p re s e n t p a p e r it is
re le v a n t to k n o w th a t h e re sid e d in R o u en in N o rth e rn F ra n ce b e tw e e n
1152 a n d 1157 (Sela a n d F re u d e n th a l 2006, K islev 2 0 0 9 ). T h ere h e c o m ­
p o se d h is so-called lo n g c o m m e n ta ry o n E xod u s (w h ich c o n ta in s a p a s ­
sage o n th e S a b b a th E pistle’s m a in issue) a n d h is a lte rn a tiv e co m m en tary ,
S h ita A heret, o n G enesis. F ro m R o u e n h e m o v e d to E ngland. H e w as th e n
in h is la te sixties. in L o n d o n ib n E zra c o m p o se d Y esod M o ra in th e su m ­
m e r o f 1158; a n d in th e S a b b a th Epistle, th e to p ic o f th e p r e s e n t c h a p te r,

i The Sabbath Epistle is the topic of the author’s doctoral research. The thesis will
include a critical edition of the Hebrew text, an English translation and commentary, a
codicological study of its manuscripts, and a study of the transmission of the text, besides
a general study and interpretation of this work.
th e n a r r a to r re c o u n ts a n e x p e rie n c e th a t h e h a d in E n g lan d in D e c e m b e r
o f th a t sa m e year. sin c e th e re is n o ev id en c e th a t Ib n e z r a le ft e n g la n d ,
it is p la u sib le th a t h e c o m p o se d th e S a b b a th Epistle in e n g la n d in 1158
o r sh o rtly th e re a fte r. T his in c id e n ta lly m a k e s it A b ra h a m ib n e z r a ’s la st
o rig in al c o m p o sitio n th a t is k n o w n to us.
T he S a b b a th Epistle c e n tre s o n th e q u e s tio n o f w h e th e r th e S a b b a th d ay
sh o u ld s ta rt F rid ay ev e n in g o r S atu rd ay m o rn in g . Ib n e z r a p re s e n ts th is
issue a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e S a b b a th Epistle, in w h a t I, fo r easy referen ce,
sh all call th e ‘p re lu d e ’. T he n a rra to r, w h o id e n tifies h im s e lf as A b ra h a m
Ib n e z ra , re la te s a d re a m in w h ic h th e p e rso n ifie d s a b b a th re p rim a n d s
h im for c a u sin g h e r to b e p ro fa n ed . U p o n aw ak en in g , th e n a r r a to r re c ­
o gnizes th a t a b ib lic a l c o m m e n ta ry o n ‘T h ere w as ev en in g , th e re w as
m o rn in g , o n e day1 (G enesis 1:5), w h ic h is in h is library, is re sp o n sib le for
th e offense. T he c o m m e n ta ry ex p lain e d , th e n a r r a to r tells us, th e v erse
to m e a n th a t ‘th e se c o n d day b e g a n w ith th e m o rn in g , sin ce th e n ig h t
follow s th e d ay ’, w h ich , w h e n a p p lie d to th e s a b b a th day, m ay le a d o n e
to co n c lu d e erro n eo u sly th a t th e s a b b a th b eg in s s a tu rd a y m o rn in g . T he
d istra u g h t n a r r a to r th e n sw ears a n o a th to im m e d ia te ly w rite a tre a tise to
c o u n te r th is in c o rre c t a n d evil in te r p re ta tio n a n d p ro v e th a t o b se rv a n ce
o f th e S a b b a th sh o u ld s ta rt F rid ay evening. T h e re su ltin g te c h n ic a l ex p o se
th e n co m p rises th e re s t o f th e S a b b a th Epistle.
F ollow ing th e p relu d e , th e S a b b a th Epistle co n sists o f a co sm o lo g ical
in tro d u c tio n a n d th re e c h a p te rs o n th e b e g in n in g o f th e Je w ish year,
m o n th , a n d day, resp ectiv ely . T opics ra ise d in th e s e c h a p te rs in c lu d e a
d isc u ssio n o n th e le n g th s o f th e so la r y e a r as fo u n d in v a rio u s c u ltu res
a n d th e so u rce s o f d isa g re e m e n t; th e p ro p e r d e te rm in a tio n o f th e v isib il­
ity o f th e n e w m o o n ; a n d th e claim o f o n e J u d a h th e P e rsia n — k n o w n o nly
fro m th e w ritin g s o f A b ra h a m Ib n e z r a — th a t th e B iblical Isra elites u s e d a
solar y ear, a n d th e re fu ta tio n o f th a t claim . A d d itio n ally , a b o u t h a lf o f th e
e n tire S a b b a th Epistle co n sists o f b ib lica l q u o te s a n d exegesis th a t do n o t
b e a r o n th e c a le n d a r b u t o n H eb rew g ram m ar, lin g u istics a n d ex eg etical
p rin cip les. For th e m o s t p a rt, th e m a te ria l in th e S a b b a th E pistle, exegeti-
cal as w ell as ca le n d rical, h a s p ara llels in Ib n e z r a ’s o th e r w orks. T he fin al
c h a p te r su b s ta n tia te s th a t th e S a b b a th d ay sta rts o n F rid ay evening.
T he p re lu d e o f th e S a b b a th E pistle is its b e s t k n o w n p a rt. In fact, m a n y
p e o p le h av e b e lie v e d th e p re lu d e to b e th e e n tire w ork, a n d tw e n ty o f
th e fo rty e x ta n t m a n u sc rip ts o f th e S a b b a th Epistle c o n sist o f th e p re lu d e
exclusively. T he first p r in te d e d itio n o f th e S a b b a th E pistle w as lim ite d to
th e p re lu d e as w ell, a n d m a n y tim e s it h as b e e n re p r in te d in iso la tio n in
v a rio u s in s p ira tio n a l a n d litu rg ical co m p ila tio n s (S h u lh a n A ru c h o f Isa a c
Luria, 6 0 a - 6 0 b , th e first p r in te d e d itio n o f a n y p a r t o f th e S a b b a th Epistle;
P rayerbook ‘Tefilat H a h o d e sh ’ A cco rd in g to th e S efa ra d Tradition, 2 2 8 -2 9 ;
N o ah H ayyim b e n M o sh e 1900: 10-11; N acht, e t al. 1936: 3 5 3 -5 5 ; M illg ram
1965: 2 3 2 -3 4 ).
T he p re s e n t p ap e r, how ev er, is c o n c e rn e d w ith th e e n tire S a b b a th Epis­
tle, i.e., th e p re lu d e p lu s th e te c h n ic a l ch a p te rs. W ith a v ie w to arriv in g a t
a co m p re h e n siv e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e S a b b a th Epistle I sh all ex a m in e its
re a so n in g a n d sh all ex p lo re w h a t A b ra h a m Ib n E zra’s p u rp o se in w ritin g
th e S a b b a th Epistle m a y h av e b e e n . I sh all arg u e th a t th e u n iq u e e le m e n t
in its a rg u m e n ta tio n is th e p re s u m p tio n th a t th e d ay is an a lo g o u s to th e
y ear; a n d fu rth e r, th a t th e S a b b a th Epistle w as n o t w ritte n to rectify a n
in te r p re ta tio n b a s e d o n S am u el b e n M e ir’s b ib lic a l c o m m e n ta ry .

2. t h e a r g u m e n ta tio n in the S a b b a th E pistle

Since th e m a te ria l in th e S a b b a th E pistle is fo r th e m o s t p a r t n o t u n iq u e —

its a s tro n o m ic a l passages, te c h n ic a l exposes, ex e g etica l ru le s a n d b ib lica l
passag es w h ic h th e se ru le s are re la te d to are also to b e fo u n d in o th e r
b o o k s b y A b ra h a m Ib n E zra— I sh all focus o n w h a t is u n iq u e to th e S a b ­
b a th E pistle’s d e d u c tiv e e n te rp rise .
G iven th a t th e p re lu d e re p o rts th a t a specific c o m m e n ta ry o n th e sec­
o n d h e m is tic h o f G enesis 1:5 m a y le a d to d e s e c ra tio n o f th e S ab b ath ,
o n e m ig h t th in k th a t th e S a b b a th E pistle’s in te r p re ta tio n o f th a t half-
v erse is its m o s t strik in g e le m e n t. In d ee d , th e S a b b a th E pistle’s exegesis
o f G enesis 1:5 differs fro m A b ra h a m Ib n E zra’s e a rlie r o n e s — in th e sh o rt
co m m e n ta ry w ritte n in Italy in th e 1140s a n d th e so-called altern ativ e co m ­
m e n ta ry , th e Sh ita A heret, w ritte n in N o rth e rn F ran ce in 1155/6— in th a t
it p e rm its th e in te rp re ta tio n th a t a day is d efin ed as a p e rio d o f d ark n ess
follow ed b y a p e rio d o f daylight. O n th e o th e r h a n d , in e a c h o f th e th re e
c o m m e n ta rie s Ib n E zra e q u a te s y o m (‘d ay ’) w ith th e n yc h th e m e ro n ,2 th e
2 4 -h o u r p erio d , erev (‘ev e n in g ’ o r ‘d u sk ’) w ith th e p e rio d o f d ark n e ss, a n d
boker (‘m o rn in g ’ or ‘d a w n ’) w ith th e p e rio d o f daylight; a n d in ea c h o f th e
th re e erev p re c e d e s boker. T he o rig in a lity in th e S a b b a th E pistle’s exegesis
is th a t Ib n E zra in te rp re ts th e half-verse ‘T h ere w as evening, th e re w as
m o rn in g , d ay o n e,’ as m e a n in g th a t ‘“D ay” is th e to ta l p e rio d o f evening
a n d m o rn in g .’ In h is tw o e a rlie r in te rp re ta tio n s h e re je c te d th is re a d in g

2 Greek vv/typEpov; a concatenation of the words for ‘night’ and ‘day’.

b e c a u s e h e u n d e rs to o d it to m e a n th a t ‘T he even in g as w ell as th e m o rn in g
c a n b e called “day,”’ w h ic h h e co u ld n o t a c c e p t: ‘D a rkn ess c a n n o t b e called
“d ay ” sin ce S crip tu re h as m e n tio n e d [in th e first h e m istic h ] th a t d a rkn ess
w as called “n ig h t” a n d lig h t “day”; a n d since d a rk n e ss is th e o p p o site of
light, d arkn ess c a n n o t b e called “d ay ” as w ell’ (a lte rn a tiv e c o m m e n ta ry o n
G enesis 1:5; a n d sim ilarly in th e s h o rt co m m e n ta ry ). T h erefo re, ib n E zra
h a d to p r e s e n t d iffe re n t in te r p re ta tio n s o f th e half-verse: ‘T he d ay is th e
r e s u lt o f o n e ro ta tio n o f th e d iu rn a l sp h e re [ ...] a n d ju s t as th e ev en in g , so
also th e m o rn in g o f th e first d ay c a m e ’ a n d ‘S crip tu re sp e ak s a b o u t all th e
in h a b ite d a re a s o n e a rth , a n d th e re a re tw elv e h o u rs b e tw e e n th e in h a b ­
ite d a re a s in th e e a st a n d in th e w est; w h e n ev e n in g falls in th e e x tre m e
e a s te rn ones, m o rn in g b eg in s in th e e x tre m e w e s te rn o nes. T his is th e
d ay [th e to ta l p e rio d o f d ay lig h t is 2 4 h o u rs ]’, in h is s h o rt a n d a lte rn a ­
tive c o m m e n ta rie s , resp ectiv ely . T his illu stra te s th a t in th e S a b b a th Epistle
A b ra h a m ib n E zra d o es n o t in tro d u c e a n o v el u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e a s tro ­
n o m ic a l c o n c e p t ‘day1; n o n e th e le ss, h e d o es p ro v id e a lin g u istic in te r p re ­
ta tio n th a t su p p o rts th e v ie w th a t th e d ay b e g in s w ith th e evening.
W h a t is th e sta tu s o f th e S a b b a th E pistle’s c o m m e n ta ry o n G en esis 1:5,
or, in d e e d , o f th e co p io u s ex e g etica l m a te ria l in th e e n tire w o rk in g e n e ra l
a n d in its la st c h a p te r in p a rtic u la r? For a tw e lfth -c e n tu ry a u th o r T o ra h
c o n s titu te d th e u ltim a te a u th o rity a n d A b ra h a m ib n E zra w as n o e x c e p ­
tio n . A t th e sa m e tim e, h e re lie d o n th e in sig h ts o f scien tific k n o w led g e
a n d c o m m o n sense; th u s h e n e e d e d to h a rm o n iz e re v e la tio n w ith h is sci­
en tific insig h ts. M oreo v er, ib n E zra m a in ta in e d th a t th e ra b b in ic in te r ­
p r e ta tio n w h ic h le d to th e p re- a n d p ro sc rip tio n s o f ra b b in ic J u d a is m w as
b a s e d o n th e lite ra l m e a n in g o f T orah, w h ic h p o se d s tric t d e m a n d s o n his
re n d e rin g o f th e lite ra l sen se o f T o ra h (L a n ca ste r 2003: 53ff., C o h e n 2011:
74ff., G om ez A ra n d a 2012). in th e case o f th e S a b b a th Epistle, th e p ro le p ti-
cal a rg u m e n t is d riv e n b y c o m m o n sen se a n d n o t b y exegesis— as i sh all
sh o w b elo w — b u t h a rm o n iz a tio n re q u ire d th a t su p p o rtiv e ev id en c e fro m
T o ra h b e g a th e re d , a n d p a rtic u la rly th a t o b v io u s o b je c tio n s th a t co u ld b e
ra ise d fro m T o ra h b e id e n tifie d a n d su b se q u e n tly p re -e m p te d . i c o n te n d
th a t th e S a b b a th E pistle’s c o m m e n ta ry o n G en esis 1:5 is a c o n s e q u e n c e of
su c h h a rm o n iz a tio n .
if th e exegesis o f G enesis 1:5 is n o t th e c e n tra l e le m e n t in th e S a b b a th
Epistle’s a rg u m e n ta tio n , w h a t is? in o rd e r to d e te rm in e th e b e g in n in g of
th e S a b b a th day, A b ra h a m ib n E zra first e sta b lish e s th a t th e a p p ro p ria te
c a n d id a te s a re th e fo u r p o in ts in tim e th a t a re in th e o ry d isc ern ib le : n o o n ,
m id n ig h t, d a w n (boker), a n d d u sk (erev). N o o n a n d m id n ig h t, h o w ev er,
c a n n o t b e d e te rm in e d b y th e la y m an ; th e re fo re , th e ch o ice is lim ite d to
d a w n a n d dusk. W h ic h o f th e tw o w ill it b e? A gain, th e a n s w e r to th is
q u e s tio n is d eriv e d n o t fro m T o ra h b u t fro m ex tra -b ib lic al c o n c e p ts a n d
c o m m o n sense. T hese d efin e th e s tru c tu re o f Ib n e z r a ’s re a so n in g in th e
S a b b a th E pistle; a n d p assag e s ta k e n fro m T o ra h — c o n c e rn in g th e b e g in ­
n in g o f th e y e a r r a th e r th a n th e b e g in n in g o f th e day, specifically, L eviti­
cus 2 5 :9 -1 0 — th e n s u p p le m e n t th is stru c tu re .
T he cru x o f th e S a b b a th E pistle’s re a so n in g stru c tu re is a n an alo g y
b e tw e e n th e d ay (in th e sen se o f th e n ych th em ero n ) a n d th e so la r y e a r
in gen eral, a n d b e tw e e n th e S a b b a th d ay a n d th e S ab b atica l y e a r in p a r­
tic u la r. T he b asis for th is an alo g y is th a t b o th th e y e a r a n d th e day are
cyclical a n d th a t b o th re s u lt fro m r o ta tio n s o f cele stia l sp h eres; th e day
fro m th e ro ta tio n o f th e d iu rn a l sp h e re , a n d th e y e a r fro m th e ro ta tio n o f
th e s u n ’s sp h e re (w h ich p ro d u c e s its m o v e m e n t alo n g th e eclip tic): ‘J u st
as th e m o v e m e n t fro m th e w e st cau ses fo u r se aso n s in th e y ear, so d o es
th e m o v e m e n t fro m th e e a st [cau se fo u r se aso n s in th e d a y ]’ (S a b b a th
Epistle, C h a p te r 3). F u rth e rm o re , th e tw o cycles c a n b e alig n ed a c c o rd in g
to th e p a irs o f q u a litie s th a t a re a ttr ib u te d to e a c h se aso n o r q u a d ra n t:
‘fro m d a w n u n til m id d a y it is h o t a n d w et, as is th e s e a so n o f spring, w h e n
th e s u n rises ever m o re to th e n o r th ’ (Sabbath Epistle, C h a p te r 3). Likewise,
fro m n o o n to d u sk c o rre sp o n d s to su m m er, fro m d u sk to m id n ig h t co r­
re sp o n d s to a u tu m n , a n d fro m m id n ig h t to d a w n c o rre s p o n d s to w in te r.
T his e sta b lish e s a o n e -to -o n e m a p p in g b e tw e e n th e day a n d th e year.
O nce th e m a p p in g b e tw e e n th e day a n d th e y e a r is in place, th e b e g in ­
n in g o f th e S a b b a th d ay c a n b e d eriv ed fro m th e b e g in n in g o f th e S ab b atical
year: Since ‘th e Ju b ilee is seven S abb atical y ea rs a n d th e Ju b ilee y e a r b eg in s
w ith th e D ay o f A to n e m e n t [ .. .] ’ (Sabbath Epistle, C h a p te r 1), ‘th e S ab b ati­
cal a n d th e Ju b ilee y e a r b eg in in Tishrei’ (Sabbath Epistle, C h a p te r 3). Thus,
it follow s th a t ‘j u s t as th e S ab b atical y e a r b eg in s in th e a u tu m n a l season,
so d oes th e S h a b b a t day b eg in in th e day’s q u a d ra n t th a t c o rre sp o n d s to
a u tu m n , [ th a t is, th e q u a d ra n t] w h ic h beg in s w ith d u sk ’ (Sabbath Epistle,
C h a p te r 3). T herefore, th e S a b b a th day b eg in s n o t w ith d a w n b u t w ith
dusk, w h ic h is w h a t Ib n e z r a en d e a v o u re d to p ro v e in th e S a b b a th Epistle.
N o te th a t th e c o rre sp o n d e n c e b e tw e e n day a n d y e a r is far fro m strict: it is
n o t b e tw e e n th e beginning o f th e ev en in g a n d th e b eg in n in g o f a u tu m n (or
th e b eg in n in g o f th e S ab b atical year, o r th e b eg in n in g o f th e m o n th o f Tish-
rei), b u t r a th e r b e tw e e n th e q u a d ra n ts o f th e day a n d th e seaso n s o f th e
solar year. T he b eg in n in g o f th e S ab b atical year, m o reo v er, is d e te rm in e d
by th e lu n a r a n d n o t b y th e solar c a le n d a r a n d w ill in g en e ral co in cid e only
roughly w ith th e b eg in n in g o f a u tu m n , th e a u tu m n a l eq u in o x . Also, n e i­
th e r th e day’s q u a d ra n ts n o r th e y e a r’s seaso n s a re c o e q u al if for n o o th e r
re a so n th a n th a t th e le n g th o f th e p e rio d o f d ay lig h t v aries o ver th e y ear
a n d th a t th e su n ’s a p p a r e n t velo city ch a n g es o ver th e y ea r— w h ic h lead s
to a lo n g e r sp rin g a n d su m m e r th a n a u tu m n a n d w in te r, as A b ra h a m ib n
E zra w ell k n e w (Sabbath Epistle, C h a p te r 1).
T he c re a tio n o f th e an a lo g y b e tw e e n th e y e a r a n d th e day, a n d th e
m a tc h in g o f th e ir re sp e c tiv e q u a d ra n ts b y m e a n s o f th e h u m o ra l q u ali­
tie s (see, e.g., irw in 1947, Lloyd 1964) o f e a c h q u a d r a n t is u n p re c e d e n te d ,
n o t on ly in ib n E zra’s o w n w o rk s b u t as far as is k n o w n in th e lite ra tu re
up u n til th e tw e lfth ce n tu ry ; it c o n s titu te s th e tru ly o rig in al a n d u n iq u e
c o m p o n e n t in th e S a b b a th E pistle’s a rg u m e n ta tio n , d istin g u ish in g it fro m
his e a rlie r w o rk o n th e sa m e to p ic. A p ropos, th e an a lo g y p r o p e r is ra th e r
stra in e d as a s o u th e rn p o sitio n o f th e su n in a c tu a l fa c t c o rre sp o n d s to
n o o n a n d w in te r [a n d n o t su m m e r], a n d a n o r th e r n p o s itio n to m id n ig h t
a n d su m m e r [a n d n o t w in te r] (H u b n e r 1982: 442).
T he s tru c tu re o f th e S a b b a th Epistle, w ith a n in tro d u c tio n a n d c h a p te rs
o n th e year, th e m o n th , a n d th e day, p ro v id es f u rth e r p ro o f o f th e cru cial
ro le o f th e an alo g y b e tw e e n d ay a n d y e a r a n d th e h u m o ra l q u alitie s of
th e ir q u a d ra n ts. T he first c h a p te r, o n th e b e g in n in g o f th e year, p ro v id es
a first in tim a tio n th a t th e s tru c tu re is p u rp o se fu l as th e b e g in n in g o f th e
y e a r e v id e n tly is a n e sse n tia l e le m e n t in th e analogy. N o te th a t th e c o n c lu ­
sio n o f th e a s tro n o m ic a l a n d c a le n d ric a l d e lib e ra tio n s in th is c h a p te r is
th a t scien c e d o es n o t h elp to d e te rm in e th e y e a r’s b eg in n in g . T his o p e n s
th e w ay to a d iffe re n t a p p ro a c h : w h ic h p o in t o n e ch o o ses fo r th e b e g in ­
n in g o f th e y ear, as in d e e d fo r a n y circle, is a rb itra ry . T h ere is n o o n e p o in t
th a t is p re fe ra b le — b u t o f co u rse T o ra h d o es te ll us a t w h a t p o in t in th e
a n n u a l cycle to b e g in th e Ju b ilee year.
T he m o n th , how ev er, plays n o p a r t in th e p re s e n t a rg u m e n t. Yet, it is
a p iv o ta l c o n c e p t in th e Je w ish c a le n d a r a n d i su g g est th a t a n y te x t p o r­
te n d in g to Je w ish tim e -re c k o n in g th a t is to b e ta k e n serio u sly m u s t m a k e
m e n tio n o f th e m o n th . T his w o u ld a c c o u n t for th e p re se n c e o f a c h a p te r
o n th e b e g in n in g o f th e m o n th in th e S a b b a th Epistle.
T he cosm o lo g ical in tro d u c tio n , w h ic h p re c e d e s th e th re e ch a p te rs,
p re s e n ts f u rth e r ev id en c e th a t th e S a b b a th Epistle is n o t a n a rb itra ry co m ­
p o sitio n o f to p ic s th a t a re on ly lo osely re la te d , b u t r a th e r a co h esiv e u n ity .
i t in tro d u c e s th e se aso n s o f th e y e a r a n d a scrib es to th e m h u m o ra l q u ali­
tie s a la G alen o f P erg am o n . it is n o t u n c o m m o n for th e h u m o ra l q u alitie s
to a p p e a r in a stro lo g ica l a n d m e d ic a l te x ts b y A b ra h a m ib n E zra (e.g.,
b o o k o f th e W orld, ed. S. Sela 2010: 287; b o o k o f Elections; b o o k o f in te rro g a ­
tions; b o o k o f th e lu m in a r ie s , ed. S. Sela 2011) b u t is so in c a le n d ric a l te x ts
fro m h is h a n d or, in d e e d , o th e rs ’. All o f th is p o in ts to th e lik e lih o o d th a t
A b ra h a m Ib n e z r a h a d m e tic u lo u sly p la n n e d th e o v erall a rg u m e n t w h e n
h e w ro te its in tro d u c tio n , w ith th e G alenic an alo g y a t its core.

3. t h e p u rp o se o f th e S a b b a th e p is tle

W h y d id A b ra h a m Ib n e z r a w rite th e S a b b a th E pistle? L et u s try to d e te r­

m in e w h a t h is m o tiv a tio n m ay h av e b e e n . In th e p re lu d e Ib n e z r a sta te s
th a t a n in te r p re ta tio n o f ‘T h ere w as evening, th e re w as m o rn in g , o n e d ay ’
(G enesis 1:5) th a t h e re a d in a b o o k in h is lib ra ry w as re sp o n sib le for th e
m is c o n c e p tio n th a t th e S a b b a th day sta rts w ith th e m o rn in g ; th is in te r ­
p r e ta tio n e x p re ssed th e v ie w th a t th e first day e n d e d o nly w ith th e m o r n ­
in g o f th e se c o n d day sin ce ‘th e n ig h t follow s th e d ay ’. p a re n th e tic a lly ,
Ib n e z r a ’s m e n tio n in g su c h a c o m m e n ta ry d o es n o t n ec essarily im p ly th a t
h e tru ly fo u n d su c h a b o o k in h is library, n o r in d e e d th a t a sim ila r Je w ­
ish c o m m e n ta ry existed. Like th e p re lu d e ’s d re a m re p o rt, th e a c c o u n t o f
th e discovery o f a c o m m e n ta ry m ay h av e b e e n a literary device. N o n e ­
th eless, p rev io u s d isc u ssio n o f th e S a b b a th Epistle largely fo cu sse d o n th e
id e n tity o f th e p re lu d e ’s m y ste rio u s c o m m e n ta ry (G raetz 1853: 178, Rosin
1881: 3 0 -3 2 , F rie d la n d e r 1894, C assuto 1961: 28, S im o n 1965, M o n d sc h e in
2001, Sela 2003: 49ff.). G ra etz a n d R osin w e re th e first to su g g est th a t
Ib n e z r a w as a llu d in g to a b ib lic a l c o m m e n ta ry b y h is illu strio u s c o n ­
te m p o ra ry S am uel b e n M eir— also k n o w n b y th e ac ro n y m o f h is n a m e ,
R a sh b a m — a n d th e irs b e c a m e th e m o s t w idely a c c e p te d , th o u g h n o t
u n c h a lle n g e d , view .
S am uel b e n M eir’s c o m m e n ta ry o n G enesis 1:5, h o w ev er, d o es n o t sta te
th a t th e n ig h t follow s th e day. R ather, it says th a t ‘lig h t [is] alw ays [m e n ­
tio n e d in th e ] b e g in n in g a n d d a rkn ess a fte rw a rd s.’ F u rth e rm o re , th is is
n o t a c o m m e n ta ry o n ‘T h ere w as ev e n in g [ .. .] ’ b u t o n th e first h a lf o f
th a t sa m e verse: ‘G od called th e lig h t “day” a n d th e da rkn ess H e called
“n ig h t.”’ A n d a lth o u g h S am uel b e n M e ir ex p lain s th e se c o n d h e m istic h o f
G enesis 1:5 as: ‘D ay tu r n e d in to ev e n in g a n d n ig h t tu r n e d in to m o rn in g ;
o n e d ay ’, w h ic h d o es im p ly th a t day ca m e b efo re n ig h t, h e a sserts th a t th is
is n o t a d e fin itio n o f d a y in g e n e ra l a n d th a t it a p p lie s o n ly to th e six days
o f C reatio n . In d ee d , n o w h e re d o es S am u el b e n M eir co n c lu d e th a t th e d ay
s ta rts in th e m o rn in g . O n th e co n tra ry , in h is in te r p re ta tio n o f G en esis 1:14
h e sta te s explicitly th a t th e tim e fro m o n e a p p e a ra n c e o f th e sta rs to th e
n e x t is called ‘o n e day1. T his m a k es it h ighly im p ro b a b le th a t A b ra h a m Ib n
e z r a d ire c te d th e S a b b a th Epistle a g a in st th e c o m m e n ta ry b y S am u el b e n
M eir as it w o u ld h av e c o n s titu te d a n o n -se q u itu r.
 M o reo v e r, Ib n E zra h a d a d d r e s s e d th e sa m e q u e s tio n o f th e c o rre c t
p o in t in tim e to s ta r t S a b b a th o b se rv a n c e in h is lo n g c o m m e n ta ry o n
E x o d u s 16:25, w h ic h h e h a d w ritte n in R o u e n se v e ra l y e a rs p r io r to h is
d e p a r tu re fo r E n g la n d . Its a r g u m e n ta tio n is c o m p a ra b le to th a t in th e
S a b b a th E pistle— b a rrin g th e a n a lo g y b e tw e e n th e d ay a n d th e y e a r—
a n d its to n e is r a th e r h a rsh . T h e E x odus c o m m e n ta ry a c c u s e s o f fo o l­
ish n e ss (tip sh u t) th o s e w h o in te r p r e t ‘T h e re w as ev e n in g ; th e r e w as
m o rn in g ; d ay o n e ’ to m e a n th a t th e d ay s ta rts w ith th e m o rn in g , a n d
o f la c k in g in fa ith (ch a srei e m u n a h ) th o s e w h o b e lie v e th a t th e S a b b a th
sh o u ld b e o b se rv e d fro m S a tu rd a y m o rn in g to S u n d a y m o rn in g . It is
h ig h ly u n lik e ly th a t Ib n E zra w o u ld h a v e c ritic iz e d a n e m in e n t te a c h e r
su c h as S a m u e l b e n M e ir in th e s e te rm s — a n d it is e q u a lly im p la u sib le
th a t h e w o u ld h a v e w ritte n tw ic e a b o u t th e b e g in n in g o f th e S a b b a th
d ay fo r d iv e rg e n t re a so n s. I th e re fo re c o n c lu d e th a t Ib n E zra’s fo cu s h a d
n o t sh ifte d a n d th a t n e ith e r th e p a ssa g e in h is lo n g E x o d u s c o m m e n ta ry
n o r th e S a b b a th E pistle w a s d ire c te d a g a in s t S a m u e l b e n M e ir’s c o m ­
m e n ta r y o n G en e sis 1:5.
W h a t, th e n , m a y h av e b e e n A b ra h a m Ib n E zra’s m o tiv a tio n in w ritin g
th e S a b b a th E pistle? In th e ir d isc u ssio n o n th e p u rp o se o f th e S a b b a th
Epistle, L a u te rb a c h a n d Silver b o th c o n c e n tra te d o n S a b b a th o b se rv a n ce
r a th e r th a n exegesis. L a u te rb a c h (1951: 4 5 0 n. 60) su g g e sted th a t A b ra h a m
Ib n E zra m e a n t to edify Jew s w h o se p ra c tic e it w as to o b serv e th e S a b b a th
fro m m o rn in g to m o rn in g ; h e p o in ts to th e o n ly so u rce th a t m e n tio n s
su c h a n o b se rv a n ce , as d id A d ler (1907: 15 n. 1) b efo re him : The Itin era ry
o f B en ja m in o f Tudela, a c o n te m p o ra ry o f A b ra h a m Ib n E zra w h o tra v e lle d
ex ten siv ely a n d d e sc rib e d o n e su c h Je w ish se c t in C yprus. A d ler su g g ested
th a t A b ra h a m Ib n E zra k n e w o f th is c y p r io t se c t b u t d id n o t d ire c t th e
S a b b a th E pistle a t th e m , w h e re a s L a u te rb a c h su g g e sted th a t h e did. It
w o u ld a p p e a r e x tre m e ly u n lik e ly th a t A b ra h a m Ib n E zra w as w ritin g in
E n g lan d to edify Jew s a t th e far e n d o f th e M e d ite rra n e a n , if h e e v e n k n e w
o f th e ir p rac tice . (The S a b b a th Epistle p re d a te s B e n ja m in ’s v isit to C yprus
b y so m e te n y ears: B e n ja m in w as in R om e— w h ic h h e v isite d b e fo re tra v ­
elling to C yprus— so m e tim e b e tw e e n 1167 a n d 1169 (A dler 1907: 1, n. 2);
th u s, B e n ja m in c a n n o t h av e b e e n Ib n E zra’s so u rce.) Silver (1994/5), c o n ­
versely, p ro p o se d th a t th e S a b b a th Epistle w as in te n d e d to c o rre c t Jew s
in E n g lan d w h o m a y h av e b e e n p re ssu re d b y C h ristia n m issio n a rie s to
ob serv e th e S a b b a th fro m m o rn in g to m o rn in g . T his is a n a ttra c tiv e ex p la­
n a tio n b u t, u n fo rtu n a te ly , o n e th a t h as to d a te n o t b e e n s u b s ta n tia te d .
H ow ever, in te ra c tio n s b e tw e e n Jew s a n d C h ristian s m a y h av e m o tiv a te d
A b ra h a m Ib n E zra to w rite th e S a b b a th Epistle.
 W ith th e S a b b a th E pistle, A b ra h a m ib n E zra re v e rte d to th e issu e of
th e c o rre c t s ta rt o f th e S a b b a th day. in d e e d , it w as n o t u n c o m m o n for
h im to w rite in ro u g h ly th e sa m e te rm s a b o u t a to p ic o r c o n c e p t in a
series o f d iffe re n t texts. F or ex am p le, th e re fu ta tio n o f J u d a h th e P ersian
a p p e a rs in h is c o m m e n ta rie s o n L eviticus 29:9 a n d E xodus 12:2; in h is cal­
e n d a r m o n o g ra p h Sefer h a ib b u r— ‘B ook o f in te rc a la tio n ’; a n d ag a in in th e
S a b b a th Epistle. H is a rg u m e n ta tio n for th e e v e n in g -to -ev e n in g S a b b a th
o b se rv a n ce in th e S a b b a th E pistle, how ev er, differs su b sta n tia lly fro m th e
e a rlie r o n e in th e lo n g c o m m e n ta ry o n E xodus 16:25, n o t in fo cu s b u t in
em p h asis: it is e x p a n d e d a n d in tro d u c e s a rad ic ally n e w a rg u m e n t— th e
a n a lo g y b e tw e e n d ay a n d y e a r— th e re b y b u ild in g a s tro n g e r case. M o re ­
over, th e d re a m a c c o u n t in th e S a b b a th E pistle m a y h av e serv ed to a ttr a c t
th e a tte n tio n o f th e re a d e r, to co n fe r c re d ib ility u p o n th e a rg u m e n ta tio n ,
o r b o th . T hese in n o v a tio n s in th e S a b b a th E pistle su g g est th a t A b ra h a m
ib n E zra c o n s id e re d th e ju s tific a tio n o f th e c o rre c t b e g in n in g o f th e Sab­
b a th d ay to b e o f p a r a m o u n t co n seq u e n ce.
W h a t u rg en c y co u ld h av e im p e lle d A b ra h a m ib n E zra to re v e rt to th e
issue o f th e b e g in n in g o f th e S a b b a th day? Surely, a n e rro n e o u s o r ev en
fictitio u s c o m m e n ta ry th a t h a d re m a in e d w ith o u t p ra c tic a l c o n s e q u e n c e s
w o u ld n o t h av e p ro m p te d th e w ritin g o f a m o n o g ra p h d e v o te d to its
re fu ta tio n . A lth o u g h it is co n ceiv ab le, it is u n c o rro b o ra te d a n d in d e e d
unlik ely th a t th e re w e re Jew s in n o rth -w e s te rn E u ro p e in th e m id-1100s
w h o o b se rv e d th e S a b b a th fro m m o rn in g to m o rn in g o r w e re co n sid e rin g
d o in g so. N everth eless, th e b e g in n in g o f th e S a b b a th m a y h av e b e e n a n
issue d e b a te d b e tw e e n Jew s a n d C h ristian s. R eco rd s o f a c tu a l e n c o u n te rs
a n d tre a tise s d e sc rib in g h y p o th e tic a l d isp u te s p ro v id e a m p le ev id en c e th a t
Je w ish -C h ristia n d ialo g u e w as o n g o in g th r o u g h o u t th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry
(F u n k e n ste in 1968, B erger 1972, G rabois 1975, C o h e n 1986, A b u lafia 1989,
A bulafia 1993, A b u lafia 1997, L asker 1999, A bulafia 2011: 207ff.). i su rm ise
th a t d is p u te d to p ic s co u ld h av e in c lu d e d th e b e g in n in g o f th e day. T his is
all th e m o re p la u sib le sin ce th e passag e ‘th e n ig h t follow s th e day ’, w h ic h
in th e S a b b a th E pistle’s p re lu d e is c o n s id e re d th e so u rce o f th e p ro b le m , is
n o t fo u n d in Je w ish c o m m e n ta rie s b u t is so in early C h ristia n c o m m e n ta r­
ies su c h as Basil’s H e x a e m e ro n (H om ily 8). M o reo v er, B ede h a d a lre ad y
w o n d e re d h o w th e ‘p e o p le o f isra e l’ co u ld h av e b e g u n th e ir feast-d ay s w ith
su n d o w n given th a t, a c c o rd in g to h im , th e y h a d in te r p re te d ‘T h ere w as
evening, th e re w as m o rn in g ; o n e d ay ’ to m e a n th a t th e d ay b e g a n w ith th e
m o rn in g (Bede: C h a p te r 5). A lth o u g h it re m a in s u n c le a r w h a t ex actly
th e h isto ric a l c o n te x t o f B ede’s re m a rk w as, it d o es su g g est th a t in th e
e ig h th c e n tu ry th e b e g in n in g o f S a b b a th o b se rv a n ce w as a c o n te n tio u s
issue in th e eyes o f C h ristian s. A fu rth e r in d ic a tio n th a t c o n ta c t b e tw e e n
Jew s a n d C h ristian s m o tiv a te d A b ra h a m Ib n e z r a to w rite th e S a b b a th
Epistle is fo u n d in its p re lu d e : th e n a r r a to r a d m o n ish e s th e re a d e r th a t
a c c e p tin g th e e rro n e o u s in te r p re ta tio n o f ‘It w as evening, it w as m o rn in g ;
day o n e ’ w o u ld m a k e Jew s ‘th e la u g h in g sto c k o f C h ristia n s’. I co n c lu d e
t h a t v ia th e S a b b a th E pistle A b ra h a m Ib n e z r a w as p ro v id in g h is fellow
Jew s w ith a m m u n itio n to c o n fro n t a d v e rsa ria l C h ristian s.
In su m m ary , th e S a b b a th Epistle d o es n o t p o le m iz e a g a in st S am u el b e n
M eir’s c o m m e n ta ry . I arg u e th a t A b ra h a m Ib n e z r a w ro te it in re sp o n se to
th e exigencies o f Je w ish -C h ristia n in te ra c tio n in e n g la n d in h is lifetim e,
a n d th a t h e in v o k e d a n o v el a rg u m e n t to e sta b lish th a t th e S a b b a th day
sta rts o n F riday ev e n in g a n d n o t o n S atu rd ay m o rn in g b y in tro d u c in g a n
u n p r e c e d e n te d analogy b e tw e e n th e day a n d th e so la r year.

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Funkenstein, Amos, ‘Changes in Jewish-Christian Religious Dispute in the Twelfth Cen­
tury’, Zion 33 (1968), 125-44 [Hebrew].
Gomez Aranda, Mariano, ‘Los Comentarios Biblicos de Abraham Ibn Ezra’, Iberia Judaica
Asociacion Hispana de Estudios Hebraicos IV (2012), 81-104.
Grabois, A., ‘The Hebraica Veritas and Jewish-Christian Intellectual Relations in the Twelfth
Century’, Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies 50 (1975), 613-34.
Graetz, Heinrich, Geschichte der Juden von den altesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart: aus
den Quellen neu bearbeitet, vol. 6 (Leipzig: O. Leiner, 1853).
Hubner, Wolfgang, Die Eigenschaften der Tierkreiszeichen in der Antike (Wiesbaden: Franz
Steiner Verlag, 1982).
Irwin, James R., ‘Galen on the Temperaments’, TheJournal of General Psychology 36 (1947),
45-64.
Kislev, Itamar, ‘The Relationship between the Torah Commentaries composed by R. Abra­
ham Ibn Ezra in France and the Significance of this Relationship for the Biographical
Chronology of the Commentator’,Journal of Jewish Studies 60 (2009), 282-97.
Lancaster, I., Deconstructing the Bible: Abraham Ibn Ezra’s Introduction to the Torah
(Abingdon - New York: Routledge, 2003).
Lasker, D.J., ‘The Impact of the Crusades on the Jewish-Christian Debate’, Jewish History
13 (1999), 23-36.
Lauterbach, Jacob Z., Rabbinic Essays (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1951).
Lloyd, G.E.R., ‘The Hot and the Cold, the Dry and the Wet in Greek Philosophy’, TheJournal
of Hellenic Studies 84 (1964), 92-106.
Millgram, Abraham E., Sabbath: The Day of Delight (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication
Society of America, 1965).
Mondschein, Aharon, ‘Concerning the Interrelationship of the Commentaries of R. Abra­
ham Ibn Ezra and R. Samuel Ben Meir to the Pentateuch: A New Appraisal’, Teuda 16-17
(2001), 15-46 [Hebrew].
Nacht, Jacob, Zalman Epstein and Y.L. Barukh (eds), Book o f the Sabbath (Tel Aviv: Oneg
Shabbat Society (‘Ohel-Shem’), 1936) [Hebrew].
Noah Hayyim ben Moshe (ed.), Three Sabbath Letters (Warsaw: Tipografie V. Tursch, 1900)
[Hebrew].
Prayerbook ‘Teflat Hahodesh’ According to the Sefarad Tradition (Livorno: Shelomo Bel-
forte, 1864) [Hebrew].
Rosin, David, The Torah Commentary by Rashbam (Breslau: S. Schottlaender, 1881) [Hebrew].
Sela, Shlomo, Abraham Ibn Ezra and the Rise of Medieval Hebrew Science, Brill’s Series in
Jewish Studies 32 (Leiden and Boston, MA: Brill, 2003).
Sela, Shlomo, and Gad Freudenthal, ‘Abraham Ibn Ezra’s Scholarly Writings: A Chronologi­
cal Listing’, Aleph 6 (2006), 13-55.
Shulhan Aruch of Isaac Luria. ed. by students of Isaac Luria (Levov/Lemberg: Shelomo
Rapoport, 1757) [Hebrew].
Silver, Emanuel, ‘The Iggeres Ha-Shabbos of R. Avrohom Ibn Ezra’, Jewish Tribune,
22 December-26 January 1994/5.
Simon, Uriel, ‘The Exegetic Method of Abraham Ibn Ezra as Revealed in Three Interpreta­
tions of a Biblical Passage’, Annual of the Bar Ilan University 3 (1965), 92-138 [Hebrew].
 MEDIEVAL JEWS AND MEDIEVAL ASTROLABES:
WHERE, WHY, H OW , AND W H A T FOR?i

Jo se fin a R odriguez A rrib as

1. In tro d u ctio n

T his p a p e r is in th e fra m e o f a p ro je c t o n th e a s tro la b e in m e d ie v a l Je w ish

c u ltu re (1 2 th -1 6 th c e n tu rie s). A n a stro la b e is a scien tific in s tru m e n t th a t
w o rk s m a in ly as a c o m p u tin g d evice n o ta b ly sim plifying a s tro n o m ic a l a n d
astro lo g ica l ca lc u latio n s. T he p la n isp h e ric astro la b e , th e ty p e c o n sid e re d
in th is re se a rc h a n d th e m o s t fre q u e n tly d e sc rib e d in m e d iev a l m a n u ­
scripts, is b a s e d o n th e ste re o g ra p h ic p ro je c tio n o f th e circles o f specific
h o riz o n s o n a c e rta in n u m b e r o f flat p la te s u su a lly m a d e o f b ra ss a n d o n
th e ste re o g ra p h ic p ro je c tio n o f th e solar p a th a n d c e rta in fixed stars
o n th e so-called ‘r e te ’ (a specific ty p e o f p la te w ith o p en w o rk ). All o f
th e m a re p la c e d in sid e a la rg e r flat h o llo w disc called ‘m o th e r ’, a n d k e p t
in place w ith a p in (th a t goes th ro u g h a h o le in th e ce n tre o f all th e plates)
a n d its w edge. T he ‘a lid a d e ’ (th e sig h tin g c o m p o n e n t), a n d th e d iv isio n s
en g ra v ed all a ro u n d th e fro n t a n d th e b a c k o f th e m o th e r, o n th e differ­
e n t p la tes, a n d o n th e r e te allo w an y o n e to p e rfo rm c o m p le x ca lc u latio n s
u sin g m a in ly th e a ltitu d e o f th e su n a n d th e a ltitu d e o f c e rta in sta rs a t
d iffe re n t tim es.
As a p re lim in a ry ste p w e in te n d to p r e s e n t h e re a su rv ey o f th e a s tro ­
la b e in Je w ish c u ltu re a n d lite ra tu re in th e tw e lfth ce n tu ry , w h e n th e first
tre a tise s o n th e a stro la b e e m e rg e d in H e b re w lan g u ag e. A b ra h a m ib n E zra
(1089/92-1164/67) is u n d o u b te d ly th e p a r a m o u n t figure in 1 2 th -cen tu ry
a s tro n o m y in H e b re w as re g a rd s th e a stro la b e . H e is c e rta in ly th e in tro ­
d u c e r o f th e g en re o f th e in s tru m e n t b o o k in H eb rew , for h e w ro te th re e

1 I would like to express my appreciation to the Frankel Institute for Advanced Judaic
Studies at the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor), for providing the best collegial context
in which my research on astrolabes started and took form. This research is continuing in
the frame of an ARHc-funded project at the Warburg Institute and with the participa­
tion of Charles Burnett (Warburg Institute, London) and Stephen Johnston (Museum
of the History of Science, Oxford). I am indebted to the comments and suggestions of
Prof. Charles Burnett and Stephen Johnston who read and commented on a previous ver­
sion of my text, as well as to Sacha Stern.
H e b re w tre a tise s o n th e a s tro la b e a n d o n e in L atin. W e a ssu m e th a t th e
re a d e rs in te n d e d in th e H e b re w tre a tise s w e re Jew s o f th e cities w h e re
th e trea tise s w ere w ritte n , possibly b y req u e st, w h ile th e L atin tre a tise w as
p o ssib ly a d d re sse d to C h ristia n rea d ers. O u r s tu d y is fo cu se d o n th e Jew s
o f th e s e Ita lia n a n d F re n c h c o m m u n itie s a n d th e ir so cial a n d c u ltu ra l c o n ­
tex ts. A lth o u g h th e n a tu re o f th e se th re e tre a tis e s is v ery te c h n ic a l a n d
d escrip tiv e, th e y c o n ta in d isc re e t b u t illu m in a tin g keys a b o u t th e in te r ­
ests a n d th e e d u c a tio n o f th e s e c o m m u n itie s a n d th e p o ssib le p a tro n s o f
th e tre a tise s a t th e m o m e n t w h e n Ib n E zra w ro te h is tex ts. S om e o f th e se
keys a re th e lan g u ag e (te c h n ic a l te rm s, ty p e s o f e x p la n a tio n s, p re se n c e
o r a b s e n c e o f d efin itio n s, a n d s tru c tu re o f th e te x t), th e c o n te n ts (th e ir
a rra n g e m e n t a n d th e b a la n c e o r im b a la n c e o f th e a s tro n o m ic a l, a s tro ­
logical, ca le n d rical, a n d to p o g ra p h ic a l u se s o f as tro lab e s), th e criticism s
a n d sp e cific atio n s th a t Ib n E zra in tro d u c e s h e re a n d th e re in th e tre a tise s
as re g a rd s a stro n o m e rs, in s tru m e n ts , a n d calc u latio n s, a n d th e w ay th e
a s tro la b e in g e n e ra l a n d specific a s tro la b e s in p a rtic u la r a re a llu d e d to
o r p ic tu re d in th e trea tise s. O u r p u rp o se is to tra c k a n d an a ly z e th e se
keys a n d co llec t th e in fo rm a tio n th e y c a n p ro v id e a b o u t th e k n o w led g e
o f a s tro n o m y in g e n e ra l a n d a s tro la b e s in p a rtic u la r in th e se c o m m u n itie s
b e fo re th e in tro d u c tio n o f Ib n E zra’s trea tise s.

2. The W ave o f L atin Treatises on the A stro la b e b etw een 1140-1150

In 1118, w h e n th e p h ilo s o p h e r P e te r A b ela rd a n d h is lo v e r H eloise b a p ­

tiz e d th e ir so n w ith th e n a m e o f th e n e w in s tru m e n t, A stro lap su s, th e y
w ere d isp lay in g th e e n th u s ia s m th a t th is scien tific o b je c t stirre d u p a m o n g
th e le a rn e d p e o p le o f w e s te rn E urope. T h ere w e re tw o p h a s e s o f tr a n s ­
la tio n s fro m A rab ic a n d o rig in al w ritin g s in L atin a b o u t th e astro lab e :
o n e in th e 10th c e n tu ry in C a ta la n te rrito rie s a n d th e o th e r, th e m o st
im pressiv e, to o k p la ce in d iffe re n t p a rts o f E u ro p e b e tw e e n 1140 a n d
1150.2 T he 12th c e n tu ry w as th e p e rio d w h e n th e re c e p tio n o f th e a s tro ­
la b e in E u ro p e b e c a m e rea lly n o tic e a b le a n d c a n b e d e sc rib e d as a n
a s tro la b e ru sh . T he diffusion o f tre a tise s a n d th e ir level o f so p h is tic a tio n

2 For a complete overview of the translation movement taking place in Spain (as well
as in Italy and Southern France) between the 10th and 13th centuries, see J.M. Millas-
Vallicrosa’s article, ‘Translations of Oriental Scientific Works (to the End of the Thirteenth
Century)’, in The evolution of science, Readings from the History o f Mankind, ed. by Guy S.
Metraux and Frangois Crouzet (New York, New American Library, 1963), pp. 128-167.
d e m o n s tra te s th a t th e w rite rs w e re fam iliar w ith th e in s tru m e n t th e y
d e sc rib e d a n d w e re ca p ab le o f b u ild in g a stro lab e s, n o t o n ly d escrib in g
th e m . T he 12th c e n tu ry is also th e p e rio d o f o rig in al w ritin g s o n th e a s tro ­
labe, n o t on ly tra n s la tio n s fro m A rabic. tr a n s la to r s a n d o rig in al w riters
o f th e 1 2 th -ce n tu ry m a n u sc rip ts in c lu d e: H e rm a n n o f c a r in th ia , w h o se
tra n s la tio n o f p to le m y ’s P lanispherium w as c o m p le te in 1143; R a y m o n d
o f M arseille, w h o w ro te o n th e m a k in g a n d u se o f th e a s tro la b e so m e
tim e b efo re th e y e a r 1141; J o h n o f Seville, th e 1 2 th -ce n tu ry tr a n s la to r o f
sev eral A rabic tre a tise s o n th e a s tro la b e (w h o se a u th o rs a re still to c o n ­
firm ); P lato o f Tivoli, w h o tr a n s la te d a w o rk o n th e u se s o f th e a stro la b e
b y Ib n al-Saffar (a ttrib u te d to M a slam a o f M ad rid ) b e tw e e n 1133 a n d 1145;
R o b e rt o f C hester, w h o w ro te o n th e u se s o f th e a s tro la b e in 1147 o r in
1150; a n u n k n o w n A rialdus (12th ce n tu ry ), w h o w ro te o n th e c o n stru c tio n ;
R u d o lp h o f Bruges, w h o c o m p o se d a tre a tis e o n th e u se in 1144 o r after;
a n d A d ela rd o f B ath, w h o w ro te o n th e u se o f th e a s tro la b e a t so m e tim e
b e tw e e n th e y ea rs 1149 a n d 1150.3 A b ra h a m ib n E zra’s te x ts o n th e a s tro ­
la b e in H eb rew a n d L atin m u s t b e p la c e d in th is co n tex t.
T h ere are fo u r tre a tise s o n th e a s tro la b e w ritte n b y th e Je w ish p o ly m a th
A b ra h a m ib n E zra (T udela, 1089-1167), w h o w as a n a s tro n o m e r, a s tro lo ­
ger, g ra m m a ria n , p o et, m a th e m a tic ia n , a n d b ib lic a l in te r p re te r .4 T h ree
o f h is tre a tise s are in H eb rew (M a n tu a 1146, V ero n a 1146, a n d B eziers
1148) a n d o n e in L atin (R o u en 1154).5 It se em s th a t if w e h av e to d a y fo u r

3 E. Poulle, ‘Le traite de l’Astrolabe d’Adelard of Bath’, ed. Ch. Burnett, Adelard o f Bath
(London, Warburg Institute, 1987), pp. 119-132. For a critical edition of the treatise, see
B.G. Dickey, ‘Adelard of Bath, An Examination based on Heretofore Unexamined Manu­
scripts’ (PhD dissertation, University of Toronto, 1982), pp. 147-220. R. Lorch, G. Brey,
S. Kirschner, and Ch. Schoner (Latin ed.), ‘Ibn as-Saffars Traktat uber das Astrolab in der
Ubersetzung von Plato von Tivoli’, in Cosmographica etgeographica, FestschriftfurHeribert
M. Nobis zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. by B. Fritscher and G. Brey (Munich, Inst. fur Geschichte
der Naturwissenschaften, 1994), vol. 1, pp. 125-180. R. Lorch (Latin ed.), ‘The Treatise on
the Astrolabe by Rudolph of Bruges’, in Between Demonstration and Imagination, Essays
in the History of Science and Philosophy Presented to John North, ed. by Lodi Nauta and
Arjo Vanderjagt (Leiden-Boston-Koln, Brill, 1999), pp. 55-100. Ch. Burnett, E. Poulle,
M.-Th. D’Alverny (Latin ed. and French tr.), Traite de I’astrolabe / Liber cursuum plane­
tarium, Raymond de Marseille, (Paris, CNRS editions, 2009), pp. 50-111.
4 Shlomo Sela considered the four treatises in his ‘Abraham ibn Ezra’s Scientific Cor­
pus: Basic Constituents and General Characterization’, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 11
(2001), pp. 104-113.
5 Shlomo Sela and Gad Freudenthal, ‘Abraham Ibn Ezra’s Scholarly Writings: A Chron­
ological List’, Aleph 6 (2006), pp. 13-55. This is the most updated reference for the chronol­
ogy of the treatises and is the followed in this study. For an early history of the astrolabe
and the treatises on it, see O. Neugebauer, ‘The early history of the astrolabe’, Isis 40.3
(1949), pp. 240-56.
v e rsio n s in tw o la n g u ag e s o f th is tre a tise , it is p o ssib ly d u e to tw o a lte r­
n a tiv e rea so n s: Ib n E zra w as a w a n d e rin g sc h o la r w h o d id n o t k ee p c o p ­
ies o f h is te x ts a n d h a d to re-w rite th e m sev eral tim e s o n d e m a n d 6 or
th e d iffe re n t p a tro n s a n d p u b lic s in th e citie s in w h ic h h e w ro te h is fo u r
tre a tise s d e m a n d e d slightly d iffe re n t a p p ro a c h e s to th e sa m e n e w su b ject.
In d e e d Ib n E zra w ro te several v ersio n s o f m o s t o f h is w o rk s.7 T h e m a in
th in g a b o u t th e s e tre a tise s a n d th e ir d iffe re n t v e rsio n s is th a t th e y a re n o t
in A rabic, th e n a tu ra l la n g u ag e o f th e Jew s in S ep h arad , b u t in H eb rew
a n d a few o f th e m also in L atin. W h y in H ebrew ?8 t h e g re a t g ra m m a ria n
M oses ib n c h iq a tilla (m id -e le v e n th ce n tu ry , Z arag o za) ex p la in e d w h y it
b e c a m e n e c e ssa ry for sc h o lars to w rite tre a tise s o n H eb rew g ra m m a r in
A rab ic fo r th e Jew s in A rab ic sp e ak in g c o u n trie s a n d in H eb rew for th e
o th e r Jew s: ‘th e m e n [i.e., th e Jew s] o f F ra n ce w h o live w ith in th e b o rd e rs
o f o u r b ro th e rs th e so n s o f E sau [i.e., th e c h r is tia n s o f E u ro p e] fo r th e
m o s t p a r t do n o t . . . k n o w A rabic, b u t m a n y o f th e m love th e h o ly to n g u e
a n d a re u s e d to sp e ak in g it.’9 C h iq atilla’s s ta te m e n t in re la tio n to g ra m m a r
ca n b e m a d e in re la tio n to o th e r sch o larly fields su c h as scien ce a n d b ib li­
cal exegesis. In th e in tro d u c tio n to o n e o f h is w orks, Yesodei h a -tev u n a h
u -m ig d a l h a -’e m u n a h (The F o undations o f U n d ersta n d in g a n d the Tower o f
F aith), A b ra h a m b a r H iyya (12th ce n tu ry , B arcelo n a) d e p ic ts a sim ila r sta te
in re la tio n to th e Jew s o f F ra n ce (Sarfat, a co n fu sin g d e n o m in a tio n th a t
s h o u ld also in c lu d e m e d ie v a l C a ta lo n ia in n o rth -e a s te rn S p ain ).10 M o st

6 See Norman Golb, The Jews in Medieval Normandy: A Social and Intellectual History,
(Cambridge UK, Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 258: ‘...his travels were evidently
linked to a desire for new knowledge, which could be gained by discovering old Hebrew,
Arabic, and Judaeo-Arabic manuscript treatises unavailable during the first four decades
of the twelfth century in his native land.’ I do not think Ibn Ezra deemed it likely to find
Arabic or Judaeo-Arabic texts on science in France, England, or central Italy. I keep think­
ing that he left the Iberian Peninsula for different reasons.
7 Golb, The Jews in Medieval Normandy, p. 260: ‘In his Saphah berurah [a treatise on
Hebrew grammar], composed later in his life, Ibn Ezra describes his custom of writing
down whatever was on his mind and then offering the finished manuscripts to his benefac­
tors in the various cities where he stayed, without leaving copies for himself.’
8 See David Romano, ‘El papel judio en la transmision de la cultura’, De historiajudla
hispanica, (Barcelona, Universidad de Barcelona, 1991), pp. 434-437. As regards the deep
impact of this decision in Hebrew culture, see Josefina Rodriguez Arribas, ‘Reading Astro­
labes in Medieval Hebrew’ (forthcoming).
9 Golb, TheJews in Medieval Normandy, p. 277.
10 Jose Maria Millas Vallicrosa (Heb. ed. and Spanish tr.), La obra enciclopedica Yesode
ha-tebuna u-migdal ha-’emuna de Abraham bar Hiyya ha-Bargeloni, (Madrid, CSIC, 1952),
p. 10 (Hebrew) and 37 (Spanish). As regards the question of the language spoken in these
territories, see David Romano, ‘Hispanojudios traductores del arabe,’ Boletln de la Real
Academia de Buenas Letras de Barcelona 43 (1991-1992), pp. 215-216; and Francisco J.
 Figure 1: Throne w ith the nam e of a Jewish ow ner (Science Museum, London)

o f th e Jew s o f C h ristian E u ro p e w e re u n a b le to re a d A rabic, b u t th e m o st

so u g h t a fte r a n d v a lu a b le scien tific k n o w led g e c irc u la te d m a in ly in th is
lan g u ag e in th e 12th ce n tu ry . T h a t is th e re a s o n w h y Ib n E zra (a n d A b ra­
h a m b a r H iyya b efo re h im ) d e c id e d to w rite th e ir tre a tise s in H ebrew .

3. The First Treatises on the A stro la b e in H ebrew (1146 a n d 1148)

L et u s ta k e a lo o k a t th e fo u r v e rsio n s th a t Ib n E zra w ro te o n th e a s tro ­

labe. Tw o o f th e H eb rew v ersio n s (th e first a n d th e se co n d ) w e re w ritte n
in th e sa m e y e a r (1146) a n d g eo g ra p h ica l c o n te x t (Italy) a n d th e th ird o n e
tw o y ea rs la te r (1148) in s o u th e rn F rance. T he L atin v e rsio n is th e la st
o n e (1154) a n d w as w ritte n in n o r th e r n F rance.

Table 1: Dates and Places of Ibn Ezra’s Treatises

Treatise Date Place

Heb. 1 1146 M antua (Italy)

Heb. 2 1146 Verona (Italy)
Heb. 3 1148 Beziers (France)
Latin 1154 Rouen (Normandy)

Hernandez, ‘The Jews and the Origins of Romance Script in Castile: A New Paradigm’,
Medieval Encounters 15 (2009), p. 273 (Provence would have included Aquitaine, Toulouse,
Provence, and Catalonia).
A p e ru sa l o f th e th re e H eb rew v e rsio n s reveals th a t th e first a n d th e sec­
o n d v e rsio n a re th e longest, th e m o s t c o m p le te a n d d e ta ile d , a n d th e b e s t
w ritte n . T hey d isp lay m u c h m o re te c h n ic a l in fo rm a tio n a n d d e fin itio n s
o f all k in d s (astro n o m ical, astro lo g ica l— n o ta b ly in th e se c o n d v e rs io n — ,
a n d o n th e in s tru m e n t). T he first v e rsio n o n th e a s tro la b e w as w ritte n in
1146 in M a n tu a .11 Like th e se c o n d v ersio n , it is d iv id e d in to c h a p te rs (36).
It sta rts w ith a d e s c rip tio n o f th e c o m p o n e n ts o f a n y a s tro la b e a n d th e ir
n a m e s. T his is th e on ly p la c e w h e re Ib n E zra sta te s th a t a s tro la b e s c a n b e
m a d e o f silver a n d ev e n gold. H e ex p lain s th e re a so n b e h in d so m e o f th e
n a m e s o f th e c o m p o n e n ts a n d also in tro d u c e s tw o plays o f w o rd s re la te d
to th e alid a d e (‘th e b it’ o f a h o rse) a n d th e p in (‘th e rid e r’ 331“in) a n d
its w ed g e (called ‘h o rs e ’ DID), b e c a u s e o f its m o s t u s u a l sh a p e in M u slim
astro la b e s) th a t h o ld s to g e th e r all th e e le m e n ts o f th e a s tro la b e .i2 T his is
a c h a ra c te ristic tr a it o f h is h u m o u r th a t h is re a d e rs m u s t h av e a p p re c ia te d
a n d it m a y also h av e b e e n a m n e m o te c h n ic ru le to p u t in re la tio n m a n y
o f th e c o m p o n e n ts a n d th e ir n a m e s for th o s e h e a rin g a b o u t th e m fo r th e
first tim e. T he te x t is v ery d e ta ile d a b o u t th e p a tte r n o f th e d iv isio n s o f
th e d eg re es en g ra v ed o n th e lim b o f th e m o th e r a n d a b o u t th e n u m e ra ls
in sc rib e d o n th e a s tro la b e (h o w th e n u m e ra ls are a b b re v ia te d : b e tw e e n
10 a n d 20 on ly 5 is in sc rib e d in ste a d o f 15, a n d so on). T h ese n u m e ra ls
w e re en g ra v ed w ith H eb rew le tte rs u se d as n u m b e rs, ju s t as w as th e cu s­
to m in Islam ic a stro lab e s. Ib n E zra ex p lain s th a t th e fo u r q u a d ra n ts in to
w h ic h th e b a c k o f th e m o th e r is d iv id e d are o rie n te d (e a st-so u th , east-
n o rth , w e st-n o rth , a n d w e st-so u th ) a n d e a c h o n e is for a specific a p p lic a ­
tio n o f a s tro la b e s (m e a su re o f a ltitu d e s a n d h eig h ts, m e a su re o f d e p th , th e
sq u a re o f shad o w s, a n d trig o n o m e tric a l grid o r n o th in g , resp ectiv ely ). Ib n
E zra refers to th e e q u a tio n o f th e su n (th is ex p re ssio n em erg es o n ly in th is
tre a tise ) a n d th e p ro b le m o f c o rre la tin g th e circle o f th e 3 6 0 d e g re es o f
th e zodiac, th e circle o f th e 365 d ays (a n d s o m e th in g else) o f th e year,
a n d th e circle o f th e 12 Ju lia n m o n th s . T h ere are se v eral p la te s (u su ally 3
o r m o re ) p la c e d w ith in th e m o th e r. T he circles o f C ap rico rn , C an cer, a n d
th e e q u a to r a re re p re s e n te d in ev ery o n e o f th e m . T h ese circles are p la c e d
diffe ren tly d e p e n d in g o n w h e th e r th e a s tro la b e is n o r th e r n o r s o u th e rn
a n d th is is a v ery d istin c tiv e a n d in trig u in g c o n c e rn in Ib n E zra’s H eb rew

11 See ‘Mantua’, Encyclopaedia Judaica (Detroit, Macmillan Reference USA in associa­

tion with the Keter Pub., 2007), vol. 13, pp. 486-487. Mantua seems to have been a small
community when Ibn Ezra settled down there for a while, see Shlomo Simonsohn, History
o f the Jews in the Duchy of Mantua (Jerusalem, Kiryat Sefer, 1977), p. 3.
12 Bibliotheque nationale de France MS hebreu 1061 fol. 149a.
tre a tise s o n th e astro lab e : h o w to p ro c e e d w h e n o n e h a s to h a n d le a
s o u th e rn a s tro la b e in a n o r th e r n la titu d e . T he classificatio n o f a s tro la b e s
a c c o rd in g to th e n u m b e r o f a lm u c a n ta rs (i.e., circles o f a ltitu d e p ara llel
to th e h o riz o n ) th e y d isp lay o n th e p la te s is also h ig h rele v an t, fo r th e
n u m b e r o f th e s e divisions is a p a r a m e te r to b e c o n s id e re d in m a n y ca lc u ­
latio n s. By c o n tra st, Ib n E zra co n sid e rs irre le v a n t th e a z im u th a l lin es a n d
h e on ly m e n tio n s th e m w ith o u t e x p la n a tio n o n th e g ro u n d s th a t th e y are
n o t p rec ise. Before in tro d u c in g th e a p p lic a tio n s o f a stro lab e s, Ib n E zra h as
p ro v id e d th e re a d e rs w ith se v eral d e fin itio n s a n d e x p la n a tio n s re la te d to
th e a stro la b e a n d to a stro n o m y . W h a t follow s in th e tre a tise is m a in ly a se t
o f in stru c tio n s w ith so m e e x p la n a tio n s a n d d efin itio n s. Ib n E zra is eag er
to p ro v id e re a d e rs w ith d iffe re n t m e th o d s fo r th e sa m e c a lc u la tio n (e.g.,
u p to five w ays o f m e a su rin g th e h e ig h t o f a to w e r)i3 a n d to a n tic ip a te th e
lim ita tio n s th a t o n e c a n e n c o u n te r w ith c e rta in specific in s tru m e n ts (no
p la te fo r th e re q u ire d la titu d e , in c o m p le te a stro lab e s, s o u th e rn astro lab e s,
re te w ith p o in te rs u n id e n tifie d — b e c a u s e th e y a re n o t in sc rib e d o r th e y
are n o t u n d e rsto o d , etc.):

If you did n o t identify them (i.e., the stars engraved on the rete): consider
the large star th a t you see [on the rete] as if it w ere one of the visible ones
[in the sky], take its altitude w hen it is in the midheaven, and make the rete
turn. If the pointer of the star th a t is sim ilar reaches the same altitude, it is
the actual star. If you identify one star, you can identify others. 14

H e fre q u e n tly conveys th e v ie w th a t m a n y ca lc u la tio n s a re o n ly a p p ro x i­

m a te . T h ro u g h Ib n E zra’s w o rd s o n e is c o n v in c e d th a t in a n y case th e se
a re th e b e s t re su lts a n y o n e w as ab le to o b ta in w ith th e m e a n s available.
Som e o f th e e x p la n a tio n s p ro v e th a t th e in s tru m e n t w as u s e d in th e o ­
re tic a l q u e stio n s, e.g., w h e n Ib n E zra ex p lain s h o w to a s c e rta in w ith th e
a s tro la b e if it is d ay o r n ig h t (in th e lo c al h o riz o n o r m a y b e in a p la ce far
aw a y fro m th e p la ce in w h ic h th e c a lc u la tio n is m a d e).

W henever you w ant to find this, place the degree or the star you w ant in the
first alm ucantar in the east. Consider the degree in w hich the sun is: if it is
in the alm ucantars above the horizon, then it is day. Find the time w hen the
nadir [i.e., the opposite degree] falls in the [division of] hour. If the degree
of the sun falls below the horizon, then it is night. 15

13 BnF MS 1061 fols. 161a-161b.

14 BnF MS 1061 fol. 160b. Unless otherwise noted, all the translations from Hebrew and
Latin in this article are mine.
15 BnF MS 1061 fol. 154a: bp nannw asian w nannw nbpan D’w nt n p ib n a n n ra
.d t Nin njn D n w n paw n bp nbaj dn wawn nbpab p y i m to napa n ra
T h ere is also m u c h c o n c e rn w ith a c c u ra c y b u t, w h e n h e is e x p la in in g th e
c a lc u la tio n o f th e la titu d e o f a n y city w ith th e astro la b e , h e r o u n d s off
th e d e c lin a tio n o f th e so la r p a th . U sing th e a ltitu d e o f th e e q u in o x in th a t
specific city, h e su b tra c ts th e a ltitu d e o f th e eq u in o x es fro m 9 0 in th e
e q u in o x e s w h ile 2 4 is su b tra c te d in th e su m m e r so lstice o r a d d e d in
th e w in te r solstice b efo re s u b tra c tin g th e r e s u lt fro m 90. H e is u sin g th e
v alu e 24 a c c o rd in g to P to lem y (in Ib n E zra’s w o rd s) as th e m a x im u m d e c ­
lin a tio n o f th e s u n e ith e r n o rth w a rd s o r so u th w a rd s. H ow ever, Ib n E zra
w as ab le to give a m o re a c c u ra te n u m b e r to th e m a x im u m d e c lin a tio n in
his b ib lic a l c o m m e n ta ry o n A m os 5:8 (nam ely , 23° 35’).i6
T he first v e rsio n is po ssib ly th e le a st c o n c e rn e d w ith astro lo g y o f th e
th re e H e b re w v e rsio n s o n th e a stro la b e . All th e tre a tise s e x p la in h o w to
fin d th e astro lo g ica l a sp e c ts a n d th e div isio n o f th e sky in astro lo g ica l
h o u ses, b u t on ly th e se c o n d a n d th e th ir d e x p la in a stro lo g ica l d ire c tio n s. 17
H ow ever, a few o f th e e x p la n a tio n s h e in tro d u c e d in th e first v e rsio n p ro v e
h e h a d also in m in d th e a stro lo g ica l b a c k g ro u n d o f a s tro la b e s in m e d iev a l
society, a n d n o ta b ly , ju d ic ia l astrology: ‘T he in flu e n c e (m isp a t, lit. ‘j u d g ­
m e n t’) o f th e m o o n c h a n g es a c c o rd in g to th e m a n s io n in w h ic h it re sid e s’,
‘o n th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e tw elv e h e a v e n ly h o u ses, a c c o rd in g to w h ic h th e
ju d g m e n t (m isp a t) is e sta b lish e d ’, a n d ‘ta k e in to a c c o u n t th a t ev e ry th in g
w h ic h G od b rin g s in a n a stro lo g ica l ju d g m e n t (m isp a t) w h e n th e p la n e t is
in a w id e h o u se c h a n g es its in flu e n ce w h e n th e p la n e t is in a rig h t h o u se .’i8

njn paw n n n n by wawn mbya baj dni nywn by n aun biaja u o o n’n’ myw naa
nb’b Nin.
16 BnF MS 1061 fols. 155a-155b and Uriel Simon, Ibn Ezra’s Two Commentaries on
the Minor Prophets, vol. 1: Hosea, Joel, Amos (Ramat Gan, Bar Ilan University, 1989),
pp. 209-215, respectively. Al-Zarqallu considered that the inclination of the ecliptic oscil­
lated between two uppest values (23° 33’ and 23° 53’), see Juan Vernet and Julio Samso,
‘Development of Arabic Science in Andalusia’, in Encyclopedia o f the History o f Arabic Sci­
ence, ed. by Rushdl Rashid and Regis Morelon (London-New York, Routledge, 1996), vol. 1,
p. 260. Ptolemy’s values for this parameter was exactly 23° 51’ (Almagest 1.12). The force of
tradition prevailed among astrolabists and so old values for the inclination of the ecliptic
were kept in use for centuries even after these values had been updated with new observa­
tions, see David King, In Synchrony with the Heavens: Studies in Astronomical Timekeeping
and Instrumentation in Medieval Islamic Civilization, (Leiden, Brill, 2005), vol. 2, p. 46. In
this way, an astrolabe with an inclination of the ecliptic of 24° must not have been rare.
17 In relation to this concept, see Josefina Rodriguez Arribas, ‘Terminology for Histori­
cal Astrology according to Abraham Bar Hiyya and Abraham Ibn Ezra’, Aleph 11.1 (2011),
pp. 201-248.
18 BnF MS 1061 fols 156b: dw nnn N’n iw n njnan ’aa n n b n oaw a njnwa; ibid.
157a-157b: oaw an n’n’ Dn’a by iw n D’awn ’n a 'a’n n ap n ny’TO; and ibid. 158a: y ii
n’aa ini’na ina njnw’ b ra n n’aa aaian m’na ’a oaw aa '’nban i n ’s ’ nbN ba by ’a
1W’, respectively.
T he d iffe ren ce b e tw e e n n a rro w (less th a n 30 d eg rees) a n d w id e h o u se s
(m o re th a n 30 d eg rees) w ith re s p e c t to rig h t h o u se s (30 d eg rees) is ex clu ­
sive to th e first v ersio n . A d istin c tiv e tr a it o f Ib n E zra’s H eb rew tre a tise s
o n th e a s tro la b e is th a t h e on ly refers to o n e m e th o d for th e e s ta b lis h m e n t
o f th e a stro lo g ica l h o u se s o r d o m ific a tio n (th e h o u r lin e s m e th o d ), w h ic h
is in c o n tra s t w ith h is astro lo g ica l a n d ex e g etica l tex ts, in w h ic h h e m e n ­
tio n s tw o (a lth o u g h h e is n o t ex p licit in th e m a b o u t h o w o n e m a k e s th e
division).!9 All th re e v e rsio n s refer to a list o f sta rs for th e rete . Ib n E zra

19 BnF MS 1061 fols. 157b-158a, BnF MS hebreu 1045 fol. 194a, and Russian State Library
Ms Gunzburg 937 fol. 9b for the three Hebrew versions, respectively. Among the different
methods for dividing the zodiac into houses, Ibn Ezra mentions two: the division accord­
ing to the ascensions of the signs in any local horizon (be-mispar luah ha-ares) and the
division according to the ascensions of the degrees in the sphaera recta (be-mispar ma'alot
yesarot). He seems to prefer the first method in his astrological works, but the way he
made these divisions remains completely obscure for there is no explicit explanation in
any of them. He mentions a division of the circle (hilluq ha-galgal) in his Sefer ha-moladot
(BnF MS hebreu 1056 fol. 51a.) that divides the zodiac into twelve houses explaining that
such division is theoretical and non real. This same division is alluded to also later in
this work by the expression hilluq ha-battim (BnF MS 1056 fol. 61a.). In the first version
of his Sefer ha-mivharim (Shlomo Sela [Hebrew ed. and English tr.], Abraham Ibn Ezra on
Elections, Interrogations, and Medical Astrology, A Parallel Hebrew-English Critical Edition,
Leiden-Boston, Brill, 2011, p. 82 [10.1.5]), Ibn Ezra refers to a division of houses according to
the ascensions of the specific climate (hilluq ha-battim kefi mis'adei luah ha-ares), which he
contrasts to the division of houses according to the calculation in degrees of the sphaera
recta (hilluq ha-battim ke-hesbon ma'alot ha-yesarot). In his Sefer mispetei ha-mazzalot, Ibn
Ezra also distinguishes a division according to the ascensions (hilluq ha-mis'adim) from
a division according to the sphaera recta (hilluq ha-missor), see Meir Ben Yitzhaq Baqal
[Heb. text], Seder 12 ha-mazzalot, (Jerusalem, Hotsa’at Bakal, 1994), vol. 2, p. 161. We can
conclude from all we have said that Ibn Ezra mentions two methods, one has to do with a
division of the equator and the other with a division of the ecliptic. The methods implied
could be the so called standard method and the hour lines method, as John North suggests.
The standard method consists in the projection of the four angles of the horoscope
from the equatorial pole onto the equator and their respective division into three parts
that are projected onto the ecliptic from the equatorial pole. The intersections of these
circles with the ecliptic determine the cusps of the houses. The second method divides the
zodiac in houses according to the intersections of the ecliptic with the lines of the seasonal
hours inscribed in the plate of an astrolabe. This was Ibn Ezra’s method in his treatises on
the astrolabe (Hebrew and Latin versions) and the one he seems to prefer. For an explana­
tion of the different methods available in Ibn Ezra’s time, see Edward Stewart Kennedy,
‘The Astrological Houses as Defined by Medieval Islamic Astronomers’, in From Baghdad
to Barcelona, Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences in Honour of Prof. Juan Vernet, ed. by
J. Casulleras and J. Samso (Barcelona, Instituto Millas Vallicrosa de Historia de la Ciencia
Arabe, 1996), vol. 2, pp. 535-578. For Ibn Ezra’s method on the division of houses, see
J. North, Horoscopes and History, (London, The Warburg Institute, 1986), pp. 20-26, and
‘The Alphonsine Books and Some Astrological Techniques’, in De astronomia Alphonsi
regis, ed. by Merce Comes, Rafael Puig and Julio Samso (Barcelona: Instituto Millas Val­
licrosa de Historia de la Ciencia Arabe, 1987), pp. 43-50. Ibn Ezra seems to be the oldest
source for the hour lines method of domification, which was not very popular among
Arabic astrologers, see John North, Horoscopes and History, pp. 20-27.
ex p lain s th a t h e h a s m o d ifie d th e v alu es in a se t o f a s tro n o m ic a l ta b le s
t h a t h e m u s t h av e h a d b e fo re h im w h e n h e w as w ritin g th e tre a tise . He
a d d e d 51’’ 26’’’ to th e ste lla r p o sitio n s o n th e ta b le s h e h a d in o rd e r to
u p d a te th e ta b le s a n d a s su m e d th a t th e re a d e r w o u ld h av e a sim ila r set
o f tab les, fo r h e says: ‘B ehold, I a m g oing to w rite fo r y o u th e p o sitio n s
as th e y w ere in th e y e a r 1146. I a m sh iftin g every s ta r fro m its p la ce o n e
d eg re e every se v en ty years, th a t is, I a m sh iftin g [th em ] fifty-one se co n d s
a n d tw en ty -six th ird s every y ea r.’20 In th is w ay re a d e rs c a n u p d a te a n y list
o f sta rs p ro v id e d th a t th e y k n o w th e d a te o f th e tab les.
Ib n E zra c o m p o se d th e se c o n d v e rsio n o n th e a s tro la b e in 1146 in
V ero n a (Italy).21 In th e 12th ce n tu ry , V ero n a w as a c e n tre o f c u ltu ra l a n d
e c o n o m ic p o w e r a n d its lo n g -sta n d in g Je w ish c o m m u n ity (g o in g b a c k to
th e R o m an p e rio d ) w as a m o n g th e m o s t im p o r ta n t in Italy .22 Ib n E zra
s ta rts th e se c o n d H e b re w v e rsio n o f th e tre a tise o n th e a s tro la b e w ith a
b r ie f re fle c tio n o n language. W e sh o u ld r e m e m b e r th a t h e w as also w rit­
in g a tre a tise o n H eb rew g ra m m a r in th e sam e y e a r a n d in th e sam e city
(Safa B erurah o r Clear L a n g u a g e) a n d th a t h e h a d c o m p o se d a n o th e r in
L ucca in 1145 (Sefer S a h o t o r B ook o f P urity). T h u s th e H e b re w la n g u ag e
w as o bviously a se rio u s c o n c e rn fo r h im in th e se years:

The expert can only translate into another language w ith great effort, for we
do n o t know anything of the holy language except w hat is contained in the
Bible. The astrolabe has m any nam es b u t I will m ention them now accord­
ing to w hat is in the extent of my knowledge.23

20 b n f Ms 1061 fol. 158b: Y p'n'm '’a b N 't njw a rn nwNa Daipa ib ainaN njn
n ''j njw baa pny’ mm .'n nbya njw 'y baa la ip aa aaia ba pny’ ’a yT .Dbiy nN’nab
D’’wbw l''ai D’’JW. See Solomon Gandz, ‘The Division of the Hour in Hebrew Literature’,
Osiris 10 (1952), pp. 10-34 (here p. 29): 60 minutes = 18 halaqim and 1 heleq = 200 thirds
(the Hebrew calendrical system). For the terminology of the first version, see Rodriguez
Arribas, ‘Reading Astrolabes in Medieval Hebrew’ (forthcoming).
21 Shlomo Sela states that it was written possibly in Lucca, see ‘Abraham Ibn Ezra’s
Scientific Corpus Basic Constituents and General Characterization’, p. 104. We have consid­
ered his most updated opinion in Shlomo Sela and Gad Freudenthal, ‘Abraham Ibn Ezra’s
Scholarly Writings: A Chronological List’, Aleph 6 (2006), pp. 13-55. Sela was the first to
indicate the existence of a second version of A. ibn Ezra’s treatise on the astrolabe.
22 This city was at the junction of the ancient Roman main roads between Italy and
northern Europe. Verona became an independent republic in 1107, joined to the Mark
of Bavaria in 1136, and formed the powerful Veronese League in 1164. See also ‘Verona’,
EncyclopaediaJudaica, vol. 20, pp. 513-514; and Nello Pavoncello, Gli Ebrei in Verona dalle
origini al secolo XX, (Verona, Vita veronese, 1960), especially pp. 9-10.
23 Second version, BnF ms 1045 fol. 187b: ir n a dn ’a nnnN pwba Dnnb p aa a na pN
nwinjn ’ba mawi Nnpaa ainan pn n ja a D’yTi’ unjN pNw wnpn pwba ’a ^ni nwp
’nyT t J’wn nwN ’a by D’n’atN nnyi D’an.
A fter th is b r ie f in tro d u c tio n , Ib n E zra e n u m e ra te s th e c o m p o n e n ts
o f a stro lab e s: th e m o th e r a n d th e tw o d ia m e te rs th a t d iv id e th e b a c k
in to fo u r q u a rte rs. T he first o f th e q u a rte rs (u p p e r left) h a s tw o scales
(m a'alot), d iv id e d in to 90 degrees, a n d m e a su re s th e a ltitu d e o f th e su n
an d th e h e ig h t o f a tree , to w er, etc.; th e se co n d q u a rte r (lo w er left, also
d iv id ed in 9 0 d eg rees) m e a su re s d e p th s; th e th ird q u a rte r (lo w er rig h t)
h a s th e sh a d o w sq u a re d iv id e d in to 12 p a rts (digits); a n d th e fo u rth q u a r­
te r (u p p e r rig h t) h as a trig o n o m e tric grid for ca lc u la tin g ch o rd s a n d arcs
(th is se em s to b e a fe a tu re c h a ra c te ristic o f e a s te rn Islam ic a stro la b e s a n d
is n o t o n all astrolabes).24 T hese fo u r q u a rte rs are o rie n te d as follow s: th e
u p p e r left is so u th e rn -e a ste rn , th e lo w er le ft is e a s te rn -n o rth e rn , th e lo w er
rig h t is n o rth e rn -w e ste rn , a n d th e u p p e r rig h t is so u th e rn -w e ste rn . O n th e
b a c k th e re is also th e a lid a d e (m a'esar, literally, th e b it th e h o rse h o ld s
in its m o u th ), for m a n co n tro ls w ith it th e m e a su re o f th e deg rees. T he
a lid a d e h a s tw o sig h tin g v a n e s w ith tw o holes, o n e sm all a n d th e o th e r
large. T h ere are also o fte n (b u t n o t alw ays) fo u r circles, tw o for th e zo d iac
a n d its divisions (360 d eg re es a n d 12 signs o f 30 d e g re es ea ch ) a n d tw o
for th e divisions o f th e y e a r (365 days a n d 12 Ju lia n m o n th s o f 28, 30, a n d
31 days). R eg ard in g th e c a le n d ric a l scale, Ib n E zra ex p lain s in m o re d etail:

Above it there is a circle w here the Gentile m onths are w ritten, although
this is m ade approximately. It cannot be really accurate, there is an excess
over the days of the sun of a quarter of day and the quarter is n ot precise,
for a day is missing every 130 years, as I will explain in the Book o f nativities.
This is their m ethod: an extreme of the alidade (ma'esar) m ust be pointed
and they place it on the days and look at the degrees w ith respect to the sign
of the zodiac w ritten above.25

T he fro n t o f th e m o th e r h a s th e lim b (ta ’) d iv id e d in to 3 6 0 d eg rees a n d

c o n ta in s th r e e a n d a h a lf p la te s, th e h a lf w ith in th e m o th e r w ith o n e
o f th e seven clim es. T he re m a in in g six clim es a re in sc rib ed o n th e fro n t a n d
th e b a c k o f th e th re e p la te s . 26 H ow ever, it is p o ssib le fo r so m e astro la b e s

24 B. Goldstein and G. Saliba, ‘A Hispano-Arabic Astrolabe with Hebrew Star Names’,

Annali dell’Instituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza di Firenze 8 (1983), p. 19.
25 Second version, BnF MS 1045 fol. 188b: D^un ’Win airD DW nVuy HJQQ nbyabl
n ann rno’ by rflDin w ’ 3 maya r a x a p3J ir i’nb p r xb ’3 n a n p p i a ’iDy nn
nsDa wnax nwx3 di’ nDn’ njw b''p b3a ’3 ns’ p n p ia njj’N r ’y’ann ’3 n y i di’ r ’y’an
w w na ib3rD’i D’a ’n by nayan ia’wn i n nayan ip nap n’n’w D3rn n33i .rn b io n
nbyab air3 n bran TU3 ribyaa.
26 We understand that these climes on the plates are divisions according to the lati­
tudes of specific cities in the inhabited land (which largely depend on the area where the
astrolabe was made: the East or the West, southern or northern Europe, etc.). In this way,
to h av e m o re th a n th re e . T he p la te s h av e o n e a c h sid e th re e circles (th e
tw o tro p ic s o f C a n c e r a n d C a p ric o rn a n d th e e q u a to r). As in th e first v e r­
sion, th e d is trib u tio n o f th e tro p ic circles c h a n g es d e p e n d in g o n w h e th e r
th e a s tro la b e is s o u th e rn o r n o r th e r n : th e circ le o f C a n c e r is sm a ll
a n d th e circle o f C ap rico rn large in n o rth e rn astro lab es a n d th e o p p o site in
so u th e rn a stro lab e s. H ow ever, th e circle o f th e e q u a to r is alw ays p la c e d
th e sa m e b e tw e e n th e tw o tro p ic s. O n th e p la te s th e r e a re tw o d ia m ­
e te rs (th e m e rid ia n lin e a n d th e s tra ig h t h o riz o n , i.e., th e h o riz o n a t th e
eq u a to r) a n d several circles a n d arcs o f circles p e rp e n d ic u la r to ea c h o th e r
(a lm u c a n ta rs o r circles o f a ltitu d e a n d a z im u th a l o r d ire c tio n lines).27
T he n u m b e r o f th e a ltitu d e divisions d e p e n d s o n w h e th e r th e a s tro la b e is
c o m p le te (o n e div isio n every d egree) o r in c o m p le te . T he a lm u c a n ta rs ca n
b e u se d to d e te rm in e th e la titu d e o f th e place. Finally, o n th e fro n t, o n th e
lo w er half, th e 12 divisions o f th e se aso n a l h o u rs a re r e p r e s e n te d (e q u i­
n o c tia l h o u rs a re alw ays e q u iv a le n t to 15 d eg re es o f th e sp h e re a n d so
th e y do n o t n e e d a n ex p licit r e p r e s e n ta tio n o n th e in s tru m e n t). T he re te
is alw ays d iv id e d in to tw o u n e v e n p arts: th e large fo r th e so u th e rn signs
o f th e zo d iac (fro m L ibra to Pisces) a n d th e sm all for th e n o r th e r n (fro m
A ries to V irgo) in n o r th e r n astro la b e s; th e o p p o site h o ld s for s o u th e rn
astro lab e s. T he re te also c o n ta in s sev eral p o in te rs (sen h a d ) for in d ic a tin g
th e m o s t im p o r ta n t v isib le sta rs in th e sky.
T he follow ing p a r t in th e tre a tise c o n c e rn s th e m a in a p p lic a tio n s o f
astro lab e s: a s tro n o m ic a l a n d astro lo g ica l calc u latio n s. S tartin g w ith th e
a s tro n o m ic a l uses, Ib n E zra refers to th e a ltitu d e o f th e sun, sta rs a n d

a plate for the latitude of Toledo could be used (with some extra calculations) in latitudes
whose value was not very far from the latitude of Toledo, which allow us to consider the
latitude of Toledo as a clime. The same applies for every one of the remaining plates.
However, there was usually a plate for the exact latitude of the city in which the astrolabe
was made.
27 Second version, BnF MS 1045 fol. 189a: ‘The rule of the makers is to write a number
on every almucantar according to the number [of divisions] of the astrolabe. There are
also astrolabes on which they inscribed [other lines] prior to the almucantars, which
are called the divisions of the azimuth (qavei ha-qadqod).’ From this quotation, we learn
that the custom in Ibn Ezra’s times and context was to inscribe first the azimuthal lines
and later the lines of the almucantars. For a survey of the different methods for drawing
the azimuthal lines in Arabic literature, see J.L. Berggren, ‘Medieval Islamic Methods for
Drawing Azimuth Circles on the Astrolabe’, Centaurus 34 (1991), pp. 309-344. We do not
know Ibn Ezra’s method of drawing the azimuthal lines, for he neither paid attention to
these divisions nor used them. We know that there were also astrolabes without azimuthal
lines inscribed on the plates, see Sreeramula Rajeswara Sarma, ‘A Bilingual Astrolabe from
the Court of Jahangir’, Indian Historical Review 38.1 (2011), p. 89.
p la n e ts a n d th e ir p o sitio n s. Ib n E zra in tro d u c e s o n e o f h is m a n y calls
a b o u t th e ac cu rac y o f th e s e ca lc u latio n s:

If you know the latitude of the place at w hich you are, namely, how far is
your place from the equator, and you have a plate on the astrolabe for the
latitude of that place, you can calculate the true position of the sun, pro­
vided that you have a com plete astrolabe .28

R eg ard in g th e p o sitio n o f fixed sta rs a n d th e p la n e ts, h e advises:

If one of the latitudes (merhavim) is very close, you cannot calculate accu­
rately the position of the fixed star, however it reaches a good approxim a­
tion (yagi'ah gedolah) through m uch calculation. You can calculate the
position of the planets w ith accuracy in the Book o f the tables.29

T he a s tro la b e th a t Ib n E zra co n sid e rs in th is v e rsio n h a s th e v e rn a l e q u i­

n o x for M a rc h 14 (w h ich is ca lled th e e p o c h o f th e a s tro la b e in a s tro ­
la b e stu d ies). T his p a r t en c lo se s a list o f th e sta rs o n th e r e te in H eb rew
a n d A rabic (th e la tte r in H e b re w tra n sc rip tio n ), th e ir m a g n itu d e s, lo n g i­
tu d e s, la titu d e s , a n d th e c o n s te lla tio n w h e re th e y are . M a n y o f th e sta rs
r e fe rre d to in th e list a re n o n -P to le m a ic a n d c o m e fro m B e d o u in tr a d i­
tio n s r e la te d to th e sky o f th e A ra b ia n d e se rts.30
T he a stro lo g ica l p a r t o p e n s w ith th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e risin g degree,
b a sic for c a stin g a h o ro sco p e . It c o n tin u e s w ith u se s o f a s tro la b e s th a t
a re a s tro n o m ic a l, a stro lo g ica l a n d ca le n d rical, su c h as th e c a lc u la tio n
o f se aso n a l h o u rs, th e ir arcs, th e arc s o f d ay a n d n ig h t in se a so n a l a n d
e q u in o c tia l h o u rs, th e a s c e n sio n s o f th e signs in th e s p h a e ra r e c ta a n d in
a p a rtic u la r h o riz o n , th e la titu d e o f a n y p la ce b y d iffe re n t m e th o d s, th e
se a so n a l h o u rs o f n ig h t, th e rises a n d th e se ttin g s o f stars, th e d iu rn a l a n d
n o c tu rn a l arcs o f stars, th e la titu d e (m erhav) o f sta rs (‘th e m e a n in g is h o w
m u c h is th e d ista n c e b e tw e e n th e sta r a n d th e so lar p a th [’a fu d a t galgal-
h a -m a z za lo t] ’),31 a n d th e p o sitio n o f sta rs a n d p la n e ts b y th re e m e th o d s,
a b o u t w h ic h Ib n E zra explains:

28 Second version, BnF MS 1045 fol. 189b.

29 Second version, BnF MS 1045 fol. 190a. It seems that Ibn Ezra found more accuracy
in calculation with tables than in actual observation.
30 See Clinton Bailey, ‘Bedouin Star-Lore in Sinai and the Negev’, Bulletin o f the School
of Oriental and African Studies (University of London) 37.3 (1974); and L. de Saussure,
‘L’origine de la rose des vents et l’invention de la boussole’, in Introduction a l’astronomie
nautique arabe, ed. by Gabriel Ferrand (Paris, Paul Geuthner, 1928), pp. 80 ff.
31 Second version, BnF MS 1045 fol. 192b. There is a certain inconsistency in the termi­
nology, for Ibn Ezra uses (here and in the other treatises) merhav and rohav for latitude
(with respect to the ecliptic) and merhav only for declination (with respect to the equator).
 This m ethod is more correct than the previously m entioned, although all
of them are approxim ate w hen the planet (kokav) has any [zodiacal] lati­
tude (m erhav), and m oreover if the [zodiacal] latitude is great. As long
as the planet has n o t [zodiacal] latitude (merhav), the calculation will be
always right. This only happens w hen the p lanet is on its n orthern or south­
ern nodes (ros tannino ’o zenavo). If the planet has any [zodiacal] latitude
(merhav), you can correct (letaqqen) a little.32

O th e r a p p lic a tio n s in c lu d e th e la titu d e o f th e p la n e ts (m esa rtim ), th e vis­

ib ility a n d in v isib ility o f th e m o o n (m a tu tin e a n d v e s p e rtin e m o o n s a n d
th e ir arcs o f visibility), a n d th e m o rn in g a n d ev e n in g tw ilig h ts. Finally, Ib n
E zra co m es b a c k to astro lo g ica l su b je cts w ith th e e n u m e ra tio n (in A rab ic
a n d H eb rew ) o f th e lu n a r m a n sio n s a n d th e ir d e s c rip tio n (th e m a n u s c rip ts
e v e n re p ro d u c e in sm all d iag ram s th e d iffe re n t s h a p e s o f th e s e asterism s,
fo r so m e a s tro la b e s w ere in sc rib e d w ith them ).33 O n e c a n also calc u late
th e h o u r o f n ig h t b y th e lu n a r m ansions.34

Merhav of a certain star in the astronomical tables is equivalent to the right ascension of
the star, while the longitude is equivalent to the mediation, i.e., the degree of the ecliptic
that passes the meridian at the same time the star does. These are equatorial coordinates,
to distinguish from the ecliptic coordinates (longitude and latitude), which Ibn Ezra uses
in his treatises, see P. Kunitzsch, ‘The Stars on the Astrolabe’, in Astrolabes at Greenwich,
ed. by Koenraad van Cleempoel (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 42.
32 Second version, BnF MS 1045 fol. 192b: by ^n D’nann D’arn n a nnaj nm’ ir n n nn
pn nann n n n a n’n ’a ^ni anna aaiab n’n dn nainp i r n by Dn D’arnn nbN baw ’a
in r n n wNn Dy nnwan n’n’w pn p n ’ Nb nn naN n’n’ T a n anna nnwab n’n Nb dn
anna ib n’n dn oya fpnb bairn iajt.
33 In relation to the lunar mansions in Hebrew, see Moritz Steinschneider, ‘Uber die
Mondstationen (Naxatra) und das Buch Arcandam’, Zeitschrift der Deutschen morgen-
landischen Gesellschaft 18 (1864), pp. 118-201.
34 Ibn Ezra introduces an interesting commentary in relation to the Hebrew concept
molad (‘new moon’), see second version, BnF MS 1045 fol. 193b: ‘This is not with accuracy
either, for the molad can take place in the half of the (lunar) mansion or close to the
degrees of the mansion. The question is also difficult because they did not understand
the eclipses (qedarim), for these mansions do not have equal divisions, some of them are
large and some of them are small. In any place with latitude the number of the eclipses
is always wrong, for in a place whose latitude is forty-five degrees the first mansion rises
entirely while not even half a right hour rises. Behold, the mansion that is the fifteenth
among the other rises in more than one hour. Likewise, the degrees of every mansion
change depending on the place. For this reason, many of our colleagues were wrong
when they said that one can calculate by means of the molad the exact rise ('alut) of the
moon every night and its set. Moreover, they were wrong for the motion of the moon
changes, sometime it goes fast and sometimes it is slow. In addition, the molad is not, as
they thought, the moment of the conjunction of the luminaries, for it is so not even once
in fifty years, as I explained in the Book of intercalation. In relation to timekeeping accord­
ing to the lunar mansions, see Julio Samso, ‘Lunar Mansions and Timekeeping in Western
Islam’, Suhayl 8 (2008), pp. 121-161.
 T he e x p la n a tio n o f th e re v o lu tio n o f th e y ear, th e re v o lu tio n o f th e
m o n th , a n d th e re v o lu tio n o f th e n a ta l c h a rt are th re e p rim a ry to p ic s
in all th e b ra n c h e s o f astro lo g y (h isto rical, n a ta l, elective, in te rro g a tiv e ,
a n d m e d ica l), as th e th re e lo n g c o n tig u o u s se c tio n s o n th e s e to p ic s show ,
am o n g w h ic h th e first is o n th e div isio n o f th e ec lip tic in to 12 h o u se s
(i.e., th e div isio n o f th e zo d iac in to tw elv e secto rs ca lle d h o u ses, e a c h o n e
a sc rib e d to a p a rtic u la r a s p e c t o f th e life o f th e p e r s o n ) 35 Ib n E zra c o n ­
tin u e s w ith a lo n g e x p la n a tio n o n th e a s p e c ts a n d th e ir d iv isio n in to left
a n d rig h t, a n d o n th e d irec tio n s. T he la tte r is th e b e s t e x p la n a tio n o f th is
q u e s tio n in an y o f th e tw o H e b re w tre a tise s th a t c o n s id e re d it (th e se co n d
a n d th e th ird v ersio n s), fo r Ib n E zra is ex p licit a b o u t h o w th e y are u se d in
a stro lo g ica l ju d g m e n ts:

According to the opinion of astrologers, directions are fundam ental and they
direct the aphetic places (meqomot ha-hayyim), w hich are five and are called
the princes (ha-sarim): the sun, the moon, their conjunction and opposition,
w hichever of them takes place ju st before the birth (molad)— and take into
consideration only the conjunction or the opposition already past— the ris­
ing degree, and the lot of fortune ( goral ha-m azzal ha-tov).36

T he la st p a r t o f th e se c o n d v e rsio n co n sists o f tw o g ro u p s o f c o rre c tio n s to

in tro d u c e in th e ta b le s available, so m e tim e s w ith th e h e lp o f a n astrolabe.37
T he first g ro u p c o n c e rn s th e rev o lu tio n s o f y ea rs a n d m o n th s a n d is b a s e d
o n th e m e a n m o tio n o f th e lu m in a rie s a n d in te rc a la tio n . T he se co n d
g ro u p re la te s to th e d a ta p ro v id e d b y a s tro n o m ic a l ta b le s a n d d e p e n d s
o n th e a m o u n t o f tim e b e tw e e n th e d a ta re fe rre d to in th e ta b le a n d th e
a c tu a l p o sitio n s in th e sky a t th e m o m e n t o f u s in g th e astrolabe.38 H o w ­
ever, th e se c o rre c tio n s are n o t b a s e d o n th e d ire c t o b se rv a tio n o f th e sky

35 Second version, BnF MS 1045 fols. 193b-194b and fol. 194a: ‘Behold, there is no doubt
regarding the calculation of the angles (tiqqun ha-yetedot), for there are clear proofs about
them, only there is mistake in the calculation of the four remaining houses and doubt and
polemic is among the experts (hakamim).’ Ibn Ezra mentions only four houses, for in the
hour lines method the cusps of these houses also determine the cusps of the four opposite
(eight in whole, and with the four angles or cardines, twelve).
36 Second version, BnF MS 1045 fol. 194b and fol. 195a: oaw aa Jnun Nin bn^ np’y
Dipai mabm wawn Dm D’nwn w np’ nw an Dm D’’nn m aip a ;tnjb D^njai rnbtan bya
rn a n a n bN dn ’a b a n o Nb ib ian di’ bN a n p m i’ n’n’ Dna m ’N Dnaj in D m aana
aion bran b u n nn aisn nbyam r a y w najn bN in .
37 Second version, BnF MS 1045 fols 195a-196a.
38 For an example of astronomical tables in Hebrew, see B.R. Goldstein, ‘The Astro­
nomical Tables of Judah ben Verga’, Suhayl 2 (2001), pp. 227-289; for medieval astrono­
mical tables in general, see Jose Chabas and Bernard R. Goldstein, A Survey of European
Astronomical Tables in the Late Middle Ages (Leiden, Brill, 2012).
b u t o n ca lc u la tio n s in te n d e d to re p a ir th e gap b e tw e e n th e old p o sitio n s
re fle c te d o n th e re te a n d th e n e w ones. T he tre a tise fin ish es w ith a n en ig ­
m a tic s e n te n c e im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e e x p la n a tio n o f th e c o rre c tio n o f th e
c e n tre s o f V enus a n d M e rc u ry a n d th e c o rre c tio n o f th e ir epicycles: ‘T h ere
is a se c re t [ in th is ] a n d b e b le ssed w h o k n o w s th e tr u th .’39 U n e x p la in e d
se c re ts are so m e th in g c h a ra c te ristic o f Ib n E zra’s style. T h ro u g h o u t his
w ritin g s, h e leaves clu es a n d d ro p s h in ts a b o u t th e s e secrets. A b ra h a m
ib n E zra in te n d e d th e se e so te ric allu sio n s fo r p e o p le v ery w ell le a rn e d
in a s tro n o m y a n d astrology; h e is n o t allu d in g h e re to a n y m y stica l or
relig io u s m e a n in g 40
T he se c o n d H eb rew v e rsio n (like th e first) displays a large n u m b e r o f
te c h n ic a l te rm s a n d d efin itio n s. Surely th e y w e re in te n d e d for p eo p le
alre a d y fam iliar w ith a s tro n o m ic a l a n d a stro lo g ica l su b jects, b u t d e m a n d ­
in g a d e ta ile d tre a tise o n th e m a in in s tru m e n t o f th e s e scien ces. T he sec­
o n d v e rsio n se em s to im p ly th a t Ib n E zra is d e sc rib in g a L atin a stro la b e
(‘All w h a t I h av e ex p la in e d re g a rd in g th e m o th e r a n d th e y e a r is w ith
re s p e c t to e ith e r n o r th e r n o r s o u th e rn a s tro la b e s a n d w ith re s p e c t to a
G e n tile m o th e r ’),41 a lth o u g h h e is also giving a ll th e e x p la n a tio n s re q u ire d
b y so m e o n e d ea lin g w ith a s tro la b e s c o m p le te a n d in c o m p le te , s o u th ­
e rn a n d n o rth e rn , a n d m issin g p la te s o r d a ta for th e c a lc u la tio n s (th is
re m a in s a d istin c tiv e tr a it in th e th re e H eb rew treatises).42 It is re le v a n t
in th e c o n te x t o f th is p e rio d to r e m e m b e r th a t Ib n E zra h a d n o t w ritte n
so far a n y a stro lo g ica l tre a tise (1146), a lth o u g h h e h a d c o m p o se d th e
first v e rsio n o f h is L u h o t (a stro n o m ic a l ta b les) a n d th e ir e x p la n a tio n
(Sefer te'a m el ha-luhot) in L ucca b efo re 1145 a n d th e first v e rsio n o f his

39 Second version, BnF MS 1045 fol. 196a: r a x n yTi’n T nai TO xb W’.

40 The word sod (secret/mystery) emerges frequently in the exegetical and religious
writings of Ibn Ezra, mostly related to astronomical and astrological allusions and mean­
ings. It is also frequent in medieval Hebrew literature in religious and mystical contexts.
Its presence in only one of the three Hebrew treatises devoted to the astrolabe, and more
precisely in the last sentence of the treatise, should be indicative of something. It would
be convenient to remember that the word ‘secret / mystery’ emerges also in Latin and
vernacular texts and refers to technical knowledge. In these technical contexts it does
not imply something hidden or esoteric, but that there is a certain difficulty in the matter
that is being discussed. See Pamela O. Long, ‘Invention, Secrecy, and Theft: Meaning and
Context in the Study of Late Medieval Technical Transmission’, History and Technology:
An InternationalJournal 16.3 (2000), pp. 227-228.
41 Second version, BnF MS 1045 fol. 188b. The word ‘Gentile’ usually refers to Christians
in Ibn Ezra’s texts and not to Muslims, who are referred to by other names.
42 For the terminology of this version, see Rodriguez Arribas, ‘Reading Astrolabes in
Medieval Hebrew’ (forthcoming).
Sefer h a -cib b u r (o n th e Je w ish c a le n d a r) in V ero n a in 1146.43 T he Jew s o f
M a n tu a a n d V ero n a w o u ld h av e b e e n in s tru c te d b y o th e r te x ts o n th e a r t
o f astro lo g y a n d astro n o m y . W h ic h w e re th e se te x ts? A b ra h a m b a r H iyya’s
m o n o g ra p h s? O ral te a c h in g b y A n d a lu s ia n sch o lars like Ib n Ezra? Je w ­
ish sc h o lars fro m Italy? L atin o r v e rn a c u la r te a c h e rs? A strology w as v ery
p o p u la r also a m o n g Christians.44
R egarding th e th ir d H e b re w tre a tise , it w as c o m p o se d in B eziers th e
y e a r 1148.45 As in h is p rev io u s travels, Ib n E zra lo o k e d fo r a p la c e w ith a n
in te re s tin g c u ltu ra l life a n d th e p re se n c e o f a Je w ish co m m u n ity . O p e n ­
in g th e tre a tise , th e re is a b r ie f p o e m w h e re th e a u th o r refers to G od,
Israel, a n d th e su b je c t o f h is w riting. F ollow ing it, th e re is a n illu m in a tin g
fo re w o rd (as in th e se c o n d v ersio n ), w h e re Ib n E zra in tro d u c e s a m e a n ­
ing fu l e x p la n a tio n a b o u t th e lim its o f th e H eb rew lan g u ag e to co n v ey sci­
ence: ‘it is difficult to c re a te w o rd s a n d th is is th e re a so n w h y w o rd s are

43 However, there are a couple of intriguing references to his Sefer ha-moladot and
several to his Sefer ha-mispatim in the first version of Keli ha-nehoset.
44 Some of the writers and translators in the fields of astronomy and astrology who
were very likely known in France and Italy were: Plato of Tivoli (fl. 1132-1146), who fre­
quently worked with Abraham bar Hiyya, Hermann of Carinthia (fl. 1138-1143), Rudolph
of Bruges (f. 1144), Robert of Ketton (fl. 1141-1156), Hugo of Santalla (fl. 1151), Raymond of
Marseilles (fl. 1141), John of Seville (12th c.), and Adelard of Bath (1075-1160). As regards
Italy, the works of Plato of Tivoli, which include al-Battani’s astronomical tables and astro­
logical texts were included in a mid-twelfth century manuscript (Oxford, Bodleian Library,
Digby 51), of which the main scribe has an Italian hand. Latin translations by Hugo of
Santalla who, like Ibn Ezra, translated Ibn al-Muthanna’s explanation of the astronomical
tables of al-Khwarizmi, arrived in Northern Italy at approximately the same time as Ibn
Ezra and the early manuscripts of this work exhibit features shared by manuscripts from
Pisa and Lucca. I thank Charles Burnett for his precisions in relation to the Latin sources
available in Italy and France. For the Latin Almagest, see Olaf Pedersen, A Survey o f the
Almagest with Annotation and New Commentary by AlexanderJones, (New York, New York
University, 2011), pp. 16-17.
45 This city was part of medieval Languedoc and was on the Roman road (via Domitia)
going to and from Iberia and Italy through France. When Ibn Ezra wrote his treatise on
the astrolabe in this city, it was under the rule of the viscount Raymond I of Trencavel
(d. 1167), who also ruled Albi, Carcassonne, and Razes, all of them cities where the Chris­
tian heresy called Catharism (11th-12th c.) was flourishing. Eventually, the Trencavels
became allies of the counts of Barcelona, later kings of Aragon, see Gustave Saige, LesJuifs
de Languedoc, (Paris, A. Picard, 1881); and M. Iancu, “Montpellier In Languedoc Through­
out The Centuries: A ‘Little Cordoba’?”, Studia Hebraica 7 (2007), pp. 154-161. Benjamin
of Tudela mentions Beziers in his book of travels, see Adolf Asher, Leopold Zunz and
F. Lebrecht, The Itinerary of Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela, (London-Berlin, A. Asher & Co.,
1840-41), vol. 2, p. 64. See also ‘Beziers’, Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 17, pp. 497-498.
Hermann of Carinthia was writing his De essentiis at Beziers in 1143, and his student,
Rudolph of Bruges, wrote his treatise on the astrolabe in Beziers shortly after 1144. I owe
this last reference to Charles Burnett.
tra n slitera ted fro m o n e lan g u ag e to a n o th e r.’46 H ow ever, h e also sta te s
th a t H e b re w w as th e ric h e st a n d th e o ld e st o f lan g u ag es, b u t th e Jew s in
th e Exile fo rg o t th e ir o w n la n g u ag e (in a d d itio n to fo rg e ttin g th e k n o w l­
edge o f sciences, w h ic h th e o th e r n a tio n s to o k fro m Israel).47 A p p ro a c h in g
th e in s tru m e n t itself, Ib n E zra in tro d u c e s th e d e s c rip tio n o f its c o m p o ­
n e n ts: re te , plates, m o th e r, rings, a n d th e lin e s in sc rib e d o n th e astro lab e .
Ib n E zra sta rts b y d escrib in g th e b a c k o f th e m o th e r, w h ic h is th e first to
b e u s e d in a n y c a lc u la tio n .48 T he e p o c h o f th e a s tro la b e h e is d escrib in g
h a s M a rc h 15 for th e v e rn a l equinox.49 O n th e zo d iac in sc rib e d in th e rete,

46 The complete introduction on language runs as follows: ‘Anyone paying attention

knows that the holy language was richer than all the Gentile languages, for it was the
oldest of them. Because of the exile of the holy people from the holy land, they mixed
with the Gentiles, learned their languages, and forgot to speak their own language. They
were left only with the stories of the prophets. We do not find anything written about
those things they did not need to talk about. It is difficult to create words and that is why
people transliterate words from one language to another. This treatise is called istagninut,
but I called it keli nehoset, for most of them are made of brass’, third Hebrew version,
Ms Gunzburg 937 fol. 2a: D’u n ruiw b b3a nann n r ’n w ipn pwb ’3 y i yiawb p aa b3
n a b ’i D’u a n n y r n w ipn r a i x a w ipn Dy riba niayai Db3b njiwxnn n r ’n x’n ’3
unam xb nwxi D’x’ajn ’n’SD pn DTa r n x w x b Dn’s a Djiwb nn3wji Dyi Dy pwb
pwba Drix Danrb Dyurn m aw w inb nwp’ 73 by a ir3 in u x aa xb n naib Dn’nsDa
rn n x pwb bx. Similar statements were made before Ibn Ezra’s time and also by some of
his contemporaries, see Santiaga Benavente and Angel Saenz-Badillos (Hebrew ed. and
Spanish tr.), Tesubot Talmide Menahem (Granada, Universidad de Granada, 1986), p. 20;
in Selomoh ibn Gabirol’s Sefer ha-'Anaq, see Haim Brody and Jefim Schirmann (eds), Ibn
Gabirol, Secular Poems, (Jerusalem, The Schocken Institute, 1974), p. 170 (verses 38-40
and 44); in Moseh ibn Ezra’s Kitab al-Muhadara wa ’l-Mudhakara, in Montserrat Abumal-
ham [Judaeo-Arabic ed. and Spanish tr.] (Madrid, al-Majlis al-A‘la lil-Abhath al-Tlmlyah,
Ma'had Ilm al-Lughat, 1985-1986), vol. 1, p. 57 (Judaeo-Arabic text); and in Yehudah ha­
Levi’s Kitab al Khazari (1905, repr., New York, Schocken, 1964), pp. 109-110. I owe these
references to Prof. Angel Saenz-Badillos.
47 Ibn Ezra also mentions this question in his second commentary on Gen. 1:1 and the
introduction to his grammatical treatise Safah berurah (Verona 1146). See Sh. Sela, Abra­
ham ibn Ezra and the Rise of Medieval Science (Leiden-Boston, Brill, 2003), pp. 104-106. For
more information regarding this question, see Rodriguez Arribas, ‘Reading Astrolabes in
Medieval Hebrew’ (forthcoming).
48 On the back there are two diameters that divide the astrolabe into four quarters, two
or more shadow squares, each divided into 12 digits, and four circles (or scales): two for
the zodiac (one divided in 360 degrees and one with the 12 divisions of 30 degrees each
one for every sign), and two calendrical (one divided into 365 days and the other with the
divisions of the Julian months in 28, 30, and 31 days).
49 It is apparent that Ibn Ezra is referring to two different instruments in the first and
in the second treatises. The date of the spring equinox changes depending on the astrolabe
according to the date it was made or the astronomical tables the maker was following.
The differences in the date of the equinoxes between the astrolabes of the first and the
second versions are due to the precession of the equinoxes. This phenomenon is appar­
ent in the westward shift of the spring equinox along the ecliptic in relation to the fixed
stars until it returns to the first degree of Aries or vernal point (a cycle of about 26,000
th e re is a sm all p ro tru d in g to o th a t th e b e g in n in g o f C ap rico rn , w h ic h is
u se d for d iffe re n t calc u latio n s. Ib n E zra d escrib es th e c o m m o n fe a tu re s o f
th e p la tes. T he circles o f a ltitu d e o n th e p la te s c a n b e in sc rib e d e ith e r for
ev ery o n e o f th e 9 0 d eg rees (in c o m p le te a stro la b e s) o r for every 2, 3, 5, 6,
a n d 10 degrees. T he a z im u th a l lin es a re on ly m e n tio n e d in th e astro lo g i­
cal p a r t o f th e tre a tise re g a rd in g th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e astro lo g ica l a s p e c t
called o p p o sitio n (i.e., 180 deg rees m e a s u re d in lo n g itu d e s e p a ra tin g tw o
p la n e ts o r p o sitio n s in th e zodiac).
In th e se c tio n w h e re th e a s tro n o m ic a l a p p lic a tio n s o f th e a s tro la b e are
d escrib ed , Ib n E zra m e n tio n s th e follow ing u ses: to m e a su re th e la titu d e
o f a p la ce a n d th e a ltitu d e o f a sta r o r p la n e t, to fin d tim e in se a so n a l a n d
e q u in o c tia l h o u rs, a n d to ca lc u late th e arc s o f d ay a n d n ig h t. In th e a s tro ­
logical se ctio n , w e fin d m e th o d s for fin d in g th e risin g sign a n d th e a s c e n ­
sions o f th e signs o r a p a rtic u la r d eg re e in th e s p h a e ra re c ta , to ca lcu late
a s p e c ts a n d d ire c tio n s (a su rp risin g ly lo n g se c tio n in th e tre a tise ), th e ris­
in g a n d s e ttin g o f stars, th e d iu rn a l a n d n o c tu rn a l arcs o f a star, th e p o si­
tio n o f p la n e ts, d iffe re n t m e th o d s o f d o m ific a tio n o r d iv isio n o f th e zo d iac
in to h o u se s (a c c o rd in g to th e h o u r lin e s m e th o d ), th e a n n u a l re v o lu tio n o f
th e sun, th e m o n th ly re v o lu tio n o f th e m o o n , th e re v o lu tio n o f th e n a ta l
h o ro sc o p e , a n d th e rising-sign o f th e so la r re v o lu tio n . T h e la tte r is re fe rre d
to on ly in th is v ersio n , b u t it w as a w ell-k n o w n te c h n iq u e for fo re tellin g
th e fate o f th e n e w y e a r (h isto ric a l astrology).50 T h ere is also a v ery b r ie f
re fe re n c e to th e relig io u s a p p lic a tio n s o f a stro la b e s w ith th e m e n tio n o f
tw ilights, w h ic h are re le v a n t for Jew s a n d M uslim s. T h e a s tro n o m ic a l a n d
a stro lo g ica l se c tio n s a re c o m p le te d w ith th e in c lu sio n o f a list o f cities
(th e on ly o n e in all fo u r v ersio n s) a n d a list o f stars. T h e lists o f stars
in th e th re e H e b re w v e rsio n s do n o t c o m p le te ly co in cid e, b u t th e re are

years). This shift determines the shift of the date of the vernal equinox on the astrolabes
referred. Among the components of the astrolabe, there is also the alidade, provided with
two sighting vanes, each one with two holes, one smaller (for observing the stars) than
the other (for observing the sun): “the strip of brass called zero'a (literally, ‘arm’), which
is the long tool whose half is just on the hub [of the astrolabe]”, see the third Hebrew
version, Ms Gunzburg 937 fol. 3a. On the front of the astrolabe, Ibn Ezra mentions the
limb and the rete, the latter unequally divided into two parts and whose division changes
if the astrolabe is southern or northern (the latter the most usual).
50 For instance, this technique is constantly applied in the fifth chapter of Bar Hiyya’s
SeferMegillat ha-megalleh, see Rodriguez Arribas, ‘The Terminology of Historical Astrology
according to Abraham Bar Hiyya and Abraham Ibn Ezra.’ Ibn Ezra used it more sparingly
in his texts, see Shlomo Sela (Hebrew ed. and English tr.), Abraham Ibn Ezra, The Book of
Reasons (Leiden and Boston, Brill, 2007), p. 252 [8.4.1] and Rodriguez Arribas, ‘The Termi­
nology of Historical Astrology’, pp. 40-49.
sig n ific an t d ifferen ces in th e ch o ice o f th e sta rs a n d in th e H eb rew v e r­
sio n s o f th e ir n am es. R egarding th e cities, th e e n u m e ra tio n refers to th e ir
lo n g itu d e s a n d la titu d e s, re q u ire d fo r u sin g th e p lates, w h ile th e list o f
sta rs (th o se a p p e a rin g o n th e re te o f th e a stro la b e ) in c lu d e s th e ir n a m e s
in A rabic a n d H ebrew , th e ir ec lip tic c o o rd in a te s, a n d th e ir c o n ste lla tio n s
(zo d ia ca l o r n o t). T he la st se c tio n is o n th e u se s o f a s tro la b e s in a ltim e try
a n d p la n im e try (w h ich is m issin g o nly in th e se c o n d H eb rew v ersio n ): to
m e a su re th e h e ig h t o f trees, to w ers, a n d m o u n ta in s, th e w id th o f a riv er or
th e d e p th o f a w ell o r p it. A n o th e r v ery b r ie f p o e m closes th e tre a tise a n d
th a n k s G od. W h e n Ib n E zra w ro te th is v ersio n , h e w as also c o m p o sin g
th e first v e rsio n o f a n a stro lo g ica l en c y c lo p a e d ia (B eziers, 1148), a g ro u p
o f m o n o g ra p h s d e v o te d to all th e b ra n c h e s o f astro lo g y (n atal, h isto rical,
elec tio n a l, in te rro g a tio n a l, a n d m e d ic a l) a n d tre a tise s o n th e fo u n d a tio n s
a n d te c h n ic a l d etails o f th is art.51 U nlike th e Jew s o f V e ro n a a n d M a n ­
tu a , th e Jew s o f B eziers w e re w ell a c q u a in te d w ith th e te n e ts o f a s tro l­
ogy th ro u g h Ib n E zra’s in stru c tio n . H e w o u ld w rite tw o m o re v e rsio n s o f
th is en c y clo p ae d ia, a n d o n e p a rtia l v e rsio n o f it in L atin (a n e x p la n a tio n
o f a s tro n o m ic a l ta b le s a n d a tre a tise o n n a ta l astro lo g y ) in R o u e n a n d
A ngers in 1154, th e sa m e y e a r h e w ro te h is L atin v e rsio n o n th e a stro lab e ,
m a y b e as a p a r t o f th a t p a rtia l e n c y c lo p a e d ia o n astrology.52

4. The C ontents o f th e First H ebrew Treatises a n d Their R eaders

Ib n E zra’s tre a tise s o n th e a s tro la b e are, as far as I k n o w , th e e a rlie st e x a m ­

p le in H eb rew o f a n in stru m e n t-b o o k , i.e., a b o o k d e v o te d to th e c o n s tru c ­
tio n , d e s c rip tio n a n d e x p la n a tio n o f a scien tific in s tru m e n t. N o n e o f Ib n
E zra’s tre a tise s in H e b re w o r L atin d isp lay a n y e x p la n a tio n o f th e c o n s tru c ­
tio n o f a stro lab e s, ra th e r, th e y a re c o n c e rn e d o n ly w ith th e d e s c rip tio n o f
th e in s tru m e n t a n d th e e x p la n a tio n o f its d iffe re n t u ses. T h ese tre a tise s, in
d istin c tio n fro m ex e g etica l tex ts, are v ery fo cu se d o n th e ir su b je c t a n d th e y
do n o t in c lu d e a n y k in d o f ex c u rsu s o r co m m e n ta ry . A lth o u g h th e s e te x ts

51 However, they are not mentioned in this text. Shlomo Sela concluded that this ver­
sion ‘was the first work that Ibn Ezra wrote in Provence, after he left Italy’, see Sela, ‘Abra­
ham ibn Ezra’s Scientific Corpus’, p. 107.
52 Ibn Ezra had written a first version on the explanation of the astronomical tables
(De rationibus tabularum) in Pisa in 1142-1145, see Sela and Freudenthal, ‘Abraham Ibn
Ezra’s Scholarly Writings’. However, Julio Samso holds a later date for these tables (namely,
ca. 1149), see “‘Dixit Abraham Iudeus’: algunas observaciones sobre los textos astronomi-
cos latinos de Abraham Ibn Ezra”, Iberia Judaica 4 (2012), p. 172.
a re n o t so u rce s re g a rd in g ste re o g ra p h ic p ro je c tio n a n d m e ta lw o rk a m o n g
Jew s (th e p h y sic al in s tru m e n ts co u ld p ro v id e so m e k n o w led g e re g a rd in g
th e se q u e stio n s), w e fin d in th e m v a lu a b le re fe re n c e s to co sm o lo g y a n d
th e p ra c tic e o f a s tro n o m y a n d astrology. Ib n E zra se em s rela tiv e ly u n in ­
te re s te d in th e u se s o f th e a s tro la b e in a ltim e try a n d p la n im e try , a lth o u g h
tw o o f th e H e b re w tre a tise s c o n ta in a la st p a r t d e v o te d to th is q u e s tio n
(o f m o d e ra te e x te n sio n in th e first v e rsio n a n d v ery b rie f in th e th ird
o n e). T he lan g u ag e o f th e tre a tise s serves as a v a lu a b le so u rce o f in fo rm a ­
tio n n o t on ly a b o u t th e k n o w led g e o f a s tro n o m y a n d in s tru m e n ts diffused
in H e b re w a m o n g th e Je w ish c o m m u n itie s o f Italy a n d F ran ce, b u t also
a b o u t th e k n o w led g e o f sc ien c e in H e b re w a n d L atin in th e 12th cen tu ry .
As a ru le, w h e n Ib n E zra d e te c ts a p o ssib le p ro b le m o f u n d e rsta n d in g ,
h e d o es n o t re s o r t to A rabic o r to a n y v e rn a c u la r te rm , b u t to H ebrew .
T his c o m m itm e n t to th e H e b re w la n g u ag e is c o n firm e d b y th e p re se n c e
o f H e b re w sy n o n y m s a n d definitions.53 Ib n E zra’s style in th e th ird v e r­
sio n o f h is tre a tise is n o t a c a d e m ic o r fo rm a l (a t le a st n o t as m u c h as th e
H e b re w o f th e 12th c e n tu ry w o u ld allo w a n d th e first a n d se c o n d v ersio n s
are ). W e a ssu m e h e d irec tly w ro te o r d ic ta te d th e tw o first v ersio n s, b u t
th e th ird v e rsio n evokes th e d ire c t a n d fre sh a p p ro a c h o f th e la n g u ag e
u s e d in a p ra c tic a l class: m o re o r less clear, brief, effective, w ith fre q u e n t
calls to th e a tte n tio n o f th e re a d e r, w h ic h are also c o m m o n in th e o th e r
v e rsio n s a n d a re a s so c ia te d w ith giving in s tru c tio n s (‘b e h o ld ’, ‘lo o k ’, a n d
2 n d p e rs o n a n d im p e ra tiv e for m o s t o f th e v e rb a l form s). T he e x p la n a ­
tio n s a n d d e fin itio n s (so m e o f th e m , v ery b asic) im p ly th a t th e k n o w led g e
o f th e a s tro la b e a m o n g th e Jew s o f B eziers w as n o n -e x is te n t a n d th a t th e ir
a s tro n o m ic a l k n o w led g e w as a p p a re n tly low , in c o n tra s t to th e Jew s o f
M a n tu a , a n d e v e n m o re to th o se o f V erona. T he th re e c o m m u n itie s w ere,
h o w ev er, v ery in te re s te d in astro lo g y a n d its te c h n ic a litie s (d irectio n s,
asp ec ts, a n d solar, lu n a r a n d n a ta l rev o lu tio n s), as th e le n g th o f th e sec­
tio n s d ea lin g w ith astro lo g y suggests (especially, in th e se c o n d v ersio n ).
R eg ard in g astro lo g ica l k n ow ledge, th e re is a n in trig u in g o m issio n in th e
fin al p a r t o f th e th ird v e rsio n (B eziers), w h e n Ib n E zra is e x p la in in g a s tro ­
logical d ire c tio n s o r p ro ro g a tio n s (H e b re w n ih u g im ). A fter a lo n g p a ra ­
g ra p h e x p la in in g th e a rith m e tic o f th e calc u latio n s, th e o n ly re a s o n h e
gives fo r all th is p ro c e d u re is: ‘th e n u m b e r o f d eg rees is th e n u m b e r o f th e

53 Regarding the language and terminology of the Hebrew treatises in general and spe­
cifically, see Rodriguez Arribas, ‘Reading Astrolabes in Medieval Hebrew’ (forthcoming).
y ea rs.’54 C a lc u latin g th e d ire c tio n o f a n y d eg re e o f th e zo d iac o r th e p o si­
tio n o f a n y p la n e t re q u ire s th e c o n v e rsio n o f th e d eg re es o f th e s p h a e ra
re c ta se p a ra tin g tw o p o sitio n s in th e h o ro sc o p e in to so lar years. T hese
d eg re es a re m a d e e q u iv a le n ts to years, i.e. th e tim e b e tw e e n tw o specific
m o m e n t re fle c te d in th e p o sitio n o f a h o ro sc o p e . T h e b r ie f s e n te n c e clos­
in g th e se ctio n , like th e a b s e n c e o f a n y d e fin itio n o f a stro lo g ica l a s p e c t
in th e follow ing p a ra g ra p h s (Ib n E zra fo cuses o n ly o n th e e x p la n a tio n o f
th e ir c a lc u la tio n ) suggests th a t all th e s e q u e s tio n s w ere c o m m o n k n o w l­
edge a m o n g th e Jew s o f V ero n a a n d Beziers, a lth o u g h th e y d id n o t k n o w
h o w to ca lc u late th e m w ith a n astro lab e , ju s t as th e y d id n o t k n o w h o w
to m a k e a h o ro sc o p e u sin g th is in s tru m e n t. A n o th e r p o ssib le a n s w e r is
th a t th e Jew s o f th e s e c o m m u n itie s w ere a lre a d y a c q u a in te d w ith tre a tise s
o n th e s e te c h n ic a l q u e stio n s, so th a t Ib n E zra d id n o t c o n s id e r it n e c e s­
sary to go in to d e ta il as reg a rd s th e se q u estio n s. In a n y ev en t, th e s e c o n ­
c e p ts w e re circ u la tin g d u rin g th is p e rio d a n d w e re th e re fo re m o re o r less
fam iliar to th e Jew s o f M a n tu a , V erona, a n d ce rta in ly Beziers. T he tr u th
is th a t m o s t o f th e c o n te n ts o f th e tre a tise are u se less for th o s e re a d e rs
n o t fam iliar w ith th e m . T he a b s e n c e o f a stro lo g ica l d ire c tio n s in th e first
v e rsio n c a n o n ly signify o n e th in g : Ib n E zra d id n o t c o n s id e r th e Jew s o f
M a n tu a w ere in te re s te d in th e m . T he th ird v e rsio n is n o t ju s t a n in tro d u c ­
tio n to th e a stro la b e (it is to o sp e cia liz ed a n d specific), b u t a h a n d b o o k
to b e c o m p le te d w ith th e o ra l e x p la n a tio n s o f a n in stru c to r. In co n tra st,
th e m o re d e ta ile d first a n d se c o n d v e rsio n s s e e m to h av e b e e n p la n n e d
as a n a u to n o m o u s tool, less d e p e n d e n t o n o ral ex p la n a tio n s. H ow ever,
th e y w ere eq u a lly d e p e n d a n t o n f u rth e r astro lo g ica l so u rces to u se th e
astro lo g ica l d a ta o b ta in e d w ith a n a stro lab e .
T he g e n e ra l p ic tu re o f th e in s tru m e n t em e rg in g fro m th e s e tre a tise s is
n o t a re a l a stro la b e th a t Ib n E zra h e ld in h is h a n d s o r lo o k e d a t w h ile h e
w as w ritin g th e tre a tise , b u t a v irtu a l in stru m e n t:

There are astrolabes w ith four scales: two on the northern qu arter on the
right and [two] on the opposite, according to [the position of] the things
to be m easured. On certain instrum ents they also draw inscriptions on the
w estern quarter, w hich is betw een the w estern half of the east-west line and
the extreme of the attached chain.55

54 Third Hebrew version, MS Gunzburg 937 fol. 11a: D’JW Dn nibyan naoai.
55 Third Hebrew version, MS Gunzburg 937 f. 3a.
Figure 2: Back of a medieval European astrolabe in Hebrew and Judaeo-Arabic
(British Museum, London)

T his is o nly a n ex a m p le o f th e d iffe re n t p o ssib ilities o f th e in s tru m e n t. Ib n

E zra refers to all th e p o ssib le fo rm s th a t th e p la n is p h e ric a s tro la b e co u ld
a ssu m e a n d all th e p o ssib le d iffe ren ce s a m o n g th e se in s tru m e n ts. H e
w ro te th is to e n s u re th a t h is re a d e r co u ld ‘re a d ’ n o t a specific p la n isp h e ric
astro lab e , b u t a n y p o ssib le fo rm th a t th is in s tru m e n t co u ld display. H e
w as try in g to b e realistic, for th e Jew s o f M a n tu a, V erona, a n d Beziers,
w e c a n d e d u c e , co u ld e n c o u n te r all k in d s o f in stru m e n ts: L atin, A rabic,
ev en H eb rew o r Ju d a eo -A rab ic. T hey co u ld fin d c o m p le te a n d in c o m ­
p le te a s tro la b e s an d , if Ib n E zra m a k e s fre q u e n t re fe re n c e s to s o u th e rn
in s tru m e n ts (i.e., in s tru m e n ts m a d e fo r b e in g u se d in th e s o u th e rn h e m i­
sp h e re a n d th e re fo re w ith a re te re p ro d u c in g th e sky in th is h em isp h e re ),
it is b e c a u s e h e w a n te d th e se Jew s to b e aw a re o f th e p o ssib ility o f
su c h devices, e v e n if th e y w e re rare.56 H ow ever, in th e th re e trea tise s,
th e re a re th re e refe re n c e s th a t are p a rtic u la rly specific a n d n a rro w th e
profile o f th e se v irtu a l astro lab e s: th e e p o c h (M arch 14 in th e first a n d
th e se c o n d v e rsio n s a n d M a rc h 15 in th e th ird o n e), th e ca ta lo g u e o f sta rs
in th e rete , a n d th e list o f citie s fo r th e p la te s (o n ly in th e th ird version).57
T he p re se n c e o f A rabic n a m e s (in Judaeo-A rab ic) for th e stars co n firm s th e
h y p o th e sis th a t C h ristia n s a n d Jew s w e re u sin g M u slim in s tru m e n ts w ith
A rab ic in sc rip tio n s, h e n c e th e fam iliarity w ith th e A rab ic d e n o m in a tio n s
o f th e m o st visible sta rs (w h ich are p rec isely th o se sta rs in s c rib e d o n th e
re te ) a n d w ith th e A rabic n a m e s o f c e rta in c o m p o n e n ts o f th e astro lab e .
T h ese n a m e s w e re fre q u e n tly tra n s lite ra te d in L atin, H eb rew a n d v e r­
n a c u la r languages. M an y o f th e m a re still in u se in th e m o d e rn n a m e s o f
so m e sta rs in d iffe re n t la n g u ag es (for in sta n c e , Rigel in th e c o n s te lla tio n
o f O rion, D en e b in th e c o n s te lla tio n o f Cygnus, a n d A lgol in th e c o n ste lla ­
tio n o f P erseu s) a n d in th e n a m e s o f so m e a s tro n o m ic a l c o n c e p ts (alm u -
c a n ta r, a z im u th , z e n ith , n a d ir, etc.).58 T he p re se n c e o f so m e A rab ic te rm s
re la te d to M u slim p ray e rs a n d h o u rs in th e first a n d s e c o n d v e rsio n s o f
th e tre a tise p ro v id es a d d itio n a l p ro o f o f th e av a ila b ility o f a n d th e fam il­
ia rity w ith a s tro la b e s in sc rib e d in A rabic (w h ich is re a so n a b le , fo r th e y
w e re p o ssib ly m o re n u m e ro u s a n d m o re precise).59 T h ese p ra y e r h o u rs
in A rab ic c o n s titu te th e on ly case in w h ic h Ib n E zra d o es n o t p ro v id e
an y H e b re w tra n s la tio n for th e A rabic te rm s, for th e y a re n o t ‘H eb rew
k n o w le d g e ’. T h a t th e cities th e a s tro la b e serv ed in c lu d e m a n y S p an ish a n d
Ita lia n lo c a tio n s as w ell as Je ru sa le m , B aghdad, H arran , Egypt, a n d M ecca
d e m o n s tra te s th a t Ib n E zra fre q u e n tly u se d in s tru m e n ts m a d e in te rr ito ­
ries u n d e r M u slim ru le o r m a d e a fte r th e ir m o d e l. All o f th e s e p la c e s—
e n u m e ra te d on ly in th e th ir d H eb rew v e rsio n — w ere p la ce s o f sig n ifican t
M u slim in flu e n c e a n d A rabic cu ltu re.

56 Cf. Richard Lorch (Arabic ed. and English tr.), Al-Farghanl on the Astrolabe, Arabic
Text Edited with Translation and Commentary (Stuttgart, Steiner, 2005), pp. 343 and 435.
57 Arabic astrolabes usually carry on the inner side of the mother a geographical gazet­
teer referring to the name, longitude, latitude, and other data like the inhiraf (the angle
between the local meridian and the Qibla, i.e., the azimuth of Mecca) and the jihat (the
direction of the azimuth of the Qibla) for several cities.
58 Paul Kunitsch and T. Smart, Dictionary of Modern Star Names (Cambridge, MA, Sky
Publishing, 2006).
59 Al-zuhr (Muslim midday prayer) and al-'asr (Muslim mid-afternoon prayer), see the
first version, BnF MS 1061 fol. 150a, and the second version fol. 188a.
 T he d istin ctiv e critica l sp irit o f Ib n Ezra, w h ic h gives a sp e cia l flav o u r
to h is w ritin g s— as d o es h is fre q u e n t refe re n c e s to h is o w n tre a tis e s — is
e v id e n t in th e th re e v ersio n s. In th e th ir d v e rsio n Ib n E zra refers th re e
tim e s to th e lim its o f th e in s tru m e n t h e is d e sc rib in g a n d d iffu sin g a m o n g
th e Jew s o f B eziers:

If you w an t to know the opposition w ith m uch accuracy, you will find in
the Treatise about the rectification of the astronom ical tables th a t arcs and
angles are very necessary. I have already inform ed you th at everything in
relation to the astrolabe is approxim ate (qerovim el ha-emet).60

You cannot calculate properly the aspects (la-asot ha-mabattim), unless you
use astronom ical tables (ma'aseh ha-luhot). You can rectify them w ith any
complete or any half astrolabe, b u t you cannot w ith the others [astrolabes]^1

T he lim ita tio n s o f a stro la b e s re la te n o t on ly to th e in trin s ic ch a ra c te ristic s

o f th e in s tru m e n t, b u t also to th e ab ility o f th e m ak ers:

This is the procedure [to calculate the degree of the zodiac, 360 divisions,
w ith respect to the date, 365 divisions] am ong the artisans from Sepharad
and it is needless, for no craftsm an was ever able to make the divisions
properly. If we said that he has the capability to divide it in equal parts,
this is som ething impossible because of the excess of days over the degrees.
Behold, a degree changes because of the intercalation of the Gentiles and
also because the m otion of the sun changes a little. Every one hundred
and thirty years the sun lags behind one degree, for the length of the year,
is a whole num ber of days and one quarter, b u t the w hole quarter, is n ot
exact enough, as I will explain in the Book o f the ta b le s6

60 Third Hebrew version, MS Gunzburg 937 fol. 11a: na’ pinpna naun nynb n’Sn DNI
nwya ba ’a I ’nymn naai .D’nn’b mnwpb b r a t iis w ’a rnmbn ppn naoa UNsan
naNn bN D’ainp nw njn ’ba.
61 Third Hebrew version, MS Gunzburg 937 fols. 9b-10a: Dmwyb bain Nb nbN D’Oaan
Nb D’nnNn pn n’sn in Dbw Ninw nwnj ’baa Djpnb bairn rnmbn nw yaa dn ’a pina
Djpnb bain. ‘Pay attention, when the sun is close to its northernmost latitude, which is the
summer solstice, or to its southernmost latitude, which is the winter solstice, its altitude at
noon does not change for more than four days, but the change is only a few minutes and
the astrolabe does not have divisions for them, only for the degrees. For this reason, the
calculations made [with it] are approximate’, see the third Hebrew version, MS Gunzburg
937 fol. 5a.
62 Third Hebrew version, MS Gunzburg 937 fols. 3a-3b: f’NI nnao ’jaiN oaw a naa
Nin dni Dmiwnb nbia’ ia w’w unaN dni pina D’pbnn pbnb |aiN bai’ Nb Dbiyb ’a in is
’a niyi D’u n may niaya nnN nbya n jn w njn nibyan by D’a ’n naoin niaya nwn nan
njwn |iawn ’a niaya n ’jninN nnN aw njw D’wbwi nNa ba nspb wawn ib n a n jn w
ninibn naoa wnaN nwNa na’ pinpna u j’N n a ’bw n’y’ani n’y’ani D’abw D’a ’ N’nw.
T his p ro c e d u re , re fe rre d to b y Ib n E zra as d istin ctiv e o f S ep h ard ic a r ti­
sans, m u s t re fle c t th e c u s to m o f m a k in g th e scale o f th e m o n th s o n th e
b a c k o f th e a stro la b e e c c e n tric w ith re s p e c t to th e scale o f th e zodiac.
U sin g a s tro n o m ic a l ta b le s a n d h a n d lin g a c o m p le te (a n d large) a stro la b e
are c o m p u lso ry c o n d itio n s to g e t a c c u ra te re su lts e ith e r in o b se rv a tio n s
o r calculations.63 Ib n E zra u se s a s tro la b e s as a to o l b o th to o b serv e in th e
sky w h a t c a n b e se e n a n d to ca lc u late w h a t c a n n o t b e seen . T h ere is so m e ­
th in g fu n d a m e n ta l a b o u t th e a stro la b e th a t c a n h elp u s to u n d e r s ta n d th e
fa sc in a tio n it h e ld fo r m e d iev a l p eo p le. T he a stro la b e w as v a lu a b le as a
p e d a g o g ic al to o l (for e x p la in in g th e h e a v e n ly m o tio n s in th e co sm o lo g ical
sy stem p a r a m o u n t in th e th re e cu ltu res: Islam , Ju d a ism , a n d C h ristian ity ),
as a n o b se rv a tio n in s tru m e n t (n o t to b e ab le to see m o re — a n a s tro la b e is
n o t a te le s c o p e — b u t to a s c e rta in a n d fo re tell th e p o s itio n o f a n y h e a v e n ly
b o d y ), a n d as a c a lc u la tio n device. T his la st fe a tu re is p o ssib ly th e m o st
fasc in atin g , fo r th e a s tro la b e co u ld c h a n g e lo n g a s tro n o m ic a l ca lc u latio n s
in to a se t o f m o v e m e n ts a n d a c tio n s p e rfo rm e d o n th e in s tru m e n t a n d
w ith th e in s tru m e n t. T he o nly e x tra device n e c e ssa ry for u se w as in k or
w a x fo r m a rk in g o n th e lim b o r o n th e p la te th e successive p o s itio n s o f th e
re te o r th e rule, an d , so m e tim e s a s tro n o m ic a l ta b le s w h e n a c c u ra c y w as
a n issue.64 In th is sense, th e a s tro la b e is m id -w ay b e tw e e n a b o o k (o n e
re a d s th e a stro la b e ) a n d a m e c h a n ic a l device (o n e m a k e s th in g s w ith th e
a s tro la b e a n d gets re su lts th ro u g h th e a stro la b e sim p lify in g a n o th erw ise,
lo n g a n d c o m p le x task ). As h a s b e e n fre q u e n tly said, w e m ig h t co n sid e r
it a m e d ie v a l v e rsio n o f th e m o d e rn c o m p u te r. W e c a n a p p re c ia te th e s e
‘m e c h a n ic a l’ q u alitie s in th e follow ing p a ra g ra p h re g a rd in g th e c a lc u la­
tio n o f a p a rtic u la r a stro lo g ica l asp ec t:

If the planet is n o t at the beginning of an hour division, m ark its position on

the zodiac. Mark (sim siman) the beginning of Capricorn (this is called the
interm ediate mark), rotate the rete up to placing the position of the planet

63 Ibn Ezra states in his commentary on Exod. 11:4: ‘It is known that sages are not able
to find out the moment of noon (rega'hesi ha-yom), unless with great effort and with large
astrolabes (kelim nehoset), and with more reason the moment of midnight, which is more
difficult’, see Asher Weiser (ed.), Commentary on the Torah: Exodus (Jerusalem, Mossad
ha-Rav Kook, 1977), p. 68 [Hebrew].
64 Through personal communication, Prof. David King confirmed the references
in earlier sources to the use of some material to make marks on the astrolabe, notably in
Philoponus’s treatise on the astrolabe, see Robert Theodore Gunther and William Hook
Morley, The astrolabes of the world (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1932), vol. 1, p. 67.
Also through personal communication, Prof. S.R. Sarma let me know that in the Sanskrit
manuals on instruments, there are frequent references to making marks on the scales of
the instruments.
 at the beginning of the hour division, and m ark the beginning of Capricorn
(this is called the first [mark]). Also place the position of the p lanet at the
end of the hour division and m ark the beginning of Capricorn (this is called
the last [mark]). Calculate the difference betw een the two marks, the first
and the last. Then you will know the num ber of hour degrees and the n um ­
ber of degrees betw een the first m ark and the interm ediate one. Calculate
its value w ith respect to the hour degrees and rotate the rete to the hour
w here the aspect is, as I showed you. Calculate the degrees of sphaera recta
and take from the degrees the value that you had. Add the result to the
m ark that you will find taking as a reference the hour division at w hich is
the aspect whose m ark is the first. Once you have placed the position of the
planet according to these degrees of sphaera recta th at you added to, look
at the position of the zodiac; there the aspect is found®5

B ut th e in s tru m e n t m u s t b e ch e ck e d to a s c e rta in th e ac cu rac y o f th e

resu lts o b ta in e d w ith it. In th e th re e H eb rew v ersio n s o f h is tre a tise , Ib n
E zra refers to d iffe re n t m e th o d s o f c h e ck in g d iffe re n t c o m p o n e n ts o f
th e a stro la b e (th e a lid a d e a n d th e back, th e re te a n d th e fro n t, a n d th e
ep o ch ). T his is a n o th e r in d ic a tio n th a t Ib n E zra k n e w o r p re su m e d th a t
h is re a d e rs w ere u sin g in s tru m e n ts th a t h a d a lre a d y b e e n m a d e , r a th e r
th a n m a k in g th e ir o w n in s tru m e n ts . T he first ch e ck is b asic a n d c o n c e rn s
th e e p o c h o f th e astro la b e , for it is n e c e ssa ry to d a te th e a s tro la b e in o rd e r
to rectify th e gap b e tw e e n th e p o sitio n s o f th e sta rs en g ra v ed in th e re te
a n d th e ir m o re r e c e n t p o sitio n s in th e ta b le s availab le, as w ell as th e d a te s
o f th e e q u in o x e s a c c o rd in g to th e m o th e r a n d th e ir a c tu a l d ates.

Behold, if you w an t to calculate how m any years have gone by since the
astrolabe was made, look at the position of one of the fixed stars, move
the pointer (hod) from its position to the axis of the upper mid-heaven, and
look at the degree of the zodiac. Then you will find in w hich degree of the
sign is the fixed star. Look at the position of the star th a t I w rote for you
and calculate how m any degrees there are betw een the two positions. Fixed

65 Third Hebrew version, MS Gunzburg 937 fols. 10a-10b: Ip r b n r a a313n xb Dx pn

’yaaxn |a ’D xnp’ xirn ’ia wxn Dy |a ’D D’w rn ax n aw na laip aa fa’D raw w in x nyw
pwxn xnp’ xirn h j wxna fa’D D’wi nywn ip r b n r a a3i3n Dipa men iy rw nn aaiDi
p n r’n nsDa y i pnnx xnp’ xini h j wxna fa’D D’wi nywn ip ^iDa a3i3n Dipa D’w Da
ribyan nsDa y i nywn rib y a nsDa y i r rx pnnxn iy pwxnna D’ja ’Dn ’jw pa w w
ribyan bx i3ny na y i ’yaaxn |a ’D pai pwxnn |a ’Dn dww pwxnn nsDan pa Dnw
m nw rib y a a ribya na3 y i .T r ’xnn nwx3 u aan dww nywn bx rw nn aaiDi nywn
dww nywn ip t u 3 x a a rw |a ’Dn by ufl’Dini ^ n’nw p y n irix r ia i 3 rib y an a npi
rflDinw rinw ’n ribyan jm x iaj3 a3i3n Dipa D’w r nwx3i pwxnn |a ’Dn xinw uaan
u aan dw baban m a x awn Dipa b3rDn.
 stars retrograde one degree every seventy years. So, pay attention to the fact
that fixed stars retrograde about 51 seconds every year.66

T he divisions o n th e b a c k a n d th e fro n t o f th e a stro la b e c a n also b e

ch e ck ed , as c a n th e alid a d e a n d th e rete.67 T he la titu d e fo r w h ic h th e
p la te s w ere m a d e c a n b e fo u n d o u t th ro u g h d iffe re n t m e th o d s (Ib n E zra
refers to five, o f w h ic h th e follow ing is th e first):

Behold, you will always look how m any alm ucantars there are below the
axis of the equinoxes. M ultiply their num ber by the num ber of the divisions
of the astrolabe, if it is half of an astrolabe, by two, and so on. The result is
the latitude of the placed8

In stru c tio n s a re th e m a in c o m p o n e n t o f in stru m e n t-b o o k s. T he physical-

ity o f th e a s tro la b e b e c o m e s e v id e n t in th e co u rse o f th e se in stru c tio n s:
‘a n y o n e w h o h o ld s in h is h a n d th is in s tru m e n t to k n o w th e a ltitu d e o f
th e su n w h e n it is e a s te rn o r w e s te rn w ill do so in th is w ay, fo r h e w ill
sta n d alw ays facin g th e su n ’; a n d ‘. .. h o ld th e a s tro la b e in y o u r le ft h a n d ,
ca lc u late th e d eg re es a n d th e sh ad o w , a n d a fte r th a t, w alk e a stw a rd or
w estw a rd , n o rth w a rd o r s o u th w a rd a c e rta in n u m b e r o f c u b its.’69 O r in
th e s e c o n d v ersio n : ‘h o ld th e a s tro la b e in y o u r rig h t h an d 7 ° a n d close o n e

66 Third Hebrew version, MS Gunzburg 937 fol. 8a. MS Gunzburg 937 refers to halaqim
risonim, but it should be halaqim seniim, see Jerusalem National Library MS 5563 fol. 137.
67 ‘Behold, if you want [make] an extreme of the alidade be on the degree 45, then you
will [be able to] know that the alidade and the back side of the mother are right. The rete
can be verified in the eastern and western axis only at the beginning of every sign and in
the divisions of the zodiac, according to the number [of divisions] of the astrolabe’, the
third Hebrew version, MS Gunzburg 937 fol. 7a.
68 Third Hebrew version, MS Gunzburg 937 fol. 4a: W’ D’nWJ n aa Dbiyb banon njm
nai D’niNan naai D’jw by ’an Nin dn ’ban ’pbn naoa by Dnaoa iinyi rnwn ipn nnn
pnNn amn Nin n aoaa nby’w.
69 Third Hebrew version, MS Gunzburg 937 fol. 2b: n yib Nin ’ban n ’a n’n’ nWN W’N
t u Tua Dbiyb D’W’ DiNn ’a niaya p ’n’ anyaai nntaa ini’n pa wawn nibya nau
wawn; and fol. 13a: nntab ib p nnNi bam nibyan Dn naa y ii ibNawa nwmn ’ba nbni
n iy n ’ niaN Dimb IN paab IN anyab IN. ‘When they want to know in which degree of
which sign of the zodiac is the sun, they place the extreme of the strip of brass called
alidade ...o n the number of the day that they w ant... and see which degree of the zodiac
the strip reaches on the circles, that is the position of the sun’; ‘place the degree of the
zodiac in which is the sun on the first almucantar (on the eastern axis), and mark ('asah
nequdah) the place where the degrees of the limb (heq) coincide with the position of the
winter solstice (ros Gedi). After that, rotate the rete up to two degrees from the sun on
the first almucantar in the western axis and mark ('asah nequdah) the place [where they]
coincide with the winter solstice’; ‘hold the instrument in your right hand, look from your
position up to seeing the upper extreme, and calculate the degrees of the straight shadow’,
see the third Hebrew version, MS Gunzburg 937 fols. 3a, 5a, and 12b, respectively.
7° The alternative use of the left or the right hands (also in the Latin version) does not
seem to have anything to do with specific uses of the astrolabe, but it is indifferent and
o f y o u r eyes u n til y o u receiv e all th e lig h t in to y o u r o th e r eye a n d see th e
sta r w ith it.’71 S im ilar e x p re ssio n s also em erg e in th e first H e b re w v e rsio n
a n d in th e L atin one.72 T he a stro la b e is o rie n te d a n d w as u s e d to o ri­
e n t oneself, a lth o u g h Ib n E zra d o es n o t re fe r to th is u se. In a n y case, h e
m e n tio n s h o w th e o rie n ta tio n s (a n d th e re fo re th e w ays to o rie n t o n e s e lf)
are re p re s e n te d o n th e astro la b e : th e tw o d ia m e te rs o n th e fro n t o f th e
m o th e r a n d th e p la te s p o in t to th e fo u r d ire c tio n s o f th e lo cal la titu d e for
w h ic h th e y h av e b e e n p re p a re d . T he d ia m e te r g o in g d o w n fro m th e h e a d
o f th e in s tru m e n t to th e o th e r e x tre m e p o in ts to th e s o u th -n o rth d ire c tio n
a n d th e d ia m e te r p e rp e n d ic u la r w ith re s p e c t to it p o in ts to th e e a st-w est
d ire c tio n o f th e stra ig h t h o rizo n .

5. The First Jew ish Treatise on th e A stro la b e in L a tin (1154)

W e sh all n o w focus o n th e in trig u in g L atin v ersio n . T he c o m p a riso n o f

th e H eb rew a n d L atin v e rsio n s decisively co n firm s M illas V allicro sa’s
a s s u m p tio n th a t Ib n E zra a u th o re d th e L atin v ersio n , w h ic h h e b a s e d o n
th e ev id en c e o f o n ly o n e o f th e H eb rew v e rsio n s (th e first).73 T h e c o n te n ts

at the convenience of the user. It is expectable to use the left hand—if the user is right-
handed—and has to mark something on the astrolabe or take notes for a calculation, and
the contrary if the user is left-handed.
71 Second Hebrew version, BNF Ms 1045 fol. 189b: IJ’y nuoi iJ ’a ’a nw njn ’ba nbn
aaian na nNin nnNW pyn bN niNn ba papn’w ny nnNn. As regards the Latin version on
the astrolabe, see J.M. Millas Vallicrosa, ‘Un nuevo tratado de astrolabio de R. Abraham ibn
Ezra’, Al-Andalus 5.1 (1940), pp. 1-8; Shlomo Sela, ‘Abraham Ibn Ezra’s Scientific Corpus’,
pp. 91-149; Abraham ibn Ezra and the Rise of Medieval Hebrew Science, pp. 22-36; and Julio
Samso, “Dixit Abraham Iudeus”, pp. 189-191.
72 Millas Vallicrosa, ‘Un nuevo tratado de astrolabio de R. Abraham ibn Ezra’: ‘After
that, without moving the astrolabe, mark the opposite position of the sun, in the seventh
sign, and look at what hour the sign of the opposite position is there’ (p. 13); ‘If you want
to know the height of a tower or whatever else, place the alidade fixed on 45 degrees.
Approach or go back until you see the highest part of the height through the two holes of
the sighting vanes’ (pp. 26-27); ‘In whatever the place, raise or lower the extreme of the
alidade until you see the highest part, mark the degree of height, find the shadow and look
what proportion the 12 [digits] have with respect to that shadow’ (p. 27); ‘take the height
of the degree on the astrolabe that you have raised until you see the highest part. Take
the shadow of that height and mark the position of your feet. Raise or lower the extreme
of the alidade, either advancing or going back, until you see that height’ (p. 27); ‘take the
astrolabe in your left hand and make some mark on the ground separating the alidade up
to [your] sight goes through the two holes’ (p. 27); and ‘afterwards, adjust the alidade until
you see through the two holes the mark that you have made’ (p. 27).
73 See J.M. Millas Vallicrosa, ‘Un nuevo tratado de astrolabio de R. Abraham ibn Ezra’,
pp. 1-5 and J.M. Millas Vallicrosa, ‘Encore une note sur “Abrahismus” ’, Archives interna­
tionales d’histoire des sciences 13 (1950), p. 858: ‘Je crois que R. Abraham ibn Ezra dictait
 Figure 3: Front of a medieval Islamic astrolabe in Hebrew and Judaeo-Arabic
(Khalili Collection, London)

o f th e L atin v e rsio n m irro r th e c o n te n ts a n d th e g e n e ra l a r ra n g e m e n t o f

th e H eb rew versions.74 Ib n E zra d ic ta te d th e L atin v e rsio n o n th e a s tro ­

ses Rationes tabularum pisanarum, son Tractatus de astrolabio, et probablement d’autres

ouvrages, en latin, dans ce latin medieval qu’il devait employer au long de ses voyages si
prolonges dans l’Europe chretienne. L’existence de differents manuscrits appartenant a la
seconde moitie du XIIe siecle et a la premiere moitie du XIIIe siecle nous prouve la diffu­
sion de l’ouvrage astronomique d’Ibn Ezra parmi les chretiens, sans necessite de recourir
a la mediation des traducteurs.’
74 For a discussion on the authenticity of this attribution, see R. Levy, ‘The Authorship
of a Latin Treatise on the Astrolabe’, Speculum 17.4 (1942), pp. 566-569. If Ibn Ezra is not
the author of the Latin version, whoever composed it was following one of Ibn Ezra’s
Hebrew treatises very closely. In relation to Millas Vallicrosa’s methodology in establishing
Abraham ibn Ezra as the author of this text, see Sela, ‘Abraham Ibn Ezra’s Scholarly Writ­
ings’, p. 108. Sela based Ibn Ezra’s authorship of the Latin treatise upon the comparison of
the four texts, ibid., pp. 108-110.
la b e in R o u e n in 1154.75 T his v e rsio n in tro d u c e s a c o m p le te d iffe re n t se t
o f q u estio n s. It ra ise s th e q u e s tio n o f Ib n E zra’s k n o w led g e o f L atin (an d
im p licitly th e k n o w led g e o f L atin b y Jew s) a n d th e p o ssib le c o lla b o ra tio n
o f Ib n E zra w ith a C h ristia n sc h o lar to w h o m h e m ig h t h av e d ic ta te d his
tre a tise in so m e vernacular.76 M oreover, w h y a n d h o w d id Ib n E zra feel it
n e c e ssa ry to ad d re ss h is w ritin g s to C h ristia n s? 77 W e re th e L atin re a d e rs
a d d re sse d in th is w o rk C h ristian s only? O r d id th e Jew s o f R o u en (w h e re
th is tre a tise w as w ritte n ) also u se Latin, a t le a st as a la n g u ag e o f scien tific
k n o w led g e? T his is v ery u nlikely, b u t it is a lm o s t c e rta in th a t th e Jew s o f
th e a re a b e tw e e n F lan d e rs u p to th e Loire a n d b e tw e e n N o rm a n d y a n d
A n jo u spoke th e sa m e v e rn a c u la r as th e C h ristian s in d aily life.y8 Like
M a n tu a, V erona, a n d Beziers, d u rin g th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry R o u en w as th e
site o f a y esh iv a a n d a n im p o r ta n t Je w ish c o m m u n ity .79

75 For the date of this work, see Sela and Freudenthal, ‘Abraham Ibn Ezra’s Scholarly
Writings’, pp. 13-55. Sela previously proposed a different place and date for the Latin ver­
sion (Verona or Mantua, 1146) on the evidence of a common reference to England in the
second Hebrew and Latin versions, see ‘Abraham ibn Ezra’s Scientific Corpus’, p. 112. He
seems to have discarded this early date in his article in Aleph.
76 Millas Vallicrosa thought that Ibn Ezra was capable of writing the Latin treatises
he wrote in different fields, see El libro de los fundamentos de las tablas astronomicas de
R. Abraham ibn Ezra (Madrid-Barcelona, CSIC, 1947), p. 15. Shlomo Sela holds the same
opinion, see ‘Contactos cientificos entre judios y cristianos en el siglo XII: el caso del Libro
de las tablas astronomicas de Abraham ibn Ezra’, Miscelanea de Estudios Arabes y Hebrai-
cos, seccion hebreo 45 (1996), pp. 213-216; ‘Abraham ibn Ezra’s Scientific Corpus’, p. 101;
and Abraham ibn Ezra and the Rise of Medieval Hebrew Science, pp. 25-26, although he also
considers ‘the aid of a disciple’, see ‘Abraham ibn Ezra’s Scientific Corpus’, p. 104. However,
David Romano and Bernard R. Goldstein seem more sceptical as regards this question, see
La ciencia hispanojudla, (Madrid, Mapfre, 1992), p. 106, and ‘Astronomy and Astrology in
the Works of Abraham ibn Ezra’, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 6 (1996), p. 15, respec­
tively. Julio Samso considers that Ibn Ezra must have been assisted by some collaborator
in his Latin texts that are not translations, see “Dixit Abraham Iudeus”, p. 172.
77 New research has recently strengthened the hypothesis of the likely collaboration of
Ibn Ezra with Christians, as previously suggested by Millas Vallicrosa. In this way his Latin
writings (astrological and astronomical texts), possibly redacted with the assistance of a
Christian, would be aimed at Christian readers, see Renata Smithuis, ‘Abraham Ibn Ezra
the Astrologer and the Transmission of Arabic Science to the Christian West’ (PhD diss.,
University of Manchester, 2004). See also Shlomo Sela, ‘Contactos cientificos entre judios
y cristianos en el siglo XII’, pp. 185-222.
78 Robert Chazan, Medieval Jewry in Northern France, A Political and Social History,
(Baltimore-London, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), pp. 6-7.
79 See Golb, The Jews in Medieval Normandy, especially pp. 253-305 (chapters 7 and 8
on Abraham ibn Ezra). According to Golb (ibid., pp. 294-295), Ibn Ezra did not write the
Latin versions of his treatises, but dictated them in a vernacular language to a Christian or
a Jew conversant with Latin. See also ‘Rouen’, Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 3, pp. 559-560.
After several years of conflict between the Angevins and the barons of Normandy, Geoffrey
Plantagenet, Count of Anjou (an Angevin), captured Rouen and took control of the whole
of the Duchy of Normandy in 1144. In 1154, the same year Ibn Ezra wrote his Latin treatise
 T he L atin tre a tise lacks th e in tro d u c to ry a n d clo sin g p o e m s th a t c h a r­
ac te riz e th e th re e H eb rew v ersio n s. N or is th e re a n in tro d u c tio n o n lin ­
guistic m a tte rs (in c o n tra s t to th e H e b re w v ersio n s), b u t Ib n E zra o p e n s
th e tre a tise d irec tly w ith th e d e s c rip tio n o f th e in s tru m e n t. T his o m issio n
is w h a t o n e w o u ld expect, fo r Ib n E zra is n o t u sin g H e b re w b u t Latin, a
la n g u ag e w ith w h ic h h e is n o t c o n c e rn e d as a w riter, g ra m m a ria n , p o et,
a n d tra n sla to r. T he e x p o sitio n s ta rts w ith a n e n u m e ra tio n o f th e ex ist­
in g ty p e s o f a s tro la b e s (n o rth e r n /s o u th e rn a n d c o m p le te /in c o m p le te ),
th e w ay th e y c a n b e d istin g u ish e d (th e circle o f C a p rico rn a n d th e circle
o f C a n ce r in te rc h a n g e th e ir p o sitio n s, d e p e n d in g o n th e ty p e), a n d th e
re a s o n w h y in c o m p le te a s tro la b e s c a n b e o n ly 1/2, 1/3, 1/5, 1/6 a n d 1/10 o f
th e c o m p le te a s tro la b e (all o f th e s e n u m b e rs a re div iso rs o f 90, th e n u m ­
b e r o f th e divisions o f th e q u a rte rs; th is e x p la n a tio n em erg es o n ly in th e
L atin v ersio n , u n lik e th e p rev io u s H eb rew tre a tise s). T his co u ld im p ly th a t
th e L atin re a d e rs w e re m o re in q u isitiv e a b o u t th e se q u e s tio n s th a n th e ir
Je w ish colleagues, o r th a t th e y sim ply d id n o t k n o w th e re a so n for th is
specific ch o ice o f n u m b e rs. T his is follow ed w ith th e d e s c rip tio n o f th e
c o m p o n e n ts o f th e in s tru m e n t, n a m e ly , o n th e f ro n t sid e, th e p la te s,
th e re te , th e m o th e r, th e lim b, a n d th e rule; o n th e b ack , th e alid a d e
w ith th e sig h tin g v a n e s a n d th e ir h o le /s (a ssa b a ta in th e L atin fo rm o f th e
d u a l A rabic w o rd as-sa tb a ta n ), tw o rings (fre q u e n tly w ith a c h a in o r cord)
to h o ld th e a s tro la b e (alilac in th e L atin fo rm o f th e A rab ic w o rd a l-cilaqa,
i.e., th e su sp e n so ry p a r t o f th e in s tru m e n t), a n d fo u r q u a rte rs. T he th re e
p la te s a n d th e in sid e o f th e m o th e r d e p ic t th e d iv isio n s for ev ery clim ate.
T he lim b is d iv id e d in 360 degrees. T he zo d iac o n th e re te h as a p r o tru d ­
in g to o th a n d is d iv id e d in to tw o u n e v e n p arts, th e large fo r th e s o u th e rn
signs a n d th e sm a lle r fo r th e n o r th e r n (in n o r th e r n astro lab e s), o r th e
c o n tra ry if th e a s tro la b e is so u th e rn . Every p la te is d iv id e d b y tw o d ia m ­
ete rs in to fo u r q u a rte rs. T h ere a re also th e arcs called a lm u c a n ta rs, th e
a z im u th a l lines, a n d th e divisions in d ic a tin g th e se a so n a l h o u rs. As in
th e first a n d se c o n d H eb rew tre a tise s, Ib n E zra d istin g u ish e s th e fo u r
q u a rte rs o n th e b a c k b y th e ir u ses: th e u p p e r-le ft for th e a ltitu d e o f th e
sun, th e lo w er-left for m e a su rin g d e p th s, th e lo w er-rig h t for th e sh a d o w
sq u ares, a n d th e u p p e r-rig h t, e m p ty in m o s t a stro lab e s, o r w ith a g rid o f
a rc s a n d ch o rd s, i.e., trig o n o m e tric fu n ctio n s. T h ere a re also tw o circles:
o n e fo r th e m o n th s a n d th e o th e r for th e signs o f th e zodiac.

on the astrolabe in Rouen, Henry II (the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet and the husband of
Eleanor of Acquitaine) was crowned King of England (1154-1189). Rouen was at the heart
of an empire that joined southern France and England.
 O nly tw o u se s o f th e a s tro la b e a re m e n tio n e d : a stro n o m y , a n d a ltim e try
a n d p la n im e try . H ow ever, th e lo n g e st p a r t o f th e a s tro n o m ic a l c h a p te r is
d e v o te d to astro lo g ica l q u e stio n s. T his show s th a t fo r th e w rite r th e re w as
n o s e p a ra tio n — a t le a st in p ra c tic e — b e tw e e n a s tro n o m y a n d astrology.
T he a s tro n o m ic a l a p p lic a tio n s o f th e a s tro la b e re fe rre d to in c lu d e: th e
m e a s u re m e n t o f th e a ltitu d e o f th e Sun, th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e le n g th o f
th e sh a d o w p ro je c te d b y th e Sun, i.e., th e u se o f th e a s tro la b e as a su n d ia l
to m e a su re tim e a n d th e p o sitio n o f th e S un b y d ay o r b y n ig h t (u sin g th e
m o n th a n d signs scales o n th e back ). A t a c e rta in p o in t th e a u th o r c o n ­
cludes: ‘th e s e q u e s tio n s are e n o u g h re g a rd in g a s tro n o m y ’ a n d s ta rts th e
a stro lo g ica l p a rt, w h ic h c o n s titu te s p ra c tic a lly th e w h o le tre a tise , lo n g er
th a n in th e H eb rew versions.8° T he re a d e rs in te n d e d in th e L atin v e rsio n
w ere m o re in te re s te d in astro lo g y a n d w e re a lre a d y a c q u a in te d w ith b asic
k n o w led g e o f astro n o m y .
T he a stro lo g ica l p a r t o f th e te x t sta rts w ith th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e risin g
d egree, th e m o s t b a sic e le m e n t for a h o ro sc o p e . C o n c e rn in g th is ca lc u ­
la tio n , Ib n E zra suggests d iffe re n t m e th o d s. W ith in th e lo n g astro lo g ical
sectio n , so m e p u re ly a s tro n o m ic a l u se s o f th e a s tro la b e a re in tro d u c e d :
for in sta n c e , to fin d th e p la te c o rre sp o n d in g to a c e rta in la titu d e (w h ich
c a n b e d o n e b y th re e m e th o d s ) a n d to fin d th e la titu d e o f a p la ce (th is
is also in th e th ird H eb rew v ersio n ). Ib n E zra m e n tio n s sev eral tim e s th e
w ay o n e h a s to p ro c e e d w h e n th e a s tro la b e h a s b e e n d esig n ed for so u th ­
e rn la titu d e s. So w ere th e re also s o u th e rn a stro la b e s a m o n g th e C h ristian s
o f n o r th e r n F ra n ce o r w as Ib n E zra ju s t in d u lg in g in a d e ta il o f a stro la b e
k n o w led g e th a t w as p a rtic u la rly en jo y ab le for h im ? As w e h av e said, th is
suggests th a t m o re a s tro la b e s o f th is ty p e th a n e x p e c te d w e re circ u la tin g
a m o n g E u ro p e a n a stro n o m e rs, also a m o n g C h ristian s. O th er, n o t specifi­
cally a stro lo g ica l ca lc u la tio n s in th is se c tio n are: th e a ltitu d e o f th e S un
a t n o o n a n d th e d iu rn a l a n d n o c tu rn a l arcs, th e a sc e n sio n s o f th e signs,
th e c a lc u la tio n o f tim e th ro u g h th e m o o n (w h ich I h av e fo u n d ex p lic­
itly s ta te d on ly in th e se c o n d H eb rew v e rsio n )— w h ic h e n tails th e u se o f
a s tro n o m ic a l ta b le s — , th e la titu d e o f th e m o o n , th e a p o g e e a n d p erig ee
o f th e p la n e ts, th e c a lc u la tio n o f tim e b y stars, th e la titu d e o f stars, th e
d iu rn a l a n d n o c tu rn a l arcs o f stars, a n d th e p o s itio n o f p la n e ts. Finally,
th e w rite r c o m es b a c k to th e a stro lo g ica l ex p o sitio n w ith th e th re e dif­
ficu lt b u t f u n d a m e n ta l to p ic s a lre a d y m e n tio n e d : d o m ific atio n , a sp e c ts
(th e re a re se v en d iv id ed in to le ft a n d rig h t asp ec ts, as in th e first a n d

8° Millas Vallicrosa, ‘Un nuevo tratado de astrolabio de R. Abraham ibn Ezra’, p. 12:
‘Et hec de opere postice quantum ad astronomiam sufficiant.’
se co n d H eb rew v ersio n s), a n d d ire c tio n s. All o f th e s e a re la b elled in
L atin b y th e u n u s u a l w o rd coh eren tia , w h ich , as far as I k n o w , is u n iq u e
in astro lo g ica l te x ts in L atin a n d h a s n o e q u iv a le n t in th e H e b re w tr e a ­
tises (o r in th e a stro lo g ica l ones). T his p a r t is p re c e d e d b y th e title: ‘a b o u t
th o se th in g s th a t p e r ta in to a stro lo g ica l ju d g m e n ts (iu d icia).’81 As Ib n E zra
explains, all o f th e coherentia c a n b e c a lc u la te d in tw o w ay s (rig h t d eg rees
a n d se a so n a l h o u rs), b u t on ly o n e o f th e m e th o d s is rig h t d e p e n d in g o n
th e c a lc u la tio n (se a so n a l h o u rs fo r all a n d rig h t d eg re es fo r th e a sp e c ts
o n c e rta in co n d itio n s). This is a d istin c tio n also m e n tio n e d in th e H eb rew
trea tise s. T he se c tio n o n a ltim e try a n d p la n im e try e m b ra c e s th e m e a ­
sure o f h e ig h t b y th re e m e th o d s a n d th e m e a su re o f d e p th (w ells), w id th
(rivers), a n d d ista n c e s (b e tw e e n tw o m o u n ta in s o r b e tw e e n a c e rta in
p la ce a n d a fire).82 In re la tio n to m e a su rin g h eig h t, Ib n E zra asse rts th a t
it is n o t feasible to m e a su re th e sh a d o w w h e n o n e is sta n d in g o n a h ig h
place. T he so lu tio n h e p ro p o se s is u sin g th e a s tro n o m ic a l ta b le s in ste a d o f
th e a stro lab e . A fter a lo n g e x p la n a tio n o n th is p a rtic u la r u se o f th e ta b le s
to s u b s titu te th e astro la b e , th e tre a tise a b ru p tly e n d s w ith th e s e n te n c e
‘th e tre a tise is fin ish e d .’83 T h ere is n o final p o em , as w e fin d a t th e e n d
o f th e th ir d H e b re w v e rsio n (th e first a n d th e se c o n d v e rsio n s do n o t
c o n ta in a n y fin al p o em ).
T he L atin v e rsio n c o n ta in s e le m e n ts a lre a d y p r e s e n t in th e H eb rew v e r­
sio n s a n d also th e stru c tu re o f th e tre a tis e a n d th e a r ra n g e m e n t o f th e
c o n te n ts are sim ila r in th e fo u r v e rsio n s as T able 2 show s. W e c a n find, for
in sta n c e , th e d isp lay o f d iffe re n t m e th o d s to ca lc u late a p a ra m e te r, a n d
th e c o n c e rn w ith th e a c c u ra c y o f th e results:

M ost astrolabes have two circles on the back— one for the m onths, the
other for the signs— to find the position of the Sun as accurately as possible,
except for the leap year (anno bissextili), in w hich the accuracy reached is
less. The older the astrolabe, the lesser the accuracy w hen the position of
the Sun is being calculated.84

81 Millas Vallicrosa, ibid., p. 22: ‘De his que ad iudicia pertinent.’

82 These applications of astrolabes also appear in the section on the astrolabe (7.2­
7.12) of Abraham ibn Ezra’s Sefer ha-middot, see Tony Levy and Charles Burnett, ‘Sefer ha-
Middot: A Mid-Twelfth-Century Text on Arithmetic and Geometry Attributed to Abraham
Ibn Ezra’, Aleph 6 (2006), pp. 166-174 (English translation) and pp. 202-204 (Hebrew text).
I owe this reference to Charles Burnett.
83 Millas Vallicrosa, ibid., p. 29: ‘Explicit.’
84 Millas Vallicrosa, ibid., p. 10. Additional instances of Ibn Ezra’s concern to refer to
one or more alternative methods for different calculations are the following: Tou find the
position of the sun on the astrolabes that have two circles, one for the signs, the other
for the months, in the following way. Place the alidade upon the division of the day on
O r th e q u e s tio n o f c h e ck in g astro lab e s:

You m ust know th a t any astrolabe, either southern or northern, m ust have
from the circle [of Cancer or Capricorn] to the circle [of Aries and Libra]
twenty-four degrees, individually separated in com plete astrolabes and
w ithout separation in incomplete astrolabes®5

By this m ethod you can determ ine if an astrolabe is either old or new. Look
at w h at degree of a sign is the star at a given m om ent according to the
astrolabe and at w hat degree according to the account (rationem) of
the astronom ical tables (tabularum). If they do n o t agree each other, count
seventy years per every degree of difference.86

Ib n E zra also u n d e rsc o re s th e im p o rta n c e o f th e ta b le s in th e c o m p le tio n

a n d c o rre c t p e rfo rm a n c e o f so m e o f th e ca lc u la tio n s w ith th e astro lab e® 7
A stro n o m ic a l ta b le s c a n e v e n b e u se d fo r so m e c a lc u la tio n s in d e p e n d e n tly
o f th e astro la b e . In th e c o n te x t o f th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e la titu d e o f a p lace
th ro u g h th e m e rid ia n a ltitu d e o f th e sun, Ib n E zra sta te s th e follow ing:

If you lack an astrolabe, take the altitude [of the Sun] by m eans of the
shadow according to the tables.88

A n d in th e fin a l p a r t o f th e tre a tis e , w h ic h se e m s to b e a n a d d itio n

to th e o rig in al te x t (th e style is slightly d iffe re n t w ith re s p e c t to th e re s t
o f th e tre a tise a n d th e w rite r refers to ‘A b ra h am , m y m a s te r’), th e a u th o r
ex p lain s th a t it is n o t p o ssib le to u se th e a stro la b e to m e a su re sh ad o w s
b e c a u s e o f h e ig h t in tw o circ u m sta n c e s, w h e n th e a ltitu d e o f th e S u n is
to o h ig h a n d w h e n it is b e lo w 45 degrees. In th e la st c irc u m sta n c e th e
u m b r a r e c ta c a n n o t m e a su re th e h e ig h t o f th e sh a d o w a n d ‘th e so lu tio n

which you are seeking the position of the sun. The position of the sun is in the sign and
the degree of that sign that the alidade indicates. If on the contrary you want to know the
day of the month from the position of the sun through the same procedure, you will do
the opposite. However, this method is not very reliable. We will not say anything about the
astrolabes having a diagram [to calculate] chords (cordas) and arcs (arcus)’, ibid., p. 10. ‘If
you lack the plates of latitude, act according to the method that we have given there. How­
ever, what we said is only accurate if the moon is in the ecliptic. If the moon is not in the
zodiac, we will fail more or less depending on being more or less the latitude’, ibid., p. 19.
The leap year (of the Christian or Julian Calendar) is also mentioned in the third version.
85 Millas Vallicrosa, ibid., p. 15.
86 Millas Vallicrosa, ibid., p. 20.
87 ‘Take the altitude of the moon likeyou take the altitudeof the sun, and [take] the
position of the moon from the tables ofco-equation of theplanets (coequationis plan-
etarum) according to the method that we have given for co-equating (coequandis) the
planets at whatever hour’, see Millas Vallicrosa, ibid., p. 19.
88 Millas Vallicrosa, ibid., p. 16: ‘Si deest astrolabium sume per umbram altitudinem
secundum tabulas’.
is th a t y o u ta k e th e sh a d o w b y m e a n s o f th e a ltitu d e d isp lay e d o n th e
a s tro n o m ic a l ta b le s.’89 T he ta b le s re fe rre d to m u s t h av e c o n ta in e d trig o ­
n o m e tric ta b le s w ith c h o rd s (co rd a ) to fin d th e sh a d o w c o rre sp o n d in g to
a c e rta in a ltitu d e o f th e S un u sin g th e la titu d e o f th e place.
T h ere is also a g lim p se o f th e difficulties a n d e x c e p tio n a l c h a ra c te r o f
so m e o b se rv a tio n s, especially re g a rd in g p la n ets:

You will find by the same m ethod the retrogradation (retrogradationem) of

Saturn. However, it takes m any nights to take the altitude, for the m otion
(motus) of this is slow. You m ust act likewise to find [the retrogradation] of
Venus. If som eone is in England, w hen the sun is [in th a t p art of the zodiac
starting] from Capricorn, [the distance of] Venus from the sun is the furthest,
w hich is 47 degrees [sic]. In other places, this is n o t so. Nobody can calculate
by this m ethod [the retrogradation] of Mercury, unless it [Mercury?] is on
the first lim it/phase? of the planet (in fin e primo planete), the sun is in the
southern signs, Mercury is in the furthest elongation (m axim a remotione)
from the Sun, w hich is 45 seconds of a degree [sic], and the two planets
[either M ercury or Venus] are eastern, that is, rising before the Sun.9°

T his p assag e in c lu d e s a n in trig u in g m e n tio n o f E n g lan d , w h e re Ib n E zra

w as to sp e n d th e re m a in in g y ea rs o f h is life, v ery likely u n til h is d eath.9i It
also d e m o n s tra te s tw o o th e r tra its c h a ra c te ristic o f Ib n E zra’s astro lo g ica l
w ritin g s. T he first is th e critica l a p p ro a c h to h is su b ject:

This is the equation of houses according to Ptolemy, although it is neither

right nor do the experts (doctores) in astronom y agree w ith it. You will find
the right [equation] in the following way. Place the rising degree on the
eastern alm ucantar. That p art of the zodiac touching the lim it ( f n e m ) of
the tenth hour is the beginning of the second house, th at touching the limit
of the eighth hour is the beginning of the third, th at touching the lim it of
the sixth is the beginning of the fourth, that touching the lim it of the fourth
is the beginning of the fifth, and that touching the lim it of the second is
the beginning of the sixth. The six rem aining houses are opposite these.92

T he o th e r is th e u se o f th e te c h n ic a l te rm p o w e r w ith a q u a n tita tiv e m e a n ­

in g (L atin virtus, H eb rew koah) to a s c e rta in th e d eg re e o f c e rtitu d e o f a n
astro lo g ica l ju d g m e n t, w h ic h Ib n E zra u se s in th e c o n te x t o f d o m ificatio n ,

89 Millas Vallicrosa, ibid., p. 28: ‘tunc uero remedium est ut sumas umbram per altitu-
dinem sumptam in tabulis.’
9° Millas Vallicrosa, ibid., p. 22.
91 Sela indicated the similar reference to England in the third Hebrew and in the Latin
versions, see ‘Abraham ibn Ezra’s Scientific Corpus’, p. 105.
92 Millas Vallicrosa, ibid., p. 22.
a sp ects, a n d d ire c tio n s, th e th re e m a in a stro lo g ica l su b je cts in all th e fo u r
tre a tis e s (e x c e p t fo r th e d ire c tio n s in th e first H eb rew version):93

The first w ay of equating houses is based on dividing [the circle] into

thirty degrees for every house starting from the rising degree. Certain autho­
rities in astrology (iudiciorum auctores) attribute to the houses according
to this m ethod (equationis) a third of the pow er (virtutis) of the judgm ents
based on the houses. But others [state] that [the power] is two thirds
depending on the latitude of the place.94

C o n tra ry to Ib n E zra’s silen ce w h e n it co m es to e x p la in in g th e m e a n in g

o f d ire c tio n s in astro lo g y in h is th ird H e b re w tre a tis e (th e first v e rsio n
d o es n o t ev en m e n tio n th e m ), th e L atin v e rsio n is c o m p le te ly ex p licit
(like th e se co n d H eb rew v ersio n , b u t in a d iffe re n t w ay, fo r Ib n E zra is
ex p licit a b o u t its astro lo g ica l in te rp re ta tio n ) a n d w e fin d th e follow ing
ex p la n a tio n :

As m any years and the corresponding portion of the year rem ain until
the good fortune of the native (fortunam nascentis) if the directions and the
aspects of the native are favorable (prosperi), I mean, w ith th at rising sign
(sub tali oriente); or on the contrary until the m isfortune (infortunium) or
until the kind of fortune (prosperitatis) of the directions in illness, harm
or any other of such things to be considered®5

93 For an analysis of this term, see Josefina Rodriguez Arribas, ‘Quantitative Concepts in
Hellenistic and Medieval Astrology’, in From Masha'allah to Kepler, ed. by Charles Burnett
and Dorian Gieseler Greenbaum (forthcoming).
94 Millas Vallicrosa, ibid., p. 22. Other references to power are: ‘They attribute a third
of the power (virtutis) of the judgments to the aspects according to equal degrees and two
thirds to the remaining aspects that are according to the latitude of the place. ptolemy,
Enoch, Messahalla, Albumasar and others after them do not agree regarding this second
question’, ibid., p. 23. ‘Directions are in two ways. The first way is with equal degrees,
something about which the authorities on astronomy (rationis astronomie) agree. The
masters of judgments attribute to it a third of the power (virtutis) of judgments, but two
thirds to the other way, which depends on the latitude of the place. Hermes, Dorotheus of
Sydon, Ptolemy, Messahalla, Andruzgar, Albumasar and everybody agree about the second
way. The remaining ancients (antiqui) do not disagree with them, with the exception of
the Christian Auennouausth and Anurizi. The ancients (antiqui) are certainly right’, ibid.,
p. 25. Anurizi has been identified by Sela as al Fadl ben Hatim al-Nayrizl, see Abraham
ibn Ezra and the Rise, p. 33. He is also mentioned in Ibn Ezra’s Liber de rationibus tabu-
larum, p. 76. Regarding Auennouausth, it is not mentioned by Ibn Ezra in any of his other
treatises, see Sela, Abraham ibn Ezra and the Rise, p. 33, note 67. This name could be a
deformation of one of the astrologers of the Persian family Ibn Nawbakht (8th-10th c.).
I thank Charles Burnett for this indication. The members of this family were Zoroastrians
and Muslims, but the Latin text states that Auennouausth was a Christian, so his identity
remains uncertain.
95 Millas Vallicrosa, ibid., p. 26.
T his re p re s e n ts th e on ly a stro lo g ica l ju d g m e n t (a lth o u g h g en e ral) fo u n d
in th is trea tise , a n d th e re a re very few in th e H eb rew v ersio n s. D esp ite th e
close rela tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e astro lab e a n d astrology a n d d esp ite th e fact
th a t a large p a r t o f th e tre a tise is d ev o ted to astrological calculations, th is
reflec ts th e on ly re m a rk o f astro lo g ica l sc o p e (leav in g asid e th e sev eral
m e n tio n s o f th e a stro lo g ica l p ow ers, w h ic h are re fe re n c e s re la te d to o th e r
w riters, n o t Ib n E zra’s o p in io n ).
A p p ro a c h in g th e final o f th e L atin tre a tise , a s e n te n c e re g a rd in g th e
c a lc u la tio n o f a n y h e ig h t e n c a p s u la te s Ib n E zra’s p o sitio n in re g a rd to
th e a stro la b e in th e H eb rew a n d L atin v ersio n s. A fter a lo n g s e t o f in s tru c ­
tio n s, w e r e a d th e follow ing re g a rd in g th e m e a s u r e m e n t o f a h e ig h t w ith
th e b a c k o f a n astrolabe: ‘assess h o w m u c h co u ld b e ap p ro x im ate ly th e dif­
feren ce b e tw e e n th e tw o m arks, m u ltip ly [it] b y tw elve, a n d d iv id e th e
to ta l b y th e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n th e tw o shad o w s. S u b tra c t th e h e ig h t o f
th e su rv ey o r fro m th e r e s u lt a n d th e re m a in d e r is w h a t y o u are seek in g .’96
T his is a n a p p ro x im a te ca lc u latio n , w h ic h w as th e o n ly p o ssib le c a lc u la­
tio n w ith a s tro la b e s a n d w ith th e re so u rc e s av ailab le in Ib n E zra’s tim e,
b u t still o n e w o u ld o p e ra te w ith th e se n u m b e rs ‘as i f ’ th e y w e re co m ­
p le te ly a c c u ra te (‘m u lt ip ly ...’, ‘d i v i d e ...’, ‘s u b t r a c t . .. ’). T his is tru e for
ca lc u la tio n s in a ltim e try a n d p la n im e try , a n d also for a s tro n o m ic a l a n d
astro lo g ica l calc u latio n s. Like m o d e rn sc ien tists, m o s t m e d ie v a l a s tro n ­
o m e rs w e re also aw a re o f th e lim its o f th e ir in stru m e n ts. In g en eral,
th e L atin v e rsio n displays few er d e fin itio n s th a n th e H e b re w v ersio n s,
w h ic h suggests e ith e r th a t th e in te n d e d re a d e r in th e L atin v e rsio n w as
m o re c o n v e rsa n t w ith th e te c h n ic a litie s o f a s tro n o m y a n d astro lo g y th a n
th e in te n d e d re a d e rs in th e H e b re w v ersio n s, o r th a t Ib n E zra a ssu m e s
th a t L atin tre a tise s o n a s tro n o m y a n d astro lo g y w ere a lre a d y av ailab le
am o n g L atin re a d e rs a n d so th e y d id n o t n e e d f u rth e r ex p lan a tio n s.

6. Conclusions: Jew ish A strolabes or J u s t A stro la b es U sed b y Jew s

It is e v id e n t th a t th e a s tro la b e — as a n in s tru m e n t a n d a te x t— ex iste d in

H e b re w cu ltu re. M ed iev al Jew s w e re in te re s te d in astro lab e s: th e y u se d
th e m a n d th e y w ro te a b o u t th e m . As A rabic b e c a m e p ro g ressiv ely a for­
eign la n g u ag e b e c a u s e o f th e d ia sp o ra fro m A l-A ndalus, m o re tra n s la tio n s
w e re re q u ire d . In th is c o n te x t, Ib n E zra w ro te th e first tre a tise s o n th e
a s tro la b e in H e b re w fo r E u ro p e a n Jew s w h o d id n o t k n o w A rabic, b u t d id

96 Millas Vallicrosa, ibid., p. 28.

n o t w a n t to re m a in ig n o ra n t a b o u t th e fa sh io n a b le in s tru m e n t th a t th e
a s tro la b e w as b ec o m in g . W h y d id Ib n E zra n o t p re fe r to w rite h is tre a tise s
in o n e o f th e E u ro p e a n v e rn a c u la r lan g u ag e s em erg in g a t th a t m o m e n t?
M edieval Jew s se ld o m w ro te lite ra ry w o rk s in E u ro p e a n v e rn a c u la r la n ­
guages, a n d Ib n E zra w as n o e x c ep tio n . W e h av e e x p lo re d th is q u e s tio n
in a n o th e r a r t i c l e d b u t h e likely ch o se H e b re w b e c a u s e it w as h is se c o n d
lan g u ag e (after A rabic) a n d th e la n g u ag e h e sh a re d w ith all th e Jew s. A n
in trig u in g q u e s tio n is w h e th e r Ib n E zra w as satisfy in g a re q u e s t a m o n g
le a rn e d a n d ric h Jew s, w h o w a n te d to o w n a n d d isp lay a s tro la b e s w ith
d istin c tiv e Je w ish tra its o r w h e th e r h e w as ju s t c re a tin g th is n ec essity
w ith h is tre a tise s a n d th e n e w te rm in o lo g y c o in e d in th e m (th e n a m e s
o f th e sta rs in c lu d e d ). W h a t co u ld h av e b e e n th e feelin g o f a Je w ish
a s tro n o m e r o r a stro lo g e r w h e n h e co u ld h o ld in h is h a n d s a n a stro la b e
w ith H eb rew script, esp ecially in C h ristia n te rrito rie s w h e re Jew s w ere
alw ays d isc rim in a te d a g a in st a n d so m e tim e s p e rse c u te d , e v e n ex p elled ?
H e m u s t h av e b e e n p ro u d o f h is p e o p le a n d c u ltu re. W e c a n go fu rth e r.
W h a t co u ld h av e b e e n th e feelin g o f o n e o f th o se le a rn e d Jew s w h e n h e
re a d o r lis te n e d to th e d e s c rip tio n o f th is p ro d ig io u s in s tru m e n t, a n d re c ­
o g n iz ed w o rd s a n d ex p re ssio n s o f th e H eb rew Bible d e n o tin g th e p a rts
o f th e in s tru m e n t a n d th e ir u ses? H is m u s t h av e b e e n a feelin g o f b e lo n g ­
ing: th e in tu itio n th a t th is in s tru m e n t a n d th e k n o w led g e it co n v ey ed
w as n o t a n d h a d n e v e r b e e n fo reig n to Jew s.
Jew s m a d e th e a s tro la b e th e irs in d iffe re n t w ays. T h ey u se d a stro la b e s
(w ith A rabic, Latin, H ebrew , o r Ju d a eo -A ra b ic sc rip ts) a n d le a rn e d th e sci­
e n c e o f th e in s tru m e n t fro m tre a tise s a n d fro m in stru c to rs in an y o f th e se
la n g u ag e s (m ain ly in A rabic o r H ebrew ). A bove all, Jew s m a d e th e a s tro ­
la b e th e irs th ro u g h th e H e b re w language: tra n s la tin g th e in s tru m e n t a n d
d e sc rib in g it w ith H eb rew w o rd s in th e tre a tise s th a t a re e x ta n t. T hese
first tre a tise s a re th e w o rk s o f a g ra m m a ria n a n d a p u ris t o f H eb rew la n ­
guage. P au l K unitzsch , o n e o f th e w o rld ’s e x p e rts in th e field o f astro lab e s,
esta b lish e d th a t th e la n g u ag e s o f th e h isto ry o f th e a s tro la b e a re Syriac,
G reek, A rabic, a n d L atin. It is tim e for H eb rew to jo in th is list. T h e o m is­
sio n o f th is lan g u ag e in th e tra d itio n o f th e a s tro la b e resu lts o n ly fro m
ig n o ra n c e o f th e m e d ie v a l m a n u s c rip t tra d itio n in th is la n g u ag e a n d o f
th e few b u t sig n ific an t e x ta n t H eb rew in stru m en ts.9 8

97 See Rodriguez Arribas, ‘Reading Astrolabes in Medieval Hebrew’.

98 Paul Kunitzsch, Glossar der arabischen Fachausdrucke in der mittelalterlichen
europaischen Astrolabliteratur (Gottingen, Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1982), p. 466.
 A p p e n d ix

Finding the latitude of 1 3 16

any plate (1)
Altitude of the sun by 2 2 / 14 / 21
day (2)
Altitude of any star by 3 1 / 11
nigh t (3)
Altitude of any planet 4
(4)
Rising of the
sun in every
sign of the
zodiac (6)
M easuring the
shadow of anything
(3)
M onth and day in the 2 11
Christian calendar (5)
True position o f the 7 1
sun (6)
Position of the 9
sun by day and
by night (5)
position of
any star of the
zodiac (26)
Nadir of the sun (7) 13
Hour by day or by 10 / 21 12 13 / 15
night in seasonal
hours (8)
Altitude of the
m eridian (8)
Hour by day or by
night in equinoctial
hours (9)

99 The order in which the topic appears in the treatise is indicated in parentheses. As
a rule, we have included only those topics that are specifically described and omitted in
the table those merely mentioned.
 Arc of the hours 7/8
of the day and
of the night in
seasonal and
equinoctial
hours (11)
Declination of the
sun (19)
D iurnal arc (time to 12 22
sunset) (10)
N octurnal arc (tim e to 13
sunrise) (11)
Equinoctial and sea­ 12 / 13
sonal hours (12)
Seasonal hours from 14
equinoctial (13)
Altitude of any degree
of the zodiac (14)
Declination of any
degree (15)
Declination of any star 25
(16)
Diurnal and nocturnal 23
rising of any degree
(17)
Diurnal and nocturnal 13 24
rising of any star (18)
Setting of any degree
(19)
Setting of any star (20) 23 27
Rising degree of any 9 9 / 23 12
time (21)
Setting degree of any
time (22)
Degree in the upper
m eridian at any time
(23)
Degree in the lower
m eridian at any time
(24)
Ascension in sphaera 15 10 / 20
recta of any degree of
the zodiac (25)
Ascension of any sign 16 11 / 21 25
of the zodiac in any
local horizon (26)
Hours and their
divisions (14)
M orning and evening 29 29
twilights (27)
Straight shadow and 15 4/5
reverse shadow (28)
Altitude of the sun 17 8
through the straight or
the reverse shadows
(29)
Calculating the
shadow through
the altitude of
the sun (18)
Calculation of 6/7
either shadow
through the
other (19)
Epoch and age 30
of an astrolabe
(16 / 22)
Zodiacal 25 31
latitude of any
star (25)
Latitude of any place 17 18
(30)
Altitude of the 18 17
equinox (31)
D eclination of
the sun in the
sphaera recta
(19)
M om ents of the
solstices and
equinoxes (20)
Degree of the 26
zodiac rising
w ith any star
in any specific
horizon (22)
 Diurnal and 27
nocturnal arcs
of any star (24)
Latitude of the
m oon (27)
Finding time 29
through the
stars (23)
Position of the m oon
in the zodiac (32)
Position of the five 27 30 33 / 35
planets in the zodiac
(33)
W hether a p lanet is 36
retrograde or direct
(34)
Invisibility of the 28
m oon (35)
Lunar mansions: list 30 (list)
(36)
Position of the m oon 31
in the lunar mansions
(37)
Entrance of the
sun in every
m onth (31)
Time by night
through the
lunar m ansion
(32)
Seasonal hour
through the
position of the
m oon in the zodiac
(26)
A nnual
revolution of
the sun (33)
M onthly
revolution of
the m oon (34)
Revolution of
the natal
horoscope (35)
 Astrological houses 36 31 24 /3 7 -3 8
(38)
A scendant of
the annual
revolution of
the sun (32)
Astrological aspects 37 33 39-40
(39)
Directions (38) 34 41-42
Rectification of
astronom ical
tables (39)
positions of the m ost 7 35 (list)
visible fixed stars: list
(40)
Degree and latitude of
any star engraved in
the rete (41)
Latitude of any star
close to the pole
(28)
Identifying the stars 8 (list) 24 / 35 (list) 34
engraved in the rete
[when they are not
labelled or are not
readable] (42)
Degree of any rising
star (43)
Degree of any setting
star (44)
Diurnal arc of any star 28 32
in seasonal or equi­
noctial hours (45)
N octurnal arc of any 28 32
star in seasonal or
equinoctial hours (46)
Height of any tow er or 36 43
tree (47)
D epth of any place 39 44 / 46
(e.g., a well) (48)
W idth of any river (49) 38 45
Distance 47
betw een two
places (37)
Version 1 Version 2 Version 3 Latin

How to operate w hen 20

there is no plate for a
specific latitude (50)
Astrolabes according
to the num ber of their
divisions and explana­
tion of their use (51)1°°
M easuring shad­
ows through astro­
nom ical tables (48)

Table 3: The M ain Uses of Astrolabes in Ibn Ezra’s Treatises™

CALENDAR - Altitude of the sun by day (1, 2, L)

- Altitude of any star by night (1, 2, L)
- M onth and day in the Christian calendar (1, 3, L)
- Altitude of the m eridian (3)
- Altitude of the sun through the straight or the reverse
shadows (1, 3, L)
- M om ents of the solstices and equinoxes (2)
- Degree of the zodiac rising w ith any star in any
specific horizon (2, 3)
- Position of the m oon in the zodiac (1)
- Invisibility of the m oon (1, 2)
- Position of the m oon in the lunar m ansions (1, 2)
- Entrance of the sun in every m onth (2)1°2

1°° Uses number 50 and number 51 of the first version are also present in the other
Hebrew and Latin versions (with more or less detail depending on the text), not in any
specific section but emerging throughout the treatises associated with the explanations of
different applications of astrolabes.
1°1 The version in which the use is explained is indicated in parentheses (numbers for
the different Hebrew versions and L for the Latin version). This division into seven groups
of uses is not explicit or apparent in the manuscripts (these are practical treatises in which
classifications are out of place). However, the order of the contents seems to imply that
the easiest and most common uses of the astrolabe (calendar and time-keeping) are intro­
duced immediately after the physical description of the instrument and are followed by the
most complicated ones (astronomy and astrology). Planimetry and altimetry are placed at
the end, not for the sophistication of the calculation, but for the smaller frequency of this
specific use (there were other methods available at the time that did not require the use of
this expensive instrument and already had a long history among land surveyors).
1°2 This calculation (which is calendrical, astronomical, and astrological) is concerned
with the beginning of the Christian months, which do not depend on the moon or on the sun
and which are of different duration (28, 30, and 31 days, depending on the specific month).
 - A nnual revolution of the sun (2)
- M onthly revolution of the m oon (2)
- Rectification of astronom ical tables (2)
TIME KEEPING - Altitude of the sun by day (1, 2, L)
- Altitude of any star by night (1, 2)
- Hour by day or by night in seasonal hours (1, 2, 3, L)
- Altitude of the m eridian (3)
- Hour by day or by night in equinoctial hours (1)
- Arc of the hours of the day and of the night in seasonal
and equinoctial hours (2)
- Diurnal arc (tim e to sunset) (1, 2, 3, L)
- N octurnal arc (tim e to sunrise) (1, 2, 3)
- Equinoctial and seasonal hours (1, 2)
- Seasonal hours from equinoctial (1, 2)
- Hours and their divisions (3)
- Altitude of the sun through the straight or the reverse
shadows (1, 3, L)
- Diurnal and nocturnal arcs of any star (2, 3)
- Finding tim e through the stars (3)
- Position of the m oon in the lunar m ansions (1, 2)
- Time by night through the lunar m ansion (2)
- Seasonal hour through the position of the m oon in the
zodiac (L)
- Diurnal arc of any star in seasonal or equinoctial hours
(1, 3, L)
- N octurnal arc of any star in seasonal or equinoctial
hours (1, 3, L)
RELIGION - M orning and evening twilights (1, 2, 3)
ASTRONOMY - Altitude of any planet (1)
- Rising of the sun in every sign of the zodiac (2)
- True position of the sun (1, 2, 3)
- Position of the sun by day and by night (2, L)
- Position of any star of the zodiac (2)
- Position in the upper m eridian of any star of the
zodiac (2)
- Altitude of the m eridian (3)
- D eclination of the sun (L)
- Altitude of any degree of the zodiac (1)
- D eclination of any degree (1)
- D eclination of any star (1, 2)
- Diurnal and nocturnal rising of any degree (1, L)
- Diurnal and nocturnal rising of any star (1, 2, 3)
- Setting of any degree (1)
- Setting of any star (1, 2, 3)
- Zodiacal latitude of any star (2,3, L)
 - Altitude of the sun through the straight or the reverse
shadows (1, 3, L)
- Latitude of any place (1, 2, 3, L)
- Altitude of the equinox (1, 2, 3, L)
- M om ents of the solstices and equinoxes (2)
- Degree of the zodiac rising w ith any star in any specific
horizon (2, 3)
- Latitude of the m oon (L)
- Position of the m oon in the zodiac (1)
- Position of the five planets in the zodiac (1, 2, 3, L)
- W hether a planet is retrograde or direct (1, L)
- Invisibility of the m oon (1, 2)
- Lunar m ansions (1, 2)
- Position of the m oon in the lunar m ansions (1, 2)
- Entrance of the sun in every m onth (2)
- A nnual revolution of the sun (2)
- Rectification of astronom ical tables (2)
- Positions of the m ost visible fixed stars: list (1, 2, 3)
- Degree and latitude of any star engraved in the rete (1)
- Latitude of any star close to the pole (L)
- Identifying the stars engraved in the rete [when they
are n o t labelled or are n o t readable] (1, 2, 3, L)
- Degree of any rising star (1)
- Degree of any setting star (1)
ASTROLOGY - Rising of the sun in every sign of the zodiac (2)
- True position of the sun (1, 2, 3)
- Position of the sun by day and by night (2, L)
- Nadir of the sun (1, 3)
- Altitude of the m eridian (3)
- Entrance of the sun in every m onth (2)
- Rising degree of any tim e (1, 2, 3, L)
- Setting degree of any time (1)
- Degree in the upper m eridian at any time (1)
- Degree in the lower m eridian at any tim e (1)
- Ascension in sphaera recta of any degree of the zodiac
(1, 2, 3)
- Ascension of any sign of the zodiac in any local
horizon (1, 2, 3, L)
- Declination of the sun in the sphaera recta (2)
- M om ents of the solstices and equinoxes (2)
- Position of the m oon in the zodiac (1)
- Position of the five planets in the zodiac (1, 2, 3, L)
- W hether a planet is retrograde or direct (1, L)
- Lunar m ansions (1, 2)
- Position of the m oon in the lunar m ansions (1, 2)
- Entrance of the sun in every m onth (2)
 - A nnual revolution of the sun (2)
- M onthly revolution of the m oon (2)
- Revolution of the natal horoscope (2)
- Astrological houses (1, 2, 3, L)
- A scendant of the annual revolution of the sun [i.e.,
profection] (3)
- Astrological aspects (1, 2, 3, L)
- Directions (2, 3, L)
- Rectification of astronom ical tables (2)
ALTIMETRY - Straight shadow and reverse shadow (1, 3, L)
AND - M easuring the shadow of anything (L)
PLANIMETRY1°3 - Calculation of either of the two shadows through the
other (3)
- Calculating the shadow through the altitude of the
sun (3)
- Height of any tower or tree (1, 3, L)
- Distances betw een two places (3, L)
- D epth of any place (e.g., a pit) (1, 3, L)
- W idth of any river (1, 3, L)
ASTROLABES - Finding the latitude of any plate (1, 2, 3, L)
- Age of an astrolabe (3, L)
- How to operate w hen there is no plate for a specific
latitude (1, L)
- Astrolabes according to the num ber of their divisions
(alm ucantars) and explanation of their use (1)
- M easuring shadows through astronom ical tables (L)

R eferences

Manuscripts
Jerusalem, National Library, MS 5563.
Moscow, Russian State Library, MS Gunzburg 937.

i°3 These applications of astrolabes belong in practical geometry and are already
referred to in the first half of the 12th c. in Hugh of Saint Victor’s Practica geometriae (in
Hugonis de Sancto Victore opera propaedeutica, ed. by Roger Baron, 1966) and Didascalicon,
trans. by Jerome Taylor, 1961 (see p. 70). The anonymous author of the French treatise
Pratikegeometrie (c. 1275) gives a short description of how to use an astrolabe for calcu­
lating the length of a straight line (distances or width) and the height of a tree or steeple.
However, neither Villard of Honnecourt (c. 1200-1250) nor the anonymous author of a
compilation of articles on masonry in England (Cooke Ms, c. 1400) give evidence of using
the astrolabe in surveying, see Lon R. Shelby, ‘The Geometrical Knowledge of Medieval
Master Masons’, Speculum 47. 3 (1972), 405 and 407.
Oxford, Bodleian Library, Digby 51.
Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France, MS hebreu 1056; MS hebreu 1045; MS hebreu
1061.

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Iancu, Michael, ‘Montpellier In Languedoc throughout the Centuries: A “Little Cordoba”?’,
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 SOME HYGIENE AND DIETARY CALENDARS IN HEBREW
MANUSCRIPTS FROM MEDIEVAL ASHKENAZ

J u stin e Isserles

t h r e e h y g ien e a n d d ie ta ry c a le n d a rs w ere re c e n tly fo u n d in c a le n d ric a l

a n d p ro g n o stic a l se ctio n s o f d iffe re n t lite ra ry g en re s o f m e d ie v a l H eb rew
m a n u s c rip ts fro m A s h k e n a z } d a tin g fro m th e th ir te e n th a n d fo u rte e n th
c e n tu rie s . H aving c h e c k e d H e b re w m a n u s c rip t ca ta lo g u es fro m lib raries
p re se rv in g th e la rg e st co llec tio n s,2 it seem s firstly, th a t th e s e re g im e n cal­
e n d a rs a re n o t v ery c o m m o n in m e d ie v a l H eb rew m a n u sc rip ts ,3 a n d sec­
ondly, w h e n th e y are p re se n t, th e y a re in te g ra te d w ith in th e s tru c tu re s o f
m e d iev a l m e d ic a l H eb rew m a n u sc rip ts (1 4 th -1 5 th c.) fro m Italy,4 S p ain 5

1 A system of transliteration has been chosen for some Hebrew letters in this article:
W=s, V/S=s, N=’, )p=, p=q, 3=k, 0=t, n=h. Nevertheless, certain transliterated words which
are widely used in the English language have retained their most recurrent spellings, such
as Ashkenaz, Halakha, Midrash, Rashi and Shabbat.
2 See Adolf Neubauer, Catalogue of the Hebrew Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library and in
the College Libraries of Oxford, including Manuscripts in other Languages which are written
in Hebrew Characters, vol. 1 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1886); Adolf Neubauer and Arthur
E. Cowley, Catalogue of Hebrew Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library and in the College
Libraries of Oxford, including Manuscripts in other Languages which are written in Hebrew
Characters, vol. 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1906); George Margoliouth, Catalogue of the
Hebrew and Samaritan Manuscripts in the British Museum (London: British Museum,
1965); Benjamin Richler, Hebrew Manuscripts in the Biblioteca Palatina in Parma,
(Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, 2001); Hermann Zotenberg, Catalogue des manuscrits
hebreux et samaritains de la Bibliotheque Imperiale (Paris: 1866); Gabrielle Sed-Rajna
and Sonia Fellous, Les manuscrits hebreux enlumines des bibliotheques de France (Paris and
Louvain: Peeters, 1994).
3 It must be pointed out that this paper is the first preliminary research done on these
types of calendars, and that an exhaustive list of the presence of hygiene and dietary
calendars in medieval Hebrew manuscripts from Spain, Italy and Ashkenaz is in the mak­
ing, in order to have a clearer idea of their frequency, type, and date, and the region in
which they are preserved.
4 See the medical Hebrew manuscript, Berlin, Staatsbibliothek, Preussischer Kulturbe-
sitz, MS Or. Qu. 509, dated 14th to 15th centuries, Italian hand. See Moritz Steinschneider,
Die Handschriften— Verzeichnisse der Koniglichen Bibliothek zu Berlin. Verzeichniss der
Hebraeische Handschriften (Berlin, 1878-1897), vol. 2, I, p. 39 (catalogue no. 61). See also
another medical Hebrew manuscript, MS Qu. 834, dated 1414, Italian hand: Steinschneider,
Die Handschriften— Verzeichnisse, vol. 2, II, pp. 92-93 (catalogue no. 241).
5 See the medical Hebrew manuscript, Berlin, Staatsbibliothek, Preussischer Kul-
turbesitz, MS Qu. 809, dated 15th cent., Sefardic hand: Steinschneider, Die Handschriften-
Verzeichnisse, vol. 2, II, pp. 89-90, (catalogue no. 237).
a n d e v e n A sh k e n a z.6 T he d iscovery o f th e th re e h y g ie n e a n d d ie ta ry cal­
e n d a rs to b e d isc u sse d in th is p r e s e n t study, rev e al th a t th e y c a n also
b e fo u n d in o th e r lite ra ry g en re s o f H e b re w m e d ie v a l m a n u s c rip ts fro m
A s h k e n a z.
F u rth e rm o re , th e d iscovery o f th e s e c a le n d a rs in m e d iev a l H eb rew A sh­
k e n a z i m a n u sc rip ts , o th e r th a n o f m e d ic a l ty p e w as u n e x p e c te d , c o n s id e r­
in g th a t th e y are h a rd ly d e s c rib e d b y th e c a ta lo g u e rs7 a n d h av e a p p a re n tly
b e e n overlo o k ed , h e n c e e x p la in in g w h y n o n e o f th e se A sh k en a zi h y g ien e
a n d d ie ta ry c a le n d a rs h av e b e e n s tu d ie d yet.
t h i s is n o t th e case a t all for h y g ien e a n d d ie ta ry c a le n d a rs in L atin m e d i­
eval m a n u s c rip ts ( c o n tin e n ta l a n d A nglo-Saxon). T h ese c a le n d a rs w h ic h
o rig in a te fro m a n tiq u ity , a n d w h o se e a rlie st re m a in in g w itn e sse s d a te fro m
th e n in th ce n tu ry , a re v ery c o m m o n .8 t h e y h av e b e e n ex ten siv ely s tu d ie d
b y sch o lars since th e b e g in n in g o f th e tw e n tie th ce n tu ry , su c h as K arl Sud-
h o ff fo r in sta n c e w ho, b a c k in 1909, d e sc rib e d tw o m o n th ly reg im en s in
fo u rte e n th - a n d fifte e n th -c e n tu ry m a n u s c rip ts ,9 so m e p re c e p ts o f w h ic h

6 See the medical Hebrew manuscript, Berlin, Staatsbibliothek, Preussischer Kulturbe-

sitz, MS Or. Qu. 545, dated 15th-century, Ashkenazi hand: Steinschneider, Die Handschriften-
Verzeichnisse, vol. 2, I, pp. 47-49, (catalogue no. 72).
7 The three hygiene and dietary calendars studied here have been described in the
utmost brevity: MS Mich. 569 (Oxford, Bodleian Library, ff. 95r-97r) is catalogued in Adolf
Neubauer, Catalogue of the Hebrew Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library, vol.1, p. 299-303,
but the calendar is only mentioned in the corrigenda of this catalogue by Malachi Beit-Arie
entitled Catalogue of Hebrew Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library. Supplement o f Addenda
and Corrigenda to vol.1 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), p. 172, where Malachi Beit-Arie
wrote: ‘fols 95r-97r.mNHai HN1AT ’131, medical recipes based on the seasons of
the year’. An appropriate translation for this title could be suggested as: ‘Words of healing
and health for the body’. The second calendar is found in MS Heb. d. 11 (Oxford, Bodleian
Library, f. 359v), and is catalogued in Neubauer and Cowley, Catalogue o f Hebrew manu­
scripts, vol. 2, p. 214 with the entry: ‘20. Fol. 359. Treatise on favourable days and months
headed D’W iro .WDW n m n D’Qpm D’a r a ’JQ’D (‘Signs for rain and thunder and the
sunrise during the months’). The third regimen calendar, MS Heidenheim 51 (Zurich,
Zentralbibliothek, ff. 153r-159r), was described in a handwritten catalogue of the Hebrew
manuscripts in the Zentralbibliothek in Zurich by Joseph Prijs as an addition to a calendar
for the year 1348-49 with ‘Aderlassterminen, Diatvorschriften, etc... ’. These three dietary
and hygiene calendars were discovered within the framework of an ongoing project enti­
tled ‘Medieval Jewish and Christian Calendar Texts from England and Franco-Germany’,
supevised by Prof. Sacha Stern, head of the department of Hebrew and Jewish Studies at
University College London, London.
8 Laszlo Sandor Chardonnens, Anglo-Saxon Prognostics 900-1100, Studies and Texts
(Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2007), p. 471.
9 Karl Sudhoff, ‘Medizinische Monatsregeln fur Aderlass, Schropfen, Baden, Arzeni-
gebrauch und Auswahl der Speisen und Getranke aus einer Pariser Hanschrift des XIV.
Jahrhunderts’, in ArchivJur Geschichte des Medizin, II, (1909), pp. 136-139 and id., ‘Ein
Monatsregimen’, in Archiv fu r Geschichte des Medizin, II, (1909), pp. 434-436.
I sh all re fe r to below . F u rth e rm o re A ugusto B eccaria,10 in h is im p o r ta n t
b o o k o f 1956 o n M ed ical c o d ic e s o f th e p re s a le rn ita n p e rio d (9 th -1 1 th
c e n tu rie s), gives d e ta ile d d e sc rip tio n s o f 145 m e d ic a l m a n u s c rip ts e n u ­
m e ra tin g over 5 4 ‘d ie te tic a n d h y g ie n e c a le n d a rs ’ a n d d istin g u ish e s o ver
12 d iffe re n t ty p e s.n A gain, as a n o th e r exam p le, E rn e st W ick e rsh e im e r,
in h is ca ta lo g u e o f 196612 d escrib es 22 h y g ien e a n d d ie te tic c a le n d a rs in
eig h th - to tw e lfth -c e n tu ry m e d ic a l ty p e m a n u s c rip ts in F re n c h lib ra rie s
a lo n e . 13
H o w ev er w ith in th e C h ristian w orld, th e d ie ta ry a n d h y g ie n e c a le n d a r
d o es n o t lim it its p re se n c e to m e d ic a l ty p e m a n u s c rip ts e ith e r a n d c a n b e
fo u n d a m o n g st th e p ag es o f literary , th e o lo g ic a l o r c a n o n ic a l g en res!4 as
w ell as in a large n u m b e r o f c o m p u tu s an th o lo g ie s c o n ta in in g m e d ic a l
m a te ria l, th e la tte r o f w h ic h h av e b e e n c o m p re h e n siv e ly s tu d ie d b y F aith
W allis,!5 w h o se ex p e rtise is in th e field o f m e d ie v a l m e d icin e, c o m p u tu s
a n d calen d ars.
T he th re e H eb rew hygiene a n d d ie tary ca le n d ars fro m m e d iev a l A sh k e n a z
stu d ied below , are also lo c ate d in th e ca le n d ric al a n d /o r p ro g n o stic al sec­
tio n s o f v ery d ifferen t literary genres: a liturgical-h alak h ic c o m p e n d iu m o f
th e la st q u a rte r o f th e th irte e n th -c e n tu ry , a m id -fo u rte e n th -c e n tu ry h isto ri­
cal m iscellan y a n d a fo u rte e n th -c e n tu ry h alak h ic-calen d rical m iscellany.
M a n u sc rip t M ich. 569 (O xford, B o d leian Library, N e u b a u e r ca talo g u e
n u m b e r 1098, 120ff)ig is th e e a rlie st o f th e th re e , d a te d c. 1275-1289,17 a n d

10 Augusto Beccaria, I codici di medicina del periodo Presalernitano, (Rome: Edizioni di

storia e letteratura: 1956).
11 Beccaria, I codici, pp. 443-444.
12 Ernest Wickersheimer, Les manuscrits latins de medecine du HautMoyen Age dans les
bibliotheques de France, (Paris: editions du CNRS, 1966).
13 For a summary of some of these hygiene and dietary calendars, see Chardonnens,
Anglo-Saxon Prognostics, p. 471.
14 Jean Barbaud and Pierre Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques provenant de manu­
scrits de la bibliotheque nationale de Paris’, Actes du XXXe Congres international d’Histoire
de la medecine. Dusseldorf, 31. 8- 5-91986 (Dusseldorf: 1988), pp. 179-185.
15 Over 400 manuscripts dating from the 9th to 15th centuries have been studied by
Faith Wallis, ‘Medicine in Medieval Calendar Manuscripts’, in Margaret R. Schleissner
(ed.), Manuscript sources of Medieval Medicine: A Book of Essays (New York and London:
Garland Publishing, 1995), pp. 105-143.
16 Neubauer, Catalogue o f the Hebrew Manuscripts, vol. 1, pp. 299-303.
17 An interesting fact about this large dismembered mahzor is that it was written
before the death of R. Meir ben Barukh of Rothenburg (c. 1215-1293) in 1293. This is
attested by two scribal notes where it is written ‘our Master our Rabbi Meir who lives’
(rnn’W TNQ 1IH1Q), proving that he was still alive when this mahzor was written
(MS Mich. 569, f. 116r and MS Mich. 573, f. 115r). Hence the choice for dating the manuscript
between 1275 and 1289, which also contains a first calendar going from 1275/76-1294/95
c a n b e c o n sid e re d as a litu rg ical-h a lak h ic c o m p e n d iu m . It is th e m id d le
se c tio n o f a large d ism e m b e re d m a h zo r o f th e G e rm a n rite w h ic h w as
re b o u n d in to th re e v o lu m e s. 18 It c o n ta in s large n u m b e rs o f litu rg ical p o e m s
as w ell as v ario u s te x ts p e rta in in g to h a la k h a , eth ics, m id ra sh , c a le n d ars
a n d p ro g n o s tic a tio n .^ T he h y g ien e a n d d ie ta ry c a le n d a r is s e p a ra te d in to
seaso n al a n d m o n th ly sectio n s (ff. 9 5 r-9 7 r). It is fo u n d in th e m arg in s o f a
c a le n d a r (se c o n d c a le n d a r o f th e m a n u s c rip t co v erin g th e y ea rs 1 288/89­
1328/29) (ff. 9 5 r-9 6 v ) a n d o f p ro g n o stic m a te ria l (97r).2°
O u r se c o n d h y g ien e a n d d ie ta ry c a le n d a r is in MS H eb. d. 11 (O xford,
B odleian Library, N e u b a u e r a n d C ow ley ca ta lo g u e n u m b e r 2794, 377ff),2i
a large h isto ric a l m isce llan y w h ic h c a n b e d a te d circ a 1332-1351, th a n k s
to a c a le n d a r fo u n d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e m a n u sc rip t. M o st o f th is
m a n u s c rip t is m a d e u p o f th e C h ro n ic les o f Y erah m eel (ff. 7r-246v),22
w h ic h is a co llec tio n o f e x te n d e d B iblical ev en ts, m ix e d w ith R o m an h is­
tory, lists o f g e o g ra p h ic a l n a m e s, a n d P a tria rc h a l g en ealo g ies as w ell as
in c lu sio n s o f m id ra sh ic ty p e te x ts a n d tre a tise s (ff. 2 4 7 r-3 3 7 v ), c o m p ile d
in th is m id -fo u rte e n th -c e n tu ry A sh k en a zi m a n u sc rip t. In a d d itio n , th is
m a n u s c rip t also c o n ta in s ca le n d ars, tre a tise s o n d re a m s (ff. 338r-351v),
p re c io u s sto n e s (ff. 3 5 2 r-3 5 8 v ) a n d a se c tio n o f p ro g n o stic a tio n te x ts
(ff. 359r-361v),23 w h e re th e m o n th ly d ie ta ry a n d h y g ien e c a le n d a r is

(5035-5054) and a second calendar covering the years 1288/89-1328/29 (5049-5088),

both calendars being written by the same hand.
18 MSS Mich. 571, Mich. 569 and Mich. 573 (Neubauer cat. nos 1097, 1098 and 1099).
19 Reimund Leicht, AstrologumenaJudaica, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der astrolo-
gischen Literatur der Juden (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006), pp. 109, 112-113, where MS
Mich. 569 is briefly described.
2° Prohibition on drinking water on the tequfot (D’O n’’nw HON), rain prognosis for
the 13th-14th and 15th Tammuz (D’OWJ nTH’ m u ), wheat prognosis ( p ’nn “Ipw), thun­
der prognosis (D’Opl n o ) , angelic guidance for wayfarer’s protection against enemies
(T n n nVfln) and a warning against bloodletting and eating goose meat during certain
months of the year attributed to R. Yehudah he-hasid (c. 1140-1217).
21 See Neubauer and Cowley, Catalogue of Hebrew manuscripts, vol. 2, pp. 208-215.
22 This text, which has survived only in MS Heb. d. 11 (Oxford, Bodleian Library) was
first edited by Moses Gaster in 1899, see Moses Gaster, The Chronicles o f Yerahmeel, (Lon­
don, 1899). However a new critical edition has been recently published. See Eli Yassif, The
Book o f Memory that is The Chronicles of Yerahmeel [Hebrew: Sefer ha-Zikhronot] (Jerusa­
lem: Tel Aviv University, 2001).
23 This section is headed: D’W Tm .WOW n n n n D’Opm D’OWJ ’JO’D (‘Signs for rain
and thunder and for the rising of the sun during the months’) and contains a brontologium
(D’OpT n o ) and a text on prognostics for each month of the year related to the moon.
The next text in Ms Heb. d. 11 is entitled ‘Signs of the moon’ (njob ’JO’D) (f. 359r), which
in effect can be considered a ‘lunary,’ such as are found in Latin and vernacular medieval
manuscripts. Then comes the monthly dietary and hygiene calendar followed by more
health precepts for a sick person (f. 359v); text on planetary hours (f. 360r/v); text on days
lo c a te d (f. 359v), follow ed b y m e d ic a l tre a tise s o n p u lse, u rin e a n d b lo o d ­
le ttin g (f. 3 6 0 r-3 6 4 v ) as w ell as m o re c a le n d ric a l a n d a s tro n o m ic a l m a te ­
ria l (ff. 3 6 5 r-3 7 7 r).
T he la st m o n th ly re g im e n in MS H e id e n h e im 51 (Z urich, Z en tra lb ib -
lio th ek , 213ff) is fo u n d w ith in th e m a rg in s o f a Ju lia n c a le n d a r giving th e
n a m e s o f S aints D ays a n d C h ristia n c e le b ra tio n s in Judeo -G erm an .2 4 This
h a la k h ic -c a le n d ric a l m iscellan y , c o n ta in s several co d ico lo g ical a n d p aleo -
g ra p h ic a l u n its, as w ell as several d ates: 1339 (f. 142v), 1398-1399 (f. 160r),
1431 (ff. 7 9 v -8 0 v ) a n d 1443 (ff. 5 v -6 v ). H ow ev er th e m o s t p e r tin e n t d a te
for u s h e re is 1398-1399, b e c a u s e it is in th e sa m e p a la e o g ra p h ic a l u n it as
th e h y g ie n e a n d d ie ta ry ca le n d ar, w h ic h is fo u n d in th e p re c e d in g folios
(ff. 153r-159r).
In th is ch a p te r, w e w ill firstly in v e stig a te h o w h y g ien e a n d d ie ta ry cal­
e n d a rs w e re po ssib ly in te g ra te d in to c a le n d ric a l a n d p ro g n o stic a l se ctio n s
o f H eb rew m a n u sc rip ts . T h e n a n o verview o f th e h u m o u ra l th e o ry w ill b e
p re s e n te d in o rd e r to u n d e r s ta n d th e raison d ’etre o f th e se ty p e s o f c a le n ­
d ars, follo w ed b y a n e la b o ra tio n o f th e n o tio n s o f re g im e n its e lf in h y g ien e
a n d d ie ta ry ca le n d ars. O u r an aly sis w ill su b se q u e n tly fo cu s o n th e te x ts
o f th e th re e c a le n d a rs th e m se lv es, e d ite d in m o n th ly (MSS M ich. 569,
H eb. d. 11 a n d H e id e n h e im 51) a n d se a so n a l (MS M ich. 569) p a rtitio n s
a n d follow ed b y a d e s c rip tio n o f th e ir c o n te n t a n d te x tu a l c o m p a riso n s
w ith th e ir sources.

1. In teg ra tio n o f D ietary a n d H ygiene C alendars in C alendrical

a n d P rognostical Sections o f H ebrew M a n u scrip ts

A t th is p o in t it is b e im p o r ta n t to e x p lain h o w d ie ta ry a n d h y g ien e c a le n ­
d a rs fo u n d th e ir w ay in to th e c a le n d ric a l a n d p ro g n o stic a l se c tio n s o f th e se
H e b re w m a n u s c rip ts w ritte n in th irte e n th - a n d f o u rte e n th -c e n tu ry A shke-
n a z. To a n s w e r th is q u e s tio n it se em s logical to lo o k in to th e ev o lu tio n o f

at the beginning and the end of the months of the year when it is bad to let blood either
from the left or the right arm, followed by the names of the signs of the zodiac with their
Judeo-German equivalents (f. 361r), text on the names of the months and their alleged
etymology and meaning, the four directions and their alleged etymology and meaning,
the position and effect of the sun in the summer and winter and finally the weekdays and
their ruling planets. The names of the week days are given in Hebrew, Judeo-French
and Judeo-German and the seven planets’ names are given in Judeo-German (f. 361v).
24 This calendar will shortly appear in the forthcoming publication related to the Lever-
hulme Trust-funded research project at University College London entitled ‘Medieval Jew­
ish and Christian Calendar Texts from England and Franco-Germany’.
th e s tru c tu re a n d c o n te n t o f th e s e se ctio n s in early L atin m e d ie v a l m a n u ­
scripts, o n w h ic h th e c o m p u tu s 25 o r c a le n d ric a l a n d p ro g n o stic a tio n te x ts
fo u n d in th e se la te r m e d ie v a l H eb rew m a n u sc rip ts fro m A sh k e n a z se em
to b e m o d e lle d , as w e sh all see.
N o n -c o m p u tu s ty p e te x ts su c h as h y g ien e a n d d ie ta ry ca le n d ars, w ere
d ra w n in to th e c o m p u tu s se c tio n o f m a n u s c rip ts o f v ario u s lite ra ry g en re s
b y ‘a s so c ia tiv e -a ttra c tio n ’ o r analogy, a c c o rd in g to F a ith W allis,26 th e co m ­
m o n e le m e n t b e in g th a t o f th e te m p o ra l s tru c tu re o f tim e a n d its m e a ­
su re m e n t. Laszlo S an d o r C h a rd o n n e n s d efin es th e lu n a r a n d so la r cycles
illu stra te d b y th e m o s t fre q u e n t ty p e s o f te x ts fo u n d in th e se m a n u sc rip ts
in th e follow ing w ay:

The calendar and the Easter tables found in com putus sections of these
Christian m anuscripts can be considered a twofold system realigned in a
lunar Easter cycle of nineteen solar years. The solar calendar is concerned
w ith fixed dates, while lunar time, shifts w ith reference to the solar calendar.
This twofold m echanism of tim e reckoning has attracted prognostics.. ? n

T he m o s t fre q u e n tly a tte s te d ty p e s o f p ro g n o stic s fo u n d in th e c o m p u tu s

se c tio n s o f L atin m a n u s c rip ts a re lu n a rie s a n d E g y p tian days. O n th e o n e
h a n d , lu n a r tim e is m o stly re p re s e n te d b y lu n a ries, w h ic h a re lists o f p e r­
p e tu a l p ro g n o stic a tio n s a c c o rd in g to th e tw e n ty -n in e o r th irty days o f th e
m o o n fro m o n e n e w m o o n to th e n e x t .28 T h eir p ro g n o se s b a se th e m se lv e s
m a in ly o n th e age o f th e m o o n fo r th e o u tc o m e o f illnesses, b lo o d le ttin g
o r d re a m in te rp re tatio n s.2 9 O n th e o th e r h a n d , p ro g n o stic s a s so c ia te d
w ith solar tim e are ex e m p lified b y E gyptian days o r u n lu c k y days (Dies
A eg y p tia c i o r D ies M a li),30 w h ic h d e sig n a te a c o u n t o f u n lu c k y days in th e
a n c ie n t E gyptian c a le n d a r th a t w as c a rrie d o v er to th e a n c ie n t G re e k a n d
R o m an p a g a n c a le n d a rs a n d to m e d ie v a l C h ristia n ones. T h ese days w ere

25 The term computus is used by Bede in his De temporum ratione, A.D. 725 to denote
both calculation of astronomical occurrences in general and time reckoning in particular;
see Wallis, ‘Medicine in Medieval Calendar’, p. 106, and Chardonnens, Anglo-Saxon Prog­
nostics, p. 29.
26 See Wallis, ‘Medicine in Medieval Calendar’, p. 107, and Chardonnens, Anglo-Saxon
Prognostics, p. 30.
27 Chardonnens, Anglo-Saxon Prognostics, p. 31.
28 Irma Taavitsainen, ‘Middle English Lunaries: A Study of the Genre’, Memoires de la
societe neophilologique de Helsinki 47 (Helsinki: Societe Neophilologique, 1988), p. 23.
29 For a more in-depth explanation of lunaries, see Chardonnens, Anglo-Saxon Prog­
nostics, pp. 395-398.
30 Chardonnens, Anglo-Saxon Prognostics, pp. 330-392.
se t b e tw e e n 3, 12 o r 2 4 days d u rin g th e solar year.31 T he 2 4 days,32 b e in g
th e m o s t co m m o n , w ere days w h e re b lo o d le ttin g a n d m e d ic in a l d ra u g h ts
w ere p ro scrib e d , w h e re a s o n th e 3 E gyptian days, th e c o n s u m p tio n o f
goose m e a t w as also prohibited.33 M oreover, b lo o d le ttin g co u ld also b e
p ro h ib ite d o n o th e r days w h ic h w e re n o t c o n s id e re d u n lu ck y .
It is in te re s tin g to d isco v er th a t p ro g n o stic a tio n te x ts a s so c ia te d w ith
lu n a r o r solar tim e also ex ist w ith in th e p ag es o f H eb rew m e d ie v a l m a n u ­
scripts, su c h as th e o n e s s tu d ie d h ere. M a n u sc rip t H eb. d. 11 c o n ta in s a
list o f b r ie f p ro g n o stic a tio n s a c c o rd in g to th e m o o n for e a c h o f th e tw elv e
m o n th s (f. 359r),34 d irec tly p re c e d in g th e h y g ien e a n d d ie ta ry ca le n d ar,
a n d m a n u s c rip t M ich. 569 c o n ta in s a p r e c e p t o n a b s ta in in g fro m b lo o d ­
le ttin g a n d fro m c o n s u m in g goose m e a t o n c e rta in days d u rin g th re e
m o n th s o f th e y ea r w h ic h is w o rth d e sc rib in g h ere. T his in s tru c tio n is
fo u n d a t th e b o tto m o f f. 9 7 r a n d a ttr ib u te d to R. Y e h u d a h b e n S am u el
b e n Q alo n y m o s h e -h a sid (c. 1140-1217), w h e re it is w ritte n : ‘. .. O u r m a s­
te r th e R abbi Y e h u d a h h e- hasid , m a y h is m e m o ry b e b le ssed : ‘Iyar, ‘Elul,
T evet, if th e 8 th [day] o f th e th re e m o n th s falls o n M o n d a y o r W e d n e s d a y
o n e w h o le ts b lo o d o r e a ts th e m e a t o f a goose w ill p u t h im s e lf in d an g e r.’35
This tra d itio n rev eals a d ire c t re la tio n w ith th e ch o ice o f 3 E g y p tian days
d u rin g a so la r y ear w h e re e a tin g goose m e a t c a n p ro v e b e in g fatal, as
fo u n d in L atin m a n u s c rip ts fro m th e H igh M id d le Ages, su c h as in th e
te n th -c e n tu ry MS Paris, B ib lio th e q u e n a tio n a le , Lat. 2825 w h e re it is w rit­
te n o n folio 128r: ‘. . . e t si de a u cin a in istis tres dies m a n d u ca verit, a n te X L
dies m o r ie tu f 36 (‘if o n e ea ts goose o n th e s e th re e days, h e w ill die b efo re
40 d ays’). O th e r m a n u s c rip ts for ex a m p le (MS D ijon, B ib lio th e q u e

31 Chardonnens, Anglo-Saxon Prognostics, p. 33. The 12 Egyptian days are an extremely

rare text genre and may thus be considered peripheral to the whole issue for the Egyptian
days. Many thanks to Laszlo Sandor Chardonnens for sharing this point.
32 MS Heb. g. 1 (Oxford, Bodleian Library, f. 150v) contains a bloodletting calendar
where it is forbidden to let blood twice a month, or 24 days in a year. Moreover, MS Add.
3127 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Library), a Northern French liturgical-halakhic
compendium, dated 1399 contains a calendar (ff. 345r-350v) with Christian saints’ names
and festivals in Judeo-French, which also includes 24 days per year when bloodletting is
prohibited. These calendars are being edited for a forthcoming publication on Medieval
Jewish and Christian calendars in Franco-Germany (12th-15th c.).
33 Chardonnens, Anglo-Saxon Prognostics, p. 330.
34 See supra, note 23.
35 D’wnn 'z bw ’ra w bnwa r o o W n -i«n 'Vt T o n m m ’ 'n'n'o ta’D 'o 'n 'n
.iwaja p r o a nm a nwa bow in d t r p a n 't d to in 'a d to
36 Wickersheimer, Les manuscrits latins de medecine, p. 58. It just so happens that
3 Egyptian days a year are rarely attested compared to the 24 days a year; see also Char-
donnens, Anglo-Saxon Prognostics, pp. 336-337.
m u n ic ip a le , 448, 11th c., f. 191r37 a n d MS L o n d o n , B ritish Library, C o tto n
T itu s D. XXVI, c. 1023-31, f. 3v)38 v ary o n th e n u m b e r o f th e days (15 to 40)
w h e n o n e w ill die a fte r c o n s u m in g goose m e a t. T h ese th re e o m in o u s days
u su a lly fell o n M o n d ay s a n d w e re eq u a lly affiliated w ith th e av o id a n c e o f
b lo o d le ttin g o n h u m a n s o r cattle.39 In th e B ab y lo n ian T alm u d , tra c ta te
S h a b b a t 129b: ‘S am u el said: th e c o rre c t tim e for b lo o d le ttin g is o n th e first,
fo u rth a n d six th days if th e w e e k [Sundays, W e d n e s d a y a n d F ridays], b u t
n o t o n th e s e c o n d a n d th ird days o f th e w ee k [M o n d ay s a n d T h u rsd ay s].’40
S am u el goes o n to e x p lain in th is T alm u d ic p assag e th a t n e ith e r th e sec­
o n d d ay o f th e w ee k [T uesday] is g o o d for b lo o d le ttin g ‘b e c a u s e th e p la n e t
M ars ru les a t ev e n n u m b e re d h o u rs o f th e d ay ’,41 n o r ‘th e fo u rth d ay o f th e
w e e k [W e d n esd a y ], [if it] is th e fo u rth o f th e m o n th , o r [a W e d n esd ay ]
w h ic h is th e f o u rte e n th ,[a W e d n esd ay ] w h ic h is th e tw e n ty -fo u rth o f
th e m o n th , [a W e d n esd ay ] w h ic h is n o t fo llo w ed b y fo u r [days in th e
sa m e m o n th ] are all d a n g e ro u s for b lo o d le ttin g .’42 W h e re a s M o n d ay s
are fo u n d to b e fearfu l days in b o th th e C h ristian a n d Je w ish tra d itio n s,
W e d n esd ay , o n th e o th e r h a n d , se em s to co m e solely fro m th e Jew ish
tradition.43 H ow ever th e o rigins o f th e e ig h th d ay o f th e th re e m o n th s
re m a in unresolved.44 Tw o h y p o th e se s c a n b e p u t fo rth :

(1) T he e ig h th d ay co u ld b e a re fe re n t to th e lu n a r c a le n d a r in re la tio n to
th e e n d o f th e first p e rio d o f th e w ax in g o f th e m o o n ;
(2) T he e x c e rp t o n folio 97r also specifies th e “e ig h th ”45 d ay d u rin g th e
H eb rew m o n th s o f Tyar, ‘E lul a n d T evet; th is m a y p o ssib ly re fe r to

37 Wickersheimer, Les manuscrits latins de medecine, p. 34.

38 See Chardonnens, Anglo-Saxon Prognostics, p. 343 for this transcription.
39 Chardonnens, Anglo-Saxon Prognostics, pp. 338-339.
40 bShabbat 129b:... Vax xnaw ’Vpai npanx xnaw a i n NQiT Noma Vxiaw n a x
nV ’w a rn w
41 Ibid.: ’Vpa ’tin D’iN a n’V xa«pT Dwa nV xapo ’Na xnaw a xnbna in N 3 ...
42 Ibid.:... panx n3’Vt 't n p a n x D’nwp Nirn ' i no’anx Nirn ' i 'i Nirn 'i Vxiaw nax
NnjDD n’nna
43 In a personal communication Laszlo Sandor Chardonnens informs me that he has
never seen Wednesday as an Egyptian or forbidden day for bloodletting in the Christian
tradition, although the 24 Egyptian Days may of course fall on Wednesdays because of
the solar calendar.
44 According to Laszlo Sandor Chardonnens, the 8th day referent is unknown in West­
ern sources. Many thanks to him for sharing all this information.
45 It is interesting to note that further on in this article, the transcription and transla­
tion of a portion of the seasonal calendar in MS Mich. 569 (Oxford, Bodleian Library,
f. 95r) mentions the 8th day for two different seasons: ‘. ..From the equinox of Nisan until
the 8th of Sivan... and from the 8th of Sivan to the 8th of A v ...’ (P’dV 'n Ip p ’J naipn
axb 'n ip p’ob 'n Di’ai).
 Ju lia n solar m o n th s r a th e r th a n Je w ish lu n a r m o n t h s 46 T h erefo re th e
8 th o f ‘Iyar w o u ld refer to th e VIII Kal. A p ril47 o r th e 2 5 th o f M arch,
w h ic h is th e v e rn a l equinox48 a n d th e 8 th o f ‘E lul w o u ld re fe r to th e
VIII Id. A ugust49 o r th e 6 th A ugust, th e la tte r also m a tc h in g c o r­
re c tly a c c o rd in g to th e se a so n a l c a le n d a r fo u n d in a n early tw elfth -
c e n tu ry m ed ica l, a s tro n o m ic a l, m a th e m a tic a l a n d c o m p u tu s L atin
m a n u sc rip t, MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229 (Paris, B ib lio th e q u e n a tio n a le ,
f. 9r)5° w h ic h w ill b e stu d ie d h e re f u rth e r o n a n d w h e re th e se aso n a l
divisions fro m M a rc h to M ay a n d fro m M ay to A u g u st go as follow s:
‘E x VIII Kal. A p rili u sque a d id. M a i.. .’51 (‘fro m th e VIII Kal. A p ril to
th e Id. M ay1) a n d ‘A b VIII Id. M a i usque in VIII Id. A u g .. .’52 (‘fro m th e
VIII Id. M ay to th e VIII Id. A u g u st’).

H ow ever, th e eig h th d ay o f T ev et m e n tio n e d b y R. Y e h u d a h h e -h a s id d o es

n o t co m p ly w ith th e se a so n a l c a le n d a r in MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229, w h e re
th e se a so n a l div isio n g oing fro m O c to b e r to D e c e m b e r e n d s a t th e w in te r
solstice:53 ‘A b VIII Kal. O ctobris usque VIII Kal. I a n u a r ii.. . ’ (‘fro m th e VIII
Kal. O c to b e r to th e VIII Kal. Ja n u a ry ’). F u rth e rm o re , it is in te re s tin g to
n o te th a t a c c o rd in g to early m e d ie v a l L atin tex ts, th e th re e E g y p tian days
fall a ro u n d th o se th re e tim e s in th e year, w h ic h are: th e e n d o f M arch , th e
b e g in n in g o f A u g u st a n d th e e n d o f D ecem ber.54 T h erefo re, th e eig h th
d ay d u rin g th e m o n th o f T ev et d o es n o t fit w ith th e p e rio d o f th e e n d o f
D ec em b e r, c o n s id e re d as a tim e w h e n o n e o f th e th re e E g y p tian days ca n
occur. P e rh a p s a c h a n g e e n s u e d h e re in c o m p a rin g d a te s in Je w ish a n d
C h ristian ca le n d ars. N ev erth eless, n o tw ith s ta n d in g th is a lte ra tio n , th e se
th re e d a te s co u ld th e n p o ssib ly b e a n ‘e q u iv a le n t’ to th e th re e E g y p tian
days in th e Ju lia n so la r c a le n d a r w h e re R. Y e h u d a h h e -h a sid m a y h av e

46 In this case ’Iyar can be identified as April, ‘Elul as August and Tevet as December.
47 Or Kalends as per the Roman calendar.
48 According to the well-known calculation of Tequfat Semuel, the vernal equinox falls
on the 25th or 26th of March; thus in several lists of the solstices and equinoxes (tequfot)
according to the Julian calendar in Hebrew Ashkenazi manuscripts, the vernal equinox
falls on either 25th or 26th of March.
49 Or Ides as per the Roman calendar.
5° See catalogue description for this manuscript in Beccaria, I codici,pp.179-180.
51 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 184.
52 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 184.
53 The winter solstice of 25th December should fall on the VIII Kal. January according
to the Julian calendar.
54 Chardonnens, Anglo-Saxon Prognostics, p. 340 and table 35 on p. 564.
in te g ra te d th e n o tio n in to th e Je w ish tra d itio n o f th e th re e E g y p tian Days
as in a u sp ic io u s days for b lo o d le ttin g a n d e a tin g goose m e at.
Finally, c o n tin u in g in th e sa m e lin e o f th o u g h t, a fa sc in a tin g asso cia­
tio n , a lth o u g h h y p o th e tic a l, c a n b e m a d e b e tw e e n th e b a n n in g o f c o n ­
s u m p tio n o f goose m e a t d u rin g th e E gyptian D ays (ev e n th o u g h th e y are
n o t called so in th e Je w ish tradition),55 tw o o f w h ic h fall a t th e e n d o f
th e m o n th s o f M a rc h a n d D ec em b e r, n e a r o r o n tw o o f th e tequfot, th e
v e rn a l e q u in o x a n d w in te r solstice, a n d th e p r o h ib itio n o f u sin g goose
fa t d u rin g th e tequfot, m e n tio n e d as a n A sh k en a zi c u s to m in th e early
e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry p r in te d b o o k , M egalleh h a -T eq u fo t (B erlin, 1717).56
T his la tte r c u s to m w as p u t in to p ra c tic e for fear th a t th e fa t w o u ld tu r n
in to b lo o d , w h ic h se em s in e v ita b ly lin k e d to a n o th e r m e d ie v a l custom ,57
w h ic h is th e p ro h ib itio n o f d rin k in g w a te r a t th e tim e o f th e te q u fo t or
se a so n a l tra n s itio n s o f th e year.58 C o n s e q u e n tly it is re le v a n t to see a p o s­
sible c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e C h ristia n p r o h ib itio n o f e a tin g goose m e a t
o n th e E gyptian days, as se e n in L atin m a n u s c rip ts fro m th e H igh M iddle
A ges a n d th e la tely a tte s te d Je w ish c u s to m o f b a n n in g th e u se o f goose
fa t o n tequfot.

55 Nevertheless an uncommon designation for Dies Aegiptiaci or Dies Mali, attested

from the first half of the 13th century onwards is Dies Aegri (see Chardonnens, Anglo-Saxon
Prognostics, p. 335 and note 21). This variant has been found in two Hebrew Ashkenazi
calendars from Northern France under the Judeo-French similar variants of yom Agrisiel
(VN’WUN DI’) and yamim Aigousiels (wVn’WQ’N D’Q’); the ending -siel (or -siels as a
plural) could perhaps be an adjectival morpheme according to Chardonnens. Neverthe­
less, inquiries with medieval Latin and French scholars are underway. These two variants
are also followed in both calendars by hours when bloodletting is forbidden, according to
the more common 24 Egyptian days per year. For more information on the Egyptian Days
see Jules Loiseleur, ‘Les jours egyptiens: leurs variations dans les calendriers du moyen-age’,
Memoires de la societe nationale des antiquaires de France 33, 4th ser. 3 (1872) 198-253, and
Robert Steele, ‘Dies Aegyptiaci’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 12, Section of
the History of Medicine, Supplement (1919) 108-121. These two calendars are located in
MSS Add. 3127 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Library, 1399) and Heb.g. 1 (Oxford,
Bobleian Library, c. 1493) and are being edited with an accompanying commentary for the
forthcoming publication on Medieval Jewish and Christian calendars in Franco-Germany
(see supra, note 32).
56 Many thanks to Elisheva Carlebach for sharing this source with me.
57 An 11th-century responsum attributed to R. Hai Gaon, which is the first evidence
on the subject preserved today; see Elisheva Carlebach, Palaces o f Time, Jewish Calendar
and Culture in Early Modern Europe, (Cambridge, MA and London: The Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press, 2011), p. 163.
58 MS Mich. 569 (Oxford, Bodleian Library) happens to contain a text on the danger of
drinking water on the tequfot on folio 97r, which is incorporated into the prognostic sec­
tion of the manuscript. On the danger of water during the tequfot, see Carlebach, Palaces of
Time, p. 163 and Elisheva Baumgarten, ‘ “Remember that Glorious Girl”:Jephtah’s Daughter
in Medieval Jewish Culture’,JQR, vol. 97, no. 2 (2007) 180-209.
 A fter th is in te rlu d e o n so m e in trig u in g sim ila rities b e tw e e n L atin a n d
H eb rew m a n u sc rip ts , le t u s c o n s id e r c a le n d a rs c o n c e rn e d w ith reg im en ,
w h ic h w ere o fte n in te g ra te d in to o th e r ex tra -c a le n d ric a l m a te ria l, as
w e h av e se e n above. H ygiene a n d d ie ta ry c a le n d a rs w ere a lre a d y fo u n d
to g e th e r w ith a n c ie n t R o m an ag ric u ltu ra l cale n d ars, o r M en ologia R ustica,
w h ic h fo cu se d p rin c ip a lly o n th e se aso n a l p a tte r n s o f th e world.59 By th e
th re s h o ld o f th e M iddle A ges th e y w e re v ery fre q u e n tly in te g ra te d w ith
c o m p u tu s a n d p ro g n o sis in m a n u s c rip ts b e c a u s e o f th e ir stru c tu re b a s e d
o n th e se aso n s a n d a d a p te d to fit th e so la r c a le n d a r o f w h ic h th e seaso n s
a re divisions.60 F a ith W allis b eliev e s th a t th e in c lu sio n o f th e s e a so n a l reg ­
im e n in to c o m p u tu s a n d p ro g n o sis in th e H igh M id d le A ges ca u se d it to
b e s tru c tu ra lly tra n sfo rm e d in to a m o n th ly re g im e n .61 H ow ever, w h ile it is
tru e th a t m o n th ly re g im e n s are th e m o s t c o m m o n ly e n c o u n te re d w ith in
c o m p u tistic a l a n d p ro g n o stic a l se c tio n s o f m e d iev a l m a n u sc rip ts , th e y a re
eq u a lly a n d o riginally fo u n d in th is fo rm a t in early m e d ic a l m a n u sc rip ts
fro m th e n in th c e n tu ry o n w ard s, w h ic h testifie s to th e ex iste n ce o f th is
la y o u t b efo re th e ir in c lu sio n in to com putes.62
N ev erth eless, ev e n th o u g h th e m o n th ly fo rm a t o f th e d ie ta ry a n d
h y g ien e c a le n d a r is th e m o s t c o m m o n ly fo u n d in m e d ie v a l m a n u sc rip ts,
th e se a so n a l c h a ra c te r o f th e a n c ie n t re g im e n w as b y n o m e a n s lost. T h ere
a re few ex a m p le s w h ic h survive to d a y w h e re a se a so n a l a n d m o n th ly cal­
e n d a r b o th a p p e a r in a m a n u s c rip t o n e a fte r th e o th e r. O n e k n o w n o c c u r­
re n c e o f th is is fo u n d in a L atin m a n u s c rip t o f th e early tw e lfth ce n tu ry ,
p re se rv e d in th e B ib lio th e q u e n a tio n a le in Paris, MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu.
Lat. 229, folios 8 r-9 r, w h e re th e old se a so n a l re g im e n follow s a m o n th ly
o n e (figure 1).63 T he p re se n c e o f b o th s tru c tu re s in a re g im e n c a le n d a r is
also a tte s te d in o n e o f th e H eb rew m a n u s c rip ts d e s c rib e d in th is study,
MS M ich. 569.
U p to n o w w e h av e se e n h o w d ie ta ry a n d h y g ien e c a le n d a rs fo u n d
th e ir w ay in to c o m p u tu s o r c a le n d ric a l a n d p ro g n o stic se ctio n s o f v a ri­
o us g en re s o f L atin o r H eb rew m e d ie v a l m a n u s c rip ts a n d th a t th e y are
th e re s u lt o f a n ‘a c cretiv e-asso cia tiv e’ m o d e o f o rg an iz in g k n o w led g e. In
o rd e r to u n d e r s ta n d th e c o m p o n e n ts w h ic h a re fo u n d w ith in th e d ie tary

59 Wallis, ‘Medicine in Medieval Calendar’, p. 106.

60 Wallis, ‘Medicine in Medieval Calendar’, p. 114.
61 Wallis, ‘Medicine in Medieval Calendar’, p. 113.
62 Chardonnens, Anglo-Saxon Prognostics, p. 172.
63 This manuscript is also mentioned by Faith Wallis in her ‘Medicine in Medieval
Calendar’, p. 113.
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Figure 1: Excerpt of a Latin seasonal and m onthly hygiene and dietary calendar,
m onths from January to May
MS Lat. Nouv. Acqu. 229 (Paris, Bibliotheque nationale, early 12th c., f. 8r)
Courtesy o f the Bibliotheque nationale, Paris
a n d h y g ien e c a le n d a rs o f th e se th re e H eb rew m e d ie v a l m a n u sc rip ts , it is
n e c e ssa ry to briefly e x p lain th e h u m o u ra l th e o ry , th e im p o rta n c e o f reg i­
m e n a n d its close asso c ia tio n w ith th is th e o ry .

2. The H u m o u ra l Theory

T he d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e h u m o u ra l th e o ry goes b a c k to H ip p o c ra te s w h o
lived b e tw e e n 4 6 0 a n d 370 BCE. T he q u in te sse n tia lly H ip p o c ra tic p h y si­
ological a n d p a th o lo g ic a l tre a tise , e n title d On th e N a tu re o f M a n (c. 410­
4 0 0 BCE),64 c o n ta in s th e e a rlie st fo rm u la tio n o f h u m o u ra lism , w h ic h is
th e fu n d a m e n ta l th e o ry u p o n w h ic h e x p la n a tio n s o f h e a lth a n d d isease
w e re b ased . T his th e o ry h o ld s th a t th e h u m a n b o d y is filled w ith fo u r
b a sic fluids o r ch y m o i, tra n s la te d in E nglish as h u m o u rs, w h ic h a re in b a l­
a n c e w h e n a p e rs o n is h ea lth y . T hese fo u r h u m o u rs are: y ello w o r re d bile
(chole), p h le g m (p h leg m a ), b lo o d (ha im a ), a n d b la c k b ile (m elancholia),
w h ic h w as n o t originally c o n s id e re d a specific h u m o u r b u t a d e p ra v e d
fo rm o f y ello w bile. E ach o f th e fo u r h u m o u rs co u ld b e lin k e d to th e fo u r
seaso n s a n d e a c h w as c o n s id e re d to h av e c h a ra c te ristic q u a litie s o f h o t­
ness, dryness, co ld n ess a n d w e tn e ss as w ell as b e in g a s so c ia te d w ith th e
fo u r e le m e n ts: air, fire, e a rth a n d w ater.65
G alen o f P erg am u m , o n e o f th e g re a te st a d v o c a te s o f H ip p o c ra tic m e d i­
cine in th e se c o n d c e n tu ry CE, c o n trib u te d a su b s ta n tia l a m o u n t to th e
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f H ip p o c ra tic p ath o lo g y , w h ic h w as th e n f u rth e r d ev el­
o p e d b y A rabic a n d E u ro p e a n w rite rs fro m th e n in th c e n tu ry o n w ard s.
G alen p ro m o te d a n d sy ste m a tiz e d th is th e o ry a n d th e ty p o lo g y o f h u m a n
te m p e ra m e n ts . A n im b a la n c e in e a c h h u m o u r c o rre sp o n d e d to a p a r ­
tic u la r h u m a n te m p e ra m e n t6 6 w h ic h w as fre q u e n tly a d d e d b y m e d iev a l
sc h o lars in th e ir m e d ic a l w orks, as w ell as m o re asso cia tio n s, su c h as th e
g e n d e rs o f th e h u m o u rs a n d th e fo u r ca rd in a l points.67 T his is p rec isely

64 Hippocrates, La nature de l’homme, ed., trans. and commentary by Jacques Jouanna

(Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2002), pp. 373-416.
65 According to the doctrine of Empedocles (pre-socratic philosopher, 490-430 BCE,
who is behind the cosmogenic theory of the four classical elements).
66 An excess in one of the four humours gave rise to a temperament in relation to
the humour in question. An excess of blood enhanced a sanguinary or fierce tempera­
ment; yellow or red bile, a choleric or irritable temperament; black bile, a melancholic or
despondent temperament and finally, a surplus of phlegm could provoke a phlegmatic
or apathetic temperament.
67 Mark Grant, Galen on Food and Diet (London and New York: Routledge, 2000),
pp. 44-45.
th e case o f th e Z o d iac M a n ta k e n fro m a n early 1 5 th -ce n tu ry F re n c h B ook
o f H ours e n title d Les Tres R iches H eures d u D uc d e B erry (MS C hantilly,
M u see C onde, 65, f. 14v)68 (fig u re 2). T he Z o d iac M a n d isp lay s th e v ario u s
signs o f th e zo d iac a n d th e ir effect o n are a s o f th e h u m a n b ody, d e m o n ­
stra tin g th e im p o r ta n t role o f astro lo g y in m e d ic in e in th e M id d le Ages,
w h e re it w as th o u g h t th a t a re la tio n sh ip ex iste d b e tw e e n th e h e a v e n s
a n d th e h u m a n body. T herefore, e a c h p a r t o f th e b o d y w as u n d e r th e
in flu e n c e o f a n astro lo g ica l sign, th e sun, th e m o o n a n d th e p la n e ts or
ju s t like h ere, u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f th e tw elv e signs o f th e zo d iac in
asso c ia tio n w ith th e h u m o u rs a n d th e ir qu alities, te m p e ra m e n ts , g e n d e r
a n d c a rd in a l p o in ts.
A n o th e r ex a m p le o f a Z o d iac M an, th is tim e w ith b lo o d le ttin g p o in ts,
d a te d c. 1440-1450, is fo u n d in a H e b re w m e d ic a l m a n u s c rip t fro m
P ro v e n ce (MS Paris, B ib lio th e q u e n a tio n a le , Heb.1181, f. 264v)69 (fig u re 3).
T he p ra c tic e o f b lo o d le ttin g w as a v ery fre q u e n t m e d ic a l tr e a tm e n t
d esig n ed to re b a la n c e b o d ily h u m o u rs a n d w h o se p ro c e d u re w as re g u ­
la te d b y th e M o o n ’s p o sitio n w ith in th e tw elv e signs o f th e zo diac. For
ex am p le, th e zo d iac sign o f A ries g o v e rn e d a p e rs o n ’s h e a d w h ile Sagit­
ta riu s ru le d th e th ig h s a n d P isces th e feet. If, for ex am p le, th e M o o n w as
p o s itio n e d w ith in a p a r t o f th e zo d iac w h ic h g o v ern e d a p a rtic u la r p a r t o f
th e body, b lo o d le ttin g w o u ld b e av o id ed . T he re a so n for th a t b e lie f w as
th a t th e a ttr a c tio n o f th e M o o n to a p a r t o f th e b o d y co u ld ca u se ex ces­
sive b le e d in g b e c a u s e o f th e as so c ia tio n o f th e m o o n ’s p h a s e s w ith w a te r
a n d th e o c e a n tid es, a n d b e c a u s e h u m o u rs w e re sim ilarly fluids o f th e
h u m a n body.70 T hus, th e zo d iac m a n serv ed to re m in d p ra c tisin g p h y si­
cian s w h ic h a stro lo g ica l signs h a d in flu e n c e o v er p a rtic u la r p a rts o f th e
body, a n d th e re b y p la y ed a c e n tra l role in d e te rm in in g w h e n tr e a tm e n t
su c h as b lo o d le ttin g co u ld ta k e place.
B loodletting, as w ell as b e in g a re m e d y for specific a ilm e n ts, w as also
c o n s id e re d a h y g ien ic a n d p ro p h y la c tic m e a s u re fo r g o o d h e a lth . In th is

68 For a brief description of this zodiac man, see Raymond Cazelles, Les tres Riches
Heures du Duc de Berry. Commentaires de l’edition en fac-simile du manuscrit n° 65 des col­
lections du Musee Conde a Chantilly (Luzern: Faksimile-Verlag, 1984), p. 90.
69 Even though the manuscript was written in Provence c. 1430, the illustrations on
folios 264v and 265r are of North Italian origin and dated a little later, around 1440-1450.
A brief description of this manuscript can be found in the exhibition catalogue D’une main
forte: manuscrits hebreux collections frangaises, ed. Michel Garel, Bibliotheque nationale,
Galerie Mansart, 17 octobre 1991-15 janvier 1992 (Paris: Seuil, 1991), p. 178.
70 Gerrit Bos, Charles Burnett, Zvi Langermann, Hebrew Medical Astrology: David ben
Yom Tov, Kelal Qatan. Original Hebrew Text, Medieval Latin translation, Modern English
Translation (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2005), p. 2.
Figure 2: Zodiac m an from Les Tres Riches Heures du Duc de Berry (Chantilly,
Musee Conde, MS 65, f. 14v, France early 15th c.)
Courtesy o f the Reunion des Musees Nationaux
Figure 3: Zodiac m an w ith bloodletting points. Illustration: N. Italy, c. 1440-1450,
from a collection of provengal m edical texts, c. 1430, MS Heb. 1181 (Paris, Biblio­
theque nationale, f. 264v)
Courtesy o f the Bibliotheque nationale, Paris
case, it w as m a in ly p ra c tise d as a se a so n a l to n ic , to re m o v e excess g o o d
b lo o d ra th e r th a n e lim in a te b a d b lo o d b e c a u s e v e n e s e c tio n w as reg a rd e d
as a n e q u iv a le n t to a re d u c tio n o f food since, a c c o rd in g to a n c ie n t p h y si­
ological th e o ry , fo o d w as c o n v e rte d in to blood.71 H en ce th e re a s o n for
follow ing th e p re c e p ts o f d ie ta ry a n d h y g ien e c a le n d a rs for o p tim u m
h e a lth .

3. H ygiene a n d D ietary Calendars

R egim en w as c o n s id e re d a k ey fe a tu re in th e H ip p o c ra tic tra d itio n a n d

a p re v e n tiv e tr e a tm e n t in o rd e r to m a in ta in th e o p tim u m co m p lex io n ,
m e a n in g th e b le n d in g o f q u a litie s o r h u m o u rs w h ic h are n a tu ra l to a n
in d iv id u a l p erso n , a n o rg an o f th e h u m a n b o d y o r a te m p eram en t.7 2
B ecause e a c h in d iv id u a l’s h u m o u ra l b a la n c e w as h o listically c o n n e c te d
w ith o th e r p h e n o m e n a — su c h as clim a te, diet, o c c u p a tio n , g eo g ra p h ic
lo c atio n , a stro lo g ica l alig n m e n t, sex a n d ag e— h u m o u ra l tre a tm e n ts , or
‘re g im e n s’, w e re d esig n ed to re sto re th e p r o p e r h u m o u ra l b a la n c e b y
b lo o d le ttin g , c a u sin g th e p a tie n t to v o m it, o r a d m in iste rin g e n e m a s or
purges, a n d th e y w e re a c c o m p a n ie d b y d ie t a n d h e rb a l re m e d ie s th a t
w ere b a s e d o n a p e rs o n ’s h u m o u ra l d isp o s itio n a n d h is o r h e r re la tio n sh ip
to th e r e s t o f th e e n v iro n m e n t. A n y th in g th a t d is tu rb e d th is b a la n c e
co u ld g e n e ra te b a d h e a lth . If a p e rs o n fell ill, th is d o c trin e o ffered th e
p o ssib ility o f fo re te llin g w h a t c o n d itio n s w e re likely to o c c u r a t a n y p a r ­
tic u la r se a so n o f th e y e a r o r u n d e r ce le stia l in flu e n ces, so th a t a c o n tra ry
r e g im e n co u ld b e in tr o d u c e d w h ic h w o u ld sh ift th e p a tie n t’s c o m p le x io n
b a la n c e a n d re d u c e th e su sc e p tib ility to illness.73

71 Peter Niebyl, Venesection and the Concept of the Foreign Body: A Historical Study
in the Therapeutic Concepts of Humoural and Traumatic Consequences of Diseases’, Ph.D.
Dissertation (Yale University, 1969), p. 156.
72 Faith Wallis, Medieval Medicine: A Reader, (Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
2010), p. 544.
73 Vivian Nutton, ‘Medicine in the Greek world’, in Lawrence I. Conrad et al. (eds), The
Western Medical Tradition 800 BC to AD 1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1995), pp. 11-38, espec. 26-27; Nancy G. Siraisi, Medieval and Early Renaissance Medi­
cine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice, (Chicago and London: The University of
Chicago Press, 1990), pp. 121-123.
 4. E dition o f the T exts14

T he c a le n d a rs in m a n u s c rip ts M ich. 569, H eb. d. 11 a n d H e id e n h e im 51

(w h ich h a s b e e n h ea v ily d a m a g e d b y h u m id ity ) v ary in le n g th a c c o rd in g
to th e su b je c ts covered. T he su b je cts th e m se lv e s also so m e tim e s differ
fro m o n e c a le n d a r to a n o th e r. T he c a le n d a rs give ad v ice o n d ie t (food,
b ev e rag es a n d h e rb a l rem e d ies), o n h y g ien e (b a th in g ) a n d h e a lth , in v o lv ­
in g se x u al rela tio n s, purg in g , fastin g a n d b lo o d le ttin g . H ere b e lo w are th e
tra n s c rip tio n s a n d tra n s la tio n s o f all th re e ca le n d ars, fo llo w ed b y a c o m ­
m e n ta ry o n th e ir c o n te n t a n d sources.

4.1. M S M ich. 5 6 9 (fig u re 4)

(a) Sea so n a l C alendar (ff. 9 5 r-9 6 r)

nNian ’nan airaN r u i ’b m riyiap r ia ip r bnN riyin’a ib r n r o j rnTya

’naoa a ira ’rNxa nwNa nub riN’nai
jji^ Nbi nann Dn Nbi mo n’n Dy baNa dtn baN’ ji’ob 'n ny jo’j r a ip r a
ny ji’ob 'n Di’ai n ra a dtn bw ian p r a ’w D’p ira D’nani ’JU’a NbN nann
Ninw ’ja a nann |’’ n rw b a ia^y oyan r ’jy ra i w’a w ra nan’ bN aNb 'n
nainN r ’wyj nnani bnzra Dnn |aTn iriNaw dtn bw ianb nwp
D’a a bwiaa nwai aio n’n Dy baNa d tn baN’ ’nw r r a ip r ny Tiar r a ip r a
m aw naa r ’jrw a d tn bw irn ’na |aTn iriNaw jjisa baNan Nnn ’m Nbi
Dn baN’ r a o 'a ip r ny ’nw r r a ip r a I’a a rw a Dnb D’a |’a d ti nnai myn
nba nm na fnnaw nm na fn n a a fn n ’ pNb] r a o wnn ba q’nn |’’ n rw ’i
ninwb ra a r w a nna |aT iriNaw w’a w ra o y a’i m a ’a n a d tn nwaa am
nmni Dn baNa baN’ jo’j r a i p r ny r a o r a ip r a D’jiwa D’Nbni nnab d ti
n rw ’ Nb |’’i fn n a a finn’ bNi bnnni I’bab’a Nn’ baNa baai jaw nwai
D’ojaj D’wp D’Nbn ba jam iriNaw w’a w ra o y a’ bNi raw b ra w a NbN
bwi r i ’ba bwi naa bwi joa bw aiNaai wNn bw aiNaa j’aiNaa bai DnNa
j’y bwi jtin

(f. 95r) W ith the help of the One to w hom hidden things are known, I shall
start the fixed seasons and in these columns I shall write w ords of healing
and health for the body as I have found w ritten in my book.

74 Square parentheses [...] add to the understanding of the translation of the text and
rounded parentheses (...) either indicate that the word is undecipherable or translates a
Hebrew word into English which is not relevant to the understanding of the text.
75 The scribe most probably forgot the word Nb (‘do not’) to this sentence, otherwise
it makes no sense.
 From the equinox of Nisan until the 8th of Sivan a person should eat
food w ith a good smell, n o t too h o t and n o t too cold only tem perate and
sw eet things w hich sw eeten the person’s blood (.),76 and from the 8th of
Sivan to the 8th of Av he should n o t have m uch sexual intercourse and fasts,
and he should lim it him self from drinking a lot of w ine because it is bad77
for the person’s blood, because at that time blood grows and the bile
becom es red.
(f. 95v) From the solstice of Tammuz until the equinox of Tisri one should
eat food w ith a good smell and m eat boiled in w ater and n o t roasted, and
the food should be cold because at that tim e a person’s bitterness (bile)
transforms [itself] into bad thoughts and the bile and blood betw een w ater
and blood are mixed. From the equinox of Tisri until the solstice of Tevet
one should eat hot [things] and drink strong wine the whole m onth of
Tevet and [do no t] bathe in a hot b ath because a very h ot b ath causes
eczema to one’s flesh because of the heat. One should lim it sexual inter­
course because at this tim e the bile becom es black and the blood becom es
bile and various illnesses. From the solstice of Tevet until the equinox of
Nisan one should eat hot and very h o t food and fat m eat and in all food
(f. 96r) there should be pepper and m ustard and one should n o t bathe in
baths and only drink wine from Sabbath to Sabbath [from one Sabbath to
the next], and one should lim it sexual intercourse because at this tim e all
difficult illnesses enter the person and all pains: pain of the head and pain
of the stom ach and of the liver and of the kidneys and of the ears and of
the eye.

(b) M o n th ly C alendar (ff. 9 6 r-9 7 r)

N isan, f. 96r:

’Vs nwm pina V^xa upa Viu’ Vra in is iV w dni dt T’p’ Vn jo’n
dt ViVina wTin Nnixa o TaVa |aw a in Vwiaa |aw Dp NTiiNni nVua
D’a Dp
In Nisan do n o t let blood, and if there is a great need, take a little sweet
food and roasted m eat of lamb and of goose cooked w ith fat or ju st the fat,
because during this m onth blood rolls w ith w ater [blood flows mixed w ith
water].

76 This Hebrew word njs’a has not been translated.

77 The word nwp, meaning ‘difficult’ in Hebrew, has been translated here in the calen­
dar editions as ‘bad’ or ‘not recommended’.
Figure 4: Excerpt of the hygiene and dietary calendar, upper and lower margins,
end of seasonal calendar and m onths of March, April and May
MS Mich. 569 (Oxford, Bodleian Library, c. 1275-1289, f. 96r)
Courtesy o f the Bodleian Library, Oxford
’Iyar, f. 96r:

nbn anzw baNr Nb 7®NaNni D’an biaNi Dna i ’ya nnoi dt Tpn n’’Na
dtn bw inwaa

In the m onth o f ’Iyar let blood and purify your intestine w ith them (?) and
eat water79 and do not eat (.. .)®o because eczem a is ‘born’ in a person’s
flesh.

Sivan, f. 96v:

Tpni Dn nrw i Dn biaN ji’oa

In Sivan eat hot [food] and drink hot [beverages] and let blood.

T am m u z, f. 96v:

dt T’p r bNi npaa D’a nrw Tiara

In Tammuz drink w ater in the m orning and do n ot let blood.

‘Av, f. 96v:

biaNi wninb 'i'o nyi oyia nan NbN dt T’p r bN aNa

I’a ’a nrw i pinw Dana nbyi Nn’r u
In ‘Av only let a little blood and [only] until the 15th of the m o n th and eat
w atercress and a crushed celery leaf and drink its juice.

‘Elul, f. 96v:

dt T’p r bN bibNa
In ‘Elul do n o t let blood.

Tisri, f. 96v:

dt Tpni 81r ’nnwa abn nrw i nan ba biaN ’nw ra

In Tisri eat everything and drink milk in the m orning and let blood.

M a rh e sv an , f. 96v:

dti D’Ty bwi mwaa bw abn nrw i j’N anra D’na’N baw D’ajy biaN pwnnaa
p ra ’
In M arhesvan eat grapes because all the m em bers [of the body] are healing
and drink ewe’s and goat’s milk and the blood [will] sweeten.

78 This word is probably Judeo-French but has been unidentifiable.

79 ‘Eat water’ is a scribal error and should most probably have been ‘drink water’.
80 The word naNni has been left untranslated.
81 For the month of June the scribe used the word npua.
Kislev, f. 96v:

fn n an Dina DnNn dt npib |aT iriNaw nm na fn n a a ia ^ y naw 1’boaa

Nbaan Noina dt Tpni
In Kislev keep yourself from taking very h o t baths, because at th at time
m an’s blood suffers from the h eat of the b ath and let blood from the ingui­
nal ligam ent .82

T evet, f. 96v:

n’ bw yinTa Tpn r a o a
In Tevet let blood from the arm of the hand.83

Sevat, f. 96v:

Dy ’iwy |’aiwi f’azib 'z |’’n |a nrw D’i di’ baa NbN dt Tpr bN oawa
baNan
In Sevat do n o t let blood, only drink 3 m outhfuls of w ine every day and
garlic m ade w ith the food.

A dar, f. 97r:

'dt T’prw Dnip D’aw aa i ’ya nnoi binzn yaj’N bw oina dt Tpr nnNa
’iwy wan Dy fa in Di’i di’ baa nrw i
In Adar let blood from the great saphenous vein84 and purify your intes­
tine w ith spices before bloodletting, and drink every day vinegar m ade w ith
honey.

82 At the flanks from the great saphenous vein which runs down on the inside of the
thigh. The Aramaic words Nbaan Noina are found in the Babylonian Talmud, Tractate
Hullin 93a: ’rn m Nj’a’a N rb r Nbaaa r ’N ’oin Nwan pniDN fpiyaw poin rnin’ 'n naNi
NbNawa... (‘And R. Yehudah says that the ligaments which are found in the rear [of an
animal] are prohibited. There are five ligaments, three to the right and two to the left...’).
Rashi’s commentary on the word fpiyaw (ligaments) is: N''wpJlba ’baan ’oin 'n U’’n
(‘There are five ligaments [which are] flancs’).The name of the ligaments found in the
rear or flanks of an animal or on the sides of a human are called the ‘inguinal ligaments’.
83 This sentence is unclear. It may mean to let blood from the wrist which can be con­
sidered the end of the arm and the beginning of the hand, but it is just a hypothesis.
84 The ‘great vein’ (binzn yaj’N) as it is called in the text above is probably the great
saphenous vein which runs down the inner part of the leg from the foot to up the inside
of the thighs. The reason for this choice is that during the month of Adar, the sun is in
Aquarius and then in Pisces. These two signs of the zodiac were considered to influence
the thighs and feet respectively, where bloodletting was usually practised.
S u m m a ry o f dieta ry precep ts a t the e n d o f the ca len d a r (f. 97r) sta r tin g in
S ivan a n d o m ittin g ’Iyar:

D’Vn VDNn nV ji’oni

D’n nnw Disn npnn nann
hwn Dp nsw’Va iw aj maw nxm
paim Non VDNn nV ViVndi
m n Disn npnn nVn nnw ’nwnn
Vms m pw t o t Vdin pwnnan
pnnan n ’nn fnnn Vn rVann
mnn Vnxn nV nnun
pina nan nnw unwn
’rw n m x n p i n n m |’un Vnxn nV m xn
ht ’3 maw I’rnsa nxi Nm d’h-Vnh nN p a w Vnn nm qia
I ’VdVd’ Nirn in n ’ ’-’ Vp iVwn dinh Vd
In Sivan do n o t eat feet.85
In Tammuz in the m orning [before] the fast drink water.
And in Av be careful n o t to lie w ith a woman.
And in Elul do n o t eat lettuce and vinegar®6
In Tisri drink milk in the morning®7 [before] the fast frequently.
In M arhesvan eat leeks w hich are called poril.®®
In Kislev do n o t bathe in a b ath house. In Tevet do n o t eat cabbage.®9
In Sevat drink sw eet wine.
In Adar do n o t eat w heat and radishes90 and the same for the second
Adar.
The conclusion of the m atter, w hen all has been heard. Fear God and keep
his com m andm ents for this is the w hole [duty] of man.91 Cast your burden
on God and He shall sustain you.92

85 There is a precept for the month of May in MS Lat. Nouv. Acqu. 229 (Paris, Biblio-
theque nationale, early 12th cent., f. 8v) where it is written not to eat any head or feet of
any animal: Nullius animalis caput et pedes comedas...
86 The precept of not eating lettuce and vinegar during the month of August has not
been found in any other calendar so far, except in its contrary form: ‘eat lettuce with
vinegar’ in the Guta-Sintram Codex during the month of June (Strasbourg, Bibliotheque
du Grand Seminaire, 1154, f. 45r):... Lactucas cum aceto comede ...an d in ‘eat lettuce
and vinegar’ in MS Lat. Nouv Acqu. 229 (f. 8v):.. .Lactudas et acetum comede ...(It seems
that the word lettuce has been spelled as lactudas instead of lactucas in MS Lat. Nouv.
Acqu. 229).
87 See below for the precepts for the month of September.
88 Poril in Judeo-French is a leek.
89 MS Heb. d. 11 also suggests not eating cabbage during the month of December; see
the edition of MS Heb. d. 11, month of Tevet.
90 Abstaining from eating wheat seems unique to this manuscript, whereas abstaining
from eating radishes is found in Latin regimen calendars under the month of April, such as
in MS Lat. Nouv. Acqu. 229 (f. 8v): A radicibus abstine... and in MS 1 (Paris, Universite Des­
cartes, Bibliotheque de la Faculte de pharmacie, 15th cent., f. 37v): Abstine a radicibus...
91 Verse taken from Eccl. 12:13.
92 The last part of the sentence here is the first half of Psalm 55:23: in n ’ ’-’ Vp iVwn
pnsV uia DVlpV |n ’-NV 1 V3V3’ Nim (‘Cast your burden on God and He shall sustain you.
He shall never let the righteous quiver.’)
4.2. M S Heb. d. 11 (fig u re 5)

M o n th ly C alendar (f. 359v)

N isan:

baN p ira bai ’bx nwa biaNi wa’ fn n a fin n ri dt T’pm bwbwr jo’n
I’nwn D’niya Dn ’a ainb pin’ wniw baNr bNi 'nrw i wan
In Nisan do purgation and let blood and bathe in ‘dry’ baths,5® and eat
roasted m eat and all sweetness, eat honey and drink (?), and do n o t eat too
m any green roots because they provoke boils.

’Iyar:

ba wNn in fa in nan ba baNr Nbi nnpan in Danan nan baNr bN n’’Na

n’za r ’bNawn yinTa dt bwbwm jawi nb nwa biaNb aioi D’zn in n’na
biaN ini bp Ninw baNai naan bN ibinn |ir n r n
In ’Iyar do n o t eat things that h eat or that cool and do n o t eat anything acid
or the head of any creature, or fish. And it is good to eat fresh94 and fat meat.
And purge blood from the left arm in the vein th at goes to the liver95 and
eat light and tender food.

Sivan:

96ynn naan n’z T’pm D’nan D’nnpran NbN q’nn pin’ baNr bN ji’oa
Dn finnb n a n r bNi D’a Dy in |’’ Dy nrw njyb in n’aiw
In Sivan do not eat spicy greens only things [which] cool and let blood from
the vein of the liver and the arm97 and drink fennel seed or absinth w ith
w ine or w ith water, and do n o t take too m any h ot baths.

T am m u z:

biaNi dt T’p r bNi D’wjb a n p r bNi D’nnpran D’nan nrw i biaN Tiara
yn fn n a a m anb |’’ n r w r Nbw niawm rnTn
In Tammuz drink and eat things [which] refresh and do n o t approach
women, and do n o t let blood and eat lettuce, and w atch n o t to drink too
m uch wine, and too m any baths are bad.

93 Dry baths are actually steam baths.

94 The word nb ‘wet’ should be translated here as ‘fresh’.
95 This is probably the hepatic vein.
96 The letter ‘vav’ (l) is missing here in theword yinT (‘arm’).
97 This is probably the hepatic vein.
 Figure 5: Hygiene and dietary calendar
MS h eb . d. 11 (Oxford, Bodleian Library, c. 1332-1351, f. 359v)
Courtesy o f the Bodleian Library, Oxford
'Av:

nwn Vidni D’wja pnnni pn ViwV’wi mnm D’aiwi D’Vsn Vnxn Vn nxn
VwVwn Vxawn dt upa Tpni 98n2 n nnwi D’wnn
In 'Av do n o t eat onions and garlic and cabbage and purgation is bad, and
stay far from wom en, and eat lamb m eat and drink Ape and let a little blood
from the left [side] and purge.

'Elul:

D’aiwa D’V’sn Vidni VVd dt T’pn Vn mnn in D’m an in Vnxn nV ViVnd

w m npwa nnwn Vni pn ViwV’wi paini 99Vin ’Vi2 nnwi
In 'Elul do not eat apples or cabbage and do n o t let blood at all and eat
onions or garlic and drink pouliol and vinegar, and purgation is bad and do
n o t drink a beverage of honey.100

Tisri:

npnn nVn nnwi nV’Vn VwVwni D’Vsm D’w nn pan q’nn n m Vidn ’nwnn
dt T’pn Vni dth nN p’nanV

In Tisri eat spicy food like leeks and onions and purge at night and drink
milk in the m orning to sw eeten the blood, and do n o t let blood.

M arh esv an :

npwa in wm’n npnn ninwVi D’njp VidnV niui pnnan pinnn Vn pwnnan
VwVwni VTnni D’aiwi D’Vsn Vidni q’nn pin’ Vm wnT
In M arhesvan do n o t bathe in a b ath and it is good to eat grapes and to drink
new w ine or a honey beverage™ in the morning, and [eat] spicy greens and
eat onions and garlic and mustard, and purge.

Kislev:

nNisa d t T’p’i pnnaa iw aj niawi fiani fiajp Vidn 1’Vann

In Kislev eat cinnam on and cum in and refrain from taking baths and let
blood from the neck.

98 The word Ape (NAN) is a distorted Judeo-German form of Api of the Latin flores
apii, which is the flower of Apium or commonly known as celery. See Odon de Meung, La
pharmacie des moines: Macer Floridus, De viribus herbarum, translated from Latin by Louis
Baudet (Clermont-Ferrand: Editions Paleo, 2011), pp. 28-29. See below for a comparison
of all three Hebrew manuscripts and Latin texts.
99 Judeo-French word for pouliot in French or pulegium latifolium in Latin, a variety of
mint: see Odon de Meung, La pharmacie des moines, pp. 46-48.
100 This beverage of honey could have been mead or melicrate, a fermented mixture
of water and honey.
101 Again this beverage could have been mead or melicrate.
Tevet:

a n a bax’ xbi ^ n b i a ’wi nnji b’azjr biax nxixn on rpn n au a

In Tevet let blood from the neck and eat ginger and spikenard and do n ot
eat cabbage.

Sevat:

D’nn nawni on ^ x ’nmub baxn on T’p’ xbi b’our nnw’ uawa

In Sevat drink ginger and do not let blood and eat h o t lettuaire™ and guard
yourself from water.

A dar:

bwbwb nnwn ^ n i a n ’p n ’ ba bax’ xbi j’bab’a biax 1 ’baxa baa nnxa

anp’ xb nwx bxi
In Adar in all your foods eat pepper and do n o t eat any greens (.. .)W6 and
drink to purge and do n o t approach a w oman.

4.3. M S H eid en h eim 51 (fig u re 6)

M o n th ly ca len d a r (ff. 153r-159r)

Sevat, f. 153r:

’jyb aiu nn baxnw onip npiaa |’’ uya nnwi dt nann rp n bx wmn nra
lb au’i [’]’ nan bx yawi nyn nra nnnpn
In this m onth do n o t let m uch blood and drink a little w ine in the m orning
before you eat and this is good for the suffering of fever at this time, and
listen to the w ord of God and it will be good for you.W7

102 The words n b u ’Wl nmi (‘spikenard’ in English) denote a variety of nard that is
attested in rabbinical sources. See Tractate bKeritot 6a, where the ingredients of a com­
pound of incense are given, among them: ‘. .. myrrh, cassia, spikenard and saffron, each
sixteen manehs by weight’. (nwy nww bw nwy nww bpwa oianai n n nbia’w n y ap i ma
ma). The letter ‘vav (l) before the word n b u ’Wl (sibolet) above in the calendar is a mis­
take. It is also interesting to note that the scribe wrote n b u ’W nm and not nnj n b u ’W, as
written in the Talmud above. This word inversion possibly demonstrates that the scribe
was a native French speaker, a language whose syntax sometimes creates word inversion
when translated into Hebrew.
103 Judeo-French word for Latin electuarium.
104 Lettuaire or electuarium is a powdered concoction which varies in its ingredients
depending on the illness.
105 This word was undeciphered.
106 The word m an was left untranslated.
107 This sentence is a paraphrase of Ex. 9:21 where it is written: ’-’ nan b x __ (‘...to
the word of God...’) and of Jer. 38:20, where it is written:... lb au ’’1...(‘... and it will be
good for you’).
Figure 6: Excerpt of the hygiene and dietary calendar, lower margins, m onths of
June and July
MS H eidenheim 51 (Zurich, Zentralbibliothek, c. 1398-99, f. 155v-156r)
Courtesy o f the Zentralbibliothek, Zurich

A dar, f. 153v:

nn m p ja nawni ^ b r a n by rp n wTin n n
nyn
In this m onth let blood from the great [saphenous vein] and guard yourself
from ice and eat betonien and agrimonien at this time.

108 Here the word blTtn (‘great’ in Hebrew) refers to the great saphenous vein that
runs through the leg and thigh. In the hygiene and dietary calendar found in MS Mich.
569, transcribed and translated above, the same precept of letting blood from the great
saphenous vein, written there as blTtn is mentioned for the month of February, just
like here. See also supra, note 84.
109 This vocalised Judeo-German word is a corruption of the flowering plant Betonica
or Stachys officinalis, commonly known as purple betony. See also Odon de Meung, La
pharmacie des moines, pp. 34-37.
110 This vocalised Judeo-German word is the name of a flowering plant called Agrimo-
nia Eupatoria, commonly known as agrimony.
N isan, f. 154r:

nyn nra aiua bwiaaw biaxi nioian ' ^nx’xai mxnnb aiu wnin nra
In this m onth it is good to w ash and suck the cups™ and eat well-cooked
[food] at this time.

’Iyar, f. 154v:

nipn’ |a nnwn bxi wa’ xbi nb nwa biaxi “ i x T a by r’pn wnin nra
nyn nra
In this m onth let blood from the median [vein] and eat fresh and n o t dry
m eat and do not drink vegetable juice at this time.

Sivan, f. 155r:

nyn nra n6|bixi biaxi D’ry bw abn npaa nnw wnn u 5nyn nra
In this m onth drink goat’s milk in the m orning and eat violen at this time.

T am m u z, f. 155v:

|a nnwi D’nix’ pa D’an baxn bxi fnnb nwpi oi’a |w’n bx wnin nra
nyn nra ^ x a ir’x
In this m onth do n o t sleep during the day and it is n o t good to bathe and
do not eat fish from ponds and drink hyssop at this time.

111 Note the use of the letter ‘sade’ (a) and not ‘sade sofit’ (f) as it should be here at the
end of this word.
112 This word has been almost completely erased. Nevertheless an attempt has been
made to read it.
113 The words mesisat ha-kossot (nioian na’aa) may be a reference to ‘cupping’. Cup­
ping is a thousand-of- years-old procedure for conducting illness out of the body through
the skin by applying heated evacuated glass cups to intact or scarified skin, in order to
draw blood to the surface. For further information on this practice, see Wighard Strehlow
and Gottfried Hertzka, Hildegard of Bingen’s Medicine (Santa Fe, NM: Bear & Company,
1988), and Kate Kelly, The History of Medicine: The Middle Ages 500-1450 (New York: Facts
On File, 2009), p. 63. For a Talmudic reference on cupping see Tractate Sanhedrin 129b:
Fred Rosner, Medicine in the Bible and the Talmud, p. 16.
114 Judeo-German vocalized word, median.
115 The word ‘time’ has been crossed out.
116 This Judeo-German word is hardly decipherable but it could be read as violen, a
distortion of the Latin viola for a flower named viola odorata, known in English as pansy.
The use of this flower is unique here, when compared with all the Hebrew and Latin texts
to hand.
117 This Judeo-German word,'isope, is a medicinal herb called hyssopus officinalis or hys­
sop. See also Odon de Meung, La pharmacie des moines, pp. 100-101.
 nra nnw ^ I ’a’xi u8|oiin |’ai p ic a wninn nrn ’a on r’pn bx wnin nra
nyn
In this m onth do n o t let blood because this m onth is dangerous and drink
roten and 'eipikh at this time.

'Elul, f. 156v:

nyn nra fnnb nwpi D’zn nann baxn bxi nnp ja nawn wnin nra
In this m onth guard yourself from baldness and do n o t eat a lot of fish and
it is bad to bathe at this time.

Tisri, f. 157r:

nyn nra ana nri npiaa onb oy abn baxn D’a ’ 'n wninn nyn nra
At the time of this m onth eat milk and bread in the m orning for 8 days and
this is w ritten at this time.

M a rh esv an , f. 157v:

nyn nra ^ b ^ b . baxi D’juno oy nxian nwyn bx wnin nra

In this m onth do n o t attem pt to heal cancers™ and eat galigal at this time.

Kislev, f. 158v:

nyn nra r’pnb nwpi aiu wan ’ai wan finnbi biyab nwp wnin nra
In this m onth it is bad to have sexual relations and to bathe, honey and
honey w ater is good and [it is] not recom m ended to let blood at this time.

118 This Judeo-German word, roten, is a distortion of the medicinal herb called rutam
or common rue. Odon de Meung, La pharmacie des moines, pp. 25-27. The Judeo-German
word in the manuscript, is spelled with two ‘vav’ (l) letters which look crossed out.
U9 This Judeo-German word, ’eipikh, is a distortion of the Latinflores apii, which is the
flower of apium, commonly known as celery. See also Odon de Meung, La pharmacie des
moines, pp. 28-29. See below the comparison between all three Hebrew manuscripts and
Latin texts for the month of July.
120 This Judeo-German word, galigal, is a distortion of the much appreciated Indian
aromatic spice in the Middle Ages called galingal/galangal in the vernacular or galganum
in Latin; Odon de Meung, La pharmacie des moines, p. 142.
121 Here the precept warns against healing people whose astrological sign is Cancer.
The zodiac sign associated with October is Scorpio, not Cancer (which is associated
with June), but these signs were quite frequently confused. See Iris Fishoff, Written in
the Stars: Art and Symbols of the Zodiac (Jerusalem: The Israel Museum, 2001), p. 111. For
example, Cancer is called un scorpione (xjl’flnipwx) in Judeo-French, in the margins of
a calendar for the month of June, in MS Add. 3127 (Cambridge, Cambridge University
Library) folio 347v, a Northern French liturgical-halakhic compendium, dated 1399. This
calendar (ff. 345r-350v) is being edited for a forthcoming publication related to the project
mentioned above, see supra note 7.
T evet, f. 159r:

( ...) in nnwm rpnb aiui wxinn Ha by rp n wnin n n

In this m onth let blood from the sinews of the head and [it is] good to let
blood and keep yourself from ( ...)

T he follow ing c o m p a ra tiv e grid p re s e n ts th e g e n e ra l s tru c tu re a n d c o n ­

te n ts o f all th re e ca le n d ars:

Layout and Subjects Ms Mich. 569 Ms Heb. D.11 Ms H eidenheim 51

Seasonal calendar yes no No

M onthly calendar yes yes Yes
Begins in M arch yes yes No
Begins in January no no Yes
Invocation to God yes no No
H um oural physiology yes no No
M edical astrology no no Yes
Bloodletting yes yes Yes
Foods yes yes Yes
Beverages yes yes Yes
Hot and cold beverages yes yes No
Spicy and sw eet foods and yes yes No
beverages
References to smell in food yes no No
H erbal rem edies and yes yes Yes
potions
Baths yes yes Yes
Purges no yes No
Sexual relations yes yes Yes
Fasts yes no No

As c a n b e se e n b y th e u n d e rlin e d w ords, in elev e n o c c u rre n c e s o n e o f th e

c a le n d a rs is u n iq u e re g a rd in g e ith e r its s tru c tu re o r c o n te n ts . In reg a rd s
to stru c tu re , MS M ich. 569 is th e on ly m a n u s c rip t to c o n ta in a se aso n a l
c a le n d a r as w ell as a m o n th ly one, a n d MS H e id e n h e im 51 is th e o n ly cal­
e n d a r to b e g in w ith th e m o n th o f J a n u a ry in s te a d o f M arch. T he la tte r is
b e c a u s e th e scrib e sim ply follow ed th e la y o u t o f th e Ju lia n c a le n d a r s ta rt­
in g in Ja n u ary , w ith C h ristia n sa in ts’ n a m e s a n d festivals p la c e d o n ea c h
o f th e tw elv e p ag es ab o v e th e h y g ien e a n d d ie ta ry ca le n d ar. A n in v o c a tio n
to G od is o nly fo u n d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e se a so n a l c a le n d a r a n d a t th e
e n d o f th e m o n th ly c a le n d a r in MS M ich. 569 (f. 9 5 r a n d f. 97r). As for
th e c o n te n ts o f th e ca le n d ars, all th re e c o n ta in p re c e p ts o n h e rb a l p o tio n s
a n d re m e d ie s, b a th s, b lo o d le ttin g , se x u al rela tio n s, foods a n d bev erag es,
e v e n th o u g h on ly MS M ich. 569 h as re fe re n c e s to fasts a n d sm ell in food.
MS H e id e n h e im 51 is th e b rie fe s t c a le n d a r o f all th re e ca le n d ars, w h ic h
ex p lain s w h y th e re are n o d etails o n h o t o r co ld b ev erag es, sw e e t o r spicy
foods, fasts o r p u rg es. M oreover, e le m e n ts o f h u m o u ra l p h y sio lo g y are
p r e s e n t in th e se aso n a l c a le n d a r in MS M ich. 569 (f. 9 5r), d e sc rib e d la te r
o n a n d o n e n o tio n o f m e d ic a l astro lo g y is fo u n d in MS H e id e n h e im 51
(f. 157v), fo r th e m o n th o f O c to b e r th a t w a rn s n o t to do a n y h e a lin g w ith
c a n ce rs.i22

5. C om parisons betw een H ebrew a n d L atin D ietary a n d H yg ien e C alendars

W e w ill n o w c o m p a re all th re e c a le n d a rs w ith L atin re g im e n calen d ars;

th is w ill d e m o n s tra te th e w e a lth o f th e so u rces w h ic h in sp ire d th e m . T he
p re c e p ts o f th e m o n th s o f th e s e th re e c a le n d a rs (MSS M ich. 569, H eb. d. 11
a n d H e id e n h e im 51) w ill b e w ritte n o u t b elo w , p a ra lle le d w ith ex c erp ts
fro m L atin re g im e n c a le n d a rs fro m W e ste rn E u ro p e d a tin g b e tw e e n th e
tw e lfth a n d fifte e n th c e n tu rie s . T h e H e b re w c a le n d a rs a re sim ila r to
th e L atin ca le n d ars in la y o u t a n d c o n te n t. Firstly, th e ir seaso n al o r m o n th ly
fo rm a ts s ta rt e ith e r w ith th e m o n th o f M a rc h (MS M ich. 569 a n d H eb.
d 11, MS, Paris, B ib lio th e q u e n a tio n a le , Lat. 14935, beg. 12th c., f. 101r,m
MS, Paris, U n iv ersite D escartes, B ib lio th e q u e d e la F acu lte d e p h a rm a c ie ,
1, 15th c., ff. 3 7 v -4 0 rm ) o r w ith th e m o n th o f J a n u a ry (MS H e id e n h e im
51, MS Paris, B ib lio th e q u e n a tio n a le , Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229, early 12th c.,
ff. 8 r-9 r,i2 5 MS S trasbourg, B ib lio th e q u e d u G ra n d S em in aire, 37, Codex
G uta-Sintram , 1154, ff. 8 r-6 9 r,i2 6 MS Paris, B ib lio th e q u e n a tio n a le , Lat.
10448, 13th c., ff. 122r-123v).i27 Secondly, c o n c e rn in g th e ir c o n te n t, th e
L atin ca le n d a r in flu en ce is also visible in th e fo rm u latio n o f th e se n ten c es
a n d th e su b je cts co v e red in th e H eb rew cale n d ars, su c h as th e ch o ices o f

122 See supra, note 121.

123 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, pp. 182-183.
124 Sudhoff, ‘Ein Monatsregimen’, Archivfur Geschichte des Medizin, II (1909), pp. 434-436.
125 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, pp. 183-184.
126 Weis, Beatrice (ed.), Le Codex Guta Sintram: manuscrit37de la Bibliotheque du Grand
Seminaire de Strasbourg, 2 vols (Lucerne: Editions Fac-similes, 1983). Pierre Bachoffner,
‘Un calendrier illumine de 1154: la Guta Sintram de Strasbourg et sa place dans l’histoire
du medicament’, Revue d’histoire de la pharmacie, 179 (1963), 183-193, and idem, ‘Notes
sur les preceptes d’hygiene enlumines du Codex Guta-Sintram’, in Georg Edmund Dann
(ed.), Vortrage der Hauptversammlung der Internationalen Gesellschaft der Pharmacie e.V.
wahrend des Internationalen Pharmaziegeschichtlichen Kongresses in Rotterdam vom 17.-21.
September 1963 (Stuttgart: Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1965), pp. 7-22.
127 Sudhoff, ‘Medizinische Monatsregeln’, pp. 136-139.
h e rb a l rem e d ies, foods a n d b ev e rag es for ex am p le, tra d itio n a lly k n o w n
a n d u s e d in N o rth e rn E urope, as w ell as b y th e p re se n c e o f so m e Ju d eo -
F re n c h a n d Ju d e o -G e rm a n h erb s, p o tio n s a n d v ein s.128 T his d e m o n s tra te s
th a t th e scrib es o f th e se m a n u s c rip ts d re w m o s t o f th e ir in s p ira tio n fro m
so u rce s fo u n d in th e ir s u rro u n d in g c h r is tia n c u ltu ra l e n v iro n m e n t, r a th e r
th a n fro m Je w ish so u rce s su c h as th e T alm u d , ev e n th o u g h th e la tte r h a p ­
p e n s to a b o u n d in th e ra p e u tic a n d p ro p h y la c tic m a te ria l. 129
T he follow ing c o m p a riso n s w ill b e p re s e n te d b e lo w in five d iffe ren t
categ o ries. E ven th o u g h n o n e o f th e te x ts a re ex actly th e sam e, all th re e
H e b re w c a le n d a rs w ill b e c o m p a re d to g e th e r™ a n d a c c o m p a n ie d b y
L atin e q u iv a le n ts fo r e a c h m o n th fro m se v eral calen d ars.

1) In th e case o f th e m o n th s o f Kislev, Sevat, ’Iyar, ‘A v a n d Tisri, th e

te x ts in all th re e H eb rew c a le n d a rs h av e b e e n p a ra lle le d b e c a u s e ea c h
o f th e m c o n ta in s a t le a st o n e c o m m o n p re c e p t, w h ic h also m a k e s u p
p a r t o f th e c o n te n ts fo u n d in th e ac c o m p a n y in g L atin ca le n d ars.
2) T he m o n th s o f M a rh e sv an a n d Sivan h av e b e e n assig n ed to s e p a ra te
g ro u p s in o rd e r to sh o w h o w o n e a n d th e sa m e c o m p o n e n t c a n b e
fo u n d u n d e r d iffe re n t m o n th s o f th e year.
3) T he m o n th s o f ‘A dar, N isan a n d ‘Elul h av e b e e n g ro u p e d to g e th e r
b e c a u s e th e y c o n ta in o n e p r e c e p t in c o m m o n in tw o o u t o f th e th re e
H eb rew calen d ars.
4) T he p re c e p ts o f th e m o n th s o f T am m u z, ‘E lul a n d T ev et do n o t sh o w
a n y sim ila rity w ith e a c h o th e r in th e th re e H eb rew ca le n d ars, b u t are
n e v e rth e le ss c o m p a re d all to g e th e r w ith th e L atin c a le n d a r e q u iv a ­
le n ts fo r th e se sa m e m o n th s , sh o w in g p ara llels in c o n te n t w ith th e
H eb rew calen d ars.

128 MS Mich. 569: ‘Av: gargire (NTUU); Marhesvan: summary of precepts, f. 97r: poril
(Vma).
MS Heb. d. 11: ‘Av: ape (NAN), ‘Elul: pouliol (ViN’Vlfl), Sevat: lettuaire (Nn’TlO?), Tevet:
nard (TU), ‘Adar: pilpele (N?flVfl).
MS Heidenheim 51: ‘Adar: betonien (fKUTO:!), ‘Adar: ‘agrimonien ), ’Iyar:
median (fK’T n ), Sivan: violen (iVlNl), Tammuz: hysope (NflinN), ‘Av: roten (|biri), ‘Av:
‘eipikh (fa^N), Marhesvan: galigal (bp*?;!).
129 The Talmud, which also relied on the humoural theory of the Greeks, deals exten­
sively with medical matters such as surgery, bloodletting, herbal remedies, bathing,
purging, sexual relations and diet which can be found mostly in the following Tractates;
bShabbat (Sabbath), bHullin (non-Holy matters) and bBekhorot (First born).
130 Sometimes there are cases where the precepts of one Hebrew calendar will not
match any Latin text studied here, in which case the word UNICUM will be written next
to the entry for that particular month.
5) S u b se q u e n tly th e se a so n a l c a le n d a r in MS M ich. 569 w ill b e c o m p a re d
w ith re la te d L atin parallels.

1) T he m o n th s o f Kislev, Sevat, ’Iyar, ‘Av a n d T isri c o n ta in a t le a st o n e

c o m m o n c o m p o n e n t ac ro ss all th re e ca le n d ars:

Kislev: C o m m o n p re c e p t: b a th in g
MS M ich. 569: In K islev k e e p y o u rse lf fro m ta k in g v e ry h o t b a th s, b e c a u s e
a t th a t tim e m a n ’s b lo o d suffers fro m th e h e a t o f th e b a th , a n d le t b lo o d
fro m th e in g u in a l lig a m e n t.
MS H eb. d.11: In K islev e a t c in n a m o n a n d c u m in a n d k ee p y o u rs e lf fro m
ta k in g b a th s, a n d le t b lo o d fro m th e neck.
MS H e id e n h e im 51: In th is m o n th it is b a d to h av e se x u al re la tio n s a n d to
b a th e , h o n e y a n d h o n e y w a te r a re good, a n d [ it is] n o t re c o m m e n d e d
to le t b lo o d a t th is tim e.

T he h y g ien e p r e c e p t w h ic h is c o m m o n to all th re e c a le n d a rs is to refra in

fro m b a th in g , ev e n th o u g h th e p h ra sin g is n o t th e sa m e in a n y m a n u sc rip t.
T he L atin te x ts w h ic h w e h av e a t h a n d e x p lain th a t th e re a so n for a b s ta in ­
in g fro m ta k in g b a th s d u rin g th is m o n th is b e c a u s e th e b lo o d co a g u la tes
a n d h o t b a th s m o v e th e h u m o u rs: ‘. .. M en se N ovem bre: calido balneo
non utaris, quia tu n c sa n g u is co agulatus est, e t de calore balnei h u m o res
m o v e n tu r’131 (MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229, f. 9r) a n d ‘...M e n s e Novem bris:
a balneis abstine, qu ia tu n c sa n g u is coa g u la tu s est et de calore h u m o re m
m o v e n s .. .’132 (MS 1, f. 39r). O n th e o th e r h a n d , n o n e o f th e m a n u s c rip ts
a g ree w ith e a c h o th e r as to th e v e in fro m w h ic h th e b lo o d le ttin g sh o u ld
ta k e place. MSS M ich. 569 a n d H eb. d. 11 su g g est le ttin g b lo o d fro m e ith e r
th e g re a t s a p h e n o u s v e in o r th e v e in in th e n eck , a n d MS H e id e n h e im
51 p ro h ib its it a lto g e th e r. H o w ev er b o th a fo re m e n tio n e d L atin m a n u ­
sc rip ts (Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229 a n d 1) c o n c u r o n th e h e p a tic v e in a n d o n
th e d ie ta ry p r e c e p t su g g e sted in MS H eb. d. 11 o f e a tin g c in n a m o n : ‘. . . De
ve n a epatica m inue. c y n a m o m u m ...b ib e ’^33 (m s Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229,

131 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 184. English translation: ‘Month
of November: do not use hot baths because the blood is coagulated and the humours are
moved by the heat of the bath.’
132 Sudhoff, ‘Ein Monatsregimen’, p. 436. English translation: ‘Month of November:
abstain from baths because the blood is coagulated and the heat moves the humours.’
133 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 184. English translation: ‘. .. Let
blood from the hepatic vein. Drink cinnamon.’
f. 9r) a n d ‘. . . v e n a m epucica [e p a tic a m ] incide, . . . t i b i c in a m o m u m ’™
(MS 1, f. 39r).

S ev at: C o m m o n p re c e p t: b lo o d le ttin g
MS M ich. 569: In Sevat do n o t le t b lo o d , on ly d rin k 3 m o u th fu ls o f w in e
every d ay a n d garlic m a d e w ith th e food.
MS H eb. d. 11: In S evat d rin k g in g er a n d do n o t le t b lo o d a n d e a t h o t
lettuaire a n d g u a rd y o u rse lf fro m w ate r.
MS H e id e n h e im 51: In th is m o n th do n o t le t m u c h b lo o d a n d d rin k a
little w in e in th e m o rn in g b e fo re y o u e a t a n d th is is g o o d fo r th e suffering
o f fever a t th is tim e, a n d lis te n to th e w o rd o f G od a n d it w ill b e g o o d
for you.

T he p r e c e p t n o t to le t b lo o d in th is m o n th is fo u n d in all th re e m a n u ­
scripts, w h e re a s to d rin k a little w in e is fo u n d o n ly in MSS M ich. 569 a n d
H e id e n h e im 51. E lectu ary a n d ginger, re m e d ie s fo u n d o n ly in MS H eb.
d. 11, are in c lu d e d w ith th e b lo o d le ttin g a n d w in e d rin k in g p re c e p ts in
th e follow ing L atin tex ts: ‘M en se Ianuario: b o n u m v in u m cotidie ieiunus
bibe g lu p o s tres. S a n g u in e m n on m inuas. C ontra offo ca tio n em electu a riu m
a c u tu m accipe no n potionem . G ingiber . . . bibe’135 (MS Lat. 14935, f. 101r),
‘. .. m e d ia m libram vin i ieiunus bibe, singulis diebus. C in g ib e r... bibe, electu ­
a riu m e t p o cio n em contra offocationem accipe, sa n g u in e n o n m in u e p ro p te r
n im iu m fr ig u s qu ia calore sa n g u in is n u tritu r corpus’136 (C o d ex G uta-
S in tram , f. 8r), ‘M en se J a n u a rio v in u m a lb u m je ju n u s bibe, n o n m in u a s s a n ­
g u in e m .. . accipe electu a riu m a c c ip ito ... tibi zin z ib e r’137 (MS 1, f. 39v). All
L atin c a le n d a rs ag ree o n n o t le ttin g b lo o d , w ith th e C o d ex G u ta-S in tram
e x p la in in g th a t it is b e c a u s e o f th e g re a t co ld d u rin g th is m o n th a n d
th a t th e b o d y is n o u ris h e d b y th e h e a t o f th e b lo o d . S om e o f th e L atin
c a le n d a rs v ary o n th e q u a n tity o f re d o r w h ite w in e to b e d ru n k every

134 Sudhoff, ‘Ein Monatsregimen’, p. 436. English translation: ‘. .. Incise the hepatic
vein... Drink cinnamon.’
135 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 183. English translation: ‘Month
of January: drink three mouthfuls of good wine on an empty stomach daily. Do not let
blood. Against suffocation, take a strong (sharp) electuary, not a potion. Drink... ginger.’
136 Bachoffner, ‘Notes sur les preceptes d’hygiene’, pp. 12-13. English translation:
‘. .. Drink half and pound of wine on an empty stomach every day. Drink... ginger...,
take electurary and a potion against suffocation. Do not let blood because of the great cold,
as the body is nourished by the heat of the blood.’
137 Sudhoff, ‘Ein Monatsregimen’, p. 436. English translation: ‘Month of January: drink
white wine on an empty stomach, do not let blood... take the electuary... Drink ginger.’
day, g oing fro m th re e sips to h a lf a p o u n d a n d th a t it h a s to b e d ru n k o n
a n e m p ty sto m ac h . E lectuary, w h ic h is w ritte n lettu a ire in Ju d e o -F re n c h
in MS H eb. d. 11, is m e n tio n e d u n d e r its L atin n a m e , electu a riu m in th e
L atin ca le n d ars, w h e re MSS Lat. 14935 a n d C o d ex G u ta -S in tra m eq u ally
m e n tio n th a t it is to b e u se d a g a in st offocatio, w h ic h is su ffo catio n .

‘lyar: C o m m o n p re c e p t: b lo o d le ttin g
MS M ich. 569: In th e m o n th o f ’Iyar le t b lo o d a n d p u rify y o u r in te s tin e
w ith th e m (?) a n d e a t w a te r a n d do n o t e a t (.. .)m b e c a u s e e c z e m a is
‘b o r n ’ in a p e rs o n ’s flesh.
MS H eb. d. 11: In ’Iyar do n o t e a t th in g s th a t h e a t o r th a t co o l a n d do n o t
e a t a n y th in g a c id o r th e h e a d o f a n y c re a tu re , o r fish.139 A n d it is g o o d
to e a t fre sh a n d fa t m e a t. A n d p u rg e b lo o d fro m th e le ft a rm in th e v ein
th a t goes to th e liver a n d e a t lig h t a n d te n d e r food.
MS H e id e n h e im 51: In th is m o n th le t b lo o d fro m th e m ed ia n [vein] a n d
e a t fre sh a n d n o t dry m e a t a n d do n o t d rin k v eg e ta b le ju ic e a t th is tim e.

H ere all th re e H eb rew c a le n d a rs ag ree o n b lo o d le ttin g , b u t o n ly MS

H e id e n h e im gives th e n a m e o f th e v e in w h ic h sh o u ld b e in c ise d fo r th e
p u rp o se : th e m e d ia n v ein . MS H eb. d. 11 m e n tio n s ‘p u rg in g b lo o d fro m
th e le ft a r m o n th e v e in th a t goes to th e liver’, w h ic h m a y b e th e m e d ia n
v e in as w ell. Tw o o f th e L atin c a le n d a rs ag ree ju s t to le t b lo o d , o n e ev en
em p h a siz in g its b e in g good: ‘. .. b o n u m est sa n g u in e m m u e re .’u o (MS Lat.
14935, f. 101r) a n d ‘. ..s a n g u in e m m in u e .. .’141 (MS 1, f. 38r). A n o th e r th re e
L atin c a le n d a rs in d ic a te th a t th e m e d ia n v e in sh o u ld b e in cised , giving
th e re a so n w hy: ‘S a n g u in e m de v e n a m e d ia n a brachii e t in te rc u ta n eu m
m in u e .. .’142 (MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229, f. 8r), ‘. ..v e n a m m e d ia n a m p ro p te r

138 The word na^m has been left untranslated.

139 This precept is found under the month of May in two manuscripts:
1. MS Codex Guta-Sintram (f. 37r): Mense maio nullum animalis caput comede quia inde
venena consurgunt. See Bachoffner, ‘Notes sur les preceptes d’hygiene’, p. 16. English transla­
tion: ‘Month of May: do not eat the head of any animal because from it comes forth poison.’
2. MS Latin 14935 (f. 101r): Nullum caput animalem comedas. See Barbaud and Gillon,
‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 182. English translation: ‘No animal head should be eaten.’
140 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 182. English translation: ‘It is
good to let blood.’
141 Sudhoff, ‘Ein Monatsregimen’, p. 435. English translation: ‘Let blood.’
142 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 183. English translation: ‘blood
from the median vein in the arm and subcutaneously.’
th o ra cem e tp u lm o n e m in c id e .. .’M3 (C odex G u ta-S in tram , f. 29r) a n d finally
‘M ed ia n a a u te m v e n a a p eria tu r p ro p te r p u rg a tio n e m corporis e t p ecto ris’144
(MS Lat. 10448, f. 122r). A n o th e r su b je c t co v e red b y tw o H eb rew ca le n d a rs
o u t o f th e th re e (MSS H eb. d. 11 a n d H e id e n h e im 51) is e a tin g fre sh m e at,
a d ie ta ry su g g e stio n given in th e follow ing L atin tex ts: ‘Carnes recentes
m a n d u c a r e .. .’14s (MS Lat. 14935, f. 101r), ‘. .. carnes recentes c o m e d e .. .’M6
(C o d ex G u ta-S in tram , f. 29r), ‘M en se A p rili com ed e carnes r e c e n te s .. .’M7
(MS 1, 15th cent., f. 38r).

‘Av: C o m m o n p re c e p t: e a tin g o r d rin k in g celery

MS M ich. 569: In ‘Av o nly le t a little b lo o d a n d [only] u n til th e 15th o f th e
m o n th a n d e a t w a te rc re ss a n d a c ru sh e d celery le a f a n d d rin k its ju ic e .
MS H eb. d. 11: In ‘Av do n o t e a t o n io n s a n d garlic a n d ca b b ag e a n d p u rg a ­
tio n is b a d , a n d stay far fro m w o m e n , a n d e a t la m b m e a t a n d d rin k A p e
a n d le t a little b lo o d fro m th e le ft [side] a n d pu rg e.
MS H e id e n h e im 51: In th is m o n th do n o t le t b lo o d b e c a u s e d u rin g th is
m o n th it is d an g e ro u s a n d d rin k roten a n d ’eipikh a t th is tim e.
T he L atin c a le n d a rs sh a re th e follow ing in fo rm a tio n : ‘. .. S a n g u in e m non
m in u a s___Flores a pii e tflo re s uvae bibe’u 8 (MS Lat. 14935, f. 101r), ‘. .. S a l­
via e t ru te e t appio u t e r e . . . sa n g u in e m n on m in u a s .. .’149 (MS Lat. N ouv.
A cqu. 229, f. 8v), ‘M en se Julio sa n g u in e n on m in u e . . . sa lvia m e t ru ta m ,
a bsin th iu m , flo r e s a pii e t uvae bibe’™ (C o d ex G u ta-S in tram , f. 53r), ‘. .. N on
m in u a s in v e n is . . . S u c u m apii. R u ta e e t i s o p i.. .’151 (MS Lat. 10448, f. 122v).
H ere MS H e id e n h e im 51 is in a c c o rd w ith all th e L atin te x ts as to n o t

143 Bachoffner, ‘Notes sur les preceptes d’hygiene’, p. 14. English translation: ‘Incise the
median vein for the thorax and lungs.’
144 Sudhoff, ‘Medizinische Monatsregeln’, p. 137. English translation: ‘Open the median
vein for purging the body and chest.’
145 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 182. English translation: ‘Eat
fresh meat.’
146 Bachoffner, ‘Notes sur les preceptes d’hygiene’, p. 14. English translation: ‘Eat fresh
meat.’
147 Sudhoff, ‘Ein Monatsregimen’, p. 435. English translation: ‘Month of April: eat fresh
meat.’
148 See Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 182. English translation:
‘Do not let blood. Drink celery flower and vine flower.’
149 See Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 184. English translation:
‘Use sage and rue and celery. Do not let blood.’
150 See Bachoffner, ‘Notes sur les preceptes d’hygiene’, p. 17. English translation: ‘Month
of July: do not let blood... Drink sage and rue, absinthe, celery flower and vine flower.’
151 See Sudhoff, ‘Ein Monatsregimen’, p. 138. English translation: ‘Do not let blood from
the veins... Sap of celery, rue, hyssop.’
le ttin g b lo o d d u rin g th is m o n th , w h e re a s MS H eb. d. 11 a n d MS M ich. 569
su ggest le ttin g a little b lo o d , w ith MS M ich. 569 a d d in g th e p h ra s e ‘u n til
th e 15th o f th e m o n th ’. T he d ie ta ry p r e c e p t o f c o n s u m in g celery leaves
(a p iu m graveolens) o r its flow er (flo res apii)152 a n d d rin k in g its ju ic e in MS
M ich. 569 is fo u n d in all th e H e b re w a n d L atin te x ts c ite d ab o v e. C o m ­
m o n ru e (ru ta gra veo len s) is m e n tio n e d in MSS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229, in
G u ta -S in tra m a n d in Lat. 10448 as w ell as in MS H e id e n h e im 51, b u t in th e
d is to rte d fo rm o f roten. In terestin g ly , MS M ich. 569 suggests e a tin g w a te r­
cress, w h ic h is u n iq u e , w h e re a s th e L atin te x ts offer v a rio u s o th e r m e d ic i­
n a l p la n ts fo r th is m o n th , su c h as: sage (salvia ), a b s in th (a b sin th iu m ), v in e
flow er ( flores uvae) a n d hy sso p (hyssopus officinalis).

Tisri: C o m m o n p re c e p t: c o n s u m p tio n o f m ilk

MS M ich. 569: In T isri e a t e v e ry th in g a n d d rin k m ilk in th e m o rn in g a n d
le t b lood.
MS H eb. d. 11: In T isri e a t spicy food like leek s a n d o n io n s a n d p u rg e a t
n ig h t a n d d rin k m ilk in th e m o rn in g to sw e e te n th e b lo o d , a n d do n o t le t
blo o d .
MS H e id e n h e im 51: A t th e tim e o f th is m o n th e a t m ilk a n d b re a d in th e
m o rn in g fo r eig h t days a n d th is is w ritte n a t th is tim e.

H ere th e d ie ta ry p r e c e p t o f d rin k in g m ilk in th e m o rn in g is a g re e d u p o n

in all th re e H eb rew ca le n d ars. In th e L atin c a le n d a rs w e fin d th e sam e
p r e c e p t for th e m o n th o f S ep te m b er, w h e re b o ile d o r ra w g o a t’s a n d
ew e’s m ilk sh o u ld b e d ru n k daily in little m o u th fu ls o n a n e m p ty sto m ­
a c h to sw e e te n th e b lo o d : ‘. .. Lac c a p ru m e t o vin u m p ro p te r sa n g u in e m
d u lc o r a n d u m ...n53 (MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229, f. 9r), '...B u c e lla s in lacte
infusas ieiunus com ede c o tid ie .. .’154 (MS Lat. 14935, f. 101r) a n d ‘...L a c
ca p rin u m com ede co ctu m .. .’155 (C odex G u ta-S in tram , f. 69r). H ow ever,
th e G u ta -S in tra m m a n u s c rip t c o n tin u e s b y su g g estin g th a t co o k e d o r raw
leeks sh o u ld b e e a te n b e c a u s e th e y sw e e te n th e b lo o d : ‘. .. p orros coctos

152 Under the corrupted graphical form of 'eipikh in MS Heidenheim 51.

153 See Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 184. English translation:
‘Goat’s and ewe’s milk because it sweetens the blood.’
154 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 183. English translation: ‘Small
mouthfuls of infused milk should be drunk daily on an empty stomach.’
155 Bachoffner, ‘Notes sur les preceptes d’hygiene’, p. 18. English translation: “Consume
boiled goat’s milk.”
a c crudos com ede p ro p te r sa n g u in e a d d u lc a n d u m .. .’,156 w h e re a s MS H eb.
d. 11 clearly says th a t it is th e m ilk th a t sw e e te n s th e b lo o d a n d n o t th e
leeks.

2) T he m o n th s o f M a rh e sv an a n d Sivan sh o w h o w th e sam e p r e c e p t ca n
b e fo u n d u n d e r d iffe re n t m o n th s o f th e year. In th is case, d rin k in g
g o a t’s a n d / o r ew e’s m ilk is fo u n d u n d e r th e fo llo w in g m o n th s:

M a rh e sv a n :
MS M ich. 569: In M a rh e sv a n e a t g rap e s b e c a u s e all th e m e m b e rs [o f th e
b o d y ] a re h e a lin g a n d d rin k e w e’s a n d g o a t’s m ilk a n d th e b lo o d [will]
sw ee te n .
MS H eb. d. 11: In M a rh e sv a n do n o t b a th e in a b a th a n d it is g o o d to e a t
g ra p e s a n d to d rin k n e w w in e o r a h o n e y b ev e rag e in th e m o rn in g , a n d
[eat] spicy g ree n s a n d e a t o n io n s a n d garlic a n d m u s ta rd , a n d p u rge.
MS H e id e n h e im 51: D u rin g th is m o n th do n o t do a n y h e a lin g w ith ca n ce rs
a n d e a t g a lig a l a t th is tim e. UNICUM.

S ivan:
MS M ich. 569: In Sivan e a t h o t [food] a n d d rin k h o t [d rin k s] a n d le t
b lo o d .
MS H eb. d. 11: In Sivan do n o t e a t spicy g reens, o n ly th in g s [w h ich ] cool
a n d le t b lo o d fro m th e v e in o f th e liver a n d th e a rm a n d d rin k fe n n e l seed
o r a b s in th w ith w in e o r w ith w ate r, a n d do n o t ta k e to o m a n y h o t b ath s.
MS H e id e n h e im 51: In th is m o n th d rin k g o a t’s m ilk in th e m o rn in g a n d
e a t violen a t th is tim e.

H ere th e re fe re n c e to sw e e te n in g th e b lo o d in MS M ich 569 for th e m o n th

o f M a rh e sv an is fo u n d in L atin c a le n d a rs u n d e r th e m o n th o f S e p te m ­
b e r as se e n above: ‘. ..L a c ca p ru m e t o vin u m p ro p te r s a n g u in e m dulcoran-
d u m . . . ’157 (MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229, f. 9r). F u rth e rm o re , it is q u ite rare
in L atin m e d ie v a l re g im e n c a le n d a rs to fin d a re fe re n c e to d rin k in g g o at’s
a n d /o r e w e’s m ilk o n a n e m p ty sto m a c h d u rin g th e m o n th o f M arh esv an ,
as fo u n d in MS M ich. 569, o r e v e n less d u rin g th e m o n th o f Sivan, as in
MS H e id e n h e im 51. N everth eless, w e do fin d o n e L atin fifte e n th -c e n tu ry

156 Bachoffner, ibid. English translation: ‘Eat cooked or raw leeks because they sweeten
the blood.’
157 See supra, note 153.
te x t w h ic h m e n tio n s d rin k in g g o a t’s m ilk in th e m o n th o f O cto b er: ‘M en se
Octobri lac ca p rin u m a u t m u s tu m je ju n u s b ib e .. .’158 (MS 1, f. 39r).
As fo r th e r e m a in d e r o f th e c o n te n ts o f th e p re c e p ts fo r th e m o n th o f
M arhesvan. MS H eb. d. 11 re se m b le s MS M ich. 569 o n th e s u b je c t o f e a tin g
grapes. T he L atin te x t d u rin g th e m o n th o f O c to b e r in MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu.
229 (f. 9r) is sim ila r to th e H eb rew p re c e p ts b y u sin g g rap e s a n d th e ir ju ic e :
‘. . . botris e t m u sto u te r e .. .’.159 O n th e o th e r h a n d , MS Lat. 14935 (f. 101v)
says th a t o n e sh o u ld u se g rap e s a n d g rap e ju ic e every d ay b e c a u s e th e y
h e a l th e b ody: ‘M a n e cotidie racem is usita e t m u sto q u ia corpora s a n a n t.’^60
As for th e re m a in in g p re c e p ts for th e re g im e n o f th e m o n th o f Sivan, le t
u s c o m p a re MSS M ich. 569 w ith H eb. d. 11. It se em s th a t th e y o n ly h av e
on ly th e p r e c e p t o f b lo o d le ttin g in co m m o n , a n d o th e rw ise give o n ly p a r­
tia l c o n te n ts su c h as e a tin g h o t fo o d a n d d rin k in g h o t d rin k s (MS M ich.
569) a n d d rin k in g fe n n e l se ed o r a b s in th (MS H eb. d. 11). F o rtu n a te ly th e
L atin c a le n d a r e q u iv a le n ts c o m p le te all th e p re c e p ts in th e H e b re w cal­
e n d a rs fo r th e m o n th o f M ay. T he L atin re g im e n te x ts c o n ta in th e follow ­
ing: ‘. .. C alidum bibe e t calido usita. V enam ep a tica m in c id e re . . . a bsintio et
se m e n fe n ic u li bibere’161 (MS Lat. 14935, f. 101r), ‘M en se M aio: a b sin th iu m
e t se m e n fe n ic u li bibe . .. D e v e n a epatica m inue. C alidum bebe’^6 2 (m s N ouv.
A cqu. 229, f. 9r), ‘M en se m a y o . . . usita ca lid u m . . . e t incide v e n a m cephali-
c a m . . . p o tio sit tibi a b se n tiu m e tfe n ic u lu m ’163 (MS 1, f. 38r).

3) T he p re c e p ts for th e m o n th s o f ‘A dar, N isan a n d ‘Elul c o n ta in o n e

c o m m o n p r e c e p t fo u n d in tw o o u t o f th e th re e H eb rew calen d ars.

‘A dar: C o m m o n p r e c e p t in MS M ich. 569 a n d MS H e id e n h e im 51: b lo o d ­

le ttin g fro m th e g re a t s a p h e n o u s vein.
MS M ich. 569: In ‘A d ar le t b lo o d fro m th e g re a t s a p h e n o u s v e in a n d p u rify
y o u r in te s tin e w ith spices b e fo re b lo o d le ttin g , a n d d rin k every d ay v in e g ar
m a d e w ith h o ney.

158 Sudhoff, ‘Ein Monatsregimen’, p. 436. English translation: ‘Month of October: drink
goat’s milk or grape juice on an empty stomach.’
159 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 184. English translation: ‘Use
grapes and grape juice.’
160 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 183. English translation: ‘Use
clusters [of grapes] and grape juice every morning because they heal the body.’
161 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’ p. 182. English translation: ‘Drink
hot drinks and use hot [food]. Incise the hepatic vein. Drink absinth and fennel seed.’
162 Barbaud and Gillon, ibid., p. 183. English translation: ‘Drink absinthe and fennel
seed. Let blood from the hepatic vein. Drink hot drinks.’
163 Sudhoff, ‘Ein Monatsregimen’, p. 435. English translation: ‘Month of May: use hot
[food]... and incise the cephalic vein... drink a potion of absinthe and fennel.’
MS H eb. d. 11: In ‘A d ar in all y o u r foo d s e a t p e p p e r a n d do n o t e a t an y
g re e n s (.. .)164 a n d d rin k to p u rg e a n d do n o t a p p ro a c h a w o m a n . UNICUM
MS H e id e n h e im 51: In th is m o n th le t b lo o d fro m th e g re a t [sa p h e n o u s
v ein] a n d g u a rd y o u rse lf fro m ice a n d e a t beto n ien a n d a g rim o n ien a t
th is tim e.
F or th is m o n th , on ly MSS M ich. 569 a n d H e id e n h e im 51 h av e tw o p r e ­
c e p ts in c o m m o n w h ic h a re also fo u n d in th e ir L atin m o n th ly eq u iv alen ts.
B lo o d le ttin g fro m th e g re a t s a p h e n o u s v e in is in MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229
(f. 8r) w h e re it is w ritte n : ‘. .. S a n g u in e m de v e n a su p e r v e n a m .. .’165 a n d
th e se c o n d p r e c e p t o n th e c o n s u m p tio n o f a g rim o n y a c c o m p a n ie d b y cel­
ery se ed is re c o rd e d in MS Lat. 14935 (f. 101r): ‘. ..A g r im o n ia m e t se m e n
apii bibe.’166 T he p re c e p ts in MS H eb. d. 11 are n o t in a n y o f th e c o m p a ra ­
tive L atin c a le n d a rs u se d in th is article.

N isan: C o m m o n p r e c e p t in MS M ich. 569 a n d MS H eb. d. 11: e a tin g ro a s te d

m e a t a n d sw e e t food.
MS M ich. 569: In N isan do n o t le t b lo o d , a n d if th e re is a g re a t n e e d , ta k e
a little sw e e t fo o d a n d ro a s te d m e a t o f la m b a n d o f g o o se co o k e d w ith fat
o r j u s t th e fat, b e c a u s e d u rin g th is m o n th b lo o d rolls w ith w a te r [b lo o d
flow s m ix e d w ith w a te r].
MS H eb. d. 11: In N isan do p u rg a tio n a n d le t b lo o d a n d b a th e in ‘d ry ’ b a th s,
a n d e a t ro a ste d m e a t a n d all sw eetn ess, e a t h o n e y a n d d rin k (?), a n d do
n o t e a t to o m a n y g re e n roots167 b e c a u s e th e y p ro v o k e boils.
MS H e id e n h e im 51: In th is m o n th it is good to w a s h a n d su ck th e cu p s a n d
e a t w ell co o k e d [food] a t th is tim e. UNICUM
H ere on ly MSS M ich. 569 a n d H eb. d. 11 h av e th e c o m m o n p re c e p ts o f
e a tin g ro a ste d m e a t a n d sw e e t food, b u t w h e re o n ly sw e e t fo o d is m e n ­
tio n e d in th e L atin te x ts su c h as in MS Lat. 14935 (f. 101r): ‘D u lcia m en ieiu-
n u s com ede e t p r im u m m e ru m dulce b ib e .. .’168 a n d in C o d ex G u ta-S in tram

164 The word DUD was left untranslated.

165 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 183. English translation:
‘. .. Let blood from the great saphenous vein. . . ’
166 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 183. English translation:
‘. .. Drink agrimony and celery seed.’
167 It is interesting to note that four Latin calendars also mention the need to refrain
from eating roots, but during the month of April instead of March, where it is written:
‘A radicibus abstine’ (MS Lat. 14935, f. 122r, MS Lat. Nouv. Acqu. 229, f. 8r; Codex Guta-
Sintram, f. 29r) or ‘abstine a radicibus’ (MS 1, f. 37v).
168 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 182. English translation: ‘Eat
sweet [food] on an empty stomach and drink premium sweet wine.’
(f. 21r): ‘M eis diebus d u lc ia m in a c o m e d e ...’.169 In te re stin g ly e n o u g h MS
H eb. d. 11 h a s th e u n iq u e su g g e stio n o f le ttin g b lo o d d u rin g th a t m o n th ,
w h e re a s MS M ich. 569 a n d th re e L atin m a n u s c rip ts p r o h ib it le ttin g b lo o d ,
as it is w ritte n ‘...s a n g u in e m n on m in u a s .. .’170 (MSS Lat. 14935, f. 101r,
Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229, f. 8r, C odex G u ta-S in tram , f. 21r). In MS 1 (f. 37v) w e
n o t on ly fin d th a t b lo o d le ttin g is fo rb id d e n b u t th a t o n e m u s t also a b s ta in
fro m b a th in g : ‘a b stin e a balneo e t m in u cio n e s a n g u in is .. .’.171 O n th e o th e r
h a n d , j u s t like MS H eb. d. 11, o th e r L atin m a n u sc rip ts m e n tio n ta k in g dry
b a th s, w h ic h are a c tu a lly ste a m b a th s, w h e re it is w ritte n : ‘A sso balneo
u sita ’172 (MS Lat. 14935, f. 101r) o r ‘. ..A s s o baleno u te r e .. .’173 (C o d ex G uta-
S in tram , f. 21r). T he p re c e p ts in MS H e id e n h e im 51 a re n o t in a n y o f th e
c o m p a ra tiv e L atin c a le n d a rs u s e d in th is article.

‘Elul: C o m m o n p r e c e p t in MS M ich. 569 a n d MS H eb. d. 11: n o b lo o d le ttin g .

MS M ich. 569: In ‘Elul do n o t le t blo o d .
MS H eb. d. 11: In ‘E lul do n o t e a t a p p le s o r c a b b ag e a n d do n o t le t b lo o d
a t all a n d e a t o n io n s o r garlic a n d d rin k p o u lio l a n d v in eg ar, a n d p u rg a tio n
is b a d a n d do n o t d rin k a b ev e rag e o f h o ney .
MS H e id e n h e im 51: In th is m o n th g u a rd y o u rse lf fro m b a ld n e ss a n d do
n o t e a t a lo t o f fish a n d it is b a d to b a th e a t th is tim e. UNICUM
H ere th e c o m m o n c o m p o n e n t in MSS M ich. 569 a n d H eb. d. 11 is n o t to
le t b lo o d d u rin g th is m o n th . T he on ly L atin re g im e n c a le n d a r u s e d h e re
w h ic h m e n tio n s th is p r e c e p t is C o d ex G u ta -S in tra m (f. 61r): ‘M en se A u g u sto
sa n g u in e m n on m in u e . . . ’.174 H o w ev er o th e r in s tru c tio n s in MS H eb. d. 11,
su c h as n o t e a tin g cabbage, d rin k in g pou lio l a n d n o t d rin k in g a b ev erag e
o f h o n ey , (i.e. m e a d ), are fo u n d in o th e r L atin ca le n d ars, a c c o m p a n ie d by
o th e r d ie ta ry p ro h ib itio n s su c h as b e e r a n d cid er as w ell: ‘. .. C a u lo s. . . non
com ede, m e d o n e m siceram e t cervisiam n o n bibe . . . e t p o le g iu m bibe’175

169 Bachoffner, ‘Notes sur les preceptes d’hygiene’, p. 13. English translation: ‘In my days
eat sweet [food].’
170 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, pp. 182-184 and Pierre Bachoff-
ner, ibid., p. 13. English translation: ‘Do not let blood.’
171 Sudhoff, ‘Ein Monatsregimen’, p. 435. English translation: ‘Abstain from bathing and
from bloodletting.’
172 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 182. English translation: ‘Use
dry baths.’
173 Bachoffner, ‘Notes sur les preceptes d’hygiene’, p. 13. English translation: ‘Use dry
baths.’
174 Bachoffner, ‘Notes sur les preceptes d’hygiene’, p. 17. English translation: ‘Month of
August: do not let blood.’
175 Bachoffner, ‘Notes sur les preceptes d’hygiene’, p. 18. English translation: ‘Do not eat
cabbages, do not drink mead, cider and beer and drink pouliot.’
(C o d ex G u ta-S in tram , f. 61r), ‘. .. Caules nullo m o d o m a n d u c e s . . . Cervisam
e t m e z no n b ib a s... P uleium bibe’176 (MS Lat. 14935, f. 101r), ‘. .. Caules n o n
c o m e d a s . . . Cervisiam e t m e d o n e m no n b ib a s . . . P uleium b ib e m (MS Lat.
N ouv. A cqu. 229, f. 8v) a n d ‘M en se A u g u sti n on m a n d u c e s . . . c a u le s . . . astin e
e t m ed o n e e t c e rv ic ia .. .’178 (MS 1, f. 38v). T he p re c e p ts in MS H e id e n h e im 51
are n o t in a n y o f th e c o m p a ra tiv e L atin c a le n d a rs u se d in th is article.

4) T he m o n th s o f T a m m u z a n d T ev et do n o t sh o w a n y sim ila rity b e tw e e n

e a c h o th e r in th e th re e H eb rew cale n d ars, b u t are n e v e rth e le ss c o m ­
p a re d all to g e th e r w ith L atin c a le n d a r e q u iv a le n ts for th e se sam e
m o n th s , also sh o w in g p ara llels in c o n te n t.

T am m u z:
MS M ich. 569: In T a m m u z d rin k w a te r in th e m o rn in g a n d do n o t le t
b lo o d .
MS H eb. d. 11: In T a m m u z d rin k a n d e a t th in g s [w h ich ] re fre sh a n d do n o t
a p p ro a c h w o m en , a n d do n o t le t b lo o d a n d e a t le ttu c e , a n d m a k e su re
n o t to d rin k to o m u c h w in e a n d m a n y b a th s a re b ad .
MS H e id e n h e im 51: In th is m o n th do n o t sleep d u rin g th e d ay a n d it
is n o t g o o d to b a th e a n d do n o t e a t fish fro m p o n d s a n d d rin k hyssop179
a t th is tim e. UNICUM
D rin k in g w a te r in th e m o rn in g , like in MS M ich. 569 is fo u n d in sev­
era l L atin re g im e n ca le n d ars, w ith im p o rta n c e g iv en to th e fac t th a t it
h a s to b e d ru n k cold a n d o n a n e m p ty sto m ac h : ‘M en se Iunio: o m n i die
m a n e ieiunus a q u a m fr ig id a m ieiunus bibe g lu p o s III.’180 (MS Lat. 14935,
f. 122v), ‘M en se Iunio: a q u a m fr ig id a m ieiunus bibe p ro p te r colera repri-
m e n d a ’181 (MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229, f. 8v), ‘M en se Ju n io cothidie je iu n u s

176 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 183. English translation: ‘...In
no way eat cabbages ...D o not drink beer and mead. Drink pouliot.’
177 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 184. English translation: ‘Do
not eat cabbages ...D o not drink beer and mead. Drink pouliot.’
178 Sudhoff, ‘Ein Monatsregimen’, p. 436. English translation: ‘Month of August: do not
eat ... cabbage... abstain from mead and beer. . . ’
179 Drinking hyssop can nevertheless be found in the Latin regimen of MS Lat. 10448
(ff. 122v-123r) under the months of July, August and October and in the month of Novem­
ber in MS Lat. Nouv. Acqu. 229 (f. 8v).
180 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 182. English translation: ‘Every
day in the morning drink 3 sips of cold water on an empty stomach.’
181 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 184. English translation: ‘Month
of June: drink cold water on an empty stomach because it pushes back choler.’
calicem a q u a e fr ig id a e b ib e .. .’182 (MS 1, f. 38v). F u rth e rm o re th e p re c e p t
o f e a tin g le ttu c e fo u n d in MS H eb. d. 11 also h a s L atin e q u iv ale n ts: ‘. .. lac­
tucas u s ita .. .’183 (MS Lat. 14935, f. 122v) o r le ttu c e a n d v in e g a r ‘. .. la c tu ­
d a s e t a ce tu m c o m e d e .. .’184 (MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229, f. 8v), ‘. .. lactucas
cu m aceto c o m e d e .. .’185 (C odex G u ta-S in tram , f. 45r). T he p re c e p ts in MS
H e id e n h e im 51 a re n o t in a n y o f th e c o m p a ra tiv e L atin c a le n d a rs u se d in
th is c h a p te r.

Tevet:
MS M ich. 569: In T evet le t b lo o d fro m th e a rm o f th e h a n d .
MS H eb. d. 11: In T ev et le t b lo o d fro m th e n e c k a n d e a t g in g er a n d spike-
nard186 a n d do n o t e a t cabbage.
MS H e id e n h e im 51: In th is m o n th le t b lo o d fro m th e sin ew s o f th e h e a d
a n d [it is] g o o d to le t b lo o d a n d k ee p y o u rse lf fro m ( . . . ) .

E ven th o u g h all th re e H e b re w c a le n d a rs in d ic a te b lo o d le ttin g , n o n e o f

th e m sh a re th e sam e lo c a tio n o n th e b ody . T he o n ly L atin te x t for th is
m o n th u s e d in th is artic le w h ic h m e n tio n s a lo c a tio n for b lo o d le ttin g o n
th e b o d y is fo u n d in MS 1 (f. 39r): ‘. ..v e n a m cep h a lica m in c id e .. .’.187 As
for th e d ie ta ry p re c e p ts in MS H eb. d. 11 fo r th is m o n th , su c h as n o t e a t­
in g cabbage, c o n s u m in g sp ik e n a rd a n d ginger, th e y are p r e s e n t in th e
follow ing L atin tex ts: ‘A caulibus a b stin e re . . . Spico bibe’^88 (m s Lat. 14935,
f. 101r), ‘. . . P otione sp ica ta uti.’189 (MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229, f. 9r) a n d
‘. .. Z in c ib .. .’190 (MS Lat. 10448, f. 123v).

182 Sudhoff, ‘Ein Monatsregimen’, p. 435. English translation: ‘Month of June: drink a
cup of cold water daily on an empty stomach.’
183 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 182. English translation: ‘Use
lettuce.’
184 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 184. English translation: ‘Eat
lettuce and vinegar.’ (It seems that the word lettuce has been spelled as lactudas instead
of lactucas in MS Lat. Nouv. Acqu. 229).
185 Bachoffner, ‘Notes sur les preceptes d’hygiene’, p. 17. English translation: ‘Eat lettuce
with vinegar.’
186 See supra, note 102. According to Rashi’s commentary on the words TU
(‘spikenard’) in bKeritot 6a, these words are translated into the vernacular as ‘spiga’
t'tyVa).
187 Sudhoff, ‘Ein Monatsregimen’, p. 435. English translation: ‘Incise the cephalic vein.’
188 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 183. English translation:
‘Abstain from cabbage. Drink spikenard.’
189 Barbaud and Gillon, ‘Cinq calendriers dietetiques’, p. 184. English translation: ‘Use
a potion of spikenard.’
190 Sudhoff, ‘Medizinische Monatsregeln’, p. 137. English translation: ‘Ginger’.
5) C o m p a riso n o f th e se a so n a l c a le n d a r in MS M ich. 569 w ith MS Lat.
N ouv. A cqu. 229 (f. 8 r -9 r ) a n d th e R egim en se a so n a l c a le n d a r in th e
P se u d o -H ip p o c ra tic w o rk E pistula a d A n tig o n u m regem .

T he la st to p ic to b e an aly sed in th is stu d y is th e seaso n al reg im en ca le n d ar

w h ic h is in te g ra te d b efo re th e m o n th ly o n e in MS M ich. 569, f. 96r. W h a t is
in te re stin g h ere are th e elem e n ts o f h u m o u ra l physiology a d d e d to th e diet-
a n d h y g ien e-related guidelines. Before c o m p arin g th is seaso n al ca le n d ar
w ith its L atin c o u n te rp a rts, h ere is a re m in d e r o f th e H ip p o cratic h u m o u ra l
system re la te d to th e four elem en ts, th e four seasons, a n d th e fo u r qualities.
E ach h u m o u r im ita te s th e n a tu re o f th e seaso n in w h ic h it prevails:

Blood, a s so c ia te d w ith th e e le m e n t o f air, in c re a se s in th e sp rin g a n d is

w e t a n d h o t;
Bile (re d o r yellow ), a s so c ia te d w ith th e e le m e n t o f fire, in c re a se s in th e
s u m m e r a n d is h o t a n d dry;
B lack bile, a s so c ia te d w ith th e e le m e n t o f e a rth , in c re a se s in th e a u tu m n
a n d is dry a n d cold; P hlegm , a s so c ia te d w ith th e e le m e n t o f w ate r,
in c re a se s in th e w in te r a n d is cold a n d w et.

T h e se a s o n a l c a le n d a r o f MS M ich. 569, s tr u c tu re d b y th e so lstic e s a n d

e q u in o x e s o f th e y ear, as w ell as a n in te r m e d ia r y p e rio d b e tw e e n th e
v e rn a l e q u in o x a n d th e su m m e r solstice, w ill n o w b e d e sc rib e d a n d co m ­
p a re d to th e se a so n a l c a le n d a r fo u n d in th e early tw e lfth -c e n tu ry m a n u ­
script MS Lat. Nouv. A cqu. 229 (f. 8 r-9 r), w hose m o n th ly p recep ts have b e e n
w idely referred to above, a n d to th e hygiene a n d d ie tetic seaso n al ca le n d ar
in th e P seu d o -H ip p o cratic w o rk E pistula a d A n tig o n u m regem ,m a d d re sse d
to K ing A n tig o n u s II G on atas, k ing o f M a ced o n , w h o d ie d in 239 BC.

a) F ro m th e v e rn a l e q u in o x (VIII Kal. A pril, 2 5 th M arch ) to th e VIII Ides

o f M ay (8 th M ay):

MS M ich. 569, f. 95r:

‘F ro m th e e q u in o x o f N isan u n til th e 8 th o f Sivan a p e rs o n sh o u ld e a t fo o d
w ith a g o o d sm ell, n o t to o h o t a n d n o t to o cold, o n ly te m p e ra te a n d sw ee t
th in g s w h ic h sw e e te n th e p e rs o n ’s b lo o d (.).192

191 Pseudo-Hippocrates, ‘Ad Antigonum Regem 8-9’, Marcelli de medicamentis liber,

Maximilian Niedermann (ed.), 2nd edition, Corpus medicorum latinorum 5 (Berlin: Akad-
emie-Verlag, 1968), pp. I.18-25.
192 The Hebrew word nj^’n has not been translated.
MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229 (Paris, B ib lio th e q u e n a tio n a le , f. 8r):
‘E x VIII Kal. A p rili usque a d Id. M a i33 a u g e n tu r h o m in ib u s h u m o res dulces
et sa n g u is.’194

P seu d o -H ip p o crates, A d A n tig o n u m regem (E nglish tr a n s l a t i o n ) : ^

‘F ro m th e VIII K alends o f A pril (2 5 th M arch ) u n til th e VIII Ides o f M ay
(8 th M ay) th e re a re forty-five days. In th e s e days th e sw e e t humours196
in c re a se in m a n . E at food th a t is fra g ra n t a n d v ery p u n g e n t.’
H ere th e h u m o u r o f b lo o d is re la te d to sp rin g w h ic h is w h y b o th L atin
m a n u s c rip ts clearly sta te th a t th is h u m o u r in c re a se s a t th is tim e. In a d d i­
tio n , b o th MS M ich. 569 a n d th e P se u d o -H ip p o c ra te s te x ts m e n tio n e a tin g
fra g ra n t foods.

b ) F ro m th e VIII Ides M ay (8 th M ay) to th e s u m m e r so lstice (VIII K alends

July, 2 4 th Ju n e ) o r VIII Ides A u g u st (6 th A u g u st):

MS M ich. 569, f. 95r:

‘F ro m th e 8 th o f Sivan to th e 8 th o f A v o n e sh o u ld n o t h av e m u c h sex u al
in te rc o u rse a n d fasts, a n d o n e sh o u ld re fra in fro m d rin k in g a lo t o f w in e
b e c a u s e it is b a d fo r a p e rs o n ’s b lo o d , b e c a u s e a t th a t tim e b lo o d grow s
a n d th e bile b e c o m e s re d .’

MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229 (Paris, B ib lio th e q u e n a tio n a le , f. 8v):

'Ab VIII Id. M a i usque in VIII Id. A u g } ^ 1crescit bilis a m ara, hoc e st colera
ru b ea .’198

P seu d o -H ip p o crates, A d A n tig o n u m regem (E nglish tra n sla tio n ):

‘A gain fro m th e VIII Ides o f M ay (8 th M ay) u n til th e VIII K alen d s o f July
(2 4 th J u n e ) th e re a re forty-five days. In th e se days th e b itte r b ile ( th a t is,

193 The number VIII seems to be missing in the Latin text here.
194 English translation: ‘From the 8th Kalends of April (25th March) until the 8th day
before the Ides of May (8th May), man’s sweet humours and blood are increased.’
195 The English translation used here is taken from Bede: The Reckoning of Time, trans­
lated, with introduction and notes by Faith Wallis (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press,
1999), pp. 86-87.
196 I.e. blood during this season.
197 Note that the limit in time here is the 6th August, not the summer solstice.
198 English translation: ‘From the 8th Ides May until the 8th Ides August, the bitter bile
increases, that is red choler.’
re d ch o ler) in c re ase s. E at sw ee t foods, in d u lg e in w in e, a b s ta in fro m sex
a n d fast v ery little .’
H ere b ile is th e h u m o u r re la te d to su m m er, w h ic h in c re a se s fro m th e
8 th Ides M ay as s ta te d in all th e m a n u sc rip ts . H ow ever, o n ly MS M ich. 569
a n d th e P se u d o -H ip p o c ra te s te x t a d d th a t lim itin g o n e s e lf o r a b s ta in in g
a lto g e th e r fro m se x u al re la tio n s a n d fasts is b en e ficia l d u rin g th is m o n th .
B oth m a n u s c rip ts also c o n tra d ic t e a c h o th e r, in th a t MS M ic h 569 p re ­
scribes re s tr a in t fro m w in e as b e in g b a d fo r o n e ’s b lo o d , w h e re a s th e P seu ­
d o -H ip p o c ra te s te x t p re sc rib e s in d u lg e n c e in w in e.

c) F ro m th e s u m m e r solstice (VIII K alends July, 2 4 th Ju n e ) to th e a u tu m n

e q u in o x (VIII K alends O cto b er, 2 4 th S ep te m b er):

MS M ich. 569, f. 95v:

‘F ro m th e so lstice o f T a m m u z u n til th e e q u in o x o f T isri o n e sh o u ld e a t
food w ith a g o o d sm ell a n d m e a t b o ile d in w a te r a n d n o t ro aste d , a n d
th e fo o d sh o u ld b e cold b e c a u s e a t th a t tim e a p e rs o n ’s b ile tra n sfo rm s
[itse lf] in to b a d th o u g h ts a n d th e b ile a n d b lo o d b e tw e e n w a te r a n d
b lo o d are m ix e d .’199

MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229, f. 9r:

'Ab V IIIId. A ug. usque in a eq u in o ctiu m a u tu m n i, colera n ig ra accrescit.’ 200

P seu d o -H ip p o crates, A d A n tig o n u m regem (E nglish tra n sla tio n ):

‘T he su m m e r se aso n b e g in s o n th e VIII K alends o f Ju ly [24 J u n e ]. A t th a t
tim e, th e in c re a se o f re d b ile falls off a n d b la c k b ile w axes; it is h e ld
th a t th is occu rs [lasts] u n til th e a u tu m n eq u in o x , th a t is, u n til th e co ld
season. For n in e ty days, u se all su c h foo d s as are sw eet, fra g ra n t a n d
s o m e w h a t cold, a n d w h ic h a c t g en tly u p o n th e sto m a c h .’

D u rin g th is p e rio d th e m a n u sc rip ts re fe r to a n ev o lu tio n in th e h u m o u rs,

as th e P se u d o -H ip p o c ra te s te x t clearly m e n tio n s: ‘re d b ile falls off a n d
b la c k b ile w ax e s’. It is th e tra n s itio n p e rio d fro m th e su m m e r se a so n to th e
a u tu m n one, a n d fro m re d bile to b la c k bile, w h ic h ex p lain s w h y MS Lat.
N ouv. A cqu. 229 e n d s th is p r e c e p t w ith th e VIII Ides A u g u st (6 th A ugust),

199 The clause, ‘. .. the bile and blood between water and blood are mixed’, is obscure
and needs further investigation.
200 English translation: ‘From the VIII Ides August (6th August) until the autumnal
equinox (24th September) the black choler grows.’
th e m o m e n t w h e n th e b la c k b ile sta rts gro w in g u n til th e a u tu m n a l e q u i­
nox, a c c o rd in g to th is m a n u sc rip t. F u rth e rm o re MS M ich. 569 d escrib es
th e sa m e k in d o f tra n s fo rm a tio n o f th e h u m o u rs in o th e r w o rd s: ‘. . . A t th e
sam e tim e a p e rso n ’s b itte rn e ss tran sfo rm s [itself] in to b a d t h o u g h t s .. . ’
T he b itte rn e ss refers to th e bile tran sfo rm in g in to b a d th o u g h ts, m e a n in g a
sta te o f m elancholy, generally c h a racterize d in m e d iev al m e d icin e b y m e n ­
ta l gloom , obsession a n d o th e r m e n ta l disturbances.201 As for d ie tary a n d
hygiene suggestions, ag ain MS M ich. 569 a n d th e P seu d o -H ip p o cratic te x t
share ap p ro x im ate ly th e sam e n o tio n s o n food w ith a g o o d sm ell (MS M ich.
569), fra g ra n t a n d sw eet food (Ps.-Hip. text) a n d b o ile d m e at, n o t ro aste d
(MS M ich. 569), food w h ic h acts gen tly o n th e sto m a c h (Ps.-Hip. text).

d) F ro m th e a u tu m n e q u in o x (VIII K alends O cto b er, 2 4 th S e p te m b e r) to

th e w in te r so lstice (VIII K alends Ja n u ary , 2 5 th D ecem b er):

MS M ich. 569, f. 96r:

‘F ro m th e e q u in o x o f T isri u n til th e solstice o f T ev e t o n e s h o u ld e a t
h o t [food] a n d d rin k stro n g w in e th e w h o le m o n th o f T ev et a n d [do
n o t] b a th e in a h o t b a th b e c a u s e a v ery h o t b a th cau ses e c z e m a to o n e ’s
flesh b e c a u s e o f th e h e a t. O ne sh o u ld lim it se x u al in te rc o u rse b e c a u s e a t
th is tim e th e b ile b e c o m e s b la c k a n d th e b lo o d b e c o m e s b ile a n d v ario u s
illnesses.’

MS N ouv. A cqu. 229 (Paris, B ib lio th e q u e n a tio n a le , f. 9r):

'Ab VIIIKal. O ctobris u sque VIIIKal. Ianuarii, n ig ru m f e l a u g e tu r e t h u m o ris
crassitudo p ro se q u itu r.’ 202

P seu d o -H ip p o crates, A d A n tig o n u m regem (E nglish tra n s la tio n ):

‘F ro m th e a u tu m n eq u in o x , w h ic h is fro m th e VIII K alen d s o f O c to b e r
(2 4 th S ep te m b er), u n til th e VIII K alends o f J a n u a ry (2 5 th D ecem b er),
th e b itte rn e s s o f th e b la c k b ile w a n e s a n d th e d e n sity o f th e p h le g m a tic
h u m o u r in c re ase s. U se all su c h foo d s as are h o t a n d v ery p u n g e n t, a b s ta in
fro m sex a n d w a sh little .’

201 See Wallis (ed.), Medieval Medicine: A Reader, p. 547, s.v. melancholy.
202 English translation: ‘From the 8th Kalends of October until the 8th Kalends January,
black bile increases and the density of the humour continues.’
T he h u m o u ra l p re c e p ts in all th re e m a n u s c rip ts sp e a k o f th e b la c k b ile
w h ic h is th e h u m o u r a s so c ia te d w ith a u tu m n . O nly th e P seu d o -H ip p o -
cra tic te x t m e n tio n s th e p h le g m a tic h u m o u r w h ic h is re la te d to w in te r.
MS M ich. 569 speak s o f th e tra n s itio n fro m th e re d b ile h u m o u r (su m m e r)
to th e b la c k b ile h u m o u r (a u tu m n ), MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229 rev eals th a t
th e b la c k bile c o n tin u e s to in c re a se in d en sity , a n d th e P se u d o -H ip p o c ra tic
te x t d escrib es m o re clearly th a t, as th e b la c k b ile (a u tu m n ) w an e s, th e
d e n sity o f th e p h le g m a tic h u m o u r (w in ter) in c re ase s. B oth MS M ich. 569
a n d th e P se u d o -H ip p o c ra tic te x t b eliev e th a t fo o d s a n d b ev e rag es sh o u ld
b e e a te n h o t a n d spicy o r p u n g e n t a n d th a t se x u al re la tio n s a re to b e lim ­
ite d o r fo rb id d e n d u rin g th is tim e. N ev e rth ele ss th e se c a le n d a rs do n o t say
m u c h a b o u t b a th in g : MS M ich. 569 re c o m m e n d s v ery h o t b a th s, w h e re a s
th e P se u d o -H ip p o c ra tic te x t is a g a in st w a sh in g often.

e) F ro m th e w in te r so lstice (VIII K alends Ja n u ary , 2 5 th D ec em b e r) to th e

v e rn a l e q u in o x VIII Kal. A pril, 2 5 th M arch):

M s M ich. 569, f. 9 5 v -9 6 r:
‘F ro m th e solstice o f T ev et u n til th e e q u in o x o f N isan o n e sh o u ld e a t
h o t a n d v ery h o t food a n d fa t m e a t a n d in all fo o d th e re s h o u ld b e p e p ­
p e r a n d m u s ta rd a n d o n e sh o u ld n o t b a th e in b a th s a n d o n ly d rin k
w in e fro m S a b b a th to S a b b a th [fro m o n e S a b b a th to th e n e x t], a n d o n e
sh o u ld lim it se x u al in te rc o u rse b e c a u s e a t th is tim e all se rio u s illn esses
e n te r th e p e rs o n a n d all p ain s: p a in o f th e h e a d a n d p a in o f th e sto m a c h
a n d o f th e liver a n d o f th e k id n ey s a n d o f th e ears a n d o f th e eyes.’

P seu d o -H ip p o crates, A d A n tig o n u m regem (E nglish tra n sla tio n ):

‘Let u s b e g in th e re fo re w ith th e solstice, th a t is, w ith th e VIII K alends
o f Ja n u a ry [2 5 th D ec em b e r]. F ro m th is d ay fo rw ard u p u n til th e sp rin g
eq u in o x , a p e rio d o f 9 0 days, m o is tu re [h u m o u r] in c re a se s in b o d ie s. This
se a so n a c tiv a te s a m a n ’s p h leg m , so th a t p e o p le fre q u e n tly c a tc h ca ta rrh ,
[suffer from ] d rip p in g o f th e uvula, p a in in th e side, w e a k n e ss o f v ision,
a n d rin g in g in th e ears, a n d c a n n o t sm ell an y th in g . A t su c h a season,
ta k e h ig h -q u a lity food, h o t a n d se a so n e d w ith assafo etid a, w ith p e p p e r
a n d m u sta rd . W a sh y o u r h e a d seldom . H ow ever, p u rg e w ith o u t ceasing.
In d u lg e in w in e a n d do n o t s tin t o n sex fo r th e first fo rty days. N in ety days
follow fro m th e a b o v e m e n tio n e d d ay u n til th e v e rn a l e q u in o x .’

T h ere is n o se a so n a l p a rtitio n in MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229 (f. 8r), b u t in

th e a fo re m e n tio n e d c a le n d a rs th e p re sc rip tio n s a re v ery close in c o n te n t.
N e ith e r o f th e m b rin g u p a n y th in g ex p licit a b o u t h u m o u ra l physiology,
o th e r th a n ‘th is s e a so n a c tiv a te s a m a n ’s p h le g m ’ in th e P se u d o -H ip p o c ra tic
te x t. T h ey do b o th give d ie ta ry g u id e lin e s o n e a tin g fo o d w ith p e p p e r a n d
m u s ta rd (a n d a sa fetid a in th e Ps.-H ip. text)203 a n d p re sc rib e re s tr a in t in
se x u al re la tio n s e ith e r d u rin g th e first fo rty days o r d u rin g th e to ta lity
o f th e seaso n . H o w ev er b o th c a le n d a rs d isag ree o n th e fre q u e n c y o f d rin k ­
in g w in e. It is also in te re s tin g to n o te th e sim ila rity b e tw e e n b o th texts,
e v e n th o u g h th e p h ra sin g is n o t id e n tic a l in th e e n u m e ra tio n o f th e illn esses
w h ic h c a n o cc u r d u rin g th is season: p a in s in th e h e a d (MS M ich. 569)
c a n b e re la te d to c a tc h in g c a ta rrh a n d th e d rip p in g o f th e u v u la (Ps.-H ip.
te x t), all o f w h ic h c a n b e th e re su lt o f a severe cold; p a in s in th e sto m ac h ,
liver a n d k id n ey s (MS M ich. 569) c a n b e affiliated to p a in s in th e side
(Ps.-H ip. te x t), e ith e r rig h t o r left; p a in s in th e ears a n d eyes (MS M ich. 569)
c a n b e d irec tly p a ire d w ith w e a k n e ss in v isio n a n d rin g in g in th e ears
(Ps.-H ip. text).
F ro m th is c o m p a ra tiv e analy sis w e c a n see th e clea r in flu e n ce o f th e
se a so n a l stru c tu re a n d re g im e n c o n te n t o f th e P se u d o -H ip p o c ra tic te x t
n o t on ly o n th e se a so n a l c a le n d a r in MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229 b u t also
o n MS M ich. 569. B oth are sim ila r in te m p o ra l stru c tu re , b u t MS M ich.
569 is e v e n clo ser in th e c o n te n t a n d se aso n a l divisions. If w e lo o k closely
a t th e s e divisions in MS M ich. 569 for in sta n c e , w e c a n see th a t th e
d a te s o f th e 8 th o f Sivan a n d th e 8 th o f ‘Av c o rre s p o n d ex actly to th e VIII
Ides o f M ay (8 th M ay) a n d th e VIII K alends Ju ly (2 4 th J u n e ) in th e Ju lia n
ca le n d ar, w h ic h a re assu re d ly fo u n d in th e P se u d o -H ip p o c ra tic tex t. T his
is th e re fo re a clea r p ro o f th a t th e Ju lia n c a le n d a r w as k n o w n a n d u se d
in specific cases, su c h as th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e eq u in o x es a n d so lstices
a n d th e ir u se in se aso n a l re g im e n c a le n d a rs su c h as th e o n e in MS M ich.
569. F u rth e rm o re th e se aso n a l div isio n d a te o f th e VIII Ides o f A u g u st
(6 th A ugust) in MS Lat. N ouv. A cqu. 229 (f. 9r) co u ld v ery w ell b e th e
8 th d ay o f ‘Elul in lite ra l H eb rew tra n sla tio n , as w ritte n in th e fo re b o d in g
m e ssag e b y R. Y e h u d a h h e -h a s id o n f. 9 7 r o f MS M ich. 569, p ro sc rib in g
b lo o d le ttin g a n d e a tin g goose m e a t o n th e 8 th d ay o f th e m o n th s o f ’Iyar,
‘Elul a n d T evet, if it falls o n a M o n d a y o r a W e d n esd ay . C o n seq u en tly ,
th e s e th re e Je w ish re g im e n c a le n d a rs stu d ie d ab o v e, w h e th e r in m o n th ly
o r se a so n a l form , c o n ta in in g d ietary, h y g ien e a n d /o r h u m o u ra l p h y siology
rules, are u n d o u b te d ly in sp ire d b y m e d ie v a l L atin sources.

203 Known in Latin as Ferula assafoetida, or giant fennel, a plant species cultivated in
India. This spice is used as a digestive aid, reducing flatulence.
 6. Conclusion

T h e d iscovery o f th re e h y g ien e a n d d ie ta ry c a le n d a rs fro m m e d ie v a l A sh -

k e n a z in c o rp o ra te d in to th e c a le n d ric a l a n d p ro g n o stic a l p a rts o f n o n ­
m e d ic a l se c tio n s o f m a n u sc rip ts , is o f c o n sid e ra b le im p o rta n c e . T his
p re lim in a ry stu d y h as e n d e a v o u re d to d e m o n s tra te th a t th e se ca le n d a rs
a re w itn e sse s to th e c o m m o n L atin so u rce s u se d in th e ir p ro d u c tio n ; th e re ­
fore h e lp in g u s to c o n c lu d e th a t th e T a lm u d ’s so u rce s for m e d ic in e a n d
p ro p h y lax is w ere m o s t p ro b a b ly n o t u se d b y Jew s in th e M id d le Ages.204
T h ere is a final q u e s tio n to b e ra ise d b efo re co n c lu d in g th is study: for
w h o m w e re th e s e c a le n d a rs d e s tin e d ? It se em s o b v io u s th a t th e o w n ers
o f th e s e m a h zo rim , h isto ric a l a n d h a la k h ic -c a le n d ric a l m iscellan ies, w ere
m e m b e rs o f th e elite in te lle c tu a l s tr a ta o f th irte e n th - a n d fo u rte e n th -
c e n tu ry Je w ish A sh k en a zi society. T h ey w e re e ith e r w e a lth y e n o u g h to
a p p ly th e d ie ta ry a n d h y g ien e p re c e p ts to th e m se lv es, g iv en th a t so m e o f
th e in g red ien ts, su c h as p e p p e r, ginger, a n d c in n a m o n (in MS H eb. d. 11
fo r ex am p le), w ere expensive, o r p h y sic ia n s w h o p re sc rib e d th e s e re g im e n
c a le n d a rs to p a tie n ts. T h e m e d ic a l p ro fe ssio n w as in d e e d c o n sid e re d a n
h o n o u ra b le w ay o f e a rn in g a living as w ell as a sp iritu a l v o ca tio n , a n d it
se em s p a rtic u la rly fittin g fo r th e o w n e r o f M s H eb. d. 11, b e c a u s e o f th e
p re se n c e o f m e d ic a l tre a tise s o n u rin e , p u lse a n d b lo o d le ttin g in c lu d e d a t
th e e n d o f th e codex. In th is p e rsp e c tiv e , th e th re e H eb rew d ie ta ry a n d
h y g ie n e c a le n d a rs an a ly se d h e re n o t on ly te stify to th e w id e sco p e o f e ru ­
d itio n in m e d ie v a l A sh k e n a z b u t also to in te r e s t in a n d access to L atin
te x ts .205 M ore p rec isely in th is case, th e s e re g im e n c a le n d a rs b e a r w itn e ss
to a g ro w in g re c e p tiv e n e ss in m e d ie v a l A sh k e n a z to w a rd s m e d ic a l so u rces
fo reig n to Je w ish tra d itio n .

204 For further information on Jews and medicine in the Middle Ages, see Joseph
Schatzmiller, Jews, Medicine and Medieval Society (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: Univer­
sity of California Press, 1994); Eduard Feliu, ‘Jewish Appreciation of Fourteenth-Century
Scholastic Medicine’, Osiris, 2nd series 6 (1990) 85-117; Ron Barkai, ‘Origines et sources de
la medecine hebraique au Moyen Age’, Micrologus, IX (2001), 9-19.
205 See the forthcoming article on the aesthetic parallels between Jewish and Christian
page layouts in Hebrew, Latin and vernacular medieval manuscripts of a liturgical-halakhic
type by Justine Isserles, ‘Les paralleles esthetiques des manuscrits hebreux ashkenazes
de type liturgico-legal et des manuscrits latins et vernaculaires medievaux’, Manuscrits
hebreux et arabes: melanges en l’honneur de Colette Sirat, Nicholas de Lange and Judith
Olszowy-Schlanger (eds.), Bibliologia, (Turnhout: Brepols, forthcoming).
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 M E PU DET A U D IR E IU D E U M TALIA SCIRE:
A LATE MEDIEVAL LATIN SCHOOL TEXT ON THE JEW ISH CALENDAR

C. P h ilip p E. N o th aft

1. In tro d u ctio n

T he are a s a n d o p p o rtu n itie s o f so c io c u ltu ra l in te ra c tio n th a t ex isted

b e tw e e n Jew s a n d c h r is tia n s d u rin g th e M iddle A ges a re a su b je c t th a t h a s
a ttr a c te d m u c h in te r e s t fro m sc h o lars in r e c e n t y ea rs, b u t w h ic h is n ev e r­
th e le ss far fro m b e in g fully e x p lo re d .1 A m o n g th e to p ic s th a t still re m a in
to b e re c o g n iz e d as re le v a n t, le t a lo n e stu d ie d to a n y g re a te r d eg re e, is
th e c h r is tia n a p p re c ia tio n for a n d a p p ro p ria tio n o f th e Je w ish c a le n d a r
as a to o l o f c o m p u tistic a l, ch ro n o lo g ical, a n d ex e g etica l in v e stig a tio n .2
T he on ly m a jo r p u b lic a tio n o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry to sh e d so m e lig h t
o n th e su b je c t w as W a lte r E m ile v a n W ijk’s 1951 e d itio n o f th e C om putus
em e n d a tu s o f R e in h e r o f P a d e rb o rn (1171), a p io n e e rin g effo rt to re fo rm
C h ristian E a ster c o m p u ta tio n s b a s e d o n th e astro n o m ic a lly m o re p rec ise
m o /a d -re c k o n in g o f th e Jew s.3 D esp ite th e h ig h ly in n o v a tiv e n a tu re o f
th is te x t, sc h o lars h av e u n til re c e n tly sh o w n little in te r e s t in R e in h e r’s

1 For some recent entries in the literature, see Judith Olszowy-Schlanger, Les Manu­
scrits hebreux dans L’Angleterre medievale: etude historique etpaleographique, Collection de
la Revue des etudes juives, 29 (Paris: Peeters, 2003); Deborah L. Goodwin, “take Hold of
the robe of a Jew": Hebert ofBosham’s christian Hebraism, Studies in the History of Chris­
tian Traditions, 126 (Leiden: Brill, 2006); Jonathan Elukin, Living Together, Living Apart:
Rethinking Jewish-Christian Relations in the Middle Ages (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univer­
sity Press, 2007); Deeana Copeland Klepper, The Insight of Unbelievers: Nicholas of Lyra
and Christian Reading of Jewish Text in the Later Middle Ages (Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, 2007); Anna Sapir Abulafia, Christian-Jewish Relations 1000-1300:Jews
in the Service of Christendom (Harlow: Longman/Pearson, 2011).
2 For a first attempt at summarizing the phenomenon, see C.P.E. Nothaft, ‘Between
Crucifixion and Calendar Reform: Medieval Christian Perceptions of the Jewish Lunisolar
Calendar’, in Living the Lunar Calendar, ed. by Jonathan Ben-Dov, Wayne Horowitz, and
John M. Steele (Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2012), pp. 259-67. See now also Nothaft, ‘A Tool for
Many Purposes: Hermann Zoest (d. 1445) and the Medieval Christian Appropriation of the
Jewish Calendar’,Journal of Jewish Studies (forthcoming).
3 Le Comput emende de Reinherus de Paderborn (1171), ed. by Walter Emile van Wijk,
Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afd. Let-
terkunde, n.s., 57.3 (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1951). See also Klemens Honselmann,
‘Magister Reinher: Schrittmacher fur die Kalenderreform und die moderne Rechenkunst’,
in Von der Domschule zum Gymnasium Theodorianum in Paderborn, ed. by Klemens
m e th o d s a n d in te n tio n s , le av in g m a n y o f its a s p e c ts u n e x p lo re d .4 E ven
less a tte n tio n h as ac co rd in g ly b e e n p a id to th e Je w ish c a le n d a r’s p re s­
en c e in f u rth e r L atin te x ts th a t w e re w ritte n in th e c e n tu rie s follow ing
R einher, a n d for w h ic h m o d e rn e d itio n s are y e t to b e p ro d u c e d . T hese
in c lu d e tre a tise s b y th e F ra n cisc an sc h o la r R o b e rt o f L eicester (1294), th e
fam o u s O xford D o m in ic a n N ich o las T rev et (1310), a n d th e W e stp h a lia n
C iste rc ia n m o n k H e rm a n n Z oest, w h o p e n n e d a C alendarium H eb ra icu m
n o vu m (1436) w h ilst a t th e C o u n cil o f Basel. C loser to R e in h e r o f P ad er-
b o r n ’s tim e, o n e c a n also fin d a n a n o n y m o u s L iber era ru m , w h ic h a p p e a rs
to h av e b e e n re d a c te d in N o rth e rn Italy in c. 1191 a n d re p re s e n ts th e tr a n s ­
la tio n in to L atin o f a n u n k n o w n H eb rew tre a tis e o n th e Je w ish ca le n d ar.
T o g eth er, th e se te x ts re fle c t a w h o le g a m u t o f d iffe re n t a p p ro a c h e s a n d
v a n ta g e p o in ts fro m w h ic h m e d ie v a l C h ristian s co u ld b e m o tiv a te d to
ac cess a n d stu d y th e c a le n d ric a l k n o w led g e o f th e Jew s.5
In w h a t follow s, 1 sh all p r e s e n t a p re lim in a ry re se a rc h r e p o rt o n
a n o th e r o n e o f th e se L atin m o n o g ra p h s, w h ic h sta n d s o u t fro m a m o n g
th e a fo re m e n tio n e d in b e in g v astly m o re w id e sp re a d , b u t also far m o re
difficult to cate g o riz e in te rm s o f o rig in a n d a u th o rsh ip . T he te x t in q u e s­
tio n is a m id -fo u rte e n th -c e n tu ry C om putus Iu d a icu s, w h ic h c a n b e easily
id e n tifie d b y its rh y m e d in tro d u c tio n M e p u d e t a u d ire Iu d e u m talia scire
(‘1t sh a m e s m e to h e a r th a t th e Je w k n o w s su c h th in g s’).6 A lth o u g h it is

Honselmann, Studien und Quellen zur Westfalischen Geschichte, 3 (Paderborn: Verein fur
Geschichte und Altertumskunde Westfalens, 1962), pp. 107-26.
4 A long overdue renewal of interest in this text is exhibited by the recent re-edition:
Reinher of Paderborn, Computus Emendatus: Die Verbesserte Osterfestberechnung von 1171,
ed. by Werner Herold, Studien und Quellen zur Westfalischen Geschichte, 67 (Paderborn:
Bonifatius, 2011). See also Werner Herold, ‘Der computus emendatus des Reinher von Pad­
erborn’, in Kulturarbeit undKirche: FestschriftMsgr. dr. paulMai zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. by
Werner Chobrak and Karl Hausberger, Beitrage zur Geschichte des Bistums Regensburg,
39 (Regensburg: Verlag des Vereins fur Regensburger Bistumsgeschichte, 2005), pp. 39-47.
For an attempt at a more in-depth analysis of the chronological aspects of Reinher’s work,
see C.P.E. Nothaft, dating the passion: The life of Jesus and the emergence o f scientific Chro­
nology (200-1600), Time, Astronomy, and Calendars: Texts and Studies, 1 (Leiden: Brill,
2012), pp. 128-46.
5 Studies, editions, and translations of these four texts, along with the Computus Iudai­
cus discussed in the present article, will appear in my forthcoming monograph Medieval
Latin Christian Texts on theJewish Calendar: A Study with Five Editions (Leiden: Brill), which
was prepared as part of the Leverhulme Trust-funded research project at UCL, Medieval
Christian andJewish Calendar Texts, directed by Sacha Stern.
6 See Hans Walther, Initia carminum ac versuum medii aevi posterioris latinorum: Alpha-
betisches Verzeichnis der Versanfange mittellateinischer Dichtungen, Carmina medii aevi
posteriois latina, 1 (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1959), no. 10842; Lynn Thorndike
and Pearl Kibre, A Catalogue of Incipits of Mediaeval Scientific Writings in Latin, rev. edn
(London: The Medieval Academy of America, 1963), col. 854.
n o w v irtu a lly u n k n o w n ev en a m o n g specialists, th e C o m p u tu s Iu d a icu s
en jo y ed c o n sid e ra b le p o p u la rity d u rin g th e se c o n d h a lf o f th e fo u rte e n th
a n d th r o u g h o u t th e fifte e n th ce n tu ry , as is e v id e n t fro m th e a t le a s t 61
co p ies (in 60 d iffe re n t codices) th a t w ere still e x ta n t a t th e b e g in n in g o f
th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry .7

2. S tru ctu re a n d C ontents

In la te m e d ie v a l L atin, th e te rm co m p u tu s (o r co m p o tu s) h a d a fairly b ro a d
m e a n in g , w h ic h co u ld refer to th e tra d itio n a l p ra c tic e o f c a lc u la tin g th e
d a te o f E aster v ia lu n iso la r c a le n d a r cycles, b u t also to sc h o o l te x ts th a t
d e a lt w ith th e o p e ra tio n o f c a le n d a rs a n d b asic lu n iso la r a s tro n o m y o n a
m o re g e n e ra l level.8 C opies o f th e C om putus Iu d a icu s a re th e re fo re u su a lly
tr a n s m itte d in th e c o n te x t o f co d ices th a t a ssem b le c a le n d ric a l m a te ria l

7 Roughly half of these manuscripts are already listed in Ernst Zinner, Verzeichnis
der astronomischen Handschriften des deutschen Kulturgebietes (Munich: Beck, 1925),
nos. 5150-94. For a full list, see the appendix below. The whereabouts of two of these 61
MSS, once held by the University Library of Konigsberg (now Kaliningrad), are presently
unknown and it is likely that they were destroyed during the Second World War. On the
fate of the University Library’s manuscripts, see Ralf G. Pasler, ‘Zum Handschriftenbestand
der ehemaligen Staats- und Universitatsbibliothek Konigsberg: Quellenrepertorium und
neues Standortverzeichnis’, Scriptorium, 61 (2007), 198-217; Axel E. Walter, ‘Das Schicksal
der Konigsberger Bibliotheken und Handschriften: Eine Zwischenbilanz’, in Konigsberger
Buch- und Bibliotheksgeschichte, ed. by Axel E. Walter, Aus Archiven, Bibliotheken und
Museen Mittel- und Osteuropas, 1 (Cologne: Bohlau, 2004), pp. 1-68. Origin and author­
ship of the Computus Iudaicus will be discussed in part IV below.
8 For two typical thirteenth-century definitions, see John of Sacrobosco, De anni ratione,
in Libellus de sphaera, ed. by Philipp Melanchthon (Wittenberg: Clug, 1538), sig. Br: ‘Com-
potus est scientia considerans tempora ex Solis et Lunae motibus et eorum adinvicem
coaequatione distincta’ (‘Computus is the science which studies time defined according
to the motions of the sun and moon and their mutual alignment’). Guillaume Durand,
Rationale divinorum officiorum (8.1), ed. A. Davril and T.M. Thibodeau, Corpus Christiano-
rum Continuatio Mediaeualis, 140B (Turnhout: Brepols, 2000), p. 131: ‘Compotus est scien-
tia certificandi tempus secundum solis et lunae progressum’ (‘Computus is the science of
gaining certainty about time according to the advance of the sun and moon’). The history
of computistical texts in the late Middle Ages is a heavily understudied subject that has
seen relatively little progress since the pioneering article of Lynn Thorndike, ‘Computus’,
Speculum, 29 (1954), 223-38, which gives a rough idea of its immense scope. The twelfth
and thirteenth centuries will be the subject of Jennifer M. Moreton (f), Compotus eccle-
siasticus: A Thirteenth-Century Calendar Treatise in Its Context (unpublished manuscript,
based on a PhD Diss., Dublin, 1992), which is currently being prepared for publication
in the series Auctores Britannici Medii Aevi. On the general context, see Max Lejbowicz,
‘Computus: le nombre et le temps altimedievaux’, in Le Temps, sa mesure et sa perception
au Moyen Age, ed. by Bernard Ribemont (Caen: Paradigme, 1992), 151-95; Arno Borst, The
Ordering of Time: From the Ancient Computus to the Modern Computer, trans. by Andrew
Winnard (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
n e x t to a w id e ra n g e o f te x ts re le v a n t to th e u n iv e rsita ry q u ad riv iu m . This
is th e b r a n c h o f th e ‘se v en lib e ra l a rts ’ th a t d ea ls w ith th e n u m e ric a l sci­
ences, specifically w ith a rith m e tic , g eo m etry , m u sic a n d a s tro n o m y /a s tro l­
ogy. A m o n g th e title s m o st fre q u e n tly e n c o u n te re d in th e s e co llec tio n s
are th e fam o u s te x tb o o k s th a t J o h n o f S acro b o sco c o m p o se d in th e first
h a lf o f th e th ir te e n th c e n tu ry for g e n e ra l in s tru c tio n in a rith m e tic (Algor-
ism u s) a n d a s tro n o m y (De sp haera), b o th o f w h ic h a re still p re se rv e d in
h u n d re d s o f m a n u s c rip ts fro m all o ver E u ro p e.9
o n e c h a ra c te ristic h a llm a rk o f c o m p u tistic a l sc h o o l te x ts w ritte n afte r
1200 is th e fre q u e n t u se o f m n e m o n ic v erse s a n d rh y m e s to h e lp stu d e n ts
d ig e st large c h u n k s o f n u m e ric a l in fo rm a tio n o r p e rfo rm ca lc u latio n s
w ith o u t th e a id o f ta b le s.10 A m o n g th e e x a m p le s fro m th is g e n re th a t are
ro u g h ly c o n te m p o ra ry w ith o u r C om putus Iu d a icu s, o n e sh o u ld m e n tio n
th e C om putus chirom etralis, a h ighly p o p u la r sc h o o l te x t c o m p o se d in
1330 b y th e a s tro n o m e r J o h a n n e s A lgeri (o r E ligerus), w h o w as a te a c h e r
a t th e stu d iu m g en era le in E rfurt. T he w o rk is still fo u n d in w ell o ver
150 m a n u sc rip ts a n d is k n o w n to h av e b e e n re a d as p a r t o f th e A rts c u r­
ric u lu m in E rfurt, H eidelberg, V ienna, P rague, a n d K rakow .n As th e title
w o u ld suggest, th e C om putus chirom etralis relies o n th e p rin cip le, v ery

9 Out of the 61 known codices containing the Computus Iudaicus, some 31 also feature
versions of or commentaries on Sacrobosco’s Algorismus: Ba, Be, Bg, Bh, Co, El, Fb, Ka, Kc,
Kd, Ke, Kg, Le, Lp, Lq, Ma, Mb, Ml, My, Pb, Pd, Pe, Pf, Sa, Sb, So, Tr, Up, Va, Wb, Wc. For
the Liber de sphaera, 21 such cases can be counted: Be, Bf, Br, Ed, Fb, Gr, Kb, Kc, Le, Lo,
Lp, Mb, Ml, My, Pd, Sa, Sg, Up, Wb, Wc, Wp. Although many of these MSS also purport to
contain a Computus written by John of Sacrobosco, this is only in some cases identical
to the authentic De anni ratione cited in the previous footnote: Br, Ka, Kb, Ma, Mg, Ml, Mz,
Pd, Sb, Sg, So. 1n many others, it instead turns out to be the Massa compoti of Alexander de
Villa Dei (see next footnote). On Sacrobosco, see Lynn Thorndike, The Sphere of Sacrobo­
sco and Its Commentators (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1949); Olaf Pedersen,
‘1n Quest of Sacrobosco’, Journalfor the History of Astronomy, 16 (1985), 175-221; Jennifer
Moreton, ‘John of Sacrobosco and the Calendar’, Viator, 25 (1994), 229-44. For manuscript
sigla, see the appendix below.
10 See the appendix on ‘Memory devices’ in Moreton, Compotus ecclesiasticus. See also
Lynn Thorndike, ‘Unde Versus’, Traditio, 11 (1955), 163-93. A popular thirteenth-century
example for this technique is Alexander de Villa Dei, Massa compoti, ed. by Walter Emile
van Wijk, Le Nombre d’Or: etude de chronologie technique (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1936), 52-69.
Versions of and commentaries on this text appear in MSS Ba, Bg, Bh, Br, Ed, Go, Gr, Ka, Kd,
Ke, Kg, Le, Lo, Lp, Ma, Me, Mg, Mz, Ne, Pa, Pb, Pe, Pf, Sa, Sb, Sg, Up, Va, Wb, Wc.
11 Sonke Lorenz, Studium Generale Erfordense: Zum Erfurter Schulleben im 13. und 14.
Jahrhundert, Monographien zur Geschichte des Mittelalters, 34 (Stuttgart: Hiersemann,
1989), pp. 149-50, 244-60; Lorenz, ‘“Studium Generale Erfordense”: Neue Forschungen
zum Erfurter Schulleben’, Traditio, 46 (1991), 261-89 (pp. 285-89); Karl Mutz, ed., “Compu­
tus Chirometralis”: Spatmittelalterliches Lehrbuchfur Kalenderrechnung, lateinisch-deutsch,
mit Kommentar; mit einem Beitrag von Sonke Lorenz (Leinfelden-Echterdingen: DRW-
Verlag, 2003).
p o p u la r in m e d ie v a l c o m p u tistic s, o f u sin g th e p h a la n g e s o f o n e ’s fingers
to p e rfo rm a v a rie ty o f c a le n d ric a l a n d b a sic a s tro n o m ic a l ca lc u latio n s. In
d o in g so, re a d e rs w e re fu rth e r a id e d b y a p p ro x im a te ly sixty m n e m o n ic
v erses, w h ic h w e re m e a n t to re d u c e th e w h o le sy stem o f c o m p u tistic s to
a n easily m e m o ra b le sy stem o f w ords, syllables a n d le tte rs. As w e sh all
see, a sim ila r objectiv e o f fa c ilita tin g ca le n d ric a l-a stro n o m ic a l rec k o n in g
b y m n e m o n ic devices, a lth o u g h h e re a p p lie d to th e Je w ish r a th e r th a n th e
C h ristian ec clesia stical ca le n d ar, is also d isc ern ib le in th e C o m p u tu s Iu d a -
icus a n d it is in d e e d strik in g to o b se rv e th a t close to 7 5 % o f all co d ices
c o n ta in in g th e fo rm e r te x t also c o n ta in th e C o m p u tu s chirom etralis P
A n o th e r fre q u e n t fe a tu re o f sc h o o l te x ts like th e C o m p u tu s chirom etra-
lis is th a t th e y are a c c o m p a n ie d b y ru n n in g c o m m e n ta rie s , w h ic h sh ed
lig h t o n difficult passages, p ro v id e re c k o n in g ex am p les, a n d a d d u c e fu r­
th e r in fo rm a tio n cu lled fro m th e su b je cts o f th e q u ad riv iu m . T h e C om pu­
tu s Iu d a icu s is n o e x c e p tio n in th is reg ard , as 36 o u t o f its 59 p re se rv e d
c o p ies fe a tu re so m e k in d o f co m m e n ta ry , w h ile n u m e ro u s m a n u sc rip ts
c o m e w ith ex ten siv e m a rg in a l a n n o ta tio n s a n d /o r in te rlin e a ry glosses
th a t guide th e rea d er th ro u g h th e text.i3 Yet w hile th e re is th u s m u c h th a t
lin k s th e C om pu tus Iu d a icu s to o th e r c o m p u tistic a l te x ts fro m th e sam e
tim e p erio d , th e ex o tic su b je c t m a tte r a lo n e m a k es su re th a t it also carries
a n u m b e r o f u n iq u e c h a ra c te ristic s. A lth o u g h th e b u lk o f th e m a in te x t
w as w ritte n in p ro se form , its d istin ctiv e p ro lo g u e co n sists o f 20 lin es o f
p a rtly rh y m e d verse:

Me pudet audire Iudeum talia scire

Deberet clericus noscere que pocius
Me piget et miseret sim ul et tedet quod Apella
Iudeus clerum per sibi nota preit
Qui quasi nauclerus ante preire plebes
Deberet iure. Sed prochdolor anteriores
Sunt scitu Sathane quos patet esse pares
Rennuitur sensus sic cessat gloria cleri
Et petitur census ut patet hic et ibi
Lunam primari dum Iudeus meditatur

12 42 out of the 61 known codices with the Computus Iudaicus also contain the Com­
putus chirometralis: Ba, Be, Bf, Bg, Ed, El, Er, Fb, Go, Ha, Ka, Kb, Kc, Kd, Ke, Kg, Kx, Le, Lf,
Lo, Lp, Lw, Mb, Me, Mg, Ml, My, Ne, Pb, Pd, Pe, Pf, Sa, Sb, Sg, So, Tr, Up, Va, Vi, Wb, Wc. In
the commentary that accompanies the Computus Iudaicus in MSS Le, fol. 131r; Up, fol. 16v;
Wo, fol. 27r, the author of the Computus chirometralis is cited as an example of a computist
who begins the year in March.
13 For more on these commentaries, see section IV below. See also the section on ‘Com­
mentaries on compotus’ in Moreton, Compotus ecclesiasticus.
 Punctus et hora sibi certa diesque datur
Ymmo quod magis est horam si partior unam
In mille partes et octuaginta simul
Incendi luna per eum reperitur in una
Istarum. Sic est ars bene certa sibi
Sed si verbigene virtus michi prosperafiet
Et michi gratuite celitus adveniet
Am m odo ne clero velud hactenus hic dominetur
Ipsius ars primo nostra postea detur
Hinc concordetur nobiscum et refereturM

A lite ra l tra n s la tio n o f th e se r a th e r aw k w ard ly c o m p o se d lin es is a lm o st

im p o ssib le , b u t th e follow ing sh o u ld convey th e ir in te n d e d m e an in g :

1t sham es me to hear th a t the Jew knows such things/ w hich to study would
m uch rather befit the cleric./ 1t irks and grieves and offends me, all at once,
to find th a t ‘Apella/ the Jew’ [cf. Horace, Satires, 1.5.100: Credat Judaeus
Apella, non ego] takes precedence over the clergy w ith his knowledge,/ who
should go before the people like a skipper./ as w ould be just. Yet— alas!—
superior are those/ in knowledge, w ho are, as is obvious, akin to Satan [sc.
the Jews]./ W isdom is spurned and thus the glory of the clergy fades away/
And m oney is w hat is sought after, as is plain here and everywhere.
M eanwhile, the Jew thinks of the new m oon,/ point, hour, and day of
w hich he knows w ith certainty./ W hat is more, if 1 divide one hour/ into
1,080 parts,/ this indicates w hen the m oon is in conjunction down to one/
such [part]; and thus his is quite a reliable art./ But if the pow er of the word-
born one [sc. Jesus Christ] is propitious towards m e/ and comes to me freely
from on high,/ so th a t [the Jew] will from now on no longer rule over the
clergy as [he did] before,/ his art shall be given first, afterwards ours,/ and
hence it shall be harm onized w ith ours and m ade known.

As th is p ro lo g u e in d ic a te s , th e p u rp o s e o f th e C o m p u tu s Iu d a ic u s w as
n o t to p ro v id e a n in tr o d u c tio n to th e Je w ish c a le n d a r p e r se, le t a lo n e
to re la y a n y d o c trin e a b o u t th e Je w ish re lig io u s y e a r (its fe a sts etc.);
in s te a d , th e te x t p r e s e n ts its e lf as b e in g solely c o n c e r n e d w ith th e ca lc u ­
la tio n o f th e n e w m o o n — o r w h a t th e Je w s call m o la d , i.e. th e m e a n c o n ­
ju n c tio n o f th e s u n a n d m o o n . T he n a r r a to r o f th e s e lin e s re g a rd s it as
sc a n d a lo u s th a t th e Je w s w e re a b le to c a lc u la te th is c ru c ia l a s tro n o m ic a l
p a r a m e te r w ith m u c h h ig h e r p re c is io n a n d a c c u ra c y th a n th e C h ristia n s
o n th e b a s is o f th e ir o w n e c c le sia stic a l c a le n d a r. C h ris tia n c lerg y m en

14 Here cited after MS Ka, fol. 47v, with the following emendations: l. 3, ‘Apella’ for
‘appella’; l. 11: ‘Punctus et hora’ for ‘Punctus, hora’ and ‘certa diesque’ for ‘certaque dies’;
l. 15: ‘Istarum’ for ‘Istorum’ and ‘bene’ for ‘brevis’; l. 16: ‘Sed’ for ‘Et’; l. 18: ‘hactenus’ for
‘attenus’.
a n d in te lle c tu a ls , h e p ro c la im s, n e e d to a v a il th e m se lv e s o f th e sa m e
te c h n iq u e s so as to e s c a p e th e a w k w a rd s itu a tio n o f b e in g su rp a s s e d
b y th e ‘S a ta n ic ’ Je w s in sc ie n tific m a tte rs . T h e r e s t o f th e in tr o d u c to ry
p o e m b riefly a llu d e s to th e Je w ish d iv isio n o f th e h o u r in to 1080 ‘p a r ts ’
(p a rtes) o r h a la k im , a n d p ro m is e s th a t, G od w illin g (si verb ig en e virtu s
m ic h i p ro sp e ra fie t) , th e p r e s e n t tr e a tis e w ill f u rn is h C h ristia n s w ith th e
b a sis to m a s te r th e s e te c h n iq u e s as w ell as th e Je w s do.
W e sh all r e tu r n to th e significance o f th e se o p e n in g lin es f u rth e r b elo w
(in p a r t V). For th e m o m e n t, it w ill suffice to u n d e rlin e o n ce m o re th a t
th e C om putus Iu d a icu s a p p ro a c h e s its su b je c t fro m a v a n ta g e p o in t th a t is
p re d o m in a n tly a s tro n o m ic a l. T he focus o f th e tre a tis e is h e n c e th e c o m ­
p u ta tio n a n d a c c u ra te p re d ic tio n o f lu n a r p h ases, w h ile m o re g en u in ely
c a le n d ric a l o r c o m p u tistic a l co n c ern s, su c h as th e d a te o f E aster o r th e
c o n v e rsio n o f Je w ish d a te s in to th e Ju lia n ca le n d ar, are largely ig n o red .
It w o u ld th e re fo re se e m th a t th e w o rk w as fro m th e o u ts e t a im e d n o t so
m u c h a t c o m p u tists o r th e o lo g ia n s, w h o m a y h av e ta k e n a sp e cia l in te re s t
in Je w ish a n d C h ristia n fe a st days, b u t r a th e r a t s tu d e n ts o f th e q u ad riv -
ium , w h o se c u rric u la o fte n in c lu d e d so m e b a sic in s tru c tio n in a s tro n o m i­
cal c o m p u ta tio n . T his su sp ic io n is c o n firm e d b y th e fac t th a t a t le a s t o n e
la te m e d ie v a l u n iv ersity , V ie n n a (fo u n d e d in 1365), is k n o w n to h av e o c c a ­
sio n ally o ffered le c tu re s o n th e C om putus Iu d a ic u s } 5
D esp ite th is a s tro n o m ic a l focus a n d o utlook, h o w ev er, th e te x t c a n still
b e ju stifia b ly classified as a tre a tise o n th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, giv en th a t th e
la tte r’s fra m e w o rk c o n tin u e s to sh in e th ro u g h . A side fro m b e in g b a s e d o n
th e n u m e ric a l p a ra m e te rs o f th e fixed Je w ish c a le n d a r (w ith o n e lu n a tio n
b e in g e s tim a te d a t 29 days, 12 h o u rs, a n d 793 h a la k im ), th e C om putus
Iu d a icu s is also n o te w o rth y for e m p lo y in g a h a n d fu l o f H e b re w te rm s. In
all p re se rv e d v ersio n s, th e rh y m e d p refac e is follo w ed b y a b r ie f in tr o d u c ­
tio n to th e tre a tis e ’s m a in p a r t (1.1),i6 w h ic h refe re n c e s a lin e fro m th e
o p e n in g c h a p te r o f A risto tle ’s Sophistical R efu ta tio n s, a c c o rd in g to w h ic h

15 See Joseph Aschbach, Geschichte der Wiener Universitat im ersten Jahrhunderte ihres
Bestehens: Festschrift zu ihrerfunfhundertjahrigen Grundungsfeier (Vienna: Verlag der K.K.
Universitat, 1865), pp. 94, 353. The only known MSS of the Computus Iudaicus that can be
linked to Vienna are Ml and Vi. The latter was once owned by Johannes de Werdea, who
became magister artium at Vienna in 1445 and later, in 1451, entered the Benedictine mon­
astery at Mondsee, changing his name to Hieronymus. See Ludwig Gluckert, ‘Hieronymus
von Mondsee (Magister Johannes de Werdea): Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Einflusses
der Wiener Universitat im 15. Jahrhundert’, Studien und Mitteilungen zur Geschichte des
Benediktinerordens, 48 (1930), 99-201.
16 The division of the treatise into section and sub-section is my own.
‘th o se w h o a re n o t w ell a c q u a in te d w ith th e fo rce o f n a m e s easily lap se
in to m is re a so n ’.17 1n lin e w ith th is caveat, th e a u th o r e x h o rts h is re a d e rs to
b e a r in m in d th a t th e Jew s u se th e w o rd m o la d w h e n sp e ak in g a b o u t th e
n e w m o o n (incensio sive p rim a tio ), w h e re a s th e 19-year cycle is re fe rre d
to as m esserim (1.2). T he la tte r te rm , w h ic h is a tte s te d th u s in m o s t m a n u ­
sc rip ts b e s id e s sim ila r fo rm s su c h as m esrim a n d m esso rim , is o f co u rse a
p a lp a b le c o rru p tio n o f th e p lu ra l o f m a h zo r (i.e. ‘cycle’).!8
As for th e m o la d : w h ile Je w ish c a le n d ric a l tra d itio n n o rm a lly u se s it
exclusively to d e n o te th e tim e o f m e a n co n ju n c tio n , th e a u th o r o f th e
C om putus Iu d a icu s is s o m e w h a t a m b ig u o u s a b o u t w h a t a s tro n o m ic a l p h e ­
n o m e n o n is p ic k e d o u t b y th is te rm . H is tra n s la tio n as incensio sive p rim a -
tio d o es n o t sh e d m u c h lig h t o n th e issue, sin ce th e s e ex p re ssio n s co u ld
b e u s e d fo r d iffe re n t a sp e c ts o f th e lu n a r cycle. T he a fo re m e n tio n e d Com ­
p u tu s chirom etralis, fo r in sta n c e , d efin es th e p rim a tio as a p o in t in tim e
ex actly o n e d ay a fte r th e c o n ju n c tio n , a n d th e incensio as th e 2 4 -h o u r
p e rio d th a t in te rv e n e s b e tw e e n b o th . 1n th is sc h em e, th e d a y -c o u n t for
th e m o o n (lu n a 1, lu n a 11, lu n a 111 etc.) on ly sta rts w ith th e p r im a tio .19 T he

17 Computus Iudaicus 1.1, MS Ka, fol. 47v: 'Qui virtutes vocabulorum sunt ignari defacili
paraloysantur, ut dicit Aristoteles primo Elencorum. Nos igitur in hoc brevi compendiolo
incensionem primationis cuiuslibet lune ad unguem declarare volentes, primo dicutienda
sunt vocabula apud Ebreos plenius usitata’ (‘“Those who are not well acquainted with
the force of words easily lapse into misreason,” as Aristotle says in the first [book] of his
Refutations. We, who are intent on showing with exactness in this brief compendium [the
time of conjunction] of any given new moon, shall therefore first discuss the vocabulary
that is in general use among the Hebrews’). Aristotle, De sophisticis elenchis (translatio
Boethii, 1.1), ed. by Bernard G. Dod, Aristoteles Latinus, 6.1-3 (Leiden: Brill, 1975), p. 6:
‘Quemadmodum igitur illic qui non sunt prompti numeros ferre a scientibus expelluntur,
eodem modo et in orationibus qui nominum virtutis sunt ignari paralogizantur et ipsi dis-
putantes et alios audientes.’
18 Computus Iudaicus 1.2, MS Ka, fol. 47v: ‘Primo sciendum quod per molat incensio sive
primacio denotatur, per messerim cyclus lunaris penitus designatur. Unde dantur versus:
Per molat incensum, per messerim hinc cape ciclum’ (‘The first thing to know is that molat
denotes the conjunction or new moon, while messerim designates the lunar cycle. Whence
the verse: “Molat gives you the conjunction, messerim the cycle”). 1n the relatively early
copy found in MS Pb, fol. 57r, one mnemonic verse refers to the cycles as magssorim,
which is phonetically close to the Hebrew plural. A similar form, mag(s)sorym, is found in
MS Pe, fol. 119r-v. Unfortunately, these instances are too isolated to decide whether this
was the original reading, which would make the frequently attested messorim a corruption
of the latter. A marginal gloss on fol. 17v in MS Wc (copied in 1428), informs us that ‘some’
use machsorim as a variant for mesrim (‘chalochim aliqui dicunt pro elochim, machsorim
pro mesrim’). A singular form of the word is attested only in the commentary of Ms Wp,
where we find several instances of maczor (fols 58v-59r), which perhaps indicates some
competence in Hebrew on the part of the redactor.
19 Johannes Algeri, Computus chirometralis, ed. by Mutz, pp. 64, 66: ‘Primacio sic patet
in quacumque hora alicuius diei invenis coniunctionem in eadem hora sequentis diei est
re su ltin g a m b ig u ity is fully re m o v e d on ly in so m e la te r v e rsio n s o f th e
C om putus Iu d a icu s, w h ic h a d d a n e w p a ra g ra p h th a t im p licitly d efin es
th e o p p o sitio n as th e m id -p o in t b e tw e e n tw o in censiones, m a k in g it o b v i­
o u s th a t th e incensio is m e a n t to b e th e p o in t o f c o n ju n c tio n . 20 T h a t th e
o rig in al a u th o r th o u g h t alo n g th e sam e lin es is v ery likely, b u t c a n n o t b e
p ro v e n o n th e b asis o f th e te x t alone.
T he d e fin itio n o f te rm s is follow ed b y a se c tio n (1.3) th a t in tro d u c e s th e
H eb rew m o n th n a m e s b y ju x ta p o s in g th e m w ith th e ir e q u iv a le n t m o n th s
in th e Ju lia n ca le n d ar. In m o s t fifte e n th -c e n tu ry co p ies o f th e tex t, it closes
w ith th re e lin e s o f v e rse th a t m a y b e freely tr a n s la te d as:

Tishri, M arheshvan, Kislev, Tevet, Shvat and Adar

Nisan, Iyyar, Sivan, Tammuz, Av, the last shall be Elul
Veadar is added w hen there is an em bolism .21

T his v e rsio n is also q u o te d in H e rm a n n Z o e st’s a fo re m e n tio n e d Calen-

d a riu m H ebraicum n o vu m o f 1436, w h e re o u r tre a tise is p ra ise d as a w o rk
‘b ea u tifu lly c o m p o se d in rh y m e a n d in p ro se, a n d q u ite c o m m o n in v ario u s
p a rts o f th e w o rld .’22 As o n e w o u ld ex p ect, th e re n d e rin g o f th e H eb rew
m o n th n a m e s c a n differ co n sp icu o u sly b e tw e e n co p ies o f th e C om putus
Iudaicus, w ith so m e m a n u s c rip ts offering r a th e r id io sy n c ra tic v aria n ts,
w h ic h o ccasio n ally raise th e su sp ic io n th a t th e scrib e w ro te d o w n p a rts
o f th e te x t fro m d ic ta te r a th e r th a n co p y in g a w ritte n exem plar.23

primatio. Et ista dies que mediat dicitur dies incensionis. Que post coniuncta dies. dies hec
prima vocatur. Inter coniuncta primaque dies datur incensio.’ See also ibid., 42.
20 See n. 47 below.
21 This version first appears around 1408/9, in MSS Fb, fol. 67v and Sa, fol. 97v. The
latter reads: ‘Tysri, Marchiswan, Keslef, Thebes, Swach et Adar/ Nysan, Ydar, Schyban, Tha-
mus, Aff, simul ultimus Elol/ Vadar addetur qui embolismus habetur.’ Versions are also
found included in MSS Ba, Be, Br, Co, Ed, Er, Gr, Ha, Kx, Le, Lf, Lo, Lq, Mc2, My, Sb, Sg, Tr,
Up, Wo, and Wp. Earlier versions of the text omit any reference to the embolismic month
Veadar and hence do not include the third line cited here.
22 Hermann Zoest, Calendarium Hebraicum novum, MS Wolfenbuttel, HAB, Gud. Lat.
qu. 206.1, p. 111: ‘Similiter quamvis et novus Hebreorum compotus metrice et prosaice
venustissime sit compositus et in diversis mundi partibus satis sit communis, ipse tamen
predictam non potest tollere difficultatem, qui et ipse etiam ad dies non est extensus.’ The
verses for the Hebrew month names follow on p. 112. The copy of the Computus Iudaicus
used by Hermann may have been MS Co, which once belonged to the Cistercian monas­
tery of Marienfeld in Westphalia, where he was a monk. See Nothaft, ‘A Tool’, for further
details.
23 Some examples would include Diseri for Tishri (Mg, fol. 166r); Mergesphan for
Marheshvan (Wo, fol. 27r); Kascherse for Kislev (Lw, fol. 20r); Zephos for Tevet (Mz,
fol. 75v); Cesant for Shvat (Md, fol. 1r); Ycsar for Iyyar (Pf, fol. 159v); Schwibon for Sivan
(Sb, fol. 42v); A yff for Av (Lf, fol. 30v).
 E ven a p a r t fro m su c h r a th e r triv ial co rru p tio n s, h o w ev er, th e issu e o f
te x tu a l v a ria tio n lo o m s large a n d p re s e n ts m a jo r d ifficulties for an y seri­
ous stu d y o f th e C om putus Iu d a ic u s. S ince th e la tte r w as essen tially c o n ­
ceiv ed o f as a loo se se t o f a s tro n o m ic a l o p e ra tin g in stru c tio n s, co d ified
in s h o rt in s tru c tio n a l p assag e s follow ed b y m n e m o n ic v erses, scrib es a n d
p o te n tia l re d a c to rs w e re c o n s ta n tly te m p te d to m o d ify w h a t th e y fo u n d
to su it th e ir v a rio u s in te re sts a n d p u rp o ses. S o o n a fte r th e in itia l c o m p o ­
sitio n w e n t in to c irc u latio n , u se rs n o t on ly s ta rte d to a d o rn it w ith c o m ­
m e n ta rie s a n d m a rg in a l glosses, b u t also to in tro d u c e m a jo r c h a n g es to
th e te x t itself, w h ic h in d ic a te th a t th e o rig in al v e rsio n w as d e e m e d to o
co n cise b y m a n y o f its rea d ers. W h ile so m e c o n te n te d th e m se lv e s w ith
m a k in g m in o r a u g m e n ta tio n s, e.g. b y sim p ly in c o rp o ra tin g m a te ria l fro m
th e c o m m e n ta rie s in to th e m a in tex t, o th e rs w e n t as far as c o m p o sin g
e n tire ly n e w se c tio n s th a t w o u ld elu c id a te f u rth e r a s p e c ts o f th e lu n iso la r
c a lc u la tio n th a t lay a t th e h e a r t o f th e tre a tise ; y e t a g a in o th e rs w o u ld
d ra m a tic a lly e d it d o w n th e te x t th e y se t o u t to copy. R e d a c tio n a l in te r ­
v e n tio n s o f th is k in d a re so fre q u e n t in th e m a n u s c rip t tra n sm iss io n o f th e
C om putus Iu d a icu s th a t it is ra re to fin d a n y tw o co p ies th a t fe a tu re ev en
ro u g h ly th e sa m e v e rsio n o f th e te x t.24 U n fo rtu n a tely , a n a d e q u a te re c o n ­
stru c tio n o f th e h isto ry o f th e se in te rv e n tio n s , le t a lo n e o f th e s te m m a tic
filia tio n o f m a n u sc rip ts , is re n d e re d e x tre m e ly d ifficult n o t o n ly b y th e
d eg re e a n d fre q u e n c y o f v a ria tio n , b u t also b y signs o f h eav y c o n ta m in a ­
tio n b e tw e e n m a n u s c rip t b ra n c h e s. 1n w h a t follow s, 1 sh all lim it m y se lf
to su m m a riz in g a c o n je c tu ra l ‘c o re ’ o r ‘o rig in a l’ v e rsio n o f th e trea tise ,
m y re c o n s tru c tio n o f w h ic h is b a s e d o n a co lla tio n o f so m e o f th e e a rliest
k n o w n m a n u sc rip ts , in p a rtic u la r MSS Gw, Ka, Kd, M a, Mc1, M e, Mg, Pb,
Pc, a n d Sg. 1t sh o u ld b e b o rn e in m in d , ho w ev er, th a t th is su m m a ry in
n o w ay e x h a u sts all th e m a te ria l th a t c a n b e fo u n d in th e s e o r a n y o f th e
o th e r m a n u sc rip ts liste d in th e a p p e n d ix belo w :

[1.4] F o llo w in g u p o n th e in tr o d u c to ry p o r tio n a n d th e list o f H e b re w

m o n th n a m e s (1.1-3), th is se c tio n chiefly d eals w ith th e d iffe ren ce b e tw e e n
th e 19-year lu n iso la r cycles as c o u n te d b y Jew s a n d C h ristian s. 1t e sse n ­
tially te a c h e s th a t th e Jew s alw ays b e g in th e ir cycle tw o full y ea rs la te r
th a n th e C hristian s, w ith a n a d d itio n a l d ifferen ce o f n in e m o n th s , d u e
to th e fac t th a t th e Je w ish y e a r on ly b eg in s w ith th e lu n a tio n o f O c to b e r

24 Among the exceptions are the manuscript pairs Ed/Lf, Le/Up, and Be/Co, which are
obviously closely related.
(w h e re as th e Ju lia n y e a r sta rts o n 1 Ja n u ary ). In e lu c id a tin g th is difference,
th e a u th o r m a k es re fe re n c e to th e p rin c ip le o f c o u n tin g th e y ea rs o f th e
cycle o n th e p h a la n g e s o f o n e ’s fingers, sta rtin g w ith th e tip o f th e th u m b
for y e a r 1 a n d fin d in g th e 19th y e a r o n th e tip o f o n e ’s little o r a u ric u ­
la r finger. T he a u th o r ex p licitly sta te s th a t th is is th e p rin c ip le ‘ta u g h t in
th e co m p u tu s m a n u a lis’, w h ic h is p ro b a b ly sim p ly m e a n t to d e n o te th e
g e n e ra l p ra c tic e o f finger-reck o n in g , b u t m a y p e rh a p s b e a re fe re n c e to a
s h o rt m e tric a l tre a tise o f th is n a m e a sc rib e d to a c e rta in J o h a n n e s o f Polo-
n ia, w h ic h is o fte n fo u n d in th e sa m e co d ices as th e C o m p u tu s Iu d a ic u s.25
[2.1] W ith se c tio n 2, th e tre a tis e finally a p p ro a c h e s its m a in brief, th e
c o m p u ta tio n o f th e m o la d . In th is s h o rt o p e n in g p a ra g ra p h , th e a u th o r
ex p lain s th a t th e Jew s d ivide th e n a tu ra l h o u r in to 1080 ‘p a rtic le s ’ (p a r-
ticulas). M o st v e rsio n s o f th e te x t re fe r to th e s e p a rts as elo ch im , a te rm
evocative o f o n e o f th e H eb rew n a m e s o f G od, w h ic h w e sh all h e n c e fo rth
adopt.26 S om e MSS fe a tu re v a ria n ts su c h as helo ch im , h ela ch im (b o th in
Mc1) o r h elo h ym (M z), w h ic h b rin g u s clo ser to a re a so n a b le L atin tr a n s ­
lite ra tio n o f th e H e b re w h a la k im /h ela kim . It w o u ld h e n c e a p p e a r th a t
th e a u th o r originally r e n d e re d th e in itia l n as ‘h ’ a n d p as ‘ch ’, a n d th a t th e
re su ltin g h a la c h im /h e la c h im w as la te r c o rru p te d in to ela ch im a n d e v e n ­
tu a lly in to elochim . A h a n d fu l o f m a n u s c rip ts o ccasio n ally offer rea d in g s
th a t are p h o n e tic a lly ev e n clo ser to th e o rig in al H eb rew (su ch as h a la k im /
h a la y m a n d c h a la k y m ), b u t th e se a re p ro b a b ly c o rre c tio n s b y c o m p e te n t
scrib es r a th e r th a n reflec tio n s o n th e o rig in al sta te o f th e text.27

25 MSS Ka, fol. 48r: ‘Si autem quis scire voluerit quid Iudei habeant pro suo messerim,
precognito quid habeamus pro ciclo nostro, tunc incipiat a summitate pollicis intra
manum numerare, procedendo ut docetur in computo manuali’ (‘But if someone wants to
know what [year] the Jews currently have in their cycle, given knowledge of what [year]
we have in our cycle, then he should start counting on the inside of his hand from the
top of his thumb, proceeding as it is taught in the computus manualis’). The resultant rule
is summarized at the end with the following verses: ‘Pollex iuncturam vult Iudeis dare
ternam, sed primam nobis. Scandere sic poteris donec ad articulum venies dantem tibi
ciclum’ (‘The thumb wants to give the third joint to the Jews, but the first to us. You can
climb up in this way until you arrive at the phalanx that gives you the cycle’). The Com­
putus manualis of Johannes of Polonia appears in MSS Co, Ka, Kd, Ke, Kg, Ma, Mb, Me,
Ne, Pb, Pe, Sb, Va, Wb, Wc. It is not to be confused with an unrelated thirteenth-century
work of the same name, attributed to a magister Anianus. See David Eugene Smith, ed., Le
comput manuel de Magister Anianus, Documents scientifiques du XVe siecle, 4 (Geneva:
Droz, 1928; repr. 1977).
26 The corresponding mnemonic verses are ‘Horam partitur Iudeus ad octuaginta et
partes mille, elochim quas nuncupat ille’ (MS Ka, fol. 48r-v).
27 MSS Go (only fol. 209) and Wb: chalakym; Wo: chalachym; Sf: halakim/halakym; Pb
(only fol. 61v): halakym. Md: calochim. The aforementioned marginal gloss in Wc, fol. 17v
(see above, n. 18) notes that ‘chalochim aliqui dicunt pro elochim’.
 [2.2] T his se c tio n te a c h e s th e a d d itio n o f 1 w eek d ay , 12 h o u rs a n d 793
elochim to th e tim e o f o n e m o la d to arriv e a t a n y giv en su b s e q u e n t one.28
[2.3] T his se c tio n d ea ls w ith a n easy m e th o d o f c h e ck in g th e ac cu rac y
o f th e calculations m a d e o n th e b asis o f th e p rev io u s section. 1t co n sists o f
th e a d d itio n o f 5 w eek d ay s, 11 h o u rs a n d 287 elochim to th e resu lt. This
is th e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n th e ab o v e v alu e a n d th e m a x im u m n u m b e r o f
days, h o u rs a n d elochim in th e sy stem (6.23.1080-1.12.793 = 5.11.287), w h ic h
h e n c e sh o u ld le a d b a c k to th e m o la d th a t w as o rig in ally given. T he Jew s
a re said to refer to th is m e th o d as sta te ra , w h ic h h a p p e n s to b e th e L atin
w o rd fo r ‘scales’ o r ‘b a la n c e ’^ W h a t is b e in g ev o k ed h e re is th e m e n ta l
im age o f a p a ir o f scales, w h ere o n e side goes u p as th e o th e r goes dow n. 1n
th e sa m e m a n n e r, th e v a lu e to b e a d d e d in th e c o n tro l m e th o d c h a n g e s
in p ro p o rtio n to th e v a lu e a d d e d in th e o rig in al c a lc u la tio n .^ A t th e sam e
tim e, how ev er, th e re is a c e rta in affinity b e tw e e n th is u se o f th e w o rd sta t-
era a n d th e H eb rew te rm m o zn a y im (□’JTKO), w h ic h c a n likew ise m e a n
‘scales’. 1n A b ra h a m 1bn E zra’s Sefer ha-Ibbur, w ritte n in V e ro n a in 1146/47
CE, th is te rm is u s e d to d esig n a te c e rta in a rith m e tic sa n ity te s ts fo r m olad-
ca lc u latio n s. A lth o u g h th e m e th o d s em p lo y ed b y 1bn E zra in v o lv e p rin ­
ciples su c h as ‘ca stin g o u t n in e s ’ a n d a re h e n c e v ery d iffe re n t fro m w h a t is
p ro p o se d in th e C om putus Judaicus, th e claim th a t th e Jew s call th e ir c o n ­
tro l m e th o d s ‘scales’ suggests so m e k in d o f c o n n e c tio n .^ 1n th is co n tex t,
it also w o rth o b se rv in g th a t 1bn E zra w as n o s tra n g e r to th e d id a c tic u se
o f m n e m o n ic devices a n d th a t h is Sefer h a -Ib b u r b e g in s w ith five lists o f
m o lad -v alu es o r ‘signs’ (□’JD’O) th a t essen tially codify th e sa m e n u m e ric a l
in fo rm a tio n also p ro v id e d b y ta b le s 1 -5 o f o u r p r e s e n t tr e a tis e .^

28 Verses: ‘Si precedentem scieris, lunamque sequentem queris, adhunc unam iunge
sibi feriam, horam bissenam, elochim sociabis eidem septingenta simul et nonagintaque
tria’ (MS Ka, fol. 48v).
29 MS Ka, fol. 48v: ‘Et talis regula apud ludeos dicitur statera.’ 1 owe this explanation of
the term to Giuseppe Cuscito.
30 Verses: ‘Si probare velis utrum bene feceris, addas undenas horas 5 simul ferias, cum
elochim ducenta octuagintaque septem ad molat alterius quod modo quesieris. Si factum
bene sit tibi prior luna redibit. Ex hoc pondere quevis tibi luna patebit’ (MS Ka, fol. 48v).
31 Abraham Ibn Ezra, Sefer Ha'ibbur: A Treatise on the Calendar (1), ed. and trans.
Mordechai S. Goodman (Jersey City, NJ: Ktav, 2011), pp. 13-14 (10). A new edition of this
treatise by 1srael Sandman is currently being prepared. 1bn Ezra’s predecessor Abraham bar
Hiyya (1122/23) instead uses the more conventional term npH3 (‘test’ or ‘examination’) as
well as a method of ‘casting out sevens’. See Abraham bar Hiyya, Sefer ha-'Ibbur (2.6), ed.
Herschell Filipowski (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1851), pp. 52-53.
This text will be newly edited by 1srael Sandman and 1lana Wartenberg.
32 Abraham 1bn Ezra, Sefer Ha'ibbur (1), ed. Goodman, pp. 5-8 (-P-tf1). On the tables in
the ComputusJudaicus, see the next section.
 [2.4] T his se c tio n in tro d u c e s a n d ex p lain s th e su b s e q u e n t ta b le 1, w h ic h
c o n ta in s th e d a ta n e c e ssa ry to ca lc u late all 13 m o la d o t o f a n y g iven year,
p ro v id e d th e tim e o f a given m o la d is k n o w n . T he ta b le s w ill b e d iscu ssed
f u rth e r b e lo w (in p a r t III).
[3.1] T his se c tio n te a c h e s th e a d d itio n o f 4 w eek d ay s, 8 h o u rs a n d 876
elochim to g e t fro m th e m o la d T ishri o f o n e y e a r to th e m o la d T ish ri o f th e
follow ing y e a r (in case a c o m m o n y e a r intervenes).33
[3.2] T his se c tio n te a c h e s th e c o rre sp o n d in g c o n tro l m e th o d (sta te ra )
fo r years, b a s e d o n th e a d d itio n o f 2 w eekdays, 14 h o u rs a n d 2 0 4 elochim
(6 .2 3.1080-4.8.876 = 2.15.204).34
[3.3] T his se c tio n in tro d u c e s a n d ex p lain s ta b le 2, w h ic h c o n ta in s th e
d a ta to calc u late all 19 m o la d o t T ishri o f a n y given 19-year cycle, p ro v id e d
th a t th e tim e o f th e p r e s e n t m o la d T ishri is k no w n .
[4] T his se c tio n in tro d u c e s a n d ex p lain s ta b le 3, w h ic h c o n ta in s th e
d a ta to ca lc u late th e m o la d T ishri o f th e first y e a r o f e a c h 19-year cycle, in
te n lin es fro m 1 to 10. In all b u t th re e c o m p le te co p ies o f th e te x t (M b, So,
Sg), ta b le 3 is follo w ed b y a n a d d itio n a l se c tio n th a t a c c o m p a n ie s a fo u rth
ta b le. T he la tte r c o n ta in s th e d a ta n e c e ssa ry to ca lc u late th e m o la d T ish ri
o f th e first y e a r o f e a c h g ro u p o f te n 19-year cycles, u su a lly in tw elv e lin es
fro m 10 to 120. As w e sh all see b e lo w (in p a r t III), it is v ery likely th a t th is
ta b le a n d th e a c c o m p a n y in g te x t w ere n o t y e t p a r t o f th e o rig in al v e rsio n
o f th e trea tise .
[5.1] T he final se c tio n te a c h e s h o w to fin d th e tim e o f a n y g iven m olad,
ev en in cases w h e re th e p r e s e n t m o la d is u n k n o w n . T his is a c h ie v e d b y
first d e te rm in in g th e n u m b e r o f 19-year cycles sin ce th e b e g in n in g o f th e
Je w ish w o rld era, th e p r e s e n t y e a r o f w h ic h is d e te rm in e d b y a d d in g 3760
to th e C h ristia n e ra (for d a te s b e tw e e n J a n u a ry a n d O cto b er). In th e c o n ­
c re te e x a m p le u s e d in m o s t early copies, th e y e a r is 1342 CE = 5102 JE.
W e are to ld to d ivide th e su m o f y ea rs b y 19 in o rd e r to arriv e a t th e
n u m b e r o f cycles th a t h av e elap se d since th e b e g in n in g , w h ilst th e y e a r
in th e p r e s e n t cycle is in d ic a te d b y th e re m a in d e r. T h e tim e-d iffe re n ce
(m odulo 7) b e tw e e n tw o full 19-year cycles, c o m p o se d o f 235 lu n a tio n s, is
2 w eekdays, 16 h o u rs, a n d 595 elochim . W e are a d v ised b y th e te x t to m u l­
tip ly th is v alu e b y th e to ta l n u m b e r o f cycles a n d th e n a d d th e re s u lt to
th e c a le n d a r’s ro o t v a lu e o f 2 w eekdays, 5 h o u rs, a n d 2 0 4 elo ch im , w h ic h
c o rre sp o n d s to th e m o la d T ishri in 3761 BCE. T his c a lc u la tio n w ill le a d to

33 Verses: ‘Unum si noscis Tisri reliquum quoque poscis, bis binas ferias, octoque simul
horas, octingenta elochim septuagintaque sex’ (MS Me, fol. 23v).
34 Verses: ‘Sed si preteritum vis per presens reperire, horas ter quinas atque duas ferias.
Et helochim socia sibi quatuor atque ducenta’ (MS Mc1, fol. 167vb).
th e tim e o f th e first m o la d in th e first y e a r o f th e c u r r e n t cycle. To g e t fro m
h e re to a n y o th e r y e a r in th e c u rre n t cycle, a n o th e r v alu e h a s to b e a d d e d ,
w h ich , it is ex p lain e d , c a n b e fo u n d u sin g ta b le 2 above.
[5.2] A fu rth e r se c tio n a d d s so m e re m a rk s o n th e c o n v e rsio n b e tw e e n
m in u te s a n d elochim , n o tin g th a t o n e sex ag esim al m in u te c o rre sp o n d s to
18 elochim . 1t also c o m m e n ts o n th e d iffe re n t d ay -e p o ch s u se d b y v ario u s
n a tio n s, w ith th e Jew s p re fe rrin g a n e v e n in g -e p o c h th a t sta rts six h o u rs
a fte r n o o n (o r six h o u rs b efo re m id n ig h t). T h ere is a fair p o ssib ility th a t
th is la st se c tio n is a se c o n d a ry a c c re tio n th a t o rig in a te d in th e c o m m e n ­
ta ry to th e w ork, th e e a rlie st k n o w n co p ies o f w h ic h c o n ta in a n id e n tic a l
passag e a t th e e n d o f th e ex p o sitio n o f 5.1.35 A m o n g th e in te g ra l co p ies
o f th e m a in te x t, how ev er, on ly MSS So a n d Sg o m it th is p a rt, leav in g it
o p e n w h e th e r th e passag e is g e n u in e o r n o t. S o m e s u p p o rt fo r a u th e n tic ­
ity m a y co m e fro m th e o p e n in g verses, th e la st tw o o f w h ic h m e n tio n
th a t th e a u th o r in te n d s to also d e a l w ith th e c o rre sp o n d e n c e b e tw e e n th e
C h ristian a n d Je w ish re c k o n in g (Ipsius ars p rim o n o stra p o ste a d e tu r / H inc
co ncordetur nob iscu m e t referetur). 1f it w as n o t for th e b r ie f se c tio n 5.2, n o
m a te ria l m a tc h in g th is d e s c rip tio n co u ld b e fo u n d an y w h e re in th e tex t.

3. The Tables

T he m o s t in trig u in g a n d d istin c tiv e e le m e n t o f th e w h o le tre a tise a re p e r ­

h a p s its c a lc u la tio n tab les, w h ic h b e a r so m e u n iq u e c h a ra c te ristic s, w h ilst
also sugg estin g a r o u n d a b o u t w ay o f g ro u p in g th e e x ta n t m a n u s c rip ts in to
fam ily b ra n c h e s. Leaving asid e su n d ry in c o m p le te copies,36 m a n u sc rip ts
o f th e C om putus Iu d a icu s g en e rally fe a tu re e ith e r fo u r o r five d iffe re n t
ta b les. T he o ld e r o f th e s e tw o a rra n g e m e n ts is e v id en tly th e o n e b a s e d
o n fo u r tab les, as a lre a d y fo u n d in M S M e, d a ta b le to 1375.37 1t is w o rth
observing, how ev er, th a t th e e a rlie s t v e rsio n o f th e c o m m e n ta ry , fe a tu re d
in MSS Pa, Pd, a n d W a, d o es n o t y e t c o n ta in a n y ex p o sitio n o f th e p assag e
t h a t a c c o m p a n ie s ta b le 4 in m o s t copies. T he su sp ic io n th a t th e fo u rth
ta b le is th e re fo re a se c o n d a ry a c c re tio n receiv es f u rth e r s u p p o rt fro m MSS
M b, Sg, a n d So, w h ic h o m it th is p a r t fro m th e ir m a in te x t, th u s effectively

35 See MSS Pa, fol. 125v; Pd, fol. 52v.

36 Such as MSS Bg, Fb, El, Mz, Va, Wo.
37 Four tables appear in MSS Go, Gw, Ka, Kb, Kc, Kd, Ke, Lw, Ma, Mc1, Md, Me, Mg, Ml,
Ne, Pb, Pc, Pe, Sb, Sf, Vi, Wb.
re p re s e n tin g a th re e -ta b le version.38 As in d ic a te d above, th e th re e ta b le s
in q u e s tio n co v er (1) th e 12/13 m o la d o t in a c o m m o n /e m b o lis m ic y ear;
(2) th e m o la d T ishri fo r e a c h in d iv id u a l y e a r o f th e 19-year cycle; (3) th e
first m o la d T ish ri o f e a c h 19-year cycle, in te n lin es fro m 1 to 10. T h e fo u rth
ta b le is u su a lly a c o n tin u a tio n o f th e th ird ta b le, in t h a t it p re s e n ts th e first
m o la d T ishri a fte r e a c h te n th 19-year cycle, s ta rtin g w ith th e la st lin e o f
th e p rev io u s ta b le (10) a n d c o n tin u in g fo r tw elv e lin es fro m 10 to 120.39
T his fo u r-ta b le a r ra n g e m e n t b e g a n to b e re p la c e d a ro u n d c. 1 408/9 (th e
d a te o f MS Sa) w ith a n a u g m e n te d v ersio n , w h ic h a d d s a fifth ta b le. D ue
to th e g re a t n u m b e r o f co p ies m a d e in th e fifte e n th ce n tu ry , th is v e rsio n is
e n c o u n te re d m o re w id ely a m o n g th e p re se rv e d m an u scrip ts.4 0 O n e m a jo r
h a llm a rk sh a re d b y m o s t m e m b e rs o f th is m a n u s c rip t g ro u p is th a t ta b le s
2 - 5 are d istin g u ish e d b y n a m e s: ta b u la residu o ru m (tab le 2), d ig ito ru m
(tab le 3), a rticulorum (tab le 4), a n d cen ten a rio ru m (tab le 5). As th e n a m e
w o u ld suggest, th e n ew ly a d d e d ta b le 5 lists th e v alu es for fin d in g th e
first m o la d T ishri a fte r e a c h 1 0 0 th 19-year cycle, in te n lin es fro m 100 to
1,000. T ables in b o th o f th e a fo re m e n tio n e d g ro u p s u su a lly c o n sist o f tw o
p a rts o r halves, o n e for th e m a in re c k o n in g o p e ra tio n in q u e s tio n a n d a
se c o n d so-called ‘c o lla te ra l ta b le ’ (tabula collateralis). T h e la tte r alw ays
offers th e c o m p le m e n ta ry v alu e th a t c a n b e a d d e d to a n y g iven m o la d to
e x tra p o la te b a c k in to th e p ast, in lin e w ith th e p rin c ip le o f sta tera la id o u t
in se c tio n s 2.3 a n d 3.2.
T he m o s t d istin ctiv e c h a ra c te ristic o f th e ta b le s fo u n d in th e C om putus
Iu d a icu s is p ro b a b ly th e ir c o n s is te n t u se o f m n e m o n ic d ev ices as a su p p le ­
m e n t to (a n d so m e tim e s in p la ce of) th e n u m b e rs d e sig n a tin g th e days,
h o u rs, a n d elochim . T hese m n e m o n ic dev ices a re w o rd s c o n s tru c te d fro m
a stra ig h tfo rw a rd c o rre la tio n o f n u m e ra ls w ith le tte rs a c c o rd in g to th e fol­
lo w in g p rin cip le: a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 . . . k = 10, l = 11, m = 1 2 ... u /v = 21, x = 21,

38 It should be noted, however, that MS So features a version of table 4 in an appendix

to the main text (fol. 140r).
39 The final two lines, for the 110 and 120 cycles, are sometimes falsely designated, as
‘200’ and ‘300’ (MSS Kb, Ke), ‘101’ and ‘102’ (Ka) or ‘200’ and ‘260’ (Pe). Further notable
variants include MSS Wb, where the table stops at 100, and Go, which adds two more
lines for the 130th and 140th iteration of the cycle. Md even counts ‘. .. 90, 100, 200, 260,
270’. The values in the last two lines of Mc1 likewise suggest ‘200’ and ‘260’, but they are
designated ‘200’ and ‘300’ instead. In So, the line for 100 cycles is followed by one for 200
cycles, after which the table stops.
40 Five tables: Ba, Be, Bf, Bh, Br, Co, Ed, Er, Gr, Ha, Kx, Le, Lf, Lo, Lp, Lq, Mc2, Mf, My,
Pf, Sa, Tr, Up, Wc, Wo, Wp. Although it stops after table 3, MS Wo is closely related to Up
and therefore evidently part of this group. The same goes for MS Er, in which table 4 is left
incomplete, while table 5 is missing.
y = 22, z = 0 /2 3 . A fter e a c h n u m e ra l h as b e e n assig n ed its c o rre s p o n d in g
le tte r, th e se le tte rs are vo calized , se em in g ly a t ra n d o m , to p ro d u c e fan ta sy
w ords, p re fe ra b ly su c h th a t w o u ld b e easy to k ee p in m in d b y v irtu e o f
th e ir so u n d o r sim ila rity w ith ex istin g w ord s. F or ex a m p le : th e first line
o f ta b le 1 c o n ta in s th e n u m b e rs 1.12.793, w h ic h in d ic a te s th a t o n e w e e k ­
day, 12 h o u rs a n d 793 h a la k im is th e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n tw o lu n iso la r
co n ju n c tio n s a c c o rd in g to th e Je w ish ca le n d ar. 1n a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e
p rin cip le ju s t outlin ed , th e se n u m b e rs are co n v e rted in to le tte rs in reverse
ord er, fro m rig h t to left, su c h th a t th e re s u lta n t w o rd is u su a lly Coniungo
m e a (3 = c + 9 = i + 7 = g + 12 = m + 1 = a; ConIunG o M eA ). T he c o rre sp o n d in g
‘c o u n te r-v a lu e ’ in th e c o lla te ra l ta b le is th u s o b v io u sly 6.23.1080-1.12.793
= 5.11.287, w h ic h is n o rm a lly v e rb a liz e d as so m e th in g like G anhabe L yen
(7 = g + 8 = h + 2 = b + 11 = l + 5 = e; G anH aBe LyEn).
W h ile th e p re se rv e d v ersio n s o f th e C om putus Iu d a icu s g en e rally ag ree
o n th is p rin c ip le o f co rre la tin g n u m b e rs w ith lette rs, th e y differ c o n ­
sp ic u o u sly n o t ju s t w ith re g a rd to h o w th e se le tte rs are v o ca liz ed a n d
e la b o ra te d in to w ords, b u t also as to th e w ay in w h ic h th e se n u m b e r-le tte r-
c o rre la tio n s a re d isp lay e d in ta b u la r form.41 1n a g re a t n u m b e r o f m a n u ­
scripts, th e w o rd s ta k e th e c e n tre place, w h e re a s th e n u m e ric a l d igits are
w ritte n in sm a lle r sc rip t ab o v e e a c h syllable, so m e tim e s v ery faintly. 1n
th is ty p e o f layout, n u m b e rs a n d syllables are alw ays w ritte n b ack w ard s,
fro m rig h t to left, as if th e lan g u ag e in q u e s tio n w as H eb rew . O nly MS Go,
how ev er, goes th e logical n e x t ste p a n d offers H eb rew tra n s c rip tio n s for
th e n u m b e rs in q u e stio n . 1n a b r ie f a d d e n d u m to th e m a in te x t fo u n d o n
a se p a ra te p ag e (fol. 209r), th e scrib e n o te s th e c o rre c t H eb rew eq u iv a­
le n ts to th e H in d u -A rab ic n u m e ra ls a s so c ia te d w ith th e a fo re m e n tio n e d
C oniungo M ea (1.12.793) a n d G anhabe L yen (5.11.287), n a m e ly
(tra n sc rib e d as A y a w f Tasch za g e ) a n d T2“I.N’.n (tra n sc rib e d as H y reffaz).42
As far as th e ta b le s th e m se lv e s a re co n c e rn e d , th e s c h e m e u se d in m o s t
MSS, in c lu d in g Go, is th e following:43

41 Some MSS omit numbers altogether and only feature the mnemonic words, either
with (Bf, Br, Gw) or without (Mg, Vi) a tabular arrangement. By contrast, MSS Sg and So
omit any words and instead limit their tables to numbers. 1t is an open question whether
the original redaction of the Computus Iudaicus already featured words and numerals side
by side in the same table. The issue will hopefully be explored further in my forthcoming
edition.
42 See on this MS also Anton Blaschka, ‘Die Gothaer Handschrift X des Speculum stul-
torum verglichen mit der Breslauer Handschrift T’, Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift derMartin-
Luther-UniversitatHalle-Wittenberg, 8 (1958/59), 989-1001 (p. 990).
43 See MS Go, fol. 205r. Note that most MSS assign the first line of table 1 to November,
which would be Marheshvan according to the correlation presented in section 1.3. This
 3 9 7 12 1 7 8 2 11 5
Iun Go Me A No[vember] Gan Ha Be Ly En 1
n
c
o

6 0 5 1 3 4 7 5 22 3
2 Frax Zo Er Ar Cri De[cember] Dor Gut Et Y Cos 2

T his ‘v e rtic a l sc h e m e ’ is th e p r e d o m in a n t o n e a m o n g m a n u s c rip ts co p ­

ie d in th e fifte e n th c e n tu ry a n d is first fea tu re d , in v ery ro u g h a n d b asic
form , in MS Ka fro m c. 1387.44 A n earlier, b u t less fre q u e n t, v a ria n t dis­
plays n u m b e rs a n d w o rd s in h o riz o n ta l o rd e r a c c o rd in g to th e follow ing
schem e:45

1 12 793 coniungo Mea 5 11 287 Ganhabe Lyen

3 1 506 Fraxzoer Arcri 3 22 574 Dorgutet Ycos

w o r t h n o tin g a t th is p o in t is a n a d d itio n th a t follow s a fte r ta b le 1 in a

large n u m b e r o f la te r m a n u sc rip ts . It e n c o m p a sse s a b r ie f p a ra g ra p h a n d
a d jo in e d ta b le th a t serves to calc u late th e tim e o f th e o p p o s itio n o f su n
a n d m o o n as w ell as th e tim e o f th e tw o h a lf-m o o n s (lunae sem isticae)
w ith in a lu n a tio n . As o n e w o u ld expect, th is is d o n e b y resp e ctiv ely a d d ­
in g to th e tim e o f th e p re s e n t m o la d o n e h a lf (0.18.396) o r o n e q u a rte r
(0.9.198) o f th e m o n th le n g th (1.12.793). N eed less to say, a n in s tru c tio n
o f th is k in d is q u ite a lie n to th e u su a l p u rp o se s o f a c a le n d a r tre a tise . Its
p re se n c e in 20 o u t o f p re se rv e d 59 co p ies o f th e C o m p u tu s Iu d a icu s clearly
b e sp e a k s th e fac t th a t its re d a c to rs saw in it first a n d fo re m o st a n a s tro ­
n o m ic a l sc h o o l te x t, w h o se v alu e lay in its u tility in ca lc u la tin g th e lu n a r
p h a s e s r a th e r th a n in p ro v id in g a n y in fo rm a tio n o n th e Jew ish c a le n d a r

makes sense, seeing that the calculation behind table 1, as specified in section 2.4, is meant
to be based on a molad Tishri/October already known, meaning that adding the first line
of the table will lead to the second molad of the Jewish year.
44 Further MSS from this group are: Be, Bh, Co, Ed, Er, Go, Gr, Ha, Kb, Kc, Ke, Kx, Le,
Lf, Lo, Lq, Mc2 (table 2), Ml, My, Ne, Pf, Sa, Sb, Sf, Tr, Up, Wb, Wc, Wo, Wp. This includes
most MSS from the 5-table-group.
45 MSS from this group include: Ba, Kd, Lw, Ma, Mb, Md, Pc, Me, Mf, Mc2 (only the first
table), and Va, the earliest datable copy among which is Me, from 1375. The only exception
to the rule is MS Pc, where the order is turned around, words being followed by numbers,
which are here written in reverse order, from right to left. This may point to an influence
from the ‘vertical group’.
as such. W h a t follow s is th e v e rsio n o f said p assag e fo u n d in MS W b,
w h ic h w as c o p ie d in th e y e a r 1420:46

But in order to find the opposition, i.e. w hen the sun is at its farthest dis­
tance from the m oon and at its m ost perfect roundness, you m ust add
Faicax Sulzax to the conjunction; [and] in order to check [the result] you
m ust add Dardafax Effert. If, however, you w ish to know w hen the m oon is
at its semi-stage, looking as if it had been divided into half, then you m ust
add Haioax Iozax to the conjunction; [and] in order to check [the result]
you m ust add Barhahex Orfus, as becom es clear from the following table.
And this passage is n o t essential.47

As it h a p p e n s, W b is th e o nly w itn e ss to th is p assag e th a t p o in ts o u t th a t

th e p assag e is n o t a n e sse n tia l o r o rig in al p a r t o f th e tre a tis e (E t ille tex-
tu s n on est de essencia), in d ic a tin g th a t th e scrib e w as aw a re o f it b e in g
a r e c e n t a d d itio n . T his d e ta il is lo st in all la te r w itn e sse s to th e p assage,
w h ile th e on ly a tte s ta tio n to th e p assag e th a t is ea rlie r th a n W b is fo u n d
in Go, w h ic h w as p ro b a b ly c o p ie d in 1408/9. H ere, th e se c tio n a p p e a rs
n o t as p a r t o f th e m a in tex t, b u t a m o n g so m e re la te d ‘stu d y m a te ria ls’,
c o m p o se d o f a s tro n o m ic a l n o te s a n d diagram s, w h ic h p re c e d e th e a c tu a l
C om putus Iudaicus.48 T he co ro llary v alu e for fin d in g th e h a lf-m o o n is h e re
in c o rre c tly g iven as B a rhahe D orfex, i.e. as 6.4.288 in s te a d o f 6.14.288 (Bar­
h a h e x Orfus), a n e rro r th a t c a rrie d ov er to all o th e r co p ies o f th e passage,
e x c e p t fo r W b. M oreover, all co p ies m a d e a fte r Go a n d W b a d ju s t th e tim e
o f th e c o rre sp o n d in g v alu e to m a k e it ag ree w ith th is m istak e , su c h th a t
it is n o w so m e th in g like H a io a x T o za x (0.19.198) in s te a d o f H a io a x Io za x
(0.9.198). T he fa c t th a t th is e rro r p e rsis te d to su c h a d eg ree, d e s p ite b e in g
easily c o rre c te d o n a rith m e tic g ro u n d s, sp e ak s q u ite e lo q u e n tly n o t j u s t
o f th e in c o m p e te n c e o f scrib es in g en eral, b u t also o f th e in c re asin g ly p e r ­

46 The addition is also present in MSS Be, Br, Bh, Co, Go, Gr, Ha, Le, Lo, Lp, Lq, Kb, Kx,
Mf, Pf, Sb, Up, Wc and Wo. Out of these, Go, Gr, Le, Lq, and Up feature the text without
the accompanying table, whereas Ha has only the table itself.
47 MS Wb, fol. 8r: ‘Sed ad inveniendum oppositionem, scilicet quando sol est in remo-
tissima distancia a luna et perfectissime rotunditatis, tunc adde ad incensionem faicax
sulzax. Ad probandum adde dardafax effert. Si autem scire volueris quando est semistica,
tamquam esset per dimidium divisa, tunc adde ad incensionem haioax iozax. Ad proban-
dum adde barhahex orfus, ut patet in figura sequenti. Et ille textus non est de essencia.’
48 MS Go, fol. 201r. The only other examples where the passage does not follow directly
upon table 1 are Kx (fol. 35v) and Ha (fol. 31v), where it instead appears as an appendix to
the main text, and Br (fol. 202r), where it is sandwiched between ch. 2.3 and 2.4. MS Mf
(fol. 80r) has a modified version of the passage, which focusses only on the opposition. It
is inserted between sections 1.2 and 1.3.
vasive te x tu a l c o rru p tio n th a t is e n c o u n te re d in th e m a n u s c rip t tr a d itio n
o f th e C om putus Iu d a ic u s.

4. C om m entaries, A uthorship, a n d T ransm ission

Som e o f th e o ld e st p re se rv e d copies, su c h as Pa, Pd, a n d W a, do n o t

c o n ta in th e te x t itself, b u t a n e x te n d e d c o m m e n ta ry , w h ich , ju d g in g b y
so m e o f th e re c k o n in g ex a m p le s u se d , w as c o m p o se d in o r close to th e
y e a r 1344.49 T his w o u ld p u t th e c o m p o sitio n o f th e o rig in al c o m m e n ta ry
o n ly a b o u t tw o y ea rs a fte r th e m a in tex t, w h ich , as m e n tio n e d ab o v e, ref­
e re n c e s 1342 in se c tio n 5.1. 1n MS Mc1, w h ic h u p d a te s so m e o f th e sam e
ex a m p le s to 1375, th e c o m m e n ta ry is for th e first tim e fo u n d c o m b in e d
w ith th e m a in tex t, su c h th a t e a c h s h o rt c h a p te r o r se c tio n o f th e te x t
is follo w ed b y a p ro lo n g e d e x p lic a tio n in sm a lle r scrip t. A ru n n in g c o m ­
m e n ta ry o f th is so rt is also fo u n d in m o s t o th e r m a n u sc rip ts , n o less th a n
36 o f w h ic h c o n ta in a t le a st so m e la rg e r c o m m e n ta ry p o rtio n . A lte rn a ­
tively, so m e co p ies p u t th e m a in te x t a t th e c e n te r o f th e p ag e a n d h av e
th e c o m m e n ta ry w ritte n as a fra m e a ro u n d it, fo llo w in g a n a rra n g e m e n t
th a t w as ty p ic a l o f m e d ie v a l glossed B ibles a n d o th e r a u th o rita tiv e tex ts,
a n d w h ic h w as la te r also to in flu e n c e th e la y o u t o f early T alm u d ed itio n s
(Br, Ed, Kc, Lf, Pf, Sb, W p ). O nly in a few cases d o es th e c o m m e n ta ry fol­
lo w en bloc u p o n th e m a in te x t (Ne) o r is its e lf fo llo w ed b y it (Bg).
E ven m o re so th a n th e m a in tex t, th e c o m m e n ta ry w as su b je c t to
fre q u e n t c h a n g e s— co n tra c tio n s, a u g m e n ta tio n s , a n d ev e n efforts a t
re-w ritin g . T hese c h a n g es a re so perv asiv e th a t it se em s m o re a p p ro p ri­
a te to sp e ak o f a w h o le series o f c o m m e n ta rie s , a lth o u g h c e rta in p arts,
su c h as th e e x p o s itio n o f th e in tro d u c to ry verses, g en e rally p re se rv e d a
sta b le o u tlin e o f c o n te n ts a n d a rg u m e n t. T he m o s t v o la tile p a r t o f th e
c o m m e n ta rie s are th e d iffering p ro lo g u es, w h ic h w e re u su a lly o n ly te n u ­
o usly re la te d to th e su b je c t o f th e m a in te x t a n d g o t c o m p le te ly re p la c e d
in sev eral in sta n c e s d u rin g th e te x t’s tra n sm issio n h isto ry . 1n th e o ld e st
k n o w n v e rsio n o f th e c o m m e n ta ry , re d a c te d in c. 1344, th e p ro lo g u e ta k es
th e fo rm o f a le n g th y e x p o sitio n o f so m e v erse s o n th e a ttr ib u te s o f th e

49 1n the copies mentioned, the actual Computus Iudaicus was meant to be present only
in the form of brief lemmata indicating what chapter or section of the original text was
being commented on. 1n the case of MSS Pa and Pd, blank spaces are left in place of these
initial lines, which were never filled in.
m o o n , d eriv e d fro m th e p o p u la r m e d iev a l L atin v e rsio n o f th e Vita o f
S ecu n d u s o f A th en s, ‘th e S ilen t P h ilo so p h e r’:

The m oon is the sun’s rival, the revealer of evildoers, the solace of travelers,
abounder in dew, eye of the night, a forebode of the w eather, the lowliest
of the superior [spheres], the boyhood of the inferior [realm], the m other of
all w et things.50

A c o m p le te ly d ifferen t, a n d m u c h s h o rte r, p ro lo g u e w as a tta c h e d to a c o m ­

m e n ta ry re d a c te d in c. 1385, w h ic h m a d e its w ay in to MSS Bg, Ne, a n d Pe.
It b eg in s w ith a n e x p o s itio n o f th e Bible v erse ‘F or th e p rie s t’s lips sh o u ld
k ee p k n o w le d g e ’ (M alachi 2. 7).51 A few y ea rs later, J o h a n n e s M u n tz in g e r,
a s c h o o lm a ste r (rector scolarum ) a t R ottw eil, w ro te a n e w c o m m e n ta ry
t h a t s ta rte d w ith th e o p e n in g v erse s o f th e la te a n tiq u e D isticha Catonis:
‘If G od is a sp irit, as p o e ts sing, W ith m in d k e p t p u re m a k e th o u th y offer­
ing.’ This lin e w as o bviously a fav o u rite o f M u n tz in g e r’s, w h o also u se d it
to p refac e h is o w n T ractatus de co m p u to ecclesiastico a n d h is c o m m e n ta ry
o n S acro b o sco ’s C om putus, w h ic h a re fo u n d to g e th e r w ith th e C om putus
Iu d a icu s in th e sa m e m a n u sc rip t, c o p ie d in 1394 b y h is s tu d e n t W e rn e r
M ardersperger.52 T he c o m m e n ta rie s in W b a n d Kb, re sp e c tiv e ly co p ied
in 1420 a n d 1433, b o th s ta rt b y re fe re n c in g A risto tle ’s d ic tu m th a t ‘a sm all
e rro r in th e b e g in n in g w ill le a d to a large o n e in th e e n d ’, b e fo re ap p ly in g

50 MS Pa, fol. 120ra: ‘Luna est solis emula, malefactorum revelatrix, itinerantium sola-
men, largativa roris, oculus noctis, presagium tempestatis, fex superiorum, pueritas inferi-
orum, mater humidorum.’ Besides Pa, Pd, and Wa, versions of this prologue are also found
in Ba, Mc1, Sb and Wp. The verse itself is also referenced in MSS Ka, fol. 47v; Mc2, fol. 256v.
See Secundus the Silent Philosopher, ed. by Ben Edwin Perry (Ithaca, NY: The American
Philological Association, 1964), p. 95: ‘Quid luna? Celi purpura, solis emula, malefactorum
inimica, itinerantium solamen, navigantium directio, signum sollempnitatum, recircula-
tio mensium, oculus noctis, larga roris, presagium tempestatum.’ Cf. also Johannes Algeri,
Computus chirometralis, ed. by Mutz, p. 8: ‘Luna est oculus mundi splendor noctis pedis-
sequa solis fex superiorum infimus planetarum aurarum alteratrix. mensium permutatrix.
fons humiditatis atque noctis domina.’
51 MS Pe, fol. 118r: ‘Quia iuxta auctoritatem prophete scientia quelibet pertinens ad
divinum officium a quolibet literato est custodienda. Dicit enim: Labia sacerdotis custo-
diunt scientiam..
52 MS So, fol. 150r: ‘Si Deus est animus, ut nobis carmina dicunt, Hic tibi precipue sit
pura mente colendus ...’ Cf. Disticha Catonis (1.1), ed. by Marcus Boas (Amsterdam: North-
Holland, 1952), p. 34. Translation according to The Distichs of Cato: A Famous Medieval
Textbook, trans. by Wayland Johnson Chase, University of Wisconsin Studies in the Social
Sciences and History, 7 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1922), p. 17. See also MS
So, fol. 2r, 61v, 116r, 122v. For further information on this important MS, see Ferdinand
Vetter, ‘Neues zu Justinger: Kunrat Justinger als Schuler und Fortsetzer Konigshofens
und die altesten Geschichtsschreiber Berns und des Laupenstreites’, Jahrbuch fu r Sch-
weizerische Geschichte, 31 (1906), 109-206 (pp. 112-51). See also below, n. 65, for more on
Muntzinger.
th is p rin c ip le to th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e c o n ju n c tio n a n d o p p o sitio n o f su n
a n d m oon.53 A u n iq u e a n d v ery le n g th y p relu d e , w h ic h offers a c o m m e n ­
ta ry o n th e c h a n t D o m u m tu a m D om ine decet, is fo u n d in MS W c, co p ied
in 1428. By c o n tra st, th e p refac e sh a re d , w ith so m e c o n s id e ra b le v aria tio n ,
b e tw e e n MSS Ha, Pf, Le, Up, a n d W o, deals w ith v a rio u s c o m m o n p la c e s
re g a rd in g th e d isc ip lin es o f th e q u ad riv iu m , in c lu d in g re fe re n c e s to P to le­
m y ’s A lm a g e st a n d th e M u sica o f J o h n o f M urs. Finally, a large n u m b e r
o f c o m m e n ta rie s skip th e p refac e a lto g e th e r a n d b e g in d irec tly w ith th e
e x p lic a tio n o f th e in tro d u c to ry v erse s (Kc, Lq, Tr) o r lim it th e m se lv e s to a
few lin es o f in tro d u c tio n (Be, Co, Kx, Lo).
D esp ite th e h ighly v o la tile n a tu re o f th e ir tra n sm issio n , th e c o m m e n ­
ta rie s c a n p ro v id e so m e m o d e s t h e lp in e lu c id a tin g th e te x tu a l h isto ry
o f th e c o m p u tu s Iu d a ic u s. T his is in p a r t th a n k s to th e ir d a tin g clauses,
w h ic h u su a lly tu r n u p in th e c o n te x t o f re c k o n in g ex a m p le s u s e d to
e x p la in th e a rith m e tic o p e ra tio n s im p lie d in th e m a in tex t. A fter th e in i­
tia l v e rsio n o f 1344, th e n e x t stage in th e e v o lu tio n o f th e c o m m e n ta ry
th a t c a n b e clearly p in p o in te d is a c o m p le te ly rev ise d v e rsio n th a t w as
re d a c te d in c. 1385. As ju s t m e n tio n e d , it a p p e a rs in th is fo rm in MSS Bg,
Ne, a n d Pe. O ne o f th e h a llm a rk s o f th is v e rsio n is th a t its p refac e offers
a fairly precise, a lb e it sp ecu lativ e, a c c o u n t o f th e w o rk ’s a u th o rsh ip . In all
th re e m a n u sc rip ts , th e c o m m e n ta ry d isc e rn s b e tw e e n th e w o rk ’s ‘p rim a ry ’
efficien t cause, G o d him self, a n d ‘se c o n d a ry ’ efficien t cause, th e h u m a n
a u th o r. T he la tte r is re p o rte d to h av e b e e n

a certain m an of the nam e Johannes, who converted from Judaism to the

Christian faith and who, upon seeing th at the Jews possess a precise knowl­
edge of the conjunctions of sun and moon, as [calculated] for days, hours,
and points, translated the knowledge of this book from Hebrew into Latin.
Yet w hether this is true shall n o t be our concern, following the authority of
Seneca, in his book On the fo u r cardinal virtues, w here he says: You should

53 MS Wb, fol. 1r: ‘Teste philosopho primo celi et mundo et tercio De anima inquerente,
quoniam parvus error magnus erit in fine. Ista scribit Aristoteles primo celi et mundi. Et
quia coniunccio solis cum luna et eorum opposicio sunt principia in astronomia ...’ MS
Kb, fol. 333vb: ‘Quoniam parvus error in principio maximus est in fine, teste Philosopho
primo celi et mundo et 3o de anima; coniunccio vero solis et lune et eorum opposicio
sunt principia in astronomia.’ Cf. Thomas Aquinas, de ente et essentia (prol.), in Opera
omnia iussu Leonis X iii p. M. edita, vol. 43 (Roma: Editori di San Tommaso, 1976), p. 369:
‘Quia paruus error in principio magnus est in fine secundum Philosophum in I Celi et
mundi’; Averroes, commentarium magnum in aristotelis de anima libros (III.4), ed. by
F. Stuart Crawford, Corpus Commentariorum Averrois in Aristotelem, 6.1 (Cambridge, MA:
The Mediaeval Academy of America, 1953), p. 384: ‘Minimus enim error in principio est
causa maximi erroris in fine, sicut dicit Aristoteles.’
 not let the authority of the one saying it, or who says it, move you, b ut
instead pay attention to w hat is being said’; for the person who edited this
book was experienced in the language and science of the Hebrews.54

T his a s c rip tio n o f th e C om putus Iu d a icu s to a c o n v e rt n a m e d J o h a n n e s is a

n o ta b le d e p a rtu re fro m ea rlie r v e rsio n s o f th e co m m e n ta ry , w h o se co p ies
v ario u sly a sso c ia te th e w o rk w ith H ip p o cra tes, o n ly to h a s tily a d d th a t th e
tr u e a u th o rs h ip w as ‘o b sc u re o r d o u b tfu l a n d [th a t] th e re is n o re a s o n to
ca re a b o u t th e efficien t cause, b e c a u s e th e g o o d n ess o f th e effect p ro v es
th e g o o d n ess o f th e cau se.’55 S tartin g w ith th e 1385-version o f th e co m ­
m e n ta ry , how ev er, m o s t co p ies p r e s e n t th e ir re a d e rs w ith so m e v a r ia n t o f
th e sto ry th a t th e te x t w as c o m p o se d b y a fo rm e r Jew , w h o , a fte r c o n v e rt­
in g to C h ristia n ity a n d ta k in g th e n a m e Jo h a n n e s, co u ld n o t b e a r to see
his n e w co re lig io n ists o u ts m a rte d in th e field o f lu n a r co m p u tistics.
MS Kc, c o p ie d in P rague in c. 1398, f u rth e r e x p a n d s o n th is th e m e b y
in fo rm in g u s th a t th is J o h a n n e s w as b o r n as a P o lish Je w w ith th e n a m e
Salom on.56 By c o n tra st, MS Ke, fro m c. 1424, c h a n g es th e m a n ’s origi­
n a l H eb rew n a m e to ‘A ch el’ a n d gives a re-tellin g o f th e sto ry n o t fo u n d

54 MS Pe, fol. 118r: ‘Secundaria est [sic], ut dicitur communiter, fuit quidam de 1uda-
ismo conversus ad fidem Christianam nomine 1ohannes, qui considerans 1udeos precisem
habere scientiam de coniunctionibus solis et lune quoad dies, horas, et puncta, transtulit
istam scientiam libri huius de Hebraico in Latinum. Utrum autem hec sit verum non est
curandum iuxta auctoritatem Senece in libello de 4or virtutibus cardinalibus, sic dicens:
“Non te moveat dicentis auctoritas, ut quis dicas [sic], sed quid dicatur attendito”; quia
editor huius libri peritus fuit in lingua et scientia Hebreorum.’ See also MS Ne, p. 47. A
different ending is found in MS Bg, fol. 35r: ‘Utrum autem hec sit verum non est curandum
iuxta auctoritate Senece: Non attendito quis dicat sed quid dicatur. Opinandum tamen est
quod editor huius libri peritus fuit in lingua et scientia Ebreorum.’ For the ps.-Senecan
passage, see Martin of Braga, Formula vitae honestae, in Opera omnia, ed. by Claude W.
Barlow, Papers and Monographs of the American Academy in Rome, 12 (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1950), p. 240: ‘Non te moveat dicentis auctoritas, nec quis, sed quid dicat
intendito.’ See further Christoph Fasbender, ‘Non sit tibi cura quis dicat, sed quid dicatur:
Kleine Gebrauchsgeschichte eines Seneca-Zitates’, in Anonymitat und Autorschaft: Zur
Literatur- und Rechtsgeschichte der Namenlosigkeit, ed. by Stephan Pabst, Studien und
Texte zur Sozialgeschichte der Literatur, 126 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2011), pp. 35-48.
55 MS Pa, fol. 121ra: ‘Causa efficiens est ypocras, id est obscura vel dubia, et non est
cura de causa efficiente, quia bonitas effectus arguit bonitatem causarum.’ See also MS
Ba, fol. 241r. 1n other MSS featuring this passage, ypocras is changed to ipocrisia (Pd,
fol. 47v), ypocrita (Wa, fol. 27v) or ypocrisa (Mc1, fol. 163va). See also MSS Ed, fol. 69v/
Lf, fol. 29v: ‘Causa efficiens fuit ypocras.’
56 MS Kc, fol. 11r: ‘Causa efficiens est duplex [...] colligens fuit quidam nacione 1udeus
et Polonus, nomine 1ohannes, qui Salomon 1udayco dicebatur, qui peritus in hac arte
ad fidem sancte matre ecclesie conversus ipsam de Hebreys transtulit in Latinum et a
hoc invocavit divinum auxilium per quod probavit se fide Christianum, cum dixit Sed si
verbigene.’
elsew here.57 In MS W b, w h ic h w as c o p ie d in 1420 b y Jo d o c u s d e Z iegen-
h als (c. 1380-1447), a m e m b e r a n d la te r a b b o t o f th e C a n o n s R egular
a t W roclaw , th e sto ry is ag a in slightly c h a n g e d in th a t J o h a n n e s is h e re
re fe rre d to as a n a stro n o m u s, b u t n o in d ic a tio n o f h is Je w ish o rig in s is
given.58 In a m a rg in a l gloss in Kx, c o p ie d n o t to o lo n g a fte r 1425 a t th e
m o n a ste ry o f R u p p in in B ran d e n b u rg , th e re g iste r o f p o te n tia l a u th o rs is
a u g m e n te d b y th e n a m e J o h n o f Sacrobosco.59 T his a d d itio n a l a s c rip tio n
c a rrie d ov er to sev eral su b s e q u e n t v ersio n s o f th e c o m m e n ta ry , w h e re o n e
o fte n e n c o u n te rs a tric o lo n o f p o ssib le a u th o rs , b e g in n in g w ith H ip p o ­
crates, w h o is th e n follo w ed b y J o h n o f S acrobosco a n d ‘a c e rta in Jew , w h o
c o n v e rte d to th e fa ith ’. T he e a rlie s t a tte s ta tio n o f th is is in MS Pf, co p ied
in F ra n k fu rt in 1427, follow ed b y ov er h a lf a d o z e n la te r copies.60
G iven th e fa c t th a t th e c o m m e n ta to rs th e m se lv e s o fte n e x p re ssed a
d eg ree o f re se rv a tio n to w a rd s th e ir o w n su g g estio n s o f a u th o rs h ip — a re s­
e rv a tio n u n d e rlin e d b y th e p se u d o -S e n e c a n q u o te fo u n d in m a n y re n d e r ­
ings o f th e passage61— th e re is c e rta in ly n o re a so n to in v e st a g re a t d e a l o f
co n fid e n ce in a n y o f th e se claim s. T he a ttr ib u tio n to J o h n o f Sacrobosco,
a u b iq u ito u s n a m e in th e la te m e d ie v a l q u ad riv iu m , w h o se w o rk s o ften

57 MS Ke, fol. 190r: ‘[Computus] Iudaicus vocetur, et non aliter ratio alia non est, nisi
quia Iudeus quidam qui tenuit fidem eorum fuit expertus numerum istum scilicet aureum
numerum; a deinde conversus ad fidem Christianam, qui postremo per modos alias fuit
mancipatus doctrinis scolasticis etc., illam diversitatem quae fuit circa aureum numerum
Iudeorum convertit de Ebrayco idiomate ad Latinum. Et hec ideo fecit ne clerici non sint
ipsis minores in eorum scientiis. Et sic patet causa efficiens et fuit quidem Iudeus nomine
Achel, ut quidam asserunt.’
58 MS Wb, fol. 1r: ‘Sed causa efficiens fuit quidam astronomus nomine Iohannes, qui
transtulit nobis istam scientiam de Iudayco in Latinum, ne videntur Iudeos subtiliores
computisticas ipsis clericis.’ On the scribe, see n. 70 below. For further references to Johan­
nes in the commentary prefaces, see MSS Kb, fol. 334rb; Wc, fol. 16va; Be, fol. 176r; Co,
fol. 44r; Sb, fol. 42v.
59 MS Kx, fol. 25r: ‘Sed causa efficiens dicitur fuisse quidam studens nomine Iohan-
nes qui olim fuit Iudeus et quondam baptisatus ille transtulit illam scientiam de Iudayco
in Latinum ne videntur Iudeos esse subtiliores in arte computistica ipsis clericis latinis.’
Marginal gloss: ‘Vel secundum alios Iohannes de Sacrobusco.’
60 MS Pf, fol. 157v: ‘Sed causa efficiens secundum aliquos fuit Ypocras. Sed secundum
alios fuit Iohannes de Sacrobusco. Alii tamen dicunt quod fuit quidam Iudeus conversus
ad fidem qui transtulit nobis istam scientiam de Iudaico in Latinum.’ See further MSS Bh,
fol. 211v; Wp, fol. 56v; Ha, fol. 26v. A slight variation appears in MS Lo, 47r: ‘Quidam enim
dicunt quod fuit magister ypocras medicus. Alii dicunt quod fuit Iohannes de sancto sepul-
chro [sic]. Alii tamen dicunt quod fuit quidam Iudeus ad fidem Christianam conversus et
sic ab illo nomine liber intitulatur “computus iudaicus”.’ Largely the same wording is also
found in MS Lq, fol. 26r-v. A fuller version of the triad appears in MSS Le, fol. 128v; Wo,
fol. 25v; Up, fol. 14r-v, where the converted Jew’s name is once again given as Johannes.
61 See n. 54 above. Versions of the quote accompany the passage in MSS Bg, Ke, Mc2,
Ne, Pe, Pf, Wb, and Wc.
a p p e a r in th e sa m e co d ices as th e c o m p u tu s iu d a ic u s, is easily d isc a rd e d
as a se c o n d a ry ac cretio n , m o tiv a te d b y th e p rin c ip le o f lin k in g a n o n y ­
m o u s te x ts to fam o u s a u th o rs th a t w ro te in th e sa m e g en re. In d ee d , since
th e a s c rip tio n to S acrobosco is la te r th a n th a t to th e c o n v e rt Jo h a n n e s, it
is likely th a t it goes b a c k to a co n fu sio n o f io h a n n e s q u o n d a m iu d e u s w ith
th e fam o u s th irte e n th -c e n tu ry a s tro n o m e r a n d c o m p u tist. Likew ise, th e
id e a th a t th e te x t w as w ritte n b y a fo rm e r Je w is p ro b a b ly b e s t se e n as a
co n jec tu re , b a s e d o n th e n o tio n th a t th e a u th o r m u s t h av e b e e n ‘e x p e ­
rie n c e d in th e la n g u ag e a n d sc ien c e o f th e H eb rew s’, as th e o th e rw ise
sk e p tic al c o m m e n ta to r in MS Bg p u ts it, a n d th e re fo re so m e o n e w ith
a Je w ish b a c k g ro u n d .62 T he id e a th a t h e w as a c o n v e rt to C h ristian ity
w as also p la u sib le giv en th e heav ily an ti-Jew ish to n e o f th e p ro lo g u e, in
w h ic h th e a u th o r expressly im p lo res th e ‘p o w er o f th e o n e w h o w as b o rn
fro m th e w o rd ’ ( s e d si verbigene virtu s m ich i p ro sp era f i e t )— a p a lp a b le
re fe re n c e to first c h a p te r o f J o h n ’s Gospel.63
N aturally, th is d o es n o t c o m p le te ly solve th e q u e s tio n o f w h e re th e n a m e
J o h a n n e s (o r th e n a m e s S alo m o n a n d A chel, as m e n tio n e d in MSS Kc a n d
Ke) o riginally ca m e from . C onfusingly, a n o th e r n a m e fo r th e te x t’s p re ­
su m e d Je w ish a u th o r is o ffered u n iq u e ly in MS So, c o p ie d in 1394, w h e re
th e m a in te x t closes w ith th e follow ing c o lo p h o n : ‘H ere e n d s th e Je w ish
co m p u tu s m a d e b y m a s te r P e tru s R oseveld, th e Jew , in th e y e a r o f th e
L ord o n e th o u s a n d 3 44’ (E xplicit co m p u tu s iu d a y c u s fa c tu s p e r m a g istru m
p e tru m R oseveld iu d e u m a n n o d o m in i m illesim o 344mo).64 T h e alleg ed y e a r
o f a u th o rs h ip (1344) a p p e a rs to c o n tra d ic t th e y e a r n o rm a lly re fe re n c e d in
th e m a in te x t (1342), b u t is in fa c t c o n g ru e n t w ith th e v e rsio n o f se c tio n
5.1 fo u n d in MS So (a n d also in Kb, Pf, Sg, a n d W b ), w h e re th e rec k o n in g
e x a m p le is u p d a te d to 1344 CE/5104 JE. T his c h a n g e m a y h av e b e e n in flu ­
e n c e d b y th e co m m e n ta ry , w h o se e a rlie s t v ersio n , as seen , c a n b e d a te d to
c. 1344. N o th in g co u ld b e a s c e rta in e d a b o u t th e alleg ed a u th o r, a n (in all
lik e lih o o d c o n v e rte d ) Je w n a m e d P etru s R ose(n )v eld , w h o is h e re re fe rre d
to as m agister. G iven all th e c o n tra d ic tio n s a n d u n c e rta in tie s n o te d th u s
far, it is p e rh a p s safest to tr e a t th e c o m p u tu s iu d a ic u s as a n a n o n y m o u sly
tr a n s m itte d w ork.
A few m o re re m a rk s a re in o rd e r re g a rd in g MS So, w h ic h is r a th e r e x c e p ­
tio n a l in th a t th e c o m m e n ta ry to th e c o m p u tu s iu d a ic u s (fols 1 5 0 r-5 4 v )

62 MS Bg, fol. 35r: ‘Opinandum tamen est quod editor huius libri peritus fuit in lingua
et scientia Ebreorum.’
63 This is already pointed out in MS Kc, fol. 11r. See n. 56 above for the quotation.
64 MS So, fol. 146r.
is h e re s e p a ra te d fro m th e m a in te x t (fols 145v-47v) b y a series o f ta b le s
(fols 148r-49v). 1n th e te x t itself, th e n u m b e r o f ta b le s h a s b e e n re d u c e d to
tw o (tab les 1 a n d 2), w h ilst th e full se t o f ta b le s 1 -4 is o n ly fe a tu re d as a n
a p p e n d ix . A side fro m Sg, w h ic h a p p e a rs to b e re la te d to it, So is also th e
o n ly co p y to o m it all m n e m o n ic w o rd s fro m th e tab les, w h ic h a re h e n c e
p u re ly n u m e ric a l. T he w h o le e n s e m b le w as c o p ie d in th e to w n o f R o ttw eil
(so u th -w e ste rn G erm an y ) in O c to b e r 1394 b y W e rn e r M a rd e rsp e rg er, w h o
in th a t y e a r p ro d u c e d a w h o le series o f tra n s c rip tio n s o f c o m p u tistic a l a n d
a s tro n o m ic a l w o rk s b y h is te a c h e r J o h a n n e s M u n tz in g e r, w h o h a s a lre a d y
b e e n m e n tio n e d above. Before b e c o m in g rector sco la ru m a t R ottw eil, th e
la tte r is a tte s te d to h av e s p e n t elev e n y ea rs a t th e u n iv e rsity o f P rag u e
(fro m 1372 to 1383), first as a s tu d e n t a n d la te r (fro m 1378) as a m a s te r
o f A rts, a n d o n e m a y c o n je c tu re th a t M u n tz in g e r’s c o m m e n ta ry w as w rit­
te n d u rin g th a t tim e — o r th a t h e first ca m e acro ss th e C om putus Iu d a icu s
w h ilst stu d y in g a n d te a c h in g there.65
T h a t th e city o f P rague a n d its re g io n w e re p e rh a p s th e first m a jo r c e n ­
te r o f d iss e m in a tio n for th is te x t is in d ic a te d b y th e n u m b e r o f relativ ely
early co p ies th a t c a n b e tra c e d e ith e r to P rague its e lf (Ka?, Kc, M z, Ne?, Pa,
Pb, Pe) o r to th e m o n a s te ry o f th e C a n o n s R egular in T re b o n (W ittin g au ),
S o u th e rn B o h e m ia (Pc, Pd).66 F ro m B ohem ia, th e w o rk se em s to h av e m a d e
its w ay to A u stria/S lo v e n ia (Gr, Ml, Sb, Sf, Vi) a n d B avaria, w h e re sev eral
early co p ies fro m th e 1370s a n d 1380s, n o w all a t th e S taa tsb ib lio th e k in
M u n ich , w e re o n ce lo c a te d in v a rio u s B e n ed ictin e m o n a s te rie s su c h as
T eg ern see (M e), E b ersb e rg (M a), 1 n d ersd o rf (M b), a n d St E m m e ra m in

65 On Muntzinger, see Vetter, ‘Neues zu Justinger’, pp. 142-51; Albert Lang, ‘Johann
Muntzinger, ein schwabischer Theologe und Schulmeister am Ende des 14. Jahrhunderts’,
in Aus der Geisteswelt des Mittelalters: Studien und Texte Martin Grabmann zur Vollendung
des 60. Lebensjahres von Freunden und Schulern gewidmet, ed. by Albert Lang, Joseph Lech-
ner, and Michael Schmaus, 2 vols., Beitrage zur Geschichte der Philosophie und Theologie
des Mittelalters: Texte und Untersuchungen, Supplement, 3 (Munster: Aschendorff, 1935),
11, 1200-30; Arne Holtorf, ‘Johannes Muntzinger’, in Die deutsche Literatur, ed. by Stammler
and others, VI (1987), 794-99. Muntzinger can be also linked to MS Ma, which contains an
excerpt from Nicholas of Dybin’s Viaticus dictandi produced by him (fols 168r-222v). See
Hans Szklenar, Magister Nicolaus de Dybin: Vorstudien zu einer Edition seiner Schriften; Ein
Beitrag zur Geschichte der literarischen Rhetorik im spateren Mittelalter, Munchener Texte
und Untersuchungen zur deutschen Literatur des Mittelalters, 65 (Munich: Artemis, 1981),
62, 150, who suggests that Muntzinger may have also been the scribe. 1t must be noted,
however, that the recension of the Computus Iudaicus in Ma (datable to 1383) is not from
the same hand and differs conspicuously from the one copied by Mardersperger in 1394.
66 For MS Mz, see now Harald Berger, ‘Ein bemerkenswerter spatmittelalterlicher Codex
zur Philosophie, Astronomie und Medizin: Mainz, Stadtbibliothek, HS 1 613’, Traditio,
62 (2007), 237-58.
R eg en sb u rg (Mc1). T he likely sc en a rio th a t co p ies o f th e te x t first sta rte d
to ra d ia te fro m B o h e m ia n e e d s n o t clash w ith th e claim , fo u n d in MS Kc,
th a t th e su p p o se d a u th o r J o h a n n e s w as nacione iu d e u s e t p o lo n u s. In d eed ,
a n o th e r im p o r ta n t c e n te r fo r th e te x t’s m a n u s c rip t tra n sm iss io n a p p e a rs
to h av e b e e n K rakow , w h e re a s tro n o m y w as in p a rtic u la rly h ig h s ta n d ­
in g d u rin g th e la te M iddle Ages. T he Ja g ie llo n ia n U n iv ersity still h o ld s
sev eral copies, th e e a rlie st o f w h ic h (Ka) d a te s fro m 1387.67 A lth o u g h th e
la tte r m a y h av e o rig in a te d in Prague, its glosses fe a tu re th e h a n d s o f tw o
K rakow ian A rts m a ste rs a n d p ro fe sso rs o f th e se c o n d h a lf o f th e fifte e n th
ce n tu ry , J o h a n n e s o f M ic h alo w a n d M a tth ia s o f S z y d lo w 68 It is in d e e d
te m p tin g to th in k th a t th e c o m p u tu s iu d a ic u s w as in te g ra te d in to th e A rts
c u rric u lu m a t K rakow for a t le a st so m e tim e d u rin g th e fifte e n th ce n tu ry ,
as w as d e m o n stra b ly d o n e a t V ie n n a 69 O n e case in p o in t is Jo d o c u s de
Z ieg en h als, th e a fo re m e n tio n e d scrib e o f MS W b (1420), w h ic h also c o n ­
ta in s a c o m m e n te d co p y o f th e c o m p u tu s chirom etralis (fol. 7 3 v -9 9 v ): o n
fol. 9 9 r o f said m a n u s c rip t it is explicitly s ta te d th a t Jo d o c u s re a d th e c o m ­
p u tu s chirom etralis w h ilst stu d y in g in K rakow fo r h is A rts b a c c a la u re a te ^ 0
D id h e p e rh a p s co m e in to c o n ta c t w ith th e c o m p u tu s iu d a ic u s a t th e sam e
o cc asio n ? T he e x e m p la r o f h is co p y w as a p p a re n tly also a t th e ro o t o f MS
Kb, d a tin g fro m 1433, w h o se c o m m e n ta ry is sim ila r to th a t in MS W b,

67 MSS Ka (c. 1387), Kb (c. 1433), Kc (1398), Kd (c. 1389), Ke (c. 1424); Kx, now at Krakow,
was still in Berlin before the Second World War.
68 For details, see Maria Kowalczyk and others, eds., catalogus codicum manuscrip-
torum medii aevi Latinorum, qui in Bibliotheca Jagellonica cracoviae asservantur, vol. 3,
Numeros continens inde a 445 usque ad 563 (Wroclaw: Wydawnictwo Polskiej Akademii
Nauk, 1984), pp. 396-97.
69 See n. 15 above. This supposition seems all the more likely inlight of the close ties
that existed between both universities in the fifteenth century in the fields of mathema­
tics and astronomy. See Mieczyslaw Markowski, “Die Beziehungen zwischen der Wiener
mathematischen Schule und der Krakauer astronomischen Schule im Licht der erhalte-
nen mathematisch-astronomischen Schriften in den Manuskripten der osterreichischen
Nationalbibliothek in Wien und der jagellonischen Bibliothek in Krakow,” Mediaevalia
philosophica polonorum 18 (1973): 133-58.
70 MS Wb, fol. 99r: “Hunc computum frater Jodocus pro tunc etistem (?) baccalar.
arcium legit in studio Cracoviensi. Orate pro eum.” Further entries from this MS are
printed in Colmar Grunhagen, ‘Annalistische Nachlese, 1227-1450’, Zeitschrift des Vereins
fu r Geschichte undAlterthum Schlesiens, 9 (1868), 182-90 (pp. 186-87). On Jodocus’s career,
see further Jan Drabina, ‘Jodok von Ziegenhals und seine Chronik der Augustiner-Chor-
herren’, in Die Anfange des Schrifttums in Oberschlesien bis zum Fruhhumanismus, ed. by
Gerhard Kosellek, Tagungsreihe der Stiftung Haus Oberschlesien, 7 (Frankfurt: Lang, 1997),
pp. 183-91; Christine Stollinger, ‘Jodocus Berthold von Ziegenhals (de Czeginhals)’, in Die
deutsche Literatur des Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, ed. by Wolfgang Stammler and others,
2nd ed., 14 vols (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1978-2008), IV (1983), 527-29; XI (2000), 762.
a lb e it lengthier.71 T he la tte r co p y w as m a d e b y N ico lau s d e G rab o sto w ,
a n o th e r m a s te r o f A rts fro m K rakow , w h o also re d a c te d a c o m m e n ta ry o n
th e C om putus chirom etralis (in 1423).y2
B e tw ee n 1400 a n d 1450, o n e c a n w itn e ss a v e rita b le ex p lo sio n o f m a n u ­
sc rip t co p ies o f th e C om putus Iu d a icu s, as a t le a s t 30 o u t o f th e 59 p re ­
serv ed m a n u s c rip ts w ere c o p ie d d u rin g th is p erio d . A t th e sam e tim e,
th e first h a lf o f th e fifte e n th c e n tu ry m a rk s a n o tic e a b le m o v e m e n t o f
tra n sm issio n aw a y fro m P oland, B ohem ia, a n d A u stria/B a v aria a n d in to
th e N o rth e rn reg io n s o f G erm any, w ith E rfu rt em e rg in g as a p a rtic u la rly
im p o r ta n t n e w c e n te r (Bh, Er, Lo, Lp). T he te x t w as still c o p ie d as la te as
1492 (H a), b y a m o n k n a m e d H e in ric h H o lth u se n a t th e B e n ed ictin e m o n ­
a ste ry o f St. B lasien in N o rth e im (n e a r G o ttin g e n ), w h e re th e m a n u s c rip t
w as o n ce held. O ne p e c u lia rity is th e fa c t t h a t a sizeab le n u m b e r o f m a n u ­
sc rip ts fro m th is la te r p e rio d w e re o n ce h e ld b y C a rth u sia n m o n a ste rie s
in o r n e a r to w n s su c h as Basel (Ba), C ologne (Br), M ain z (My, M z), Seiz
(Gr) a n d E rfu rt (Lo, Lp).

71 See n. 53 above.
72 The colophon of the Computus Iudaicus reads: ‘Expliciunt collecta iudayci per manus
magistri Nicolaii de Grabostow, finita sub anno Domini millesimo CCCC° tricesimo tercio
in vigilia sancti Nicolaii episcopi [= 5 December] ipso die sabbati in stubella eiusdem’ (MS
Kb, fol. 351vb). The Computus chirometralis is found in the same MS on fols 245rb-77vb,
280ra-311ra. The name Nicolaus de Grabostow appears twice among those promoted to
the master’s degree at the University of Krakow: in 1421 ‘in quarto examine, videlicet post
quartam feriam Cinerum’, and again in 1432, ‘in hyeme’. See Statuta nec non Liber pro-
motionum philosophorum ordinis in Universitate studiorum Jagellonica, ab anno 1402 ad
annum 1849, ed. by Joseph Muczkowski (Krakow: Typis Universitatis, 1849), pp. 14, 25;
Kowalczyk and others, Catalogus, 406; Grazyna Rosinska, Scientific Writings and Astro­
nomical Tables in Cracow: A Census of Manuscript Sources (XIVth-XVIth Centuries), Studia
Copernicana, 22 (Wroclaw: Polish Academy of Sciences Press, 1984), p. 82; Mieczyslaw
Markowski, Astronomica et Astrologica Cracoviensia ante annum 1550, Istituto Nazionale
di Studi sul Rinascimento: Studi e Testi, 20 (Florence: Olschki, 1990), p. 107. A Nicolaus de
Polonia also appears as the main scribe in codex Ke, which contains a copy of the Compu­
tus chirometralis (fols 62v-110v), made in 1426 in Poznan. The commentary on the Com­
putus Iudaicus in this MS references 1424 as the annus praesens (fol. 206v). The catalogue
of Rosinska, Scientific Writings, p. 237, claims that this was a ‘lecture on the computus
Iudaicus given at Cracow university, copied by Nicolaus de Grabostow’, but this appears
to be a confusion with Kb. As a matter of fact, the scribe in Ke only identifies himself as
Nicolaus (fol. 25r), Nicolaus de Polonia (fol. 110v), Nicolaus frater tuus fratre Nicolae Pyklu
(fol. 186r) and Nicolaus Polonus (fol. 229v).
 5. A nti-Jew ish Them es

1 sh all close th e p re s e n t surv ey w ith a n e x a m p le o f h o w th e fo u rte e n th -

a n d fifte e n th -c e n tu ry e x p o sito rs o f th e C om p u tu s Iu d a icu s r e a c te d to th e
te n s io n b e tw e e n th e ir th e o lo g ic al h o stility to w a rd s Ju d a ism a n d th e g ru d g ­
in g a d m ira tio n fo r th e e x a ctn ess o f Je w ish c a le n d a tio n , as it is ex p re ssed
in th e tre a tis e ’s in tro d u c to ry v erses. E ver sin ce th e tw e lfth ce n tu ry , w h e n
R e in h e r o f P a d e rb o rn a u th o re d h is C om putus em e n d a tu s, C h ristia n sc h o l­
ars h a d b e e n p ain fu lly aw a re o f th e sh o rtc o m in g s o f th e ir o w n ca le n d ar,
w h ic h p u t in to q u e s tio n th e leg itim ac y o f th e w ay th e C h u rc h d a te d
E aster a n d o th e r m o v e a b le fe a st days.73 To th is day, E aster is d efin e d as
th e S u n d ay follow ing th e first full m o o n th a t falls o n o r a fte r th e v e rn a l
e q u in o x o n 21 M arch. 1n ecclesia stical tra d itio n , th is c a le n d ric a l ru le w as
a s so c ia te d w ith th e d e c isio n o f th e fa th e rs o f th e C o u n cil o f N ica ea (325),
d e s p ite th e fa c t th a t n o su c h d e c re e seem s to h av e b e e n p assed . T he
sa n c tio n o f th e first e c u m e n ic a l c o u n c il w as o fte n th o u g h t to h av e also
e x te n d e d to th e 19-year cycle u se d b y th e m e d ie v a l C h u rc h to calc u late
th e d a te s o f th e E aster full m o o n (lu n a 14). T his cycle, w h ic h h a d b e e n
in tro d u c e d in to E aster re c k o n in g b y th e p a tria rc h s o f A lex a n d ria d u rin g
la te a n tiq u ity , w as p re d ic a te d o n th e id e a th a t th e n e w a n d full m o o n s
w e re to r e tu r n o n th e sa m e days in th e Ju lia n c a le n d a r a fte r every 19 years,
e q u a llin g 235 lu n a r m onths.74
U n fo rtu n a tely , th is a s tro n o m ic a l ru le o f th u m b w as n o t a c c u ra te e n o u g h
to w a r ra n t e n d u rin g c o h e sio n b e tw e e n th e c a lc u la te d a n d o b se rv a b le lu n a r
p h ases. T he re a s o n fo r th is d isc re p a n c y w as th a t th e A le x a n d ria n 19-year
cycle im p lie d a n averag e lu n a tio n o f 29.530851d, w h e re a s th e a c tu a l m e a n
syn o d ic m o n th w as clo ser to 2 9.530589d. A lth o u g h th e re s u ltin g differ­
en c e o f 0 .0 0 0 2 6 2 d d o es n o t s o u n d p a rtic u la rly d ra m a tic , it w as e n o u g h
to m a k e th e ta b u la te d m o o n s lag b e h in d th e o b se rv a b le o n e s a t a ra te o f
ro u g h ly o n e d ay in 308.5 years. Sim ilarly, th e c a le n d ric a l v e rn a l eq u in o x
k e p t re c e d in g fro m 21 M arch, th e d a te to w h ic h it h a d b e e n assig n ed b y
C h ristia n E aster rec k o n ers, a n d m o v e d to w a rd s th e b e g in n in g o f th e y e a r
a t a ra te o f o n e d ay in a p p ro x im a te ly 128.5 years. This c a le n d ric a l d rift
w as o w ed to th e fac t th a t th e averag e Ju lia n c a le n d a r y e a r o f 3 6 5 .2 5 d w as

73 See Nothaft, Dating, 113-54.

74 On the general background, see now Alden A. Mosshammer, The Easter Computus
and the Origins of the Christian Era (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).
a b o u t 11 m in u te s lo n g e r th a n th e a c tu a l tro p ic a l so la r y ear, w h e re o n e
v e rn a l e q u in o x w as s e p a ra te d fro m th e n e x t b y o n ly ca. 365.2422d.75
M ed iev al a s tro n o m e rs fro m th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry o n w a rd s w o rk e d w ith
slightly d iffe re n t values, b u t th e se le d to b asica lly th e sa m e insights.
For th e m e a n lu n a r m o n th , th e y co u ld rely o n th e le n g th p re se rv e d in
P to lem y ’s A lm a g e st, w h ic h c o rre sp o n d e d to a b o u t 2 9 .5 3 0 5 9 4 d a n d th u s
im p lie d a d isc re p a n c y o f o n e d ay in 3 0 4 years. T h e sam e v alu e also u n d e r ­
lay th e m e a n lu n a tio n in th e fixed Je w ish c a le n d a r— a fac t th a t w as k n o w n
a n d a d m ire d b y w o u ld -b e c a le n d a r refo rm ers. T he Je w ish c a le n d a r th u s
se e m e d like a p ro m isin g te m p la te o n w h ic h to fo u n d a m o re a c c u ra te
a n d a p p ro p ria te E aster rec k o n in g : a fte r all, it w as M oses w h o h a d d efin e d
‘th e first sp rin g m o n th ’ (N isan) fo r th e c e le b ra tio n o f P asso v er (E xodus
12. 2). T his in ju n c tio n w as also re le v a n t to C h ristian s, c o n s id e rin g h o w th e
p ra c tic e o f c e le b ra tin g E aster a fte r th e first full m o o n in sp rin g w as u lti­
m a te ly d eriv e d fro m th e la tte r feast. L ong b efo re th e C o m p u tu s Iu d a icu s,
C h ristian a u th o rs h a d th e re fo re a lre a d y sh o w n a g e n u in e w illin g n ess to
le a rn m o re a b o u t th e Je w ish ca le n d ar, b u t also ill-c o n ce ale d e m b a rra ss­
m e n t in th e face o f th e sh o rtc o m in g s o f th e ir o w n rec k o n in g . R oger B acon,
for in sta n c e , fam o u sly c o m p la in e d to P o p e C le m e n t IV in 1267 th a t ‘th e
in fid e l p h ilo so p h e rs, A rabs, H ebrew s, G reeks [ ...] s h u d d e r a t th e stu p id ity
th e y p erc eiv e in th e w ay C h ristian s tim e th e ir relig io u s o b se rv a n ce s.’76
T he o p e n in g v erse s o f th e C o m p u tu s Iu d a icu s clearly re fle c t a re la te d
s e n tim e n t, y e t if it w as th e d a te o f E aster th a t m o v e d th e a u th o r o f M e
p u d e t a u d ir e . . . to e x p re ss h is so rro w in th is m a n n e r, it is c e rta in ly s ta r­
tlin g to fin d th a t th is p ro b le m is n e v e r a c k n o w le d g e d in a n y p a r t o f th e
tre a tise . As h a s b e e n n o te d abo v e, th e C om putu s Iu d a icu s is in fa c t largely
d ev o id o f a n y c o n c e rn fo r th e m o re p ro p e rly c a le n d ric a l a s p e c ts o f its
su b je ct, b u t in s te a d fo cu ses exclusively o n th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e m olad,
w h ic h fo rm s n o m o re th a n th e a s tro n o m ic a l b a c k b o n e fo r th e Je w ish cal­
e n d a r. T he m e tric a l in tr o d u c tio n to th e w o rk th u s lifts th e c o m p e titio n

75 For details, see John North, ‘The Western Calendar—“Intolerabilis, Horribilis, et

Derisibilis”: Four Centuries of Discontent’, in Gregorian Reform o f the Calendar, ed. by
George V. Coyne, Michael A. Hoskin, and Olaf Pedersen (Vatican City: Specola Vaticana,
1983), pp. 75-113.
76 Roger Bacon, Opus tertium, in Opera quaedam hactenus inedita, vol. 1, ed. by J.S. Brewer
(London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1859), p. 295: ‘Atque philosophi infi-
deles, Arabes, Hebraei, et Graeci... abhorrent stultitiam quam conspiciunt in ordinatione
temporum quibus utuntur Christiani in suis solemnitatibus.’ Further examples will be
cited in C.P.E. Nothaft, ‘Religious Criticism and the Science of Chronology in Medieval
and Renaissance Europe’, in Religious Criticism and the Growth o f Knowledge, ed. by Harvey
Hames = Medieval Encounters, Special issue (forthcoming).
b e tw e e n Je w s a n d C h ristia n s o v er c a le n d ric a l m a tte rs to a m o re g e n e ra l
lev el th a n ju s t th e c a lc u la tio n o f E aster/P asso v e r: Je w ish s u p e rio rity o ver
C h ristia n s a t a n y sc ien tific e n d e a v o u r, in th is case b a sic a s tro n o m ic a l
c o m p u ta tio n s , m u s t b e ca u se fo r alarm . T h e d ra m a tic w o rd s u s e d in
th e o p e n in g lin e s se e m e sp ec ially re m a rk a b le if o n e c o n sid e rs th a t it
w as b y n o m e a n s th e case th a t C h ristia n s w e re in c a p a b le o f c a lc u la t­
in g lu n a r p h a s e s to sa m e d eg re e o f p re c isio n as th e Jew s. As a m a tte r
o f fact, s ta n d a r d a s tro n o m ic a l ta b les, as th e y w e re w id e s p re a d d u rin g
th e la te r M id d le A ges, o ffered to o ls fo r e v e n m o re a c c u ra te c a lc u latio n s,
w h ic h w e re c o m p le te ly in d e p e n d e n t o f e ith e r th e Je w ish o r ec c le sia sti­
cal calendars.77 1t is th e re fo re n o t th e p ro b le m o f p re d ic tin g th e lu n a r
p h a s e s p e r se th a t se e m s to h av e in s p ire d th e C o m p u tu s Iu d a ic u s, b u t th e
fa c t th a t Jew s co u ld m a k e su c h p re d ic tio n s u sin g th e ir o w n c a le n d a r, a n d
h e n c e w ith in a fairly sim p le a n d easy to le a rn sy stem , m a k in g th e av erag e
Je w se e m like a sk illed a s tro n o m e r, w h ile th e C h ristia n co u ld n o t. 1t is
a p p a re n tly th is d isc re p a n c y th a t e x p la in s th e C o m p u tu s Iu d a ic u s’s call to
arm s, a d d re s s e d to c lerg y m en a n d lite ra te C h ristia n s (th e te rm clericus
co u ld re fe r to b o th ), w h o w e re su p p o s e d to im p ro v e th e ir a s tro n o m ic a l
le a rn in g so as to suffer n o m o re d o m in a tio n a t th e h a n d s o f th e ir m u c h -
m a lig n e d en e m ie s.
T his m o tiv a tio n o f ‘c a le n d a r envy’ is h a rd ly se p a ra b le fro m a g e n e ra l
c u ltu re o f h o stility to w a rd s th e Jew s as a gro u p , w h ic h u n d e n ia b ly left its
m a rk o n th e p r e s e n t tre a tise . B oth th e in tro d u c to ry v erse s a n d th e c o m ­
m e n ta rie s w ritte n fo r th e ir e x p lic a tio n u se d ra stic w o rd s to h ig h lig h t th e
c h a sm th a t e x iste d b e tw e e n th e d u tie s o f th e C h ristia n clergy as p a r a ­
gons o f v irtu e a n d g u id es fo r th e la y p eo p le o n th e o n e side, a n d th e ir
ig n o ra n c e in a s tro n o m ic a l m a tte rs o n th e o th e r. T he la tte r w as d e c la re d
u n a c c e p ta b le , sin ce it m a d e th e clergy scien tifically in fe rio r to th o se w h o
w ere ‘e q u a l to S ata n ’— a n te rio re s/ S u n t scitu S a th a n e qu o s p a te t esse p a re s.
1n th e c o m m e n ta rie s , th is lin e is u su a lly e lu c id a te d b y tra n s la tin g S a th a -
nas as ‘a d v e rs a n t’ o r ‘a d v e rsary ’, in a llu sio n to th e w ay in w h ic h th e Jew s
w ere p e rc e iv e d as stiff-n eck ed o p p o n e n ts to th e th e o lo g ic a l d o g m a s o f
C hristianity.78 N o t c o n te n t w ith b ra n d in g th e Jew s as ‘S ata n ic’, m o s t c o m ­

77 See now Jose Chabas and Bernard R. Goldstein, A Survey of European Astronomi­
cal Tables in the Late Middle Ages, Time, Astronomy, and Calendars: Texts and Studies, 2
(Leiden: Brill, 2012).
78 MS Pa, fols 121va-b: ‘Et subiungit rationem cum ipsi sunt similes Sathane. Sathan
enim est dyabolus vel adversarius, et quia ipsi preceptis dei, precipue articulis fidei, peni-
tus adversantur, ex hoc merito Sathanes nuncupantur.’ On the translation of Sathan, see,
e.g., Summa Britonis sive Guillelmi Britonis Expositiones Vocabulorum Bible, ed. by Lloyd W.
m e n ta to rs also go o n to offer a v a rie ty o f tra n s la tio n s a n d in te rp re ta tio n s
o f th e n a m e ‘J e w ’ (iu d a eu s) itself, w h ich , p red ic tab ly , tu r n o u t to b e h ig h ly
u n fav o u rab le . As w ith th e c o m m e n ta ry in gen eral, th e p assag e th a t offers
th e s e tra n s la tio n s w e n t th ro u g h a co n fu sin g n u m b e r o f stag es o f revision,
c o n tra c tio n , o r a u g m e n ta tio n . Its m o st strik in g v e rsio n is p e rh a p s th e
o n e e n c o u n te re d in MS Lq, c o p ie d in 1456, as w ell as in Lo (fro m E rfurt),
w h ic h is ro u g h ly c o n te m p o ra ry :

But iudaeus can otherwise be translated as ‘producing a stain from the flux’
[dans maculamfluxionis], from w hich both m en and w om en suffer monthly;
and it is for this reason that they know the time of conjunction of any m oon
down to the blink of an eye, because once every m onth they have this flux
and then they are w atchful n o t to leave the house unless they are w ell­
arm ed w ith napkins or other things that help them hide this flux.79

W h a t is b e in g re fe re n c e d h e re is th e p e rn ic io u s m y th o f Je w ish m a le
m e n s tru a tio n th a t first c ro p p e d u p in th e th ir te e n th c e n tu ry a n d w o u ld
c o n tin u e to h av e a v a rie d c a re e r th r o u g h o u t th e early m o d e rn period.80
Its p re se n c e is ex tre m e ly c o m m o n in th e p re se rv e d c o m m e n ta rie s o n o u r
te x t (27 o u t o f 36) a n d is in fac t a lre a d y a tte s te d in th e e a rlie st v ersio n s,
as re p re s e n te d b y Pa, Pd, a n d W a, w h e re th e ‘flux’ is re fe rre d to m o re s p e ­
cifically as a b le e d in g ‘fro m th e p o ste rio r’.81 W h ile th is re fe re n c e to a n a l

Daly and Bernadine A. Daly, 2 vols (Padua: Editrice Antenore, 1975), II, 685: ‘SATHANAS
in latinum sonat adversarius sive transgressor.’ Papias, Elementarium doctrinae rudimen-
tum (Venice: Theodorus de Ragazonibus, 1491), sig. M3v. On the wider context, see Joshua
Trachtenberg, The Devil and the Jews: The Medieval conception of the Jews and its Relation
to Modern Anti-Semitism (New Haven, CN: Yale University Press, 1943).
79 MS Lo, fols 47r-v: ‘Sed iudeus aliomodo interpretatur quasi dans maculam fluxionis
ex quo tam viri quam mulieres menstruum patiuntur et pro tanto ad ictum oculi sciunt
incensionem cuiuslibet lune quia in quolibet mense semel habent talem fluxum et tunc
custodiunt se ne domum exiunt nisi sunt valde armati lintheaminibus [Ms.: linthegaminis]
vel aliis que valent eis pro illius fluxus absconsionem.’ See also MS Lq, fol. 26v, which
contains a very similar rendering of this passage.
80 On the background, see Peter Biller, ‘A “Scientific” View of Jews from Paris around
1300’, Micrologus, 9 (2001), 137-68; Irven M. Resnick, ‘Medieval Roots of the Myth of
Jewish Male Menses’, Harvard Theological Review, 93 (2000), 241-63; Resnick, Marks
o f Distinction: christian perceptions of Jews in the High Middle Ages (Washington, DC:
The Catholic University of America Press, 2012), 175-214. For further details on how this
myth was incorporated and embellished in the commentaries on the computus iudaicus,
see C.P.E. Nothaft, ‘The Meaning ofJudaeus and the Myth of Jewish Male Menses in a Late
Medieval Astronomical School Text’, European Journal of Jewish Studies 7, no. 1 (2013):
73-91.
81 MS Pa, fol. 121va: ‘Item, sicut clericus dicitur quasi custosfloris, sic ipsi, scilicet Iudei,
interpretantur quasi dantes materiam fluxionis. Cum igitur inter Iudeos tam viri quam
mulieres menstruose fluant per posteriora, ut bene eorum intentio indicabat, dicens
in die passionis domini: Sangwis eius super nos et super filios nostros.’ See also MSS Pd,
m e n s tr u a tio n m a y h av e o riginally serv ed n o o th e r p u rp o se th a n sim p le
sla n d er, a t so m e p o in t in th e tra n sm issio n a re d a c to r re c o g n iz e d th a t th e
m y th p ro v id e d a p e rfe c t p re te x t to tie th e d isc u ssio n o f th e alleg ed m e a n ­
in g o f th e w o rd Iu d a eu s b a c k to th e m a in su b je c t o f th e tre a tise : in Pf, c o p ­
ie d in c. 1427, a n d a h o s t o f la te r m a n u sc rip ts (Bh, H a, Le, Pf, Tr, Up, W o,
a n d W p), w e c a n re a d th a t it w as ‘fo r th is re a so n th a t th e y k n o w th e tim e
o f th e c o n ju n c tio n d o w n to th e b lin k o f a n eye, b e c a u s e it is o n ce every
lu n a tio n th a t th e y suffer th is flux.’82 All o f a su d d e n , th e p re c isio n o f th e
Je w ish c a le n d a r in tra c k in g th e n e w m o o n s co u ld b e ex p la in e d as th e o u t­
g ro w th o f p h y sic al necessity, b e c a u s e Jew s h a d to so m e h o w p re d ic t th e
m o n th ly o c c u rre n c e o f th e ir a ilm e n t. By ex p licitly ty in g th e p re-ex istin g
n o tio n o f m e n s tru a tin g Je w ish m e n to th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e m olad, th e
c o m m e n ta to r seem s to h av e co n scio u sly trie d to rela tiv iz e a n d a tte n u ­
a te th e u n s e ttlin g a s tro n o m ic a l finesse o f th e Je w ish lu n iso la r ca le n d ar,
w h ich , as th e C om putus Iu d a icu s its e lf a d m itte d , w as a so u rce o f e m b a r­
ra s s m e n t to C h ristian s. To a re a d e r w h o to o k th e o p e n in g lin e o f th is te x t
(M e p u d e t audire Iu d e u m talia scire) seriously, th is m a y in d e e d h av e b e e n
a w elc o m e w ay o f d ea lin g w ith th e sh a m e a n d g rie f (M e p ig e t e t m ise ret
sim u l e t tedet) h is o w n p e rc e iv e d c a le n d ric a l in fe rio rity ca u se d him .

A p p en d ix: A L ist o f M a n u scrip ts

I a m in d e b te d to Prof. Dr. A rn o M en tze l-R eu ters, lib ra ria n o f th e M o n u -

m e n ta G erm a niae H istorica, M u n ich , fo r giving m e access to m icro film s
o f m a n y o f th e MSS liste d b elow . T he e a rlie s t k n o w n m a n u s c rip t lo c a tio n
is given alo n g w ith th e a p p ro x im a te d a te in sq u a re b ra c k e ts, w h e re v e r it
differs fro m th e c u rre n t one.

fol. 48r; Wa, fol. 28r. Similar passages are found in MSS Ba, Be, Bh, Br, Co, Ed, Er, Ha, Kb,
Kc, Kx, Le, Lf, Lo, Lq, Mc1, Pf, Sb, Tr, Up, Wb, Wc, Wo, Wo.
82 MS Pf, fol. 157v: ‘Sed Iudeus interpretatur quasi dans maculamfluxionis, quia tam viri
quam mulieres menstruosi sunt et menstrua fluunt per posteriora, quod indicat earum
intensio coram preside Pilato cum dixerunt: Sanguis eius super nos et superfilios nostros. Et
propterea ipsi ad ictum oculi sciunt incensionem, quia in qualibet lunatione semel patiun-
tur fluxum.’ See also MSS Bh, fol. 211v; Ha, fol. 26v; Le, fol. 129r; Tr, fol. 184r; Up, fol. 14v;
Wo, fol. 26r; Wp, fol. 57r. By contrast, the claim that the Jews stay at home during ‘men­
struation’ and only leave the house with napkins is only found in MSS Lo and Lq and may
reflect folk belief or common hearsay that clustered around the myth of Jewish menses at
the time (provided the commentator did not just make it up himself).
C om plete Copies (w ith o u t C om m entary) [19]

Bf B erlin, S taa tsb ib lio th ek , lat. qu. 97, fols 9 8 r-1 0 3 r [s. XV]
Gr G raz, U n iv ersitatsb ib lio th e k , 966, fols 3 5 6 r-6 5 v [Seiz, s. XV1/2]
Gw G ottw eig, S tiftsb ib lio th ek , 189 (170), fols 6 r - 9 r [s. X1V2/2]
Kd K rakow , B iblioteka Jagiello n sk a, 1848, fols 3 3 r-3 7 v [c. 1389]
Lp L ondon, B ritish Library, A dd. 15108, fols 7 9 r-8 7 v [E rfurt, 1431]
Lw L ondon, W ellc o m e H isto ric al M e d ica l Library, 202, fols 1 9 v -22v
[R egensburg, 1443]
Ma M u n ich , B ayerische S taa tsb ib lio th ek , C lm 5963, fols 5 7 v -5 9 v [Eber-
sberg, 1383]
Mb M u n ich , B ayerische S taa tsb ib lio th ek , C lm 7650, fols 5 9 r-6 6 v [1nder-
sdorf, 1389]
Md M u n ich , B ayerische S taa tsb ib lio th ek , C lm 16521, fols 1 r-4 r [Bad
R eich en h all, 1462]
Me M u n ich , B ayerische S taa tsb ib lio th ek , C lm 19685, fols 2 1 r-2 6 v
[T egernsee, 1375]
Mg M u n ich , B ayerische S taa tsb ib lio th ek , C lm 24514, fols 166r-168v
[c. 1374/84]
Ml M elk, S tiftsb ib lio th ek , 951, fols 2 7 r-3 3 r [V ien n a (?), c. 1391]
My M ainz, S tad tb ib lio th e k , 1 528, fols 153v-61v [M ainz, c. 1410]
Pb P rague, N aro d n f k n ih o v n a C eske rep u b lik y , 1V.G.8 (740), fols 5 6 v -
61v [s. X1V4/4]
Pc P rague, N aro d n f k n ih o v n a C eske rep u b lik y , X111.C.17 (2292), fols
1 4 8 v a-4 9 v a [T rebon, c. 1396]83
Sa Salzburg, S tiftsb ib lio th ek S an k t P eter, b.V1.35, fols 9 7 r-1 0 4 v [D res­
d e n (?), c. 1408/9]
Sf St F lorian, S tiftsb ib lio th ek , X1.311, fols 191ra-93vb [s. X1V2/2]
Sg St G allen, S tiftsb ib lio th ek , 827, pp. 2 0 9 -1 6 [Lake C o n s ta n c e region,
c. 1425/28]
Vi V ienna, O ste rre ic h isc h e N a tio n a lb ib lio th e k , 3816, fols 1 5 9 r-6 3 r
[M ondsee, s. X1V exp./X V inc.]

F ra g m en ta ry Copies (w ith o u t C om m entary) [4]

El E rlangen, U n iv ersitatsb ib lio th e k , 664, fols 1 5 5 r-v [c. 1439]

Fb F reiburg, U n iv ersitatsb ib lio th e k , 57, fols 6 7 r -7 0 r [c. 1409]
Mz M ainz, S ta d tb ib lio th e k , 1 613, fols 7 5 r-7 7 v [M ainz, s. XV inc.]

83 Contains short commentary section at the end.

Va V atican City, B iblioteca A postolica V aticana, Pal. lat. 1437, fols 55v-57v
[H ungary, c. 1391]

co m p le te cop ies w ith c o m m e n ta ry [30]

Ba Basel, U niversitatsbibliothek, F.IV.50, fols 240r-5 1 v [Basel, c. 1473/74]

Be Berlin, S taatsbibliothek, lat. qu. 46, fols 1 7 6 r-8 4 r [O sn ab ru ck , c. 1449]
Bh B erlin, S taa tsb ib lio th ek , lat. qu. 587, fols 211v-15v [E rfurt, c. 1448]
Br B russels, B ib lio th e q u e Royale, 961-71, fols 2 0 0 v -8 v [C ologne,
c. 1437/39]
Co C o p e n h ag e n , K ongelige B ibliotek, T h o tt 825 4°, fols 4 4 r-5 4 v
[M arien feld (W e stp h alia), c. 1449]
Ed E dinburgh, C raw ford Library, 2.3, fols 6 8 r-7 7 v [H ildesheim , s. XV2/4]
Go G otha, F o rsc h u n g sb ib lio th ek , C hart. B 517, fols 2 0 2 r -8 v [B o h em ia/
M oravia, c. 1408]
Ha H an n o v e r, N ied e rsac h sisc h e L an d e sb ib lio th ek , VII 626, fols 2 6 v a -
32v [N o rth eim , 1492]
Ka K rakow , B ib lio tek a Jagiello n sk a, 562, fols 47v-51v, 5 4 r-5 6 v [P rague
(?), c. 1387]
Kb K rakow , B ib lio tek a Jagiello n sk a, 563, fols 3 3 3 v b -5 1 v b [c. 1433]
Kc Krakow, B iblioteka Jagiellonska, 1847, fols 1 0 ra-2 0 v [Prague, 1397/98]
Ke K rakow , B ib lio tek a Jagiello n sk a, 1860, fols 1 9 0 r-2 0 8 r [c. 1424]
Kx K rakow , B ib lio tek a Ja g iello n sk a (o lim Berlin), lat. qu. 23, fols 2 5 r -
36v [R u p p in (B ran d e n b u rg ), c. 1425]
Le Leipzig, U n iv ersitatsb ib lio th e k , 1462, fols 129r-41r [c. 1444]
Lf Leipzig, U n iv ersitatsb ib lio th e k , 1469, fols 2 8 v -3 8 r [s. XV2/4]
Lo L ondon, British Library, A dd. 15107, fols 4 7 r-5 7 v [Erfurt, c. 1446/59]
Lq L ondon, B ritish Library, H arley 3843, fols 2 6 r-3 9 v [1456]
Mc1 M u n ich , B ayerische S taa tsb ib lio th ek , C lm 14504, fols 1 6 3 ra -7 0 v a
[R egensburg, s. XIV4/4]
M c2 M u n ich , B ayerische S taa tsb ib lio th ek , C lm 14504, fols 2 5 6 v -6 3 r
[R egensburg, c. 1418]
Mf M u n ich , B ayerische S taa tsb ib lio th ek , C lm 20174, fols 7 6 r-1 0 9 v
[T egernsee, 1467]
Ne N elahozeves, L obkow itz Library, VLF.e.62 (IX), p p . 3 2 - 5 9 [P rague
(?), s. XIV exp./X V inc.]84
Pe P rague, A rchiv P razsk eh o H ra d u (olim : K n ih o v n a M e tro p o litn i
K apituli), L.LII (1296), fols 118r-25v [s. X V /4]

84 Main text, followed by stand-alone commentary from same hand.

Pf Prague, A rchiv P ra zsk e h o H ra d u (olim : K n ih o v n a M e tro p o litn i
K apituli), M.CIII (1463), fols 157 v -7 3 r [F ran k fu rt, 1427]
Sb Salzburg, Stiftsbibliothek S ankt Peter, b.IX.14, fols 5 2 r-6 0 r [c. 1429/44]
So S o lo th u rn , Z e n tra lb ib lio th e k , S 167, fols 1 4 5 v -4 7 r [R ottw eil, 1394]85
Tr Trier, S ta d tb ib lio th e k , 8° 1925/1482, fols 1 8 4 r-9 4 r [s. XV1/2]
Up U ppsala, U niversitetsbibliotek, C 655, fols 1 4 r-2 7 r [B raniew o (Braun-
sberg), c. 1445/47]
Wb W roclaw , B ib lio tek a U n iw ersytecka, IV.Q.36, fols 1r-12r [W roclaw ,
1420]
Wc W roclaw , B ib lio tek a U n iw ersytecka, IV.Q.37, fols 15r-31r [W roclaw ,
1428]
Wp W o lfe n b u tte l, H erzog-A ugust-B ibliothek, H elm st. 965, fols 5 6 r-6 8 v
[B raunschw eig, c. 1431]

F ra g m en ta ry Copies w ith C o m m en ta ry [3]

Bg Berlin, S taa tsb ib lio th ek , lat. qu. 181, fols 3 5 r -4 5 r [c. 1414]86
Er E rfurt, U n iv ersitats- u n d F o rsc h u n g sb ib lio th ek , A m p lo n ., qu. 375,
fols 4 3 r -4 9 v [c. 1433/50]
Wo W o lfe n b u tte l, H erzog-A ugust-B ibliothek, 82.15 Q uodl. 4 to , fols 2 5 r -
35v [after 1460]

C o m m en ta ry O nly [3]

Pa P rague, N aro d n i k n ih o v n a C eske rep u b lik y , III.G.14 (539), fols 1 2 0 r-

25v [s. XIV2/2]
Pd Prague, N a ro d n i k n ih o v n a C eske rep u b lik y , XIV.F.1 (2572), fols 4 7 r -
52v [T rebon, s. XIV2^]
Wa W roclaw , B ib lio tek a U n iw ersytecka, I.Q.156, fols 2 7 r-3 2 v [Zagan,
s. x IV 2/2]

Copies P resu m e d to be L ost [2]

Kg K onigsberg (K aliningrad), U n iv ersitatsb ib lio th e k , 163, n o . 6 [s. XIV/

XV].
Kh K onigsberg (K aliningrad), U n iv ersitatsb ib lio th e k , 2° 1781, n o. 19
[s. XV].

S u m Total: 61

85 Main text, followed by stand-alone commentary from same hand.

86 Complete stand-alone commentary, followed by fragmentary main text from same
hand.
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