My Tutor S1 PDF

THE ASSOCIATION OF
ANGLOPHONE STUDENTS OF
POLYTEHNIC YAOUNDE
R
ASPY
TO
TU
MY TUTOR
FIRST EDITION 2018
SEMESTER 1
Y
Under the supervision of NGWASIRI CARLSON 3GTEL

M
Vision is a desirable future for which one puts in time, talent, energy and resources today. It is our reason for
living, the purpose of our existence. The duration of a vision is not as important as the impact it creats.Every vision
exists in order to solve a given problem. Vision that just reinvent the wheel are photocopies, they are not original.
Every worthwhile Christian vision must have eternity in perspectives.
Nothing is more fulfilling than having one life goal, developing and pursuing it and dying in it while allowing its legacy
R
to go on. Your origin in no way determines your future or destiny. It deppends on God and your readiness to submit to
Him.
You will be remembered for one of these things
• The problems you created
• The ones you solved
TO
• The innovation you brought into your generation
SPECIAL THANKS TO:

• TUME ETIENNE 3GELE
• FUASHI LOT-BILL 3GI
• MIKI MIYANG 3GM

• MIKAH NGWASHA
TU
• NJANG OJONG 2MSP
• TATA NOEL 3GTEL
• ALEMKENG BRENDA 2MSP

• NDZE KLUVERT 2MSP
• TALOM FRANKLIN 2MSP
• FRU GERALD 2MSP

• CHOPLEFAC ZIDANE 4GI
• NGWESE ETAME 4GM
Y
Without whom nothing would have been possible

M
R
Chapter 1
ABSTRACT ALGEBRA
TO
1.1 BINARY OPERATIONS (loi de composition interne)
Definition
It’s a mapping(or function) that associates an ordered pair of elements of a set E to a unique element in E i.e
∗ : E × E −→ E
TU
(x, y) 7−→ x ∗ y
1.1.1 Properties of a Binary Operation

• Commutativity
∗ is said to be commutative if ∀a, b ∈ E
a∗b = b∗a
• Associativity
∗ is said to be associative if ∀a, b, c ∈ E
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
Y
If ∗ is associative, then xn = x| ∗ x ∗ x{z∗ .... ∗ }x

n−times
Also xn ∗ xm = xn+m (xn )m = xnm and (n, m ∈ N ∗ )
• Identity element
M
An element e ∈ E is said to be an identity element of E for ∗ if ∀a ∈ E
a∗e = e∗a = a
Theorem: If there exists an identity element, then its unique

Proof
Suppose ∃e, e0 ∈ E, identities elements of E for ∗
Then ∀a ∈ E, e ∗ a = a ∗ e.....(1)
3
ASPY Welfare Team 2017/2018 under the coordination of Ngwasiri Carlson Tel 673-026-038
e0 ∗ a = a ∗ e0 = a.....(2)
Considering e as an element and e’ as the identity element
e0 ∗ e = e ∗ e0 = e....(3)
e ∗ e0 = e0 ∗ e = e0 ......(4)
(3)=(4) ⇒ e = e’
R
• Inverse element
Let ∗ be a binary operation over E with identity element e. a’ is said to be the inverse of a if
a ∗ a0 = a0 ∗ a = e
TO
Theorem:Let ∗ be associative and admit an identity element. If an element has an inverse, then the inverse is
unique.
• Inverse of a composition
We can show that (a ∗ b)0 = b0 ∗ a0
Proof
e = (a ∗ b)0 ∗ (a ∗ b)
⇒ e ∗ b0 = (a ∗ b)0 ∗ (a ∗ b) ∗ b0
⇒ e ∗ b0 = (a ∗ b)0 ∗ a ∗ (b ∗ b0 )
TU
⇒ e ∗ b0 = (a ∗ b)0 ∗ a ∗ e
⇒ b0 = (a ∗ b)0 ∗ a
⇒ b0 ∗ a0 = (a ∗ b)0 ∗ a ∗ a0
⇒ b0 ∗ a0 = (a ∗ b)0 ∗ e
⇒ b0 ∗ a0 = (a ∗ b)0
By recurrence we can show that
(a1 ∗ a2 ∗ ...... ∗ an )0 = a0n ∗ a0n−1 ∗ ..... ∗ a02 ∗ a01
1.1.2 Types of elements

Y
• Regular Element
An element is said to be regular for ∗ if ∀x, y ∈ E,
a∗x = a∗y ⇒ x = y
x∗a = y∗a ⇒ x = y
M
• Absorbant element
u ∈ E is said to be an absorbant of E with respect to ∗ if
∀a ∈ E, a ∗ u = u ∗ a = u
e.g 0 is absorbant in (ℜ, ×)
4 done By the LATEX team

• Idempotent Element
a ∈ E is said to be idempotent with respect to ∗ if
a∗a = a
e.g identity element e ∗ e = e
R
1.1.3 Some terminologies
• Magma: (E, ∗) is a set and a B.O
• Monoid:Every magma which is associative and has identity element
TO
• Semi-group:Every associative magma
• Sub-semi group:A non empty set H of semi-group is said to be a sub-semi group if ∀a, b ∈ H, a ∗ b ∈ H
Proposition:Let G be a group
If x ∗ x = e ∀x ∈ G, then G is abelian
Proof
Let x ∗ x = e ∀x ∈ G
Let a, b ∈ G
⇒ a∗b ∈ G
⇒ (a ∗ b) ∗ (a ∗ b) = e
TU
⇒ a ∗ (a ∗ b) ∗ b = e
⇒ (a ∗ a) ∗ b ∗ a ∗ (b ∗ b) = a ∗ b
⇒ b∗a = a∗b
⇒ G is abelian
1.2 GROUPS
Under the magma (E, ∗)
E is said to be a group if the following properties are verified
Y
• E 6= ∅
• ∗ is closed in E
• ∗ is associative in E
• ∗ admits a unique identity elerment in E
M
• Every element has a unique inverse in E

Abelian group
A group G is said to be abelian if ∗ is commutative
Proporsition A group is said to be abelian if and only if (a ∗ b)2 = a2 ∗ b2
Proof:Let E be a group
Suppose E is abelian
(a ∗ b)2 = (a ∗ b) ∗ (a ∗ b)

= a ∗ (a ∗ b) ∗ b
= a ∗ (b ∗ a) ∗ b
= (a ∗ a) ∗ (b ∗ b)
= a2 ∗ b2
R
Suppose ∀a, b ∈ E, (a ∗ b)2 = a2 ∗ b2
(a ∗ b)2 = (a ∗ b) ∗ (a ∗ b) = a ∗ (b ∗ a) ∗ b.......(1)
TO
a2 ∗ b2 = (a ∗ a) ∗ (b ∗ b) = a ∗ (a ∗ b) ∗ b.......(2)
(1) = (2) ⇒ a ∗ (b ∗ a) ∗ b = a ∗ (a ∗ b) ∗ b
−1
⇒a ∗ a ∗ (b ∗ a) ∗ b ∗ b−1 = a−1 ∗ a ∗ (a ∗ b) ∗ b ∗ b−1
⇒ b∗a = a∗b
hence E is abelian
Prosition If (a ∗ b)−1 = a−1 ∗ b−1 for a and b in the group G then g is abelian
Proof Let a, b ∈ G
⇒ (a ∗ b)−1 = a−1 ∗ b−1

TU
⇒ a ∗ b = (a−1 ∗ b−1 )−1
⇒ a∗b = b∗a
Hence G is abelian
1.3 SUB GROUPS (notation < or ≤)

Definition
Let G be a group with respect to the binary operation ∗. A nonempty subset H of G is called a sub group of G if H forms
a group with repect to the binary operation ∗
If e is the identity element in G, then the subsets H = {e} and H=G are always subgroups of the group G.They are called
Y
trivial subgroups and all other subgroups are called non-trivial subgroups
Theorem A subset H of G is a subgroup of G if and only if
a H is non empty
b x ∈ H and y ∈ H ⇒ x ∗ y ∈ H
c x ∈ H then x−1 ∈ H
M
Proof There are two things to show here
i Show that if H is a subgroup then the conditions hold

ii Show that if the conditipons hold, then H is a subgroup

If H is a subgroup of G, then the condition follow at once, from the definition of subgroup
Suppose that H is a subset of G that satisfies the above conditions
Since H is nonempty, there exists at least an a ∈ H,by condition (c), a−1 ∈ H, by condition (b)
a ∗ a−1 = e ∈ H
R
Thus H contains the identity element,
condition(b) implies that H is closed
condition (c) implies H contains inverses
Hence H is a subgroup
Proposition A nonempty set H of G is a subgroup of G if and only if a ∗ b−1 ∈ H, ∀a, b ∈ H
TO
Proof H is a non empty set of G
Suppose H is a subgroup G
Let a, b ∈ H
b ∈ H ⇒ b−1 ∈ H
Since a, b−1 ∈ H ⇒ a ∗ b−1 ∈ H
Suppose a ∗ b−1 ∈ H, ∀a, b ∈ H
H 6= ∅ ⇒ ∃a ∈ H
⇒ a ∗ a−1 ∈ H
⇒e∈H
TU
H has an identity element....(1)
Let b ∈ H
⇒ e ∗ b−1 ∈ H
⇒ b−1 ∈ H
Every element has an inverse.....(2)
Let a, b ∈ H
⇒ a, b−1 ∈ H
⇒ a ∗ (b−1 )−1 ∈ H
⇒ a∗b ∈ H
His closed in ∗.....(3)
Y
1,2,3⇒ H is a subgroup
Proposition If Hi is a subgroup of G then H = ∩Hi is also a sub group of G
Proof
Let Hi be a subgroup of g G
e ∈ Hi , ∀i ⇒ e ∈ H
H 6= ∅
Let a, b ∈ H ⇒ a, b ∈ Hi ∀i
M
⇒ a ∗ b−1 ∈ Hi ∀i
⇒ a ∗ b−1 ∈ H
Hence H is a subgroup

1.4 CENTER OF A GROUP

This is the subset of elements that will commutes with all other elements.
Let G be a group.The centre denoted Z(G) of the group is defined by Z(G) = {a ∈ G; a ∗ x = x ∗ a, ∀x}
Proposition Z(G) is a subgroup
R
Proof
∀x ∈ G, e ∗ x = x ∗ ∗e ⇒ e ∈ Z ⇒ Z(G) 6= ∅
Let a ∈ Z(G)
⇒ a ∗ x = x ∗ a∀x
TO
⇒ a−1 ∗ a ∗ x ∗ a−1 = a−1 ∗ x ∗ a ∗ a−1 ∀x
⇒ e ∗ x ∗ a−1 = a−1 ∗ x ∗ e
⇒ x ∗ a−1 = a−1 ∗ x
⇒ a−1 ∈ Z(G)
Let a, b ∈ Z(G)
⇒ x ∗ (a ∗ b−1 ) = (x ∗ a) ∗ b−1
= a ∗ (x ∗ b−1 )
= a ∗ (b−1 ∗ x)
TU
= (a ∗ b−1 ) ∗ x
⇒ a ∗ b−1 ∈ Z(G)
Remark If G is an abelian group, then Z(G) = G
1.5 CENTRALIZER OF A GROUP

C(G) = {x ∈ Gx ∗ a = a ∗ x} This is the subset of elements that will commute with a
Proposition C(G) is a subgroup of G (proof left for the reader)
1.6 ISOMORPHISM
Y
Definition Let G be a group with respect to ∗ and let H be a group with respect to o
A mapping f : G → H is an isomorphism from G to H if
• f is a bijection from G to H
• f (x ∗ y) = f (x)o f (y) ∀x, y ∈ G
M
If an isomorphism from G to H exist, we say G is isomorphic to H

Example Let G be the additive group of all real numbers and let H be group of all the positive real numbers under multi-
plication. Verify using the mapping f : G → H defined by f (x) = ex , that G is isomorphic to H
Solution
Let f(a) = f(b) a, b ∈ ℜ
⇒ ea = eb
⇒ ea−b = 1

⇒ a−b = 0
⇒a=b
f is injective
Let y ∈ H, ∃x ∈ G such that
ex = y
R
⇒ x = ln y
f is surjective, hence f is bijective
f (x + y) = ex+y
TO
= ex · ey
= f (x) f (y)
fis therefore an isomorphism from G to H
1.7 HOMOMORPHISM OF GROUPS

Let (G, ∗) and (H, o) be two groups, a mapping f : G → H is called a homomorphism if f (x ∗ y) = f (x)o f (y) ∀x, y ∈ G
Properties If ϕ is a homomorphism ϕ : G → H
i If e is the identity element in G, then ϕ(e) is the identity element in H
TU
ii If a ∈ G, ϕ(a−1 ) = ϕ(a)−1
iii If G is abeluan and ϕ an epimorphism, H is abelian
Proof
i Suppose e identity element in G, and show ϕ(e) identity element in H i.e h ∗ ϕ(e) = ϕ(e) ∗ h = h, ∀h ∈ H
ϕ(e) = ϕ(eoe) = ϕ(e) ∗ ϕ(e)

⇒ ϕ(e) ∗ h = ϕ(e) ∗ ϕ(e) ∗ h
⇒ h = ϕ(e) ∗ h.....(1)
similarly
Y
h ∗ ϕ(e) = h ∗ ϕ(e) ∗ ϕ(e)

⇒ h = h ∗ ϕ(e).....(2)
(1) and (2)
⇒ ϕ(e) ∗ h = h ∗ ϕ(e) = h
M
⇒ ϕ(e) is the identity of H

ii Let a ∈ G
⇒ ϕ(e) = ϕ(aoa−1 ) = ϕ(a) ∗ ϕ(a−1 )

⇒ ϕ(a)−1 ∗ ϕ(e) = ϕ(a)−1 ∗ (ϕ(a) ∗ ϕ(a−1 )
⇒ ϕ(a)−1 = ϕ(e) ∗ ϕ(a−1 )
⇒ ϕ(a)−1 = ϕ(a−1 )

iii Let G be abelian and ϕ surjective

Let h1 , h2 ∈ H ⇒ ∃a, b ∈ G/h1 = ϕ(a), h2 = ϕ(b) ϕ since surjective
h1 ∗ h2 = ϕ(a) ∗ ϕ(b)
= ϕ(aob)
R
= ϕ(boa)Gabelian
= ϕ(b) ∗ ϕ(a)
= h2 ∗ h1
TO
⇒ H is abelian
Kernel of ϕ
Kerϕ = {g ∈ G, ϕ(g) = eH }
Image of ϕ
Imϕ = {ϕ(a); a ∈ G}
Proposition Let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism
i Kerϕ < G
ii Imϕ < H
TU
Proof
i We know that e ∈ Kerϕ since ϕ(e) = eH so Kerϕ 6= ∅
Let a, b ∈ Kerϕ
ϕ(aob−1 ) = ϕ(a) ∗ ϕ(b−1 )
= ϕ(a) ∗ ϕ(b)−1
= eH ∗ e−1
H
= eH = ϕ(e)
⇒ aob−1 ∈ Kerϕ ⇒ Kerϕ < G
ii eH = ϕ(e) ∈ Imϕ since e ∈ G ⇒ Imϕ 6= ∅

Y
Let ϕ(x), ϕ(y) ∈ Imϕ

⇒ x, y ∈ G
⇒ x, y−1 ∈ G
xoy−1 ∈ G
ϕ(xoy−1 ) ∈ Imϕ
M
ϕ(x) ∗ ϕ(y−1 ) ∈ Imϕ

⇒ ϕ(x) ∗ ϕ(y−1 ) ∈ Imϕ
Imϕ < G

Proposition Let ϕ : G → H
ϕ injective ⇔ Kerϕ = {e}
Proof suppose ϕ is injective
Let a ∈ Kerϕ ⇒ ϕ(a) = ϕ(e)
⇒ a = e since ϕ is injecvtive
R
Thus Kerϕ = {e}
suppose Kerϕ = {e}
Let a, b ∈ G/ϕ(a) = ϕ(b)
ϕ(aob−1 ) = ϕ(a) ∗ ϕ(b−1 ) = ϕ(a) = ϕ(b)−1

= ϕ(a) ∗ ϕ(a)−1 = ϕ(e)
TO
⇒ aob−1 ∈ Kerϕ ⇒ aob−1 = e
⇒a=b
Remark ϕ bijective ⇔ Kerϕ = {e} (the proof is left for the reader)
1.8 TYPES OF HOMOMORPHISM

Let (G, ∗) and (H;o) be two groups and let f : G → H be homomorphism. f is
1 a momomoprphism if f defines an injective map from G to H
TU
2 an epimorphism if f is a surjection from G to H
3 an endomorphism if f maps a group onto itself
4 an isomorphism if f is a bijection from G to H
5 an automorphism if fis a bijection from a group onto itself
Example
G is a group with the binary operation ∗, and a fixed element.The function f is defined in G as follows:
f :G→G
x 7−→ a ∗ x ∗ a−1
Y
Show that f is an automorphism

Solution
f (x ∗ y) = a ∗ x ∗ y ∗ a−1
= a ∗ x ∗ e ∗ y ∗ a−1
M
= a ∗ x ∗ a−1 ∗ a ∗ y ∗ a−1
= (a ∗ x ∗ a−1 ) ∗ (a ∗ y ∗ a−1 )
= f (x) ∗ f (y)
Thus f is a homomorphism from G to G in other words f is an endomorphism. It is now left for us to show that f is a
bijection
Let f(x) = f(y) x,y ∈ G
⇔ a ∗ x ∗ a−1 = a ∗ y ∗ a−1

a−1 ∗ a ∗ x ∗ a−1 ∗ a = a−1 ∗ a ∗ y ∗ a−1 ∗ a

⇔ e∗x∗e = e∗y∗e
⇔x=y
so f is injective
R
Let y ∈ G, find x ∈ G for which y =f(x)
Let f(x) = y ⇒ a ∗ x ∗ a−1 = y
⇒ x = a−1 ∗ y ∗ a since a,y∈ G ⇒ x ∈ G Thus f is surjective and therefore bijective. Hence f is an automorphism
1.9 GROUP OPERATING SET
TO
Let G be a group and S non-empty set. suppose
ϕ : G×S → S
ϕ(a, x) = a ∗ x, ∀a ∈ G, x ∈ S
If
i e ∗ x = x∀x ∈ S(e ∈ G)
ii (ab) ∗ x = a ∗ (b ∗ x)∀a, b ∈ G, x ∈ S
Then we say G operates on S and S is called a G-set
TU
1.10 STABILIZER
Let x ∈ S Hx = {a; a · x = x} is the stabilizer of x
Remark Hx is a subgroup of G
1.11 COSETS
Let G be a group and H a subgroup
If a ∈ G aH = {ah, h ∈ Hi is the left coset and Ha = {ha, h ∈ H} is the right coset
1.12 NORMAL SUBGROUPS

Y
If the left coset coset, the group is said to be normal(invariant) subgrpoup i.e aH = Ha ∀a ∈ G
equals the right
⇔ aHa−1 = axa−1 , x ∈ H
1.13 NORMALIZERS
M
Let H be a subset of the group G. The normalizer of H is defined as N(H) = k ∈ G; kHk−1 = H

Proposition N(H) is a sub group of G

1.14 PERMUTATIONS
1.14.1 Definition
Let A be a set, any bijective mapping from A onto itself is called a permutation on A
f is a permutation on A ⇔ f : A 7→ A is bijective
R
From this definition we see that a permutation on a set is simply a function which re-orders or re-arranges the elements of
that set
Example
Let A = {a, b, c}
Consider the function f defined on A as follows: f(a) = c, f(b) = a, f(c) = b. We can illustrate the mapping as follows
TO
a −→ c
b −→ a
c −→ b
f is a bijective map from A onto A
f is therefore a permutation on A
1.14.2 Notation
A permutation as such will be represented as follows:
TU

a b c a b c a b c a b c
f= = other permutations on A are: , etc
f (a) f (b) f (c) c a b b c a a b c
a b c
h= is not a permutation on A ={a, b, c} because e is not in A
b e a
a b c
k= is not a permutation, because k is not injective(k(a)=k(b)) and therefore is not a bijection, from A onto
b c b
A
1.14.3 Composition of Permutation

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
let f = and g = be two permutations of the set E = {1, 2, 3, 4} We compute fog from
3 1 4 2 2 1 4 3
left to right according to f(g(x))
Y
so
1 −→ 2 −→ 1
2 −→ 1 −→ 3
3 −→ 4 −→ 2
4 −→ 3 −→ 4
M

1 2 3 4
and fog =
1 3 2 4

1.14.4 Inverse Permutation

Consider the permutation f above, lets compute f −1
1 −→ 3 −→ 1
R
2 −→ 1 −→ 2
3 −→ 4 −→ 3
4 −→ 2 −→ 4

1 2 3 4
so f −1 =
2 4 1 3
TO

1 2 3 4
I= is also a permutation on A. It is called the identity permutation
1 2 3 4
1.14.5 Cycle of Permutation

Definition
An element of Sn is called a cycle if there exists a set {a1 , a2 , ...an } of distinct integers such that under f,
a1 −→ a2 −→ a3 ....ar−1 −→ ar −→ a1
and f leaves all other elements not belonging to the set fixed, i.e if a does not belong to {a1 , a2 , ...ar } then under f, a −→ a
In this case, the permutation can be written in the form
TU
f = (a1 , a2 , ....ar )
Example

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
consider the permutation f = of S7
1 6 3 7 5 4 2
We see that 2 −→ 6 −→ 4 −→ 7 −→ 2
So f can simply be written as f = (2, 6, 4, 7)
Note
1, 3 and 5 have not been included because they map themselves
Y
Note
Not all elements of Sn are cycles, that is not all permutations are cycles but every permutation can be written as a product
of mutually disjoint cycles.
Example
M

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Consider the permutation
3 8 1 6 7 4 9 1 5
We have the following cycles: 1 −→ 3 −→ 2 −→ 8 −→ 1, 4 −→ 6 −→ 4, and 5 −→ 7 −→ 9 −→ 5 or simply (1,3,2,8),
(4,6) and (5,7,9). These are mutually disjoint cycles, they are called the orbits of f. This example illustrates that f is not a
cycle but a product of mutually disjoint cycles and we write, f = (1,3,2,8)(4,6)(5,7,9)
This illustrates that permutations can be written in less clumsy forms, that is, in terms of cycles or product of mutually
disjoint cycles.

Example

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Express each cycle as a product of disjoint cycles i) ii)
4 5 3 1 2 5 1 3 7 2 6 4
Solution
R
i (1,4)(2,5)
ii (1,5,2)(4,7)
Example
TO
Given that f = (1,3,2,4) and g = (1,7,6,2). Find fog and gof
Solution

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
We have f = g= ⇒ f og =
3 4 2 1 5 6 7 7 1 3 4 5 2 6 7 3 2 1 5 4 6
⇒ f og = (1, 7, 6, 4)(2, 3) Similarly, gof = (1,3)(2,4,7,6)
Remark
Cycles on disjoint sets commutes while cycles that are not on disjoints sets of elements will not commute
TU
1.14.6 Transpositions
Every cycle (a1 , a2 , ...ar ) can be written as (a1 , ar )(a2 , ar−1 )....(a1 , a3 )(a1 , a2 )
For example (1,5,4,2) = (1,2)(1,4)(1,5)
Theorem
If a certain permutation f is expressed as a product of m transposition and also as a product of n transpositions, then either
m and n are both even or else m and n are both odd
1.14.7 Parity of a Permutation

Y
A permutation that can be expressed as a product of even numbers of transpositions is called an even permutation
A permutation that can be expressed as a product of an odd number of transpositions is called an odd permutation
Remark
A cycle that has r elements or an r-cycles is an even permutation if r is odd and an odd permutation if r is even
M
Example
Give the parity of the following permutations: i) (1,3,4,7) ii) (2,3,4,6,5)
Solution
i odd, Since it has an even number of elements
ii Even, Since it has an odd number of elements

1.14.8 Inverse of Cycle

Consider the cycle (a1 , a2 , ....ar ) under f.
Since f (ak ) = ak+1 we only need to reverse the order of the cyclic pattern of f to obtain f −1
that is a1 −→ a2 −→ a3 .... −→ ar −→ a1 reversing the arrows to obtain f −1 a1 ←− a2 ←− a3 ... ←− ar ←− a1
R
Example
Given that f = (1,6,4,8,2), f −1 = (1, 2, 8, 4, 6)
TO
1.15 SN
1.15.1 EXERCISE 1
If α, β and γ are the roots of the equation x2 − 2x − 1 = 0, calculate:
1. α + β + γ =
2. αβ + γβ + αγ =
3. αβ γ =
Deduce
TU
4. 1−2α
1+2α + 1−2β 1−2γ
1+2β + 1+2γ
1.15.2 EXERCISE 2
let (G,*), (G,∆) be two groups and f : G −→ G a morphism of groups
1. Show that for all subgroups H of G, f(H) is a subgroup of G’ then deduce that Im f is a subgroup of G’.
Is it a normal subgroup of G’? Justify your answer
2. Show that for all subgroups H’ of G’, f −1 (H 0 ) is a subgroup of G. Deduce that Ker f is a subgroup of G
Is it a normal subgroup? Justify
3. Let H and K be two subgroups of G.
Show that H ∪ K is a subgroup of G if and only if H ⊂ K or K ⊂ H
Y
4. Let N a non empty set of G.

(a) What signifies, N is a normal subgroup of G?
We suppose in the following that N is a normal subgroup of G
(b) Show that the relation R defined on G by: ∀x, y ∈ G, xRy, ⇒ y−1 x a N is an equivalence relation, determine the
M
class of the identity element of G

(c) Show that the quotient group G/N is abelian if and only if a−1 b−1 ab ∈ N, ∀a, b ∈ G

1.15.3 PROBLEM
PART A
We consider
the permutation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
σ= ∈ G12
R
6 12 1 10 9 11 4 3 2 7 8 5
1. Decompose σ as a product of disjoint cycles
2. Decompose σ as a product of transpositions
3. What is the parity of σ ? Justify
TO
4. Determine the minimum integer such that σ n = Id
5. Calculate σ 1999
PART B
A bijection of {1, 2...n} {ontoitsel f } is called a permutation. The group (Sn , o) is called the permutation group or sym-
metric group
1. Describe the elements of S3
TU
2. Show that the composition of applications is a binary operation on S3
3. Deduce the centre of the group S3 denoted Z(S3 )
PART C
Let K a group and L a subset of K such that L is not an empty set(L = ∅) we define N(L) = (g ∈ K : gLg−1 = L) and
C(L) = (g ∈ K : ∀a ∈ G, gag−1 = a)
1. Show that N(L) is a subgroup of K
2. Show that C(L) is a subgroup of K
3. Show that C(L) is a normal subgroup of N(L)
Y
1.16 CC
1.16.1 EXERCISE 1
Let f : X → Y an application
M
I 1 Let A and B be two parts of X. What can say of f (A ∩ B) and f (A) ∩ f (B)?
2 Show that f is injective if and only if ∀A, B ⊂ X, f (A ∩ B) = f (A) ∩ f (B)
II 1 Show that f is surjective if and only if ∀A ⊂ X, f (A) ⊂ f (A)
2 Show that f is injective if and only if ∀A ⊂ X, f (A) ⊂ f (A)
3 Show that f is injective if and only if ∀A ⊂ X, f −1 ( f (A)) = A

1.16.2 EXERCISE 2
1. Four friends: Adrienne, Beatrice, Charlotte, Delphine practice four different professions: lawyer, doctor, pharmacist
and teacher. Neither Beatrice nor Charlotte don’t practice a health profession. Of the four friends, she who loves
health, treats Adrienne and Charlotte. Adrienne and Charlotte don’t teach. Which of the following propositions are
possible?
R
(a) Adrienne is a pharmacist and Charlotte a doctor
(b) Beatrice is a lawyer and Charlotte a teacher
(c) Charlotte is a teacher and Adrienne a pharmacist
(d) Delphine is a doctor and Beatrice a teacher
TO
(e) Adrienne is a doctor and Charlotte is a pharmacist
2. Serge, Alain and Marc are married to Lise, Monique and Helen. Knowing that:
- Serge likes to play golf the husband of Monique

- Alain is neighbor to Lise and does jumping
- Marc’s daughter keeps one of Helen’s children
- Monique’s husband doesn’t hate sports
Who is married to who?
TU
3. Let E be the set of Students, S the set of players of a week, and for a student x, h(X) his wake up time in a day j
(i) Write with mathematics symbols the proposition <<All students wake up before 8am at least in a day of the
week>>
(ii) Write the negation of this statement with the mathematics symbols in English
1.16.3 EXERCISE 3
In N x N, we define < by:
∀(a, b) ∈ N 2 , ∀(a0 , b0 ) ∈ N 2 , (a, b) < (a0 , b0 ) ⇔ a ≤ a0 andb ≤ b0
1. Show that it is an ordered relation. Is this order total? justify

Y
2. Let A = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5)}
(a) Determine two minimums and two maximums of A
(b) Does A admits a biggest element? if yes, precise by justifying
(c) Does A admits a smallest element? if yes, precise by justifying
M
(d) Does A admits an upper bond? if yes, precise by justifying

(e) Does A admits a lower bond? if yes, precise by justifying

1.16.4 EXERCISE 4
1. Let R a binary relation on a set E at same time reflexive and transitive. We define the new relations S and T by:
xSy ⇔ (xRyandyRx)
R
and
xTy ⇔ (xRyoryRx)
The relations S and T , are they equivalence relations? justify
2. Let g : I → J an application and β an equivalence relation on J. We define a relation α on I by:
TO
∀x, y ∈ I, xαy ⇔ g(x)β g(y)
(a) Proof that α is an equivalence relation on I

(b) If gb : I/α → J/β is defined by g(b
d x) = [g(x)]. Show that gb is well defined and is injective
(c) Show that if g is surjective, gb is surjective
(d) If θ : I → I/α and π : J → J/β are two natural applications, show that πog = gboθ
1.16.5 EXERCISE 5
We define on ℜ the law * by: ∀x, y ∈ ℜ, x ∗ y = x + y + sin(xy)
TU
1. Is this law commutative? has is an identity element?
2. Determine an element of ℜ which admits many inverses for this law
3. Justify that the law * is not associative
1.17 CORRECTION CC
1.17.1 EXERCICE 1
I 1. We can say f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B) i.e
A ∩ B ⊂ A ⇒ f (A) ∩ f (B) ⊂ f (A)
A ∩ B ⊂ B ⇒ f (A) ∩ f (B) ⊂ f (B)
Y
⇒ f (A) ∩ f (B) ⊂ f (A ∩ B)
2. ⇒)
suppose that f is injective. Let A and B be two parts of X. We have
A∩B ⊂ A f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A)
⇒ ⇒ f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B)
A∩B ⊂ B f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (B)
Reciprocally, let y an element of f (A) ∩ f (B). The injectivity of f gives a = b. It follows that a ∈ A ∩ B, so
M
y ∈ f (A ∩ B). so we have f (A ∩ B) = f (A) ∩ f (B)

⇐) suppose that ∀A, B ∈ X, f (A ∩ B) = f (A) ∩ f (B)
Let a and b two elements of X such that f(a) = f(b). We have to show a = b.
let A = {a} and B = {b}
We have f (A) = f ({a}) = { f (a)} = { f (b)} = f ({b}) = f (B)
so by hypothesis, f (A ∩ B) = f (A) ∩ f (B) = f (A) is not empty. It follows that A ∩ B = {a} ∩ {b} is not empty.
This implies a = b

II 1. ⇒) suppose f is bijective. Let A a part of X

Let y ∈ X and x its uniaque image by f
We have the following equivalene: y ∈ f (A) ⇔ yisnotin f (A) ⇔ xisnotinA ⇔ x ∈ A ⇔ y ∈ f (A). Then f (A) ⊂
f (A)
⇒ f bijective ⇒ f (A) ⊂ f (A)
R
⇒ f surjective f (A) ⊂ f (A)
⇐ Reciprocally, the hypothesis on f implies f (E) ⊂ f (0) / ⊂ f (0)/ ⊂ 0/ ⊂ E The application f is then surjective
2. ⇒) suppose f is bijective. Let A a part of X
Let y ∈ X and x its uniaque image by f
We have the following equivalene: y ∈ f (A) ⇔ yisnotin f (A) ⇔ xisnotinA ⇔ x ∈ A ⇔ y ∈ f (A). Then f (A) ⊂
f (A)
TO
⇒ f bijective ⇒ f (A) ⊂ f (A)
⇒ f injective f (A) ⊂ f (A)
⇐ Reciprocally, let a and b be two elements of E.
Let A = {a}
We have a, b ∈ A ⇒ f (b) ∈ f (A) ⊂ f (A) ⇒ f (b) is not in f(A)
⇒ f (b) 6= f (a) so f is injective
3. ∀x ∈ A, f (x) ∈ f (A) and so x ∈ f −1 ( f (A)) ⇒ A ⊂ f −1 ( f (A))
Since ∀A ∈ E, A ⊂ f −1 ( f (A)), the question reduces to showing that f is injective if and only if ∀A ∈ E, A ⊃
f −1 ( f (A))
⇒) suppose f is injective.
If f is injective, ∀x ∈ f −1 ( f (A)), f (x) ∈ f (A) ⇒ ∃x0 ∈ A/ f (x) = f (x0 ). since f is injective, x = x’, consequently,
TU
x ∈ A ⇒ f −1 ( f (A)) ⊂ A
⇐) suppose ∀A ⊂ E, f −1 ( f (A)) ⊂ A and f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = y
We take A = {x1 }
f (A) = f ({x1 }) = { f (x1 )} = {y}
⇒ f −1 ( f (A)) = f −1 ({y}) = f −1 (y)
By hypothesis, f −1 ( f (A)) ⊂ A so f −1 (y) ⊂ {x1 }

But x2 ∈ f −1 (y) since f (x2 ) = y so x2 ∈ {x1 }

Consequently, x1 = x2 ⇒ f is injective
1.17.2 EXERCISE 2
1. a Impossible since Charlotte do not practice any healtth profession
b Impossible since Charlotte do not teach
Y
c Impossible since Charlotte do not teach

d Possible
e Impossible since Charlotte do not practice any health profession
2. Serge is married to Monique
Marc is married to Lise
M
Alain is married to Helen

3. i ∃ j/∀x ∈ E, h(x) = 8
ii ∀ j, ∃x ∈ E, h(x) 6= 8 No student wakes at 8am in a week
1.17.3 EXERCICE 3
1. a ≤ a and b ≤ b ⇒ (a, b) < (a, b) ⇒< is relexive....(1)
(a, b) < (a0 , b0 ) ⇒ a ≤ a0 and b ≤ b0

(a0 ,b0 ) < (a, b) ⇒ a0 ≤ a and 0

b ≤ b 0
0 0
a ≤ a anda ≤ a a=a
⇒ ⇒ ⇒ (a, a0 ) = (b, b0 ) < is antisymetric ......(2)
b ≤ b0 andb0 ≤ b b = b0
(a, b) < (a0 , b0 ) ⇒ a ≤ a0 and b ≤ b0
a ≤ a0 ≤ a00 a ≤ a00

0 0 00 00 0 00 0
(a , b ) < (a , b ) ⇒ a ≤ a and b ≤ b ⇒ 00 ⇒ ⇒ (a, b) < (a00 , b00 ) < is transitive.....(3)
R
b≤b ≤b 0 00 b ≤ b00
(1),(2) and (3) ⇒< is an ordered relation
The oreder is total since for every ordered pairs (a, b), (a0 , b0 ) ∈ N 2 we have (a, b) < (a0 , b0 ) or (a0 , b0 ) < (a, b)
2. a Maximums (5,5) and (5,6)
TO
Minimums (1,1) and (1,2)
b Yes (5,5) since (5,5) is a maximum belonging to A
c Yes (1,2) since (1,2) is a minimum belonging to A
d Yes, (5,5) since (5,5) is the smallest of all the maximum belongig to A
e Yes (1,1) since (1,1) is the biggest of all the minimums belonging to A
1.17.4 EXERCISE 4
1. Showing that S and T are equivalent relations
∀x ∈ E, (xRx and xRx) ⇒ xSx. S is reflexive.....(1)
TU
∀x, y ∈ E, xSy ⇔ (xRy and yRx) ⇔ (yRx and xRy) ⇔ ySx. S is symetric
xSy ⇔ (xRyandyRx)
∀x, y, z ∈ E,
ySz ⇔ (yRzandzRy)
⇒ xSy and ySz ⇔ ((xRy and yRz) and (yRx and zRy)) ⇔ (xRz and zRx) ⇔ xSz. S is transitive......(3)
(1),(2) and (3) ⇒ S is an equivqlent relation
x ∈ E, xRx or xRx ⇒ xTx. T is relexive

xTy ⇔ (xRy or yRx) ⇔ (yRx and xRy) ⇔ yTx. T is symetric

xTy ⇔ (xRyoryRx)
yT z ⇔ (yRzorzRy)
⇒ xTy and yTz ⇔ (xRy and yRz) or (yRx and zRy) ⇔ (xRz or zRx) ⇔ xTz. T is transitive
2. (a) Showing that α is an equivalent relation

Y
∀x ∈ I, g(x)β
g(x) ⇒ xαx ⇒ α relexive
g(x)β g(y) ⇒ xαy
∀x, y ∈ E, But β is symetric since its equivalent
g(y)β g(x) ⇒ yαx
⇒ g(x)β g(y) ⇒ g(y)β g(x)
⇒ xαy ⇒ yαx. α is symetric
g(x)β g(y) ⇒ xαy
∀x, y, z ∈ E But β is transitive since its is equivalent
M
g(y)β g(z) ⇒ yαz

xαy
⇒ g(x)β g(y) and g(y)β g(z) ⇒ g(x)β g(z) ⇒ ⇒ xαz. α is transitive
yαx
b. Showing that gb is well defined and injective
Let call ϕ this application. ϕ will be an application when we would have shown that ϕ is an application i.e if
we change the representatives, the value of ϕ remains constant
If we have xb = xb0 , do we have ϕ(bx) = ϕ(xb0 )?
0 0
xb = x ⇔ [g(x)] = [g(x )] ⇔ gb(b
b x) = gb(xb0 )

⇒ ϕ(b x) = gb(bx) = gb(xb0 ) = ϕ(xb0 )

⇒ ϕ(b x) = ϕ(xb0 ) ϕ is well defined ⇒ gb is well defined
Injectivity
ϕ(bx) = ϕ(xb0 ) ⇔ gb(bx) = gb(xb0 ) ⇔ [g(x)] = [g(x0 )] ⇔ x = x0
⇒ ϕ is injective ⇒ gb is injective
R
c. Showing gb surjective
Suppose g is surjective
g surjective ⇒ ∃y ∈ J/∀x ∈ I, y = g(x) ⇒ ∃y ∈ J/β /∀x ∈ I/α, y = [g(x)] = gb(b
x)
⇒ gb is surjective
{z J} −→
d. We have I| −→ J/β ⇒ I −→ J/β .....(1)
TO
| {z } | {z }
g π πog
Also, I −→ I/α −→ J/β ⇒ I −→ J/β .....(2)
| {z } | {z } | {z }
gb θ gboθ
We see clearly that we have two possible trajectories which are equivalent ⇒ πog = gboθ
1.17.5 EXERCISE 5
1. we have x ∗ y = x + y + sin(xy) = y + x + sin(yx) = y ∗ x
⇒ x ∗ y = y ∗ x so ∗ is commutative.
Also, x ∗ 0 = 0 ∗ x = x ⇒ e = 0 is the identity element
TU
3. (x ∗ y) ∗ z = x + y + sin(xy) + z + sin((x + y + sin(xy)z) = x + y + z + sin(xy) + sin(xz + yz + zsin(xy))
x ∗ (y ∗ x) = x + y + z + sin(yz) + sin(x(y + z + sin(yz)) = x + y + z + sin(yz) + sin(xz + xy + xsin(yz))
Hence (x ∗ y) ∗ z 6= x ∗ (y ∗ z). So ∗ is not associative
1.18 CORRECTION SN
1.18.1 EXERCISE1
We have x3 − 2x − 1 = 0......(1)
For an equation of the form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0......(2) with roots α,β , γ, we have
 α + β + γ = − ab

αβ + αγ + β γ = ac
αβ γ = − da

Y
comparing
 (1) and (2), we have a = 1, b = 0, c = -2 and d = -1
 α +β +γ = 0
⇒ αβ + αγ + β γ = −2 (3)
αβ γ = −1

1. α + β + γ = 0
M
2. αβ + αγ + β γ = -2
3. αβ γ = -1
3+2(α+β +γ)−4(αβ +αγ+β γ)−24αβ γ
4. 1−2α
1+2α + 1−2β 1−2γ
1+2β + 1+2γ = 1+2(α+β +γ)+4(αβ +αγ+β γ)+8αβ γ
1−2α 1−2β 1−2γ

using (3) above, we have 1+2α + 1+2β + 1+2γ = - 73

1.18.2 EXERCISE2
1. Showing that f(H) is a suubgroup of G’
H is a group, so e is its identity element ⇒ f (e) ∈ f (H) ⇒ f (H) 6= 0........(1)
/
Let f(x) and f(y) ∈ f (H)
x, y ∈ H
R
⇒ x, y−1 ∈ H
⇒ xoy−1 ∈ H
⇒ f (xoy−1 ) ∈ f (H)
⇒ f (x) ∗ f (y−1 ) ∈ f (H)
⇒ f (x) ∗ ( f (y))−1 ∈ f (H)........(2)
TO
(1) and (2) ⇒ f(H) is a subgroup of G’
Deducing Imf a subgroup of G’
Im f = { f (a), a ∈ H} ⇒ Im f = f (H) ⇒ Imf is a subgroup of G’
Imf is a normal subgroup of G’
2. showing that f −1 (H) is a subgroup of G

H’ is a subgroup of G’ ⇒ e0 ∈ H 0
⇒ f −1 (e0 ) ∈ f −1 (H) ⇒ f −1 (H) 6= 0......(1)/
Let f −1 (x0 ) and f −1 (y0 ) ∈ f −1 (H 0 )
x 0 , y0 ∈ H 0
⇒ x0 , y0−1 ∈ H 0
⇒ x0 oy0−1 ∈ H 0
TU
f −1 (x0 oy0−1 ) ∈ f −1 (H 0 )
f −1 (x0 ) ∗ f −1 (y0−1 ) ∈ f −1 (H 0 )
f −1 (x0 ) ∗ ( f −1 (y0 ))−1 ∈ f −1 (H 0 ).......(2)
(1) and (2) ⇒ f −1 (H 0 ) s a subgroup of G’
Deducing that Kerf is a suubgroup of G
Ker f = {x0 ∈ H 0 / f (x) = eG } = {x ∈ H 0 / f (x) = f (e)} ∈ f −1 (H 0 ) ⇒ Ker f is asubgroup of G and by defintion ker f
is a normal subgroup of G
3. Showing that H ∪ K s a subgroup of G if and only if H ⊂ K or K ⊂ H
⇐) Suppose H ⊂ K or K ⊂ H and show H ∪ K a subgroup of G
H ⊂ K or K ⊂ H ⇒ H ∪ K = K or H ∪ K = H
⇒ H ∪ K is a subgroup since H and K are subgroups of G
⇒) By contrradiction,
K lets suppose H ∪ K is a subgroup G and H * K and K * H
Y

H *k CH 6= 0/
⇒
K*H CKH 6= 0/
Let x ∈ CHK ⇒ x ∈ H and x is not in K........(1)
y ∈ CKH ⇒ y ∈ K and y is not in H......(2)
(1) and (2) ⇒ x, y ∈ H ∪ K.....(3)
suppose by absurdity that X ∗ y ∈ H
M
From (1), x ∈ H ⇒ x−1 ∈ H

x−1 , x ∗ y ∈ H ⇒ x−1 ∗ (x ∗ y) ∈ H
⇒ y ∈ H (absurd) from (2)
Hence x ∗ y is not in H.....(4)
Similarly, suppose x ∗ y ∈ K
(x ∗ y) ∗ y−1 = x ∈ K (absurd) from (1)
⇒ x ∗ y is not in K......(5)
(4) and (5) ⇒ x ∗ y is not in H ∪ K.......(6)
(3) and (6) ⇒ H ∪ K is not a subgroup (absurd)

4. a. N is a subgroup of G if the left coset equals the right coset

If gN = Ng ∀g∈G
⇒ gNg−1 = gng−1 , n ∈ N

b. Showing that R is an equivalent relation

x−1 .x = e ∈ N ⇒ xRx ⇒ reflexive......(1)
R
Let x,y∈ G
x,y∈ G ⇒ xRy ⇒ y−1 .x ∈ N
⇒ yy−1 xy−1 ∈ N
⇒ xy−1 ∈ N
⇒ yRx ⇒ symetric.....(2)
Let x,y,z∈ G
TO
xRy ⇒ y−1 x ∈ N
x,y,z∈ G ⇒ ⇒ z−1 y.y−1 x ∈ N ⇒ z−1 x ∈ N ⇒ xRz ⇒ transitive......(3)
yRz ⇒ z−1 y ∈ N
(1), (2), and (3) ⇒ R is an equivalent relation
c. Showing that the quotient group G/N is abelian if and only if a−1 b−1 ab ∈ N, ∀a, b ∈ G
⇒) Let suppose G/N is abelan
G/N abelian ⇒ ab = ba ∀a, b ∈ G
ab = ba
⇒ b−1 ab = b−1 ba
⇒ b−1 ab = eG a = a
⇒ a−1 b−1 ab = a−1 a = eG ∈ N
TU
⇒ a−1 b−1 ab ∈ N
⇐) Suppose a−1 b−1 ab ∈ N
a−1 b−1 ab ∈ N ⇒ (a−1 b−1 ab) ∗ (a−1 b−1 ab) = e
a−1 b−1 ab ∗ b−1 a−1 ba = e
b−1 a−1 aa−1 ba = e since bb−1 = e
a−1 b−1 ba = e since aa−1 = e
⇒ ba = ab so G/N is abelian
1.18.3 PROBLEM
Part A
1. σ = (1, 6, 11, 8, 3)(2, 12, 5, 9)(4, 10, 7)
Y
2. σ = (1, 6)(1, 11)(1, 8)(1, 3)(2, 12)(2, 5)(2, 9)(4, 10)(4, 7)

3. σ is odd since it is expressed as a product of an odd number of transpositions
4. By composition, we arrive at σ 5 = Id ⇒ n = 5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
5. σ 1999 = σ 2000 σ −1 = (σ 5 )400 σ −1 = σ −1 = (1, 3, 8, 11, 6)(2, 9, 5, 12)(4, 7, 10) =
M
3 9 8 7 12 1 10 11 5 4 6
Part C
1 Showing that N(L) is a subgroup of K
∀a ∈ L, ea = ae ⇒ ea−1 e = a ⇒ e ∈ C(L) ⇒ C(L) 6= 0.....(1)
/
Let g ∈ C(L), ⇒ gag−1 = a
⇒ ga = ag
g−1 (ga)g−1 = g−1 (ag)g−1

⇒ ag−1 = g−1 a
g−1 a(g−1 )−1 = a
g−1 ∈ C(L)......(2)
Let g1 , g2 ∈ C(L)
⇒ a(g1 g−1 −1
2 ) = (ag1 )g2
R
−1
= (g1 a)g2
= g1 (ag−1
2 )
= (g1 g−1
2 )a
⇒ (g1 g − 2−1 )a(g1 g−1
2 )
−1 = a
−1
⇒ g1 g2 ∈ C(L).....(3)
TO
(1),(2) and (3) ⇒ N(L) is a subgroup of K
TU
Y
M

R
Chapter 2
COMPUTER SCIENCE
TO
2.1 CC
2.1.1 COMPUTER
1. What are the characteristics elements of a memory?
2. What are the characteristics elements of a processor?
TU
3. What are the characteristics elements of a graphic card?
4. How can we remove a CD in the absence of electricity?
5. Is a computer an electronic machine?

6. What are the principal functional parts of the computer?
7. When do we say a memory of type RAM?
2.1.2 INTRODUCTION INTO COMPUTER SCIENCE AND OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. Name five jobs of computer sciences
2. Name five applications of computer science
Y
3. Name three operating systems

4. Which type of path is the following path? PolytechIFLInfo.....Which other path do you know?
5. How many bits is needed to represent an element of a set which has 2048 elements?
M
6. List seven elements of the cost of a software

7. List three elements of the gain from a software
26
2.2 CORRECTION
2.2.1 COMPUTER
1. its frequency, its mark, its set of instructions
R
2. its rotating speed, its space
3. color deepness, graphic memory
4. Using a needle or a pin
5. No, since optical computers also exists
TO
6. the processor, the peripherals, and the memory
7. A memory is of the type RAM, when access to the memory is direct and not sequential
2.2.2 OPERATING SYSTEM

1. Analyst, conception engineer, programmer, tester, specification
2. management, telecommunication, artificial intelligence, robotics, industries, aeronautics
3. LINUX, WINDOWS, UBUNTU, MAC DOS
TU
4. its an absolute path. Another type is relative path
ln 2048
5. 2n = 2048 ⇒ n = ln 2 ⇒ n = 11bits
6. security cost, bugging cost, configuration cost, management cost, maintenance cost, installation cost, learning cost
7. Gain in time, gain in money, gain in security

Y
M

R
Chapter 3
PHYSICS PRACTICALS
TO
3.1 SN
3.1.1 Exercise 1
Q1 a) The preliminary set ups and adjustments made to an Oscilloscope before use.
• Put on the Oscilloscope using the "POWER" button.
• Press CH1 then CH2 , two signals will appear for channel 1 and channel 2.
TU
• Adjust the vertical sensibility gain using the CH1 or CH2 button. Then select the page 2/2 and activate the
End option using the 0 F2 button. (as proposed in manual)
b) V = (8.0 ± 0.2)volts. What is the value of the displacement of the trace if the y-gain is at 2volts/cm
Now, V = displacement × gain, V = d × S ⇒ dV = S∆d + d∆S

∆V 0.2V
f or ∆s = 0, = = 0.1cm
S 2V cm−1
8.0V
d= = 4.0cm, hence d = (4.0 ± 0.1)cm
2V cm−1
Q2 (a) How to stabilize signal (manual)

(b) What is the form of the signal?
Y
Sinusoidal waveform.
(c) Indicate how you would determine the period of the signal
M
28
R
TOtime = time base × no o f divisions on horizontal axis swept by trace
TU
For example on the figure above, if the timebase is set at 0.02s/div, then the Period = T
T = 0.02s/div × 8div = 0.16s
3.1.2 Exercise 2
Q1 .
Y
M
Q2 Fresnel’s representation

R
TO
Q3 Finding cos φ and tan φ
It is worth noticing that the angle φ between the Fresnel vectors for VR and Vb can be represented as:
TU
i.e vector V~R and V ~[
~b are both entering and leaving 0 when (V ~
b , VR ) = θ = φ
Hence to apply the cosine rule here, we write
V 2 = VR2 +Vb2 − 2VRVb cos(180o − φ )

hence V 2 = VR2 +Vb2 + 2VRVb cos φ
V 2 −VR2 −Vb2
hence cosφ =
2VRVb
Y
but since φ = θr,L we also have

Vr r
cos φ = =p
Vb r + (Lω)2
2
IωL
also sin φ = p
r + (Lω)2
2
M
ωL
hence tan φ =
r
Q4 Express r in terms of Z and cos φ , L in terms of Z and pcos φ (think it had to be Z and sinφ )
Now for a coil of internal resistance r, we have that Z = r2 + (Lω)2
r ωL Z
from cos φ = r2 +(Lω)2
, we have r = Z cos φ , also, from sin φ = r2 +(Lω)2
, we have L = ω sin φ with ω = 2π f

Cursor position C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
VR (volt) 4.5 5.3 6 6.2 6.4 6.5
Vb (volt) 2.71 2.01 0.93 0.69 0.464 0.33
V (volt) 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8
cos φ 0.76 0.88 0.74 0.86 0.86 0.90
R
V 2 −VR2 −Vb2
Use cos φ = to f ill table
2VRVb
taking an average value o f cos φ , we have
0.76 + 0.88 + 0.74 + 0.86 + 0.86 + 0.90
TO
cos φ =
6
cos φ = 0.83
hence, r = Z cos φ , ∆r = ∆Z cos φ , ∆r = 4.15Ω
r = (46.5 ± 4.2)Ω
q
but Z = r2 + (Lω)2
Z 2 − r2
⇒ Z 2 = r2 + (Lω)2 ⇒ L2 =
ω2
1
d(Z 2 ) − d(r2 )

So 2Ldl =
TU
ω2
1
2Ldl = 2 (2ZdZ − 2rdr)
ω
1
So ∆L = (|2Z|∆Z + |2r|∆r)
2Lω 2
1
∆L = 2 (|Z|∆Z + |r|∆r)
ω L
So L = (L ± ∆L) (to be calculated )
3.1.3 Exercise 3
L(m) 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20
20T (s) 22.50 26.00 29.00 31.50 34.10 26.70 38.50 40.40 43.00 45.50
20T
Y
T= (s)
Q1 20
∆T (s) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
T 2 (s2 )
∆T 2 (s2 )
Now ∆T 2 = 2T ∆T, ∆T = 1s
M
Q2 Draw T 2 = f (L) and deduce g and ∆g

• (Graph)
– Vertical bars of uncertainty
– Two lines
– ∆Slope = Slopemax−Slopemin)
2

R
TO
s
L 4π 2 L 4π 2
Now, T = 2π ⇒ T2 = ⇒ Slope =
g g g
4π 2
hence g = , g = (g ± ∆g)ms−2 (to be calculated)
Slope
Q3 Sources of errors on the period

TU
(a) Long reaction time of observer.
(b) Faulty apparatus like stopwatch.
(c) Faulty determination of uncertainty on T.
3.2 CORRECTION SN
3.2.1 EXERCISE1
1 In the course of the lab work, titled numerical oscilloscope 1, you measured a voltage in continous current
a what will be preliminary ajustments required on the osciloscope?
Y
b the value of the measured voltage is V = (8.0 ± 0.2)volts. what is the value of the displacement of the
trace(impulse) if the gain selection is positioned at 2volts/cm
2 You want to measure the period of a signal produced by G.B.F with the help of a numerical oscilloscope
a How will you do to stabilise the the signal?
b What is its form?
M
c Indiquate how you will do to measure the period of the signal
3.2.2 EXERCISE2
We want to measure the inductance L and the resistance r of a magnet. We use the method of three voltmeters
1 Propose a setup for the experiment
2 Make Fresnel’s diagram indiquating the different voltages and their phage differences

3 Deduce from the diagram, the cosines of the angle between Vb and VR , also the tangent as a function of L and r
4 By using the expression of Z(impedence of the magnet), express r as a function of Z and of cosφ . Deduce L as a
function of Z and cosφ
We want to determine experimentally the caracteristiques L and r of the ;agnet using the three voltmeter method.Complete
the following table: the frequency of the signal is f = 50Hz, the impedence of the magnet is Z = (56 ± 5)Ω
R
Cursur position C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
VR (volts) 4.5 5.3 6 6.2 6.4 6.3
Vb (volts) 2.71 2.01 0.93 0.69 0.46 0.33
V (volts) 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8
TO
cosφ
5 Calculate cosφ and determine with precision the resistance r and the inductance L of the magnet
3.2.3 EXERCISE3
We want to measure the acceleration due to gravity g, using the experiment on the simple pendulum. We obtain for the
following result for an angle fixed at 30 and for a period of 20 oscillations
L(m) 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20
20T(s) 22.30 26.00 29.00 31.50 34.10 36.70 38.50 40.40 43.00 44.50
TU
1 Complete if neccesary the table
2 Draw the graph T 2 = f (L) and deduce the values of g and 4g

3 What are the sources of errors on T? We will take 4L = 0 and 4T = 1s
Y
M

R
Chapter 4
CHEMISTRY
TO
4.1 SN
1. Steochiometry is based on the law of conservation of mass. on what law is thermochemistry based?
2. In writing thermochemical equations, why is it important to indicate their physical states?
3. Arrange the following in order of increasing polarisability and justify why

TU
(a) Cl
(b) I
(c) Br
(d) F
4. The atomic number of chlorine is Z = 17
(a) Give its electronic configuration
(b) Calculate its ionisation energy
(c) Calculate its electron affinity
5. Chromium has atomic number Z = 24, calculate its configuration energy and deduce its first ionisaton energy
Y
6. By using Sanderson’s principle, say which of the following is a metal
(a) Sb
(b) Sn
(c) Te
M
(d) Se
4.2 CC
1. The configuration of some excited atoms are given.Identify these atoms and write their ground-state:
i 1s1 2s1
ii 1s2 2s2 2p2 3d 1
34
iii 1s2 2s2 2p6 4s1

iv 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 3d 1
2. What is the maximum number of electrons in an atom that can have the following quantum numbers? Specify the
orbitals in which the electrons will be found.
R
a(n = 2,ms = − 12 ) b(n = 4, ml = −1) c(n = 3, l = 2) d(n = 2, l= 0, ms = + 21 ) e(n = 4,l = 3, ml = +2)
3. In Balmer’s series of isotopes of hydrogen,a discharging tube contains a mixture H2 + D2 + T2 D representing deu-
terium atom 21 H and T represents tritium atom 31 T ;Determine the wavelength of Hα,Dα, T α corresponding to the
transition n = 3 to n = 2
Given data
TO
R∞ = 1, 097373.107 m−1 mH = 1, 67353.10−27 kg mD = 3, 34449.10−27 kg mT = 5, 00827.10−27 kg me = 9, 10953.10−27 kg
4. An electron in the hydrogen makes a transition from an energy state of principal quantum numbers ni to n = 4 state.If
the photon emitted has a wavelength of 486nm, What is the value of ni You have h = 6, 626.10−34 Js C = 3.108 ms−1
5. We give the following chemicals
H He+ Li2+ Be3+ B4+ C5+ N 6+

λ (nm) 91,4 22,8 10,1 5,67 3,6 2,5 1,86
(a) What relation do their ionisation energies verify?
(b) What elements are obtained after ionisation?
TU
(c) To what electronic transition do they correspond? V
(d) Calculate their corresponding ionisation energies
Given Data: h = 6, 626.10−34 , c = 3.108 ms−1 , 1ev = 1, 6.10−19 J
4.3 CORRECTION CC
1 i 1s1 2s1
The atom is a helium atom (42 He)
4 He : 1s2
2
ii 1s2 2s2 2p2 3d 1
The atom is nitrogen 14
7 N
Y
14 N : 1s2 2s2 2p3

7
iii 1s2 2s2 2p6 4s1
Sodium atom (Z = 11)
23 Na : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
11
iv 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 3d 1
M
Chlorine atom (Z = 17)

35.5Cl : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
17
2 a (n = 2, ms = − 21 )
When n = 2, l ∈ {0, 1} ml = [0, −1, +1] for l = 1 and ml = 0 for l = 0
So we have 4 electrons
1electron on 2s and 3 electrons on 2p

b (n = 4, ml = −1)
When n = 4, l ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3}
l = 0, m = 0
l= 1, m = -1,0,1
l = 2,m = -2,-1,0,1,2
R
l = 3, m = -3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3
but we want m = -1. We have 3 orbitals with value m = -1, hence 6 electrons
c n = 3, l = 2
When n = 3, l ∈ {0, 1, 2}
When l = 2, m = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}
TO
We have 5 orbitals hence 10 electrons
d whwn n = 2, l ∈ {0, 1}
when l = 0, m = 0
hence we have 1 orbital and 1 electron
e n = 4, l ∈ {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
when m = +2, we have one orbital hence 2 electrons
3 In the Balmer series,λm −→ 2
1
but λm→n = RH ( n12 − m12 ) for hydrogen,
where RH = ( mHm+m H
e
)R∞ , RD = ( mDm+m
D
e
)R∞ and RT = ( mTm+m
T
e
)R∞
1 1 1
= R ( − )
TU
λ H
3→2
H 22 32
1
λ3→2 D = RD ( 212 − 312 )
1
λ3→2 T = RT ( 212 − 312 )
NA:
λH = 656,469nm
λD = 656,291nm
λT = 656,232nm
4 ∆E = hc λ
1 1 1 E0 1
λi→4 = RH ( 42 − i2 ) = hc ( 42 − i12 )
NA:
i = 2 hence ni = 2
Y
2
5 a EI = En0 Z2
n = principal quantum number Z = atmic number of the atom
E0 = −13, 6eV EI = ionisation energy
b Elements obtained after ionisation
+ −
1 H −→ H + e
+ + 2+ + e
M
2 He −→2 He + e, 2 He −→2 He
+ + 2+ + e, 3 Li2+ −→3 Li3+ + e
3 Li −→3 Li + e ,3 Li −→3 Li
+ + 2+ + e, 4 Be2+ −→B e3+ + e, 4 Be3+ −→4 Be4+ + e
4 Be −→4 Be + e, 4 Be −→4 Be
+ + 2+
5 B −→B +e, 5 B −→5 B + e, 5 B −→5 B3+ + e, 5 B3+ −→5 B4+ + e, 5 B4+ −→5 B5+ + e
2+
+ + 2+ + e, C2+ −→ C3+ + e, C3+ −→ C4+ + e, C4+ −→ C5+ + e, C5+ −→
6C −→6 C + e, 6C −→6 C 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
6+
C +e
+ + 2+ + e, N 2+ −→ N 3+ + e, N 3+ −→ N 4+ + e, N 4+ −→ N 5+ + e, N 5+ −→
7 N −→7 N + e, 7 N −→7 N 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
6+ 6+
N + e, 7 N −→7 N + e 7+
c Transition from n = 1 to n = ∞

2
d EI = En0 Z2
NA:
IE of hydrogen = 13,6eV
IE of helium = 54,4eV
IE of Lithium = 122,4eV
R
IE of Be = 217,6eV
IE of B = 340,0eV
IE of C = 489,6eV
IE of N = 666,4eV
TO
4.4 SN CORRECTION
1. It is based on the law of thermodynamics (1st law of thermodynamics: law of conservation of energy)
2. It is important to specify the physical state of a reactant since enthalpy change depends on those states. e.g thee
enthalpy change of formation of Clg is not equal to the enthalpy change of formation ∆H θf of Cls
3. Polarisability increases down the group i.e F < Cl < Br < I This is because of an increase in the size of the atom
and a decrease in electronegativity
4. a. 17Cl : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
b. Cls −→ Clg+ + e, IE = ECl + − ECl
TU
Only the energy on n = 3 is affected, so we have
σ3s3p = (2 × 1) + (8 × 0, 85) + (6 × 0, 35) = 10, 9
∗
Z3s3p = 17010, 9 = 6, 1
2
E3s3p = −13, 6 × (6,1)
32
= −393, 6eV
+
= 1s2 | 2s2 2p6 | 3s2 3p4
17Cl
σ3s3p = (2 × 1) + (8 × 0, 85) + (5 × 0, 35) = 10, 55
∗
Z3s3p = 17 − 10, 55 = 6, 45
2
E3s3p = −13, 6 × (6,45)
32
= −377, 2eV
Hence IE of Cl = (-377,2 + 393,6)eV = 16,4eV

c. Clg + e −→ Cl −
Y
− 2 2 6 2 6
17Cl = 1s | 2s 2p | 3s 3p |
σ3s3p = 2 × 1 + 8 × 0, 85 + 7 × 0, 35 = 11, 25
∗
Z3s3p = 17 − 11, 25 = 5, 75
2
E3s3p = −13, 6 × 6 × (5,75)
32
= −400eV
EA = -393,6 + 400eV = 6,4eV
M
Hence 1 electron affinity of Cl = 6,4eV

5. It states that "An element is considered to be a metal if the number of electrons on its outermost shell is less than or
equal to the period in which it is found"
a. Sb (Antimony)
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 6 2 10 3
51 Sb : 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p
Period = 5

Number of electrons on outermost shell is 5

Hence Sb is metal
b. 50 Sn(Tin)
Sn : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d 10 4p6 5s2 4d 10 5p2
Period = 5
R
Hence Sn is a metal
c. 52 Te
Te : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d 10 4p6 5s2 4d 10 5p4
TO
Hence Te is a non-metal
d. 34 Se
Se : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d 10 4p4
Selenium is a non-metal
TU
Y
M

R
Chapter 5
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TO
5.1 CC
1. Write the numbers below as ordinals in words
• 1 first
• 2 second
• 3 third
TU
• 44 forty fourth
• 5 fifth
• 8 eighth
• 12 twelfth
• 80 eightieth
• 21 twenty first
• 99 ninety ninth
• 55 fifty fifth
• 33 thirty third
Y
2 Another name for integer is: whole number

3 Write the interrogative form of this affirmative: He does mathematics weekly: Does he do mathematics weekly?
4 An odd number is a number which when divided by two leaves a remainder

5 Write this representation as you read it: 8943 34 eight thousand, nine hundred and forty three and three quaters
M
The name of the representation above is a mixed number

6 On a map the scale 1:2800Km is read as one is to two thousand eight hundred kilometers. The name of this
representation is a representative ratio and it is the ratio of the distance on the map to the distance on the
ground
7 Write the fractions below as you read them
i 789.3333333333333333333333333 :seven hundred and eighty nine point three recuring
39
ii 8936417.298 : eight million, nine hundred and thirty six thousand, four hundred and seventeen point
two, nine, eight
iii 8/17 : eight seventeenths
5
8 Write the representation 45− 8 in word as you read it :forty five raised to the power of negative five eighths
R
What are the different appellations of -5/8 in the representation above : power, index, exponent, logarithm
5.2 SN
1. Write the numbers below in words as
TO
a. Cardinal
b. Ordinal
i. 441 Ordinal: Four hundred and forty first

Cardinal:Four hunderd and forty one
ii. 812 Ordinal:Eight hundred and twelfth
Cardinal:Eight hunderd and twelve
iii. 88 Ordinal:Eighty eighth
Cardinal:Eighty eight
TU
iv. 99 Ordinal:Ninety ninth
Cardinal: Ninety nine
v. 55 Ordinal: Fifty fifth
Cardinal: Fifty five
vi. 268 Ordinal: Two hundred and sixty eighth
Cardinal: Two hundred and sixty eight
vi. 790 Ordinal: Seven hunderd and ninetieth
Cardinal:Nine hundred and ninety
2. Write 330 34 in words. What is the name of such a representation? Three hundred and thirty and three quaters.It
is called a mixed number
3. Use the verbal equivalent of maths symbols in parenthesis below and complete the sentences in (i) (ii) and (iii) to
Y
discuss mathematical operations

i) When we (-) subtract one quatity from another, the operation is called subtraction and the result of this operation
is difference
ii) When we (+) add one quantity to another, the operation is called addition and the result of this operation is sum
iii) If a quantity is (x) multiplied by another, the operation is called multipication and the result of the operation
is product
M
4. Write the operation in word

a. 1.999<1.999 one point nine nine nine is less than one point nine nine nine
1 7 19
b. 3 4 + 2 10 = 5 20 Three raised to the power of one quater plus two raised to the power of seven tenths is
equal to five raised to the power of nineteen twentieths
5. If we have the scale 1:2500km on map, What is the name of this scale?The scale will represent the rato of what
to what? It is a representatve ratio. It represents the ratio of the distance on the map to the distance on the
ground

6. Write correct questions to correspond to thr answers in (i) and (ii) below
i The symbol / means right slash What does the symbol / means?
ii 2 goes into six 3 times How many times does 2 goes into six?
7. Write this numerical representation in word as you read it 2897634.798 Two million, eight hunderd and ninety
R
seven thousand, six hundred and thirty four point seven nine eight
TO
TU
Y
M

R
Chapter 6
ELECTROMAGNETISM
TO
6.1 QUESTIONS SN
Exercise 1 (8 marks)
1) True or False and justify. If we double the value of the charge of a particle, the electric field at that point doubles as
well
2) Explain how the separate charges constituting a dipole affect the field strength
TU
3) True or False and Justify. The magnitude of the field strength is constant along the field lines
4) True or False and Justify. The magnitude of the field strength is directly proportional to the density of the field lines
5) Define an electric dipole
6) What difference is there between a polar molecule and a permanent dipole?
7) Give 3 examples of a permanent dipole
8) Without proving, write the equation of field lines and equipotentials of an electrostatic dipole and then represent them
on a plan
9) True or False and justify. The Force experienced by a dipole in a uniform electric field is zero.
10) True or False and justify. The moment of the forces experienced by a dipole in a uniform electric field depends on the
point where it is calculated
11) Without necessarily proving, give the different contributions which come in play in the multipolar development of the
potential
12) Define a disruptive field and dielectric efficiency
Y
Exercise 2 (8 marks)
A sphere of center O and of radius R is uniformly charged in volume, with a volume density such that ρ = ρ0 ar0 , where
ρ0 and a0 are positive constants
M
1) Examine the properties of symmetry of the system and give the orientation of the field
2) Using Gauss’s Theorem, calculate the field strength created by the sphere at all points M in space
3) Calculate the potential at all points M in space
We burst the sphere of radius R to place in it a spherical conductor of radius a0 < R.

4) Show that the distribution of charges which existed before the insertion of the conductor can henceforth take the form
of an area surface of density σ0 which will be expressed as a function of ρ0
5) Determine the electric field ~E at the conductor’s surface. Which theorem does its expression recall you of? State it.
42
The interior charged zone of the sphere of radius R is now unequipped with charges such that the sphere becomes a
conductor. The system therefore constitutes a capacitor, whose first armature has a radius of a0 and the second has a
radius R.
6) Whats the nature of this capacitor? Determine its capacitance C1
We associate in parallel to the latter, a plane capacitor such that the equivalent capacitance gives 4nF.
R
7) Determine the capacitance C2 of the plane capacitor, knowing that R = 2cm and a0 = 1cm
The system is connected to a battery of potential drop of 7V to maintain its charge
8) Determine the charge Q1 of the first capacitor and Q2 of the second capacitor
We remove the battery and we introduce into the plane capacitor (whose armatures of area S = 1m2 are separated
by a distance d = 0.3cm) a dielectric plate of thickness e = 0.15cm and of dielectric constant r = 2.6 (take ε0 =
8.854 × 10−12C2 /(Nm2 )
TO
9) Whats the nature of the dielectric?
10) Determine the new capacitance C of this plane capacitor. Has the aim of introducing the dielectric been reached?
Justify
Exercise 3 (7marks)
Two identical cylindrical wires, 1 and 2, of radius a, and infinite length, are disposed is free space parallel to each other,
and separated by a distance d, such that d >>> a. Wire 1 carries a charge of −λ (λ > 0) per unit length, and wire 2
carries the charge +λ per unit length. We wish to calculate the potential at every point M of polar coordinates (r, θ ) in
the plane xOy perpendicular to both wires
TU
1) Calculate the electrostatic potential V (r1 , r2 ) in M, taking by convention V = 0 on Oy.
If we take the limit as a tends to 0, but maintaining the product λ d constant, and equal to p, we obtain a cylinder dipole of
moment p per unit length, and directed towards Ox.
2) Calculate the potential V (r, θ ) in M.
3) Deduce the components Er and Eθ and the magnitude E of the electrostatic field in M
4) Analyze and interpret the results obtained in questions (2) and (3).
5) We suppose now that the point M is placed on wire 2 at an angle θ = π/3. Determine as a function of λ and d, the
potential V’ and the field strength E’ at this point M.
6) We trim on this cylindrical wire a portion of length L and linear density λ . Determine the capacitance C of the portion
of the conductor cut. Conclude.
6.2 SOLUTIONS
Y
Exercise 1
~0 = kq0
1) Vrai E ~e
r2 r
si q1 = 2q0 ⇒ E ~1 = k(2q2 0 ) ~er
r
= 2E ~0
1 q1 q2
2) De ~E = 4πε ~e on voit que le champ Eα r12
M
r2 r
3) False. The magnitude of the electric field decreases when we get away from the charge, independent of being on the
field lines.
4) True. From k ~E k= kq r2
, Eα p. When the charges increase, the density of the field line increases and so does E.
5) An electric dipole is the association of two point charges, immobile and of opposite signs, separated by a distance
which is negligible compared to the distance from where the field is to be calculated.
6)
7)
8) Equation of Field lines : r = ksin2 θ k > 0

Equation of Equipotential surface: r2 = k0 cosθ

9)
10)
11)
12
R
Exercise 2
ρ = ρ0 a10
TO
1) In the spherical referential (0,~er , e~θ , e~φ ), all the plans containing the line vector OM are invariant by rotation in the
directions of θ and φ as symmetrical plans of the system. Hence, the intersection of these plans of symmetry is in the
direction of ~er and hence, the field is in that direction. i.e. ~E = E~er
2) Lets consider a Gauss surface as being a sphere of center O and radius r.
•r<R
TU
RRR
~ =
~E.dS ρdτ
RR
Gauss’s Theorem states that Φ = ε0
Since ~E = E(r)~er and dS = r2 sinθ dθ φ , we have
Z Z Z Z Z
ρ0
E(r) r2 sinθ dθ dφ = r(r2 sinθ drdθ dφ
a0 ε0
Y
Z π Z 2π Z r Z π Z 2π
ρ0
E(r)r2 sinθ dθ dφ = r3 dr sinθ dθ dφ
0 0 a0 ε0 0 0 0
ρ0 r2
⇒ ~E = E(r)~er = ~er
4a0 ε0
• r = R, we have
M
Z R Z π Z 2π
ρ0
E(r)(4πR2 ) = r3 dr sinθ dθ dφ
a 0 ε0 0 0 0
ρ0 R2
⇒ ~E = E(r)~er = ~er
4a0 ε0
•r>R Z Z Z Z Z
ρ0
E(r) r2 sinθ dθ dφ = r(r2 sinθ drdθ dφ
a0 ε0

Z π Z 2π Z R Z π Z 2π
ρ0
E(r)r2 sinθ dθ dφ = r3 dr sinθ dθ dφ
0 0 a 0 ε0 0 0 0
ρ0 R4
⇒ ~E = E(r)~er = ~er
4a0 ε0 r2
~
4)~E = −gradV
R
⇒ dV ~
= −~E.dl
~
or E = E(r)~er and dl = dr~er + rdθ e~θ + rsinθ dφ e~φ
Z
⇒ dV = −E(r)dr ⇒V =− E(r)dr
TO
ρR4
Z
•r > R : V = − dr
4a0 ε0 r2
ρ0 R4
= +k
4a0 ε0 r
orV∞ = 0 ⇒ 0 = 0+k ⇒ k = 0
ρ0 R4
⇒V =
4a0 ε0 r
ρ0 R2
Z
•r = R : V = − dr
4a0 ε0
TU
ρ0 R2 r
= − +k
4a0 ε0
But since V is continuous on r = R
ρ0 R4 ρ0 R2 R
⇒ = − +k
4a0 ε0 R 4a0 ε0 R
2ρ0 R3
⇒k =
4a0 ε0
ρ0 R3
⇒V =
4a0 ε0
ρ0 r2
Z
•r < R V = − dr
4a0 ε0
3
ρ0 r
Y
= +k
4a0 ε0 3
But since V is continuous on r = R
ρ0 R3 ρ0 R3
⇒ = − +k
4a0 ε0 12a0 ε0
ρ0 R3
M
⇒k=
3a0 ε0
ρ0
4R3 − r3

⇒V =
12a0 ε0

4)
R
TO
.
Let PM = r1 QM = r2 OM = r < MOP = θ
1
λ

For an infinite charged wire of density λ , in free space, V = 2πε0 ln r + cte

λ 1 1
⇒ VM = ln − ln + ctebut V (r1 = r2 = 0) = 0 ⇒ cte = 0
2πε0 r1 + a r2 + a

λ r2 + a
⇒ VM = ln
2πε0 r1 + a
TU
Y
M

2) We have to use cosine rule to express r1 and r2 as a function of r and θ
d2
r12 = r2 + − drcosθ
4
d2
r22 = r2 + + drcosθ
R
4
Sincea <<< d
λ r2 + a λ r2
VM = ln ' ln
2πε0 r1 + a 2πε0 r1
s 
λ 2 2
4r + d + 4drcosθ 
TO
⇒ VM = ln 
2πε0 4r2 + d 2 − 4drcosθ

λ 4drcosθ 4drcosθ
= ln 1 + 2 − ln 1 − 2
4πε0 4r + d 2 4r + d 2
x2 x2
But ln(1 + x) − ln(1 − x) = x − + x + = 2x (where x is small)
2 2
λ 8drcosθ
⇒ VM =
4πε0 4r2 + d 2
2prcosθ
But λ d = p ⇒ VM =
πε0 (4r2 + d 2 )
TU
~
E(M) ~
= −gradV
∂V 1 ∂V
= − ~er − e~θ
∂r r ∂θ
∂V πε0 (4r2 + d 2 )(2pcosθ ) − 2prcosθ (8πε0 r
⇒ E(r) = − =
∂r −π 2 ε02 (4r2 + d 2 )2
2pcosθ (4r2 − d 2 )
⇒ Er =
πε0 (4r2 + d 2 )

1 ∂V 1 −2prsinθ
Eθ = − =−
r ∂θ r πε0 (4r2 + d 2 )
2psinθ
⇒ Eθ =
πε0 (4r2 + d 2
Y
q
E = Er2 + Eθ2
s
2p 2 θ + cos2 θ
(4r2 − d 2 )
⇒E = sin
πε0 (4r2 + d 2 ) (4r2 + d 2 )2
2pcosθ
3)We can briefly analyse that, both E and V are decreasing functions, tending to 0 at infinity with Vmax = πε0 d 2
and
M
Emax = 2πεp d 2
0

π d
5) If we place the point M on the negative conductor, the r2 = 0. Given that θ = 3 r= 2
4λ d d2

VM0 =
2

4πε0 4 d4 + d 2
R
λ
⇒ VM0 =
4πε0
0 2λ d p 2
EM = sin 60 + 0
πε0 (2d 2 )
0 3λ
⇒ EM =
TO
4πε0 d
6)
6.2.1 EXRECISE 3
See your TD
TU
Y
M

6.3 CC QUESTIONS
Please search for question paper.
6.4 CC SOLUTIONS
R
Exercise 1
Cartesian coordinate system (~ex ,~ey ,~ez )
Cylindrical coordinate system (~er , e~θ ,~ez )
~ = k(rcosθ~er + rsinθ e~θ )
TO
F(M)
π π 3π
A(R, 0, 0), B(R, , 0), C(R, , 0), D(R, , 0), R = 2cm
2 4 2
TU
These points describe a circle of radius R and of center O(0, 0, 0) in the Oxy plane
Y
M

3) Circulation along the three paths
dC = ~
~F.dOM
~
with dOM = dr~er + rdθ e~θ + dz~ez
⇒ ~F.dOM~ = krcosθ dr + kr2 sinθ dθ
R
Path 1: From A to C
π
r = R dr = 0 θ : 0 −→
4
Z π
4
⇒ C1 = kR2 sinθ dθ
0
√ !
TO
π 2
= kR2 [−cosθ ]0 = kR2 4
1−
2
Path 2: From A to 0 to C
From A to 0 : θ = 0 dθ = 0 r : R −→ 0
kR2
Z 0
⇒ C2a = kcos0 rdr = −
R 2
π
From 0 to C : θ = dθ = 0 r : 0 −→ R
4 √
k 2R2
Z R
π
⇒ C2b = kcos rdr = −
4 0 4
TU
√ !
kR2 2
⇒ C2 = −1 +
2 2
Path 3: From A to 0 to B to C
From A to 0 : θ = 0 dθ = 0 r : R −→ 0
kR2
Z 0
⇒ C3a = kcos0 rdr = −
R 2
π
From 0 to B : θ = dθ = 0 r : 0 −→ R
2
Z R
π
⇒ C3b = kcos rdr = 0
2 0
π π
From B to C : r = R dr = 0 θ : −→
2 4
Y
Z π
4
⇒ C3c = kR2 π
sinθ dθ
2
√ !
2
π
2 2
= kR [−cosθ ] = −kR 4
π
2 2
kR2 √
M
⇒ C3 = − 1+ 2
2
CONCLUSION: The force is not a conservative force.
2kcosθ ksinθ
Er = Eθ = 3
r3 r

4) In the cylindrical coordinate system (~er , e~θ ,~ez )

~ =0
5) For the Field lines ~E ∧ dl  
er eθ
ez
⇒  Er 0  = ~0
Eθ
dr rdθ
dz
R
   
Eθ dz 0
⇒ −Er dz  =  0 
rEr dθ − Eθ dr 0
⇒ rEr dθ − Eθ dr = 0
TO
dθ dr
⇒ =
Eθ rEr
r 3 r3
⇒ dθ = dr
ksinθ 2krcosθ
cosθ 1
Z Z
⇒ dθ = dr
sinθ 2r
1
⇒ ln|sinθ | = lnr
2
⇒ r = sin2 θ
TU
Y
M

6) Too calculate the potential from which the vector field derives
~E ~
= −gradV
 
  ∂V
Er ∂r
1 ∂V
⇒  Eθ  = −
 
r ∂θ
R

0 ∂V
∂z
2kcosθ ∂V
− 3
= · · · (1)
r ∂r
ksinθ ∂V
− 2 = · · · (2)
r ∂θ
TO
∂V
= 0 · · · (3)
∂z

1
(1) ⇒ dV = −2kcosθ dr
r3

1 1
Z
⇒V = −2kcosθ dr = −2kcosθ − + k(θ , z)
r3 2r2
kcosθ
⇒V = + k(θ , z)
r2
ksinθ ∂V ksinθ ∂ k(θ , z)
(2) ⇒ − 2 = =− 2 +
r ∂θ r ∂θ
TU
∂ k(θ , z)
⇒ =0
∂θ
⇒ k(θ , z) = k(z)
∂ k(z)
(3) ⇒ = 0 ⇒ k(k) = k, k ε ℜ
∂z
kcosθ
⇒V = +k
r2
But r −→ ∞ v −→ 0 ⇒ k = 0
kcosθ
⇒V =
r2
Y
M

7) Laplace condition ∆U = 0 and Poisson Condition ∆U + ερ0 = 0
1 ∂ 2U ∂ 2U

1 ∂ ∂U
⇒ r + 2 + 2 =0
r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ2 ∂z
kcosθ
R
U=
r2
∂U −2kcosθ 2kcosθ
We haver = r 3
=−
∂r r r2

1 ∂ ∂U 1 4kcosθ 4kcosθ
⇒ r = 3
=
r ∂r ∂r r r r4
TO
∂U ksinθ ∂ 2U kcosθ
Also = − 2
⇒ =− 2
∂θ r ∂θ2 r
1 ∂ 2U kcosθ
⇒ =− 4
r2 ∂ θ 2 r
4kcosθ kcosθ 3kcosθ
⇒ 4
− 4 =0⇒ = 0(Laplace)
r r r4
3kcosθ ρ
For Poisson : 4
+ =0
r ε0
8) In the Spherical coordinate system (~er , e~θ , e~ϕ )

TU
Y
M

9)

∂U A 2 −3
= + B(3cos θ − 1)
∂r r2 r4
∂U 3B
r2 = A − 2 (3cos2 θ − 1)
R
r
∂ r
1 ∂ 2 ∂U 1 6B
r = 2 (3cos2 θ − 1)
r2 ∂ r ∂r r r3

∂U B
Also sinθ = sinθ (−6sinθ cosθ )
∂θ r3
TO
6B
= − cosθ sin2 θ
r3
∂ ∂U 6B 6B
sinθ = − 3 cosθ (2cosθ sinθ ) + 3 sin2 θ sinθ
∂θ ∂θ r r

1 ∂ ∂U 6B 6B
⇒ 2 sinθ = − 5 (2cos2 θ ) + 5 sin2 θ
r sinθ ∂ θ ∂θ r r
6B
⇒ ∆U = (3cos2 θ − 1 − 2cos2 θ + sin2 θ )
r5
6B
= (cos2 θ + sin2 θ − 1) = 0
r5
⇒ ∆U = 0
TU
~E ~
= −gradU
 
A
+ B(3cosθ − 1) −3
 
∂U
∂r  r2 r4 
1 ∂U

= −  = − 1 B
 
r r3 (−6sinθ cosθ )

r ∂θ  
∂U
∂z 0

~ 3B 2 A 3B
⇒ E = 4 (3cos θ − 1) − 2 ~er + − 4 sin2θ e~θ
r r r
10)Determining the divergence formula using Ostrogradski’s theorem
~a = ar ~er + aθ e~θ + az~ez

Y
dV = rdrdθ dz
For the surface having as normal −~er , the corresponding surface is given by rdθ dz and the flux is given by
dφ1 = −ar (r, θ , z)rdθ dz
When we increment r by dr, the flux from the surface ~er will be
dφ2 = ar (r + dr, θ , z)(r + dr)dθ dz
M
Thus, the flux exit, with θ and z constant will be
dφθ ,z = [ar (r + dr, θ , z)(r + dr)dθ dz − ar (r, θ , z)rdθ dz]

= [ar (r + dr, θ , z)(r + dr) − ar (r, θ , z)r] dθ dz
∂
= (rar )drdθ dz
∂r
For the surface having as normal −~
eθ , the corresponding surface is given by drdz and the flux is given by
dφ1 = −aθ (r, θ , z)drdz

When we increment θ by dθ , the flux from the surface e~θ will be

dφ2 = aθ (r, θ + dθ , z)drdz
Thus, the flux exit, with r and z constant will be
dφr,z = [aθ (r, θ + dθ , z) − aθ (r, θ , z)] drdz
R
∂
= (aθ )dθ drdz
∂θ
For the surface having as normal −~ez , the corresponding surface is given by rdrdθ and the flux is given by
dφ1 = −az (r, θ , z)rdrdz
When we increment z by dz, the flux from the surface ~ez will be
dφ2 = az (r, θ , z + dz)rdrdz
TO
Thus, the flux exit, with r and θ constant will be
dφr,θ = [az (r, θ , z + dz) − az (r, θ , z)] rdrdθ
∂
= r (az )dzdrdθ
∂r
⇒ dφ = dφθ ,z + dφr,z + dφr,θ

∂ ∂ ∂
= (rar ) + aθ + r az drdθ dz
∂r ∂θ ∂z
Z Z Z Z Z
But φ = ~ =
~a.dS div~adτ(Ostrogradski)
TU
⇒ dφ = div~adτ where dτ = rdrdθ dz

dφ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
⇒ div~a = = (rar ) + aθ + az
dτ r ∂r ∂θ ∂z
Exercise 2
1)
Y
2)
M

k|Q3 |
E3 = = 0.02k
r2
k|Q2 |
E2 = = 0.04k
r2
E~R = (E3 cos60 − E2 )~ex + (E3 sin60)~ey
√
R
= −0.03k~ex + ( 3k × 10−2 ~ey
~F = QE~R
h √ i
= −3 × 10−6 (−0.03k~ex + ( 3k × 10−2 )~ey
4) There’s no change
TO
Exercise 3
1)We have a spherical symmetry since any rotation about θ and ϕ won’t alter the fields. These quantities depend solely
on r, the distance with respect to the origin
Orientation: ~er
TU
~ = ∑ Qint
Z Z
Gauss : φ = ~E.dS
ε0
RRR
Q = ρdτ
avec R R int
~ = E(r)
~E.dS dS = 4πr2 E(r)
RR
∑ Qint
Z Z Z
ρ
= r2 sinθ drdθ dϕ
Y
ε0 ε0
r
ρ r3
= [−cosθ ]π0 [ϕ]2π
0
ε0 3 0
ρ 4πr3

=
ε0 3
M
~ = ρr ~er
⇒ E(r)
3ε0

3)We want to determine the potential
dV ~ dr
= −E(r). ~
Z
⇒V = − ~ dr
E(r). ~
R
Z
ρr
= − dr
3ε0
ρr2
⇒V =− +k
6ε0
W hen r = 0 V = V0
TO
ρr2
⇒V =− +V0
6ε0
4) ρ(r) = ar2 + br + c
4.2)
~ = 1
Z Z Z Z Z
Q= ~E.dS ρdτ
ε0
Z Z Z
⇒ E(r)ε0 (4πr2 ) = (ar3 + br2 + cr)dr sinθ dθ dϕ
4
br3 cr2

ar
= + + (4π)
TU
4 3 2
1 ar2 br c

⇒ E(r) = + + ~er
ε0 4 3 2
4.3)
Z
V = − E(r)dr
1 ar3 br2 cr

= − + + +k
ε0 12 6 2
r = 0 ⇒ V = V0
1 ar3 br2 cr

⇒V = − + + +V0
ε0 12 6 2
Y
M

R
Chapter 7
REAL ANALYSIS I
TO
CC
Exercice 1. 5 points
1. Donner les définitions de partie ouverte et de partie fermée de R.
2. Soit a, b ∈ R tel que a < b. Les parties suivantes sont-elles ouvertes? fermées? Justifier vos réponses.
TU
]a, b[, [a, b[, [a, b] ∪ {b + 1}, Q.
3. Soit A une partie de R
(a) Quand dit-on qu’un élément x ∈ R est un point adhérant à A?

(b) Quand dit-on qu’un élément x ∈ A est un point intérieure à A?
◦
(c) Soit Q l’ensemble des nombres rationnels. Déterminer avec preuve à l’appui l’intérieure Q et l’adhérence Q̄
de Q.
◦ ◦ ◦
4. Soit A une partie de R. Montrer que CRA = CRA , CRA = CRĀ et FrA = Ā \ A
Y
ln 3
1. Montrer que ln 2 n’est pas un nombre rationnel.
2. Soient A et B deux parties majorées de R. Montrer que A + B est majorée et que l’on a
sup(A + B) = sup(A) + sup(B).
n o
3. On pose A = (−1)n + n12 , n ∈ N∗ , B = [0, 1[ ∩ Q.
M
(a) Donner, s’il existe, la borne supérieure, la borne inférieure, le maximum et le minimum de A.
(b) Donner, s’il existe, la borne supérieure, la borne inférieure, le maximum et le minimum de B.
4. Soit x ∈ R. Montrer que ∀n ∈ N, | sin nx| ≤ n| sin x|.
58
n−3 n2 +n cos n
√
1. On définit les suites (un ), (vn ), (wn ) par un = −n+1 , vn = sin n−2n2
, wn = n2 + n − n.
(a) Donner la limite de (un )n≥0 et justifier votre réponse en revenant à la définition.
R
(b) Donner la limite de (vn )n≥0 et justifier votre réponse en revenant à la définition.
(c) Donner la limite de (wn )n≥0 et justifier votre réponse en revenant à la définition.
E(x)+E(2x)+E(3x)+...+E(nx)
2. Soit x ∈ R. On définit la suite (xn )n≥1 par xn = n2
.
(a) Donner un encadrement de (xn )n≥1 par deux suites qui converge vers une même limite.
TO
(b) En déduire que (xn )n≥1 est convergente et déterminer sa limite.
3. Les énoncés suivants sont-ils vrais ou faux? Justifier par une preuve ou un contre-exemple.
(a) Si une suite positive est non majorée, elle tend vers +∞.
(b) Si une suite d’entiers relatifs converge, elle est stationnaire.
(c) Si une suite a un nombre fini de valeurs, elle converge si et seulement si elle est stationnaire.
(d) Une suite est convergente si et seulement si elle est bornée.
(e) Si une suite n’est pas majorée, alors elle est minorée.
NB: L’important n’est pas de tout faire mais de bien faire tout ce que l’on peut faire.
TU
CORRECTION CC
7.0.1 EXERCISE 1
1 a Open part of ℜ
A part A of ℜ is said to be open when A is the neighborhood of all its points i.e
∀x ∈ A, ∃ε > 0, ]x − ε, x + ε[⊂ A
b Closed part of ℜ
A part A of ℜ is said to be closed when its complements in ℜ is an open of ℜ i.e
∀x ∈ CℜA , ∃ε > 0, ]x − ε, x + ε[⊂ CA
ℜ
Y
2 ]a,b[ is an open of of ℜ since an open of ℜ is open

[a, b[ is neither open nor closed since:
[a,b[ [a,b[
a ∈ [a, b[ but [a, b[ is not in V(a) and b ∈ Cℜ but Cℜ is not in V(b)
[a, b] ∪ {b + 1} is a closed part of ℜ since its complement ] − ∞, a[∪]b, b + 1[∪]b + 1, +∞[ is an open of ℜ
Q Q
Q: let x ∈ Q, ∀V (x) ∈ ℜ, ∃p ∈ Cℜ /p ∈ V (x). Cℜ is dense in ℜ,so Q is not open
M
Q
let r ∈ Cℜ , ∀V (r) ⊂ ℜ, ∃y ∈ V (x) since Q is not dense in ℜ. so Q is not closed
Q is neither closed nor open
3 Let A ⊂ ℜ
a x ∈ ℜ is an adherent point to A when all neighborhoods of x meets A i.e
x ∈ A ⇒ ∀ε > 0, ]x − ε, x + ε[∩ =
6 ∅
b x ∈ A is an interior point to A when A is a neighbrhood of x i.e
x ∈ Ao ⇒ ∃ε > 0, ]x − ε, x + ε[⊂ A

Q
c Qo = Q since for all neighborhoods V of an x ∈ Q,V ∩Cℜ 6= ∅
Q = ℜ this is due to the dense nature of Q in ℜ, ∀x ∈ ℜ, ∀V ∈ V (x),V ∩ Q 6= ∅

A = CA ? o
4 Let A ⊂ ℜ Cℜ ℜ
R
Let x ∈ ℜ
x ∈ CℜAo ⇔ x is not in Ao
⇔ ∀V ∈ V (x), V is not included in A

⇔ ∀V ∈ V (X),V ∩Cℜ A 6= ∅
⇔ x ∈ Cℜ A
TO
Fr(A) = A/Ao ?
o o
Ao ∪Cℜ
A o CA CA
A ) ∩ (C ℜ ) = (CA ) ∩ (C ℜ ) = (CA ) ∩ A = A/Ao
We have Fr(A) = Cℜ = (Cℜ ℜ ℜ ℜ ℜ
7.0.2 EXERCISE 2
2 Showing that A+B is majorated and that sup(A+B) = sup(A) + sup(B)
Suppose a ∈ A ∈⇒ a ≤ supA....(1)
b ∈ B ⇒ b ≤ supB.......(2)
(1) +(2) ⇒ a+b ≤ supA + supB.
Hence A+B is majorated by supA + supB.
TU
Determining sup(A+B)
As A is majorated ⇔ ∀a ∈ A, a ≤ supA and ∀ε > 0, ∃aε , supA − aε < ε/2.....(1)
As B is majorated, ⇔ ∀b ∈ B, b ≤ supB and ∀ε > 0, ∃bε /supB − bε < ε/2....(2)
Summing (1) and (2) gives a + b ≤ supA + supB∀a ∈ A, ∀b ∈ B and ∀ε > 0, supA + supB − (aε + bε ) < ε
Hence ∃(aε + bε )/supA + supB < ε
Therefore sup(A+B) = supA + supB
3 a. A = A1 ∪ A2 with A − 1 = 1 + 4n12 n ∈ N ∗ and A2 = −1 + (2n+1)

1
2 ,n ∈ N
∀n ∈ N ∗ , 0 ≤ 4n12 ≤ 14
⇒ 1 ≤ 1 + 4n12 ≤ 45
⇒ 1 ≤ A1 ≤ 54
Y
⇒ supA1 = 54 and In f A1 = 1
1
∀n ∈ N, 0 ≤ (2n+1)2
≤ 91
1 −8
⇒ −1 ≤ −1 + (2n+1)2 ≤ 9
⇒ −1 ≤ A2 ≤ −8
9
−8
M
⇒ In f A2 = −1 and supA2 = 9
SupA = sup(supA1 , supA2 ) = 54

In f A = In f (In f A1 , In f A2 ) = −1
We see clearly that for n = 2, A = 5/4 ⇒ supA ∈ A ⇒ maxA = 5/4
We notice also that -1 does not belong to A. so In f A does not belong to A, hence -1 is not a minimum

4 Showing that ksinnxk ≤ nksinxk∀n ∈ N

By recurrence, for n = 0, 0 ≤ 0 true
for n = 1,ksinxk ≤ 1.ksinxk true
supposse now true for n = k i.e ksinkxk ≤ kksinxk
R
We have ksin(k +1)xk = ksinkxcosx+sinxcosKxk ≤ ksinkxcosxk+ksinxcooskxk ≤ ksinkxkkcosxk+ksinxkkcoskxk
≤ kksinxkkcosxk + ksinxkkcoskxk ≤ ksinxk(kkcosxk + kcoskxk)
But kcosxk ≤ 1 and kciskxk ≤ 1∀x ∈ ℜ, ∀k ∈ N ⇒ kkcosxk + kcoskxk ≤ 1 + k
TO
so ksin(k + 1)xk ≤ (k + 1)ksinxk hence true for n = k+1
conclusion: ∀n ∈ N, ksinnxk ≤ nksinxk
7.0.3 EXERCISE 3
n−3
1 a Un = −n+1 Let detremine the limit of Un and justify by definition
limn→+∞ Un = −1
By definition,lets find nε , ∀ε > 0∃nε ∈ N/∀n ∈ N, n ≥ nε , ⇒| Un + 1 |< ε Les find nε

2 2 2
n−3
| Un + 1 |=| −n+1 + 1 |=| n−1 |=| n/2+(n/2−1) |≤| n/2 |= 4n , n ≥ 2
TU
4 4
To have | Un + 1 |< ε, it suffices to have n ≤ε ⇒n> ε
Take nε = E( ε4 ) + 2
n2 +ncosn
b Vn = sinn−2n2
1+cosn/n −1
limn→+∞ Vn = limn→+∞ −2+sinn/n 2 = 2
By definition,lets find nε , ∀ε > 0, ∃nε ∈ N/∀n ∈ N, n ≥ nε ⇒| Vn + 12 |< ε
n2 +ncosn 1 2n|cosn|+|sinn|
| Vn + 1/2 |=| sinn−2n2
+ 1/2 |= 12 | 2ncosn+sinn
n2 +(n2 −sinn)
|≤ 21 | 2ncosn+sinn
n2
|≤ 2 n2
≤ 12 | 2n+1
n2
|≤ 3n
2n2
= 3
2n ∀n ≥
2
Y
3 3
To have | Vn + 1/2 |< ε, it suffices to have 2n < ε, ⇒ n > 2ε
3
Take nε = E( 2ε )+2
√
c Wn = n2 + n − n
√
M
n2 +n−n2 √1 1
limn→+∞ Wn = limn→+∞ n2 + n − n = limn→+∞ √ 2
= limn→+∞ = 2
n +n+n 1+ 1+1/n
By definition, lets find nε /∀n ∈ N, n ≥ nε ⇒| Wn − 1/2 |< ε

√ √
2 2 2
| Wn − 1/2 |=| n2 + n − n − 12 |=| 2 n +n−(2n+1)
2
√ +n)−(2n+1) |= √
|=| 4(n 2 2
1
≤ 1
4n2
∀n ∈N
2 n +n+(2n+1) 2 n2 +n+(2n+1)2
q
1 1
To have | Wn − 1/2 |< ε, it suffices to have 4n2
≤ ε, ⇒ n > 4ε

q
1
Take nε = E( 4ε )+1
E(x)+E(2x)+.....+E(nx)
2 (xn )n≥1 = n2
a Lets bound (xn )
R
We see clearly that xn = ∑nk=1 E(kx)
n2
But x − 1 < E(x) ≤ x
⇒ kx − 1 < E(kx) ≤ kx
⇒ kx−1
n2
< E(kx)
n2
≤ nkx2
< ∑nk=1 E(kx)
TO
⇒ ∑nk=1 kx−1
n2 n2
≤ ∑nk=1 nkx2
1
⇒ n2 ∑k=1 k − n2 ∑k=1 1 < xn ≤ nx2 ∑nk=1 k
x n n
x n(n+1) x n(n+1)
⇒ n2 2 − n12 .n < xn ≤ n2 2
x(n+1) x(n+1)
⇒ 2n − n1 < xn ≤ 2n
b Lets show that xn is convergent and deduce its limit
From (a) above, xn is bounded by two convergent series and so xn is convergent.

TU
we have limn→+∞ x(n+1) 1 x(n+1)
2n − n < limn→+∞ xn ≤ limn→+∞ 2n
x x
⇒ 2 < limn→+∞ xn ≤ 2
x
⇒ limn→+∞ xn = 2
3 a False
n, i f neven
counter example: let Un = Un is positive, not majorated but does not have a limit
1/n, i f nodd
b True
Let Un a series of real numbers which converges to l i.e ∀ε > 0, ∃nε ∈ N/∀n ∈ N, n ≥ nε | Un − 1 |< ε
for example lets take ε = 1/4

Y
Let (m, n) ∈ N/m ≥ n(1/4)n ≥ n(1/4)
We have | Um −Un |=| Um − l + l −Un |≤| Um − l | + | Un − l |≤ 1/4 + 1/4 = 1/2

| Um −Un |≤ 1/2 But Un ∈ Z and Um ∈ Z ⇒| Um −Un |∈ Z
⇒| Um −Un |= 0
M
so ∀m, n ≥ n(1/4),Um = Un ⇒ (Un ) is constant

c True
d False
counter example: Let Un = (−1)n
Un is bounded since −1 ≤ Un ≤ 1 but does not converges since it has no limit
e False
counter example:
Let Un = n2 ,Un is not majorated since it diverges to +∞.We also see that Un is not minorated

SN
1. Soit x ∈ R∗+
R

1 x
− arctan x−1

(a) Montrer que arctan = arctan x+1
2x2 x .
n
(b) On pose Sn = ∑ arctan 2k12 . Exprimer Sn en fonction de n.
k=1
(c) Calculer la limite lim Sn .
n→+∞
TO
2ch2 x − sh2x
2. On pose ϕ(x) = .
x − ln(chx) − ln 2
(a) Donner une expression simplifiée de ϕ(x).
(b) Calculer les limites de ϕ à −∞ et à +∞.
1
x + 1x

3. On définit la fonction f : R → R par f (x) = argch 2 .
(a) Déterminer l’ensemble de définition de f .

(b) Etudier la fonction f et dresser son tableau de variations.
TU
(c) Construire la courbe de f dans un plan muni d’un repère.
1. Soient (un )n∈N et (vn )n∈N deux suites obtenues en posant (u0 , v0 ) = (1, 2) puis en déduisant le couple (un+1 , vn+1 )
√
à partir du couple (un , vn ) à l’aide des relations un+1 = un vn et vn+1 = un +vn
2 .
(a) Soit n ∈ N. Comparer un et vn .

(b) Etudier les variations des suites (un )n∈N et (vn )n∈N .
un −vn
(c) Soit n ∈ N. Montrer que un+1 − vn+1 ≥ 2 .
(d) Peut-on dire que les suites (un )n∈N et (vn )n∈N sont adjacentes?
(e) Le cas échéant, donner un terme de la suite qui soit une approximation de leur limite commune l à 10−2 près.
Y
n
1
2. Soit (rn )n ∈ N la suite définie par rn = ∑ k!
k=0
h i
1 1 1
(a) Montrer que pour p ∈ N et n > 2, on a |rn+p − rn | ≤ (n+1)! 1 + n+2 + . . . + (n+2) p−1 .
(b) En remarquant que pour n > 2, on a n+2

(n+1)2
≤ 12 , montrer que pour p ∈ N et n > 2, on a
M
|rn+p − rn | ≤ n1 .
(c) En déduire que (rn )n∈N est de Cauchy et donc converge. On note e sa limite.
(d) On suppose qu’il existe a, b ∈ N∗ (Corrected from Q∗+ to N∗ ) premier entre eux tels que e = ab .
i. Montrer que pour n > b, le nombre pn = n!(e − rn ) est un entier strictement positif.
ii. Montrer que 0 < pn < 1.
iii. Conclure que e est irrationnel.

1. On définit la fonction f de R vers R par f (x) = E(2x) − 2E(x).
(a) Calculer f (x) dans les cas suivantes:

i. x ∈ [0, 12 [
R
ii. x ∈ [ 12 , 1[
(b) Montrer que ∀x ∈ R, on a f (x) ∈ [0, 1].
√ √
2. En admettant que 2 est irrationnel montrer que si x et y sont deux nombres rationnels differents, alors x+y √ 2 est
1+ 2
un nombre irrationnel.
TO
n
n o
3. On pose A = 31n + (−1) 2n , n ∈ N ∗ . Montrer que A est une partie bornée de R. Déterminer la borne supérieure et
la borne inférieure de A.
4. On pose B = x ∈ R∗ , −2 < 2x + 1x < 2 . B est-elle borné dans R? Déterminer sa borne supérieure et sa borne

inférieure le cas échéant.
NB: L’important n’est pas de tout faire mais de bien faire tout ce que l’on peut faire.
TU
Y
M

CORRECTION SN
Exercise 1
1. Let x ∈ R
R
(a) Required to show that
1 x x−1
arctan = arctan − arctan
2x2 x+1 x
x x−1

Let X = arctan x+1 and Y = arctan x
Therefore,
TO
tan X − tanY
tan(X −Y ) =
1 + tan X tanY
x x−1
x+1 − x
= x
x−1

1 + x+1 x
x2 − (x − 1)(x + 1)
=
x(x + 1) + x(x − 1)
1
=
2x2
From here, we get
TU

1
arctan = X −Y
2x2
which is the required result
(b) We suppose
n
1
Sn = ∑ arctan
k=1 2k2
Now we are to find Sn in terms of n.
From (a) above, we can expand Sn as

1
Sn = arctan − arctan(0)
2

2 1
+ arctan − arctan
3 2
Y

3 2
+ arctan − arctan
4 3
..
.
n−1 n−2
+ arctan − arctan
M
n n−1

n n−1
+ arctan − arctan
n+1 n

n
= arctan
n+1
n
(c) As n → +∞, →1
n+1

n π
So, Sn = arctan → arctan 1 =
n+1 2

2 cosh2 x−sinh 2x
2. Suppose ϕ(x) = x−ln(cosh x)−ln 2
(a) Simplified expression of ϕ(x)

x −x ex −e−x
We have cosh x = e +e2 , sinh x = 2 and x = ln(ex )
So,
R
2
ex +e−x e2x −e−2x
2 2 − 2
ϕ(x) =
x −x

ln(ex ) − ln e +e
2 − ln 2
2x −2x 2x −2x
e +e +2
2 − e2 + e 2
=
TO
!
x
ln xe −x
2 e +e
2
e−2x + 1
=
x −x

− ln e +eex
e−2x+1
=
− ln(1 + e−2x )
−(1 + e−2x )
ϕ(x) =
ln(1 + e−2x )
(b) Limits of ϕ at +∞ and −∞
TU
Let X = 1 + e−2x
Limit at −∞
as x → −∞, −2x → +∞
⇒ e−2x → +∞
⇒ X = 1 + e−2x → +∞
−X
So, lim ϕ(x) = lim
x→−∞ X→−∞ ln X
X
= − lim
X→−∞ ln X
−1 −1
= = + = −∞
lim lnXX 0
X→−∞
Y
This is from the standard limit: lim lnxx =0

x→+∞
−1
The 0+ indicates that the function tends to 0 from the positive sense. If it were 0− , 0−
= +∞
Limit at +∞
as x → +∞, −2x → −∞
M
−2x
⇒e → 0+
−2x
⇒ X = 1+e → 1+
−X
So, lim ϕ(x) = lim
x→+∞ X→1+ ln X
X
= − lim
X→1+ ln X
−1
= = −∞
0+

ln x
This is from the standard limit: lim =0
x→+∞ x
−1
The 0+ indicates that the function tends to 0 from the positive sense. If it were 0− , 0−
= +∞
3. The function f is defined by f : R → R by
R

1 1
f (x) = arg cosh x+
2 x
(a) Determination of the domain of f, D f
• For 1
to be defined x 6= 0 i.e x ∈ R∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L
x
TO
• We also have that for the function arg cosh x to be defined, x ≥ 1.
So in this case,

1 1
x+ ≥ 1
2 x
1
⇔ x+ ≥ 2
x
First Case: x > 0 i.e x ∈ R∗+
Multiplying through by x, we have
TU
x2 + 1 ≥ 2x
2
⇒ x − 2x + 1 ≥ 0
2
⇒ (x − 1) ≥ 0
Which is true for all x in R∗+ since (x − 1)2 will always be greater than of equal to 0 no matter what x in
R∗+ .
So x ∈ R∗+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N
Second Case: x < 0 i.e x ∈ R∗−

Multiplying through by x, and developing as above, we
(x − 1)2 ≤ 0
Y
There was a change in sign since we multiplied by x which is negative.

The inequality above has no solution in R∗− .
So x 6∈ R∗− . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J
Conclusion: To get the final solution, we take ∩( ∪ ) i.e we intersect the bulleted items because x has
L N J
to satisfy every condition and we unite the cases because each case is a possibility and not a necessity(case 1
or case 2 not case 1 and case 2).
M
Therefore D f = R∗+ = x ∈ R/x > 0 =]0, +∞[

(b) Before we go on, we will note here that though for a given x ∈ R∗+ ,
cosh(x) = cosh(−x) = a
⇒ arg cosh a = x
i.e The range of the arg cosh function is in R+ i.e excluding negative values and ensuring that one element
does not have two images. This will be the same for f (x)

So we can redefine f as :
f : R∗+ → R∗+

1 1
x 7→ arg cosh x+
2 x
R
Study of the function f
Simplification of f
Let y = arg cosh x, x ∈ [1, +∞[, y ∈ R+
TO
⇒ cosh y = x
y −y
⇒ e +e = 2x
2y y
⇒ e − 2xe + 1 = 0
√
2x ± 4x2 − 4
⇒ ey =
p 2
⇒ y = ln(x ± x2 − 1)
But

p 1
ln(x − x2 − 1) = − ln √
TU
x − x2 − 1
√ !
x + x2 − 1
= − ln √ √
(x − x2 − 1)(x + x2 − 1)
p
= − ln(x + x2 − 1)
√
So y = ± ln(x + x2 − 1), x ≥ 1 for y to be defined
Now,
p
x≥1 ⇒ x+ x2 − 1 ≥ 1
p
⇒ ln(x + x2 − 1) ≥ 0
p
⇒ − ln(x + x2 − 1) ≤ 0
⇒ y ≤ 0 but y ∈ R+
Y
So that leaves us with y = 0. √

But y = 0 can be gotten from ln(x + √ x2 − 1) for x = 0.
Therefore, only solution is y = ln(x + x2 − 1)
M

Now, for f (x),

 
s 2
1 1 1 1
f (x) = ln  x+ + x+ − 1
2 x 2 x
R
r !
1 1 1 2
1
= ln x+ + x + 2 +2−4
2 x 2 x
1 1
√ !
x + x + |x| x4 − 2x2 + 1
= ln
2
TO
 2 
x + 1x + x x−1

= ln  
2
!
x + 1x + x − 1x

f (x) = ln
2
• x ≥ 1
x − 1 = x − 1 ⇒ f (x) = ln x
x x
• x < 1
x − 1 = 1 − x ⇒ f (x) = − ln x
TU
x x

− ln x, x < 1
Therefore f (x) =
ln x, x≥1
Roots:

1 1
f (x) = 0 ⇔ arg cosh x+ =0
2 x

1 1
⇔ x+ =1
2 x
1
⇔ x+ = 2
x
⇔ x2 − 2x + 1 = 0, since x 6= 0
Y
⇔ (x − 1)2 ⇔ x = 1
From where we get (1,0) as the root.
Limits at the boundaries of the domain.

• lim f (x) =?
M
x→0+

1 1 1
as x → 0+ , → +∞ ⇒ x+ → +∞
x 2 x

1 1
and arg cosh x+ → +∞
2 x
So lim f (x) = +∞
x→0+

• lim f (x) =
x→+∞

1 1 1
as x → +∞, → 0+ ⇒ x+ → +∞
x 2 x

1 1
R
and arg cosh x+ → +∞
2 x
So, as above, lim f (x) = +∞

x→0+
Differentiability

− ln x, x < 1
TO
1
x + 1x

We have f (x) = arg cosh =
2 ln x, x≥1
In this logarithmic form, we can easily investigate the derivability.

Let a ∈ D f i.e a ∈ R∗+
So we have 3 cases.
Case 1: a < 1; for x → a, we take the voisinage ]0, a[ i.e x ∈]0, a[
<
and for x → a, we take the voisinage ]a, 1[ i.e x ∈]a, 1[
>
In both cases , x ∈]0, 1[,
So f (x)− f (a)
= − ln x−a
x−ln a
x−a
TU
Thus,
f (x) − f (a) f (x) − f (a) ln x − ln a
lim = lim = − lim
x→a
>
x−a x→a
<
x−a x→a x−a
−1
= − ln0 a =
a
We note ln0 x = dx
d
(ln x)
Case 2: a > 1; for x → a, we take the voisinage ]1, a[ i.e x ∈]1, a[
<
and for x → a, we take the voisinage ]a, +∞[ i.e x ∈]a, +∞[
>
In both cases , x ∈]1, +∞[,
So f (x)−
x−a
f (a)
= ln x−ln
x−a
a
Y
Thus,
f (x) − f (a) f (x) − f (a) ln x − ln a
lim = lim = lim
x→a
>
x−a x→a
<
x−a x→a x−a
1
= ln0 a =
M
a
Case 3: a = 1
for x → 1, x ∈]0, 1[
>
for x → 1, x ∈]1, +∞[
<
f (x)− f (1) −(ln x−ln 1)
So lim x−1 = x−1 = − ln0 1 = −1
x→1
<
f (x)− f (1) f (x)− f (1)
and lim x−1 = ln x−ln 1
x−1 = ln0 1 = 1 6= lim x−1
x→1 x→1
> <

Conclusion:
f is differentiable in R∗+ \{1} = D f = ]0, 1[ ∪ ]1, +∞[ = D f 0
and ∀x ∈ D f 0 , f 0 (x) is given by
−1
f 0 (x) = x , 0<x<1
1
x, 1 < x < +∞
R
From this, we clearly see that there are no stationary points.
Assymptotes:
The line x = 0 is a vertical assymptote to the curve
Variation Table
TO
TU
(c) Curve of f
Y
M

Exercise 2
1. Let (Un )n∈N and (Vn )n∈N be 2 sequences gotten by supposing
√ Un +Vn
(U0 ,V0 ) + (1, 2) and ,Un+1 = UnVn , Vn+1 =
2
R
(a) Let n ∈ N
Comparison of Un and Vn
Let’s show that Un ≤ Vn
• First, we observe that the two sequences Un and Vn are positve.
TO
This is easily proven by induction.
• Let’s now show that ∀a, b ∈ R+ ,
a+b √
≥ ab
2
In essence,
s
a+b 2

a+b
= , since a, b ∈ R+
2 2
r
a2 + b2 + 2ab
=
4
TU
r
a + b2 ab
2
= + ..................................................⊕
4 2
We also have that (a − b)2 ≥ 0, ∀a, b ∈ R+
So a2 + b2 − 2ab ≥ 0 ⇔q a2 + b2 ≥ 2ab
2ab
√
Therefore, ⊕ ⇒ a+b2 ≥
ab
4 + 2 = ab
a+b
√
Thus, 2 ≥ ab , ∀a, b ∈ R+
∈ R+ , taking a = Un and b = Vn ,
Now, since Un ,Vn √
we have Un +V
2
n
≥ UnVn i.e Vn+1 ≥ Un+1
And since V0 ≥ U0 , It follows that, ∀n ∈ N, Vn ≥ Un
Y
(b) Study of the variations of Un and Vn

Let n ∈ N
√ √
Un+1 = UnVn ≥ UnUn , since Un ≤ Vn
So Un+1 ≥ Un ⇒ (Un )n∈N is increasing
Vn+1 = Un +Vn
≤ Vn +V
2 , since Un ≤ Vn
n
M
2
Therefore, Vn+1 ≤ Vn ⇒ (Vn )n∈N is decreasing
Un −Vn
(c) Let n ∈ Nmm RQTS Un+1 −Vn+1 ≥ 2

Un is increasing ⇔ Un+1 ≥ Un
Un Un
⇒ Un+1 ≥ +
2 2
R
Un Un
⇒ Un+1 − ≥
2 2
Un Vn Un Vn
⇒ Un+1 − − ≥ −
2 2 2 2
Un +Vn Un −Vn
⇒ Un+1 − ≥
2 2
TO
Un −Vn
⇒ Un+1 −Vn+1 ≥ QED
2
(d) Can we say that the sequences are adjacent?
The following properties have already been verified.
• Un is increasing and Vn is decreasing
• Vn ≥ Un
• So now we check whether lim (Vn −Un ) = 0
n→+∞
Un −Vn
We have 2 ≤ Un+1 −Vn+1 ≤ 0, since Un ≤ Vn ∀n
TU
Suppose Wn = Un −Vn . We get
Wn
≤ Wn+1 ≤ 0
2
Wn−1 Wn
i.e ≤ ≤ Wn+1 ≤ 0
4 2
W0
i.e n+1 ≤ Wn+1 ≤ 0
2
W0 = U0 −V0 = 1 − 2 = −1
So,
−1
≤ Wn+1 ≤ 0
2n+1

−1
Y
⇒ lim ≤ lim (Un+1 −Vn+1 ) ≤ 0

n→+∞ 2n+1 n→+∞
⇒ 0 ≤ lim (Un+1 −Vn+1 ) ≤ 0

n→+∞
Therefore,
lim (Un+1 −Vn+1 ) = lim (Un −Vn ) = 0
n→∞ n→∞
M
Conclusion:
The sequences (Un )n∈N and (Vn )n∈N are adjacent
(e) Approximation of l, the common limit of (Un )n∈N and (Vn )n∈N
We are to give a term of the sequence which is an approximation of the limit to the nearest hundredth.
This comes back to looking for n0 such that
1 1
|Un0 − l| < or |Vn0 − l| <
100 100

In order to have the above condition, it suffices have

1 1
|Un0 − l| < and |Vn0 − l| <
100 100
And in order to have the above condition, it suffices to have
R
1
|Un0 − l| + |Vn0 − l| <
100
Now, since (Vn )n∈N is decreasing, it implies that Vn ≥ l ∀n ∈ N, so |Vn − l| = Vn − l
Also, since (Un )n∈N is increasing, it implies that Un ≤ l ∀n ∈ N, so |Un − l| = l −Vn
So,
TO
|Un0 − l| + |Vn0 − l| = l −Un0 +Vn0 − l = Vn0 −Un0
But Un0 −Vn0 ≥ 2−1n0 , from (d)
1
So, Vn0 −Un0 ≤ 2n0
1
Thus, in order to have Vn0 −Un0 < 100 , it suffices to have
1 1
<
2n0 100
i.e 2n0 > 100
i.e n0 > log2 100
We get n0 ∈ {7, 8, 9, . . .}
TU
We take n0 = 7 and thus we take the term Un0 = U7 (We could also take Vn0 )
n
1
2. (rn )n∈N is the sequence defined by rn = ∑ k!
k=0
(a) RQTS for p ∈ N and n > 2, we have

1 1 1
|rn+p − rn | ≤ 1+ +...+
(n + 1)! n+2 (n + 2) p−1
Let p ∈ N and n ∈ N, n > 2
!
n 1 n+p n
1 1
|rn+p − rn | = ∑ + ∑ −∑

k=0 k! k=n+1 k! k=0 k!

Y

n+p 1 n+p
1
= ∑ = ∑ , the sequence is positive and increasing

k=n+1 k! k=n+1 k!
1 1 1
= + +...+
(n + 1)! (n + 2)! (n + p)!

1 1 1 1
M
= 1+ + +...+
(n + 1)! n + 2 (n + 2)(n + 3) (n + 2)(n + 3) . . . (n + p)
We have ∀i ∈ N, i ≥ 2,
(n + 2)(n + 3) . . . (n + i) ≥ (n + 2)(n + 2) . . . (n + 2) > 0
| {z } | {z }
i−1 times i−1 times
1 1
⇒ ≤
(n + 2)(n + 3) . . . (n + i) (n + 2)i−1
| {z }
i−1 times

So,
1 1 1 1
|rn+p − rn | ≤ 1+ + + . . . +
(n + 1)! n + 2 (n + 2)2 (n + 2) p−1
QED
R
n+2 1
(b) Remark: (n+1) 2 ≤ 2 , ∀n > 2
Proof:
∀n ∈ N, n > 2,
We have n2 > 4
⇒ n2 + 2n > 2n + 4, i.e adding 2n to both sides
TO
⇒ n2 + 2n + 1 ≥ n2 + 2n > 2(n + 2)
⇒ (n + 1)2 > 2(n + 2)
n+2 1
⇒ < .....................................................................~
(n + 1)2 2
From the sum of a g.p,
1
" #
1 1 − (n+2) p
|rn+p − rn | = 1
(n + 1)! 1 − n+2
1
0 ≤ 1− ≤ 1, ∀n > 2, ∀p ∈ N
(n + 2) p
TU
Thus,
!
1 1
|rn+p − rn | ≤ n+1
(n + 1)! n+2

1 n+2
≤
(n + 1)! n + 1

1 n+1
≤ , i.e applying the inequality in ~
(n + 1)! 2
1
≤
2(n!)
1
≤ , Since 2(n!) ≥ n, ∀n > 2
Y
n
QED
(c) Deducing that (rn )n∈N is a Cauchy’s Sequence and hence converges.
Let ε > 0, Searching for nε ∈ N/∀n, p ∈ N, n ≥ nε ⇒ |rn+p − rn | < ε
In order to have |rn+p − rn | < ε,
M
it suffices to have 1n < ε and n > 2, Since |rn+p − rn | < 1n

i.e n > ε1 and n > 2
We take nε = max 3, E ε1 + 1

(rn )n∈N is therefore a Cauchy’s sequence and since it is a "suite numerique"(Sequence in R), it therefore
converges. We note e its limit.
Note: The condition n > 2 should not be forgotten when looking for nε because it was under that condition
that we found |rn+p − rn | < n1 . So to use the latter property, we must intersect it with the condition under
which it was gotten.

(d) Suppose ∃a, b ∈ N∗ relatively prime/ e = a

b
(i) RQTS for n > b, pn = n!(e − rn ) is a strictly positive integer i.e pn ∈ N∗
n
a n! × a n!
pn = n! − rn = −∑
b b k=0 k!
R
n
= (1)(2) . . . (b − 1)(b + 1) . . . (n − 1)(n)(a) − ∑ (k + 1)(k + 2) . . . (n)
| {z } k=0
∈Z, Since n>b | {z }
∈Z
Thus, pn = n!(e − rn ) ∈ Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
TO
1
But (rn )n∈N is strictly increasing since rn+1 − rn = (n+1)! > 0, ∀n ∈ N
So rn < rn+1 < e ⇒ e − rn > 0 and since n! ≥ 1, ∀n ∈ N,
It follows that and pn > 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
Therefore,(1) and (2) ⇒ pn ∈ N∗ i.e pn ∈ {1, 2, . . .}
(ii) RQTS 0 < pn < 1
• We have already shown that pn > 0
• Now we show thatpn < 1
Let a, b, n ∈ N, n > b
+∞
1 1 1 1
e − rn = ∑ = 1+ + +...
TU
k=n=1 k! (n + 1)! n + 2 (n + 2)(n + 3)

1 1 1
≤ 1+ + + . . .
(n + 1)! n + 2 (n + 2)2
Similar reasoning as (2)(a) above
!
1 1
≤ 1
(n + 1)! 1 − n+2
Sum to infinity of a g.p

1 n+2 1 1
≤ = 1+
(n + 1)! n + 1 (n + 1)! n+1
1
≤ (1 + 1)
(n + 1)!
Y
1+n 1
≤ =
(n + 1)! n!
Since n > b ≥ 1
Thus, n!(e − rn ) < 1

M
Therefore, ∀n ∈ N∗ , 0 < pn < 1

(iii) Conclusion:
We have for ∀n ∈ N, n > b,
(b) ⇒ pn ∈ N∗ i.e pn ∈ {1, 2, 3, . . .} i.e p ≥ 1
(c) ⇒ 0 < pn < 1
Which is a contradiction
So our supposition of e being rational is false
Therefore e is irrational.

Exercise 3
1.
f: R →R
x 7→ E(2x) − 2E(x)
R
(a) Calculation of f(x)
(i) x ∈ [0, 21 [⇒ 0 ≤ x < 1

2
TO
x≥0 ⇒ x − 1 ≥ −1
1
⇒ −1 ≤ x − 1 < E(x) ≤ x <
2
1
⇒ −1 < E(x) <
2
⇒ E(x) = 0
1
Only integer between -1 and 2 exclusively is 0
0 < 2x < 1
TU
2x ≥ 0 ⇒ 2x − 1 ≥ −1
⇒ −1 ≤ 2x − 1 < E(2x) ≤ 2x < 1
⇒ −1 < E(2x) < 1
⇒ E(2x) = 0
Thus, ∀x ∈ [0, 21 [ f (x) = E(2x) − 2E(x) = 0

(ii) x ∈ [ 12 , 1[⇒ 1
2 ≤x<1
1 −1
x≥ ⇒ x−1 ≥
2 2
−1
⇒ ≤ x − 1 < E(x) ≤ x < 1
2
Y
−1
⇒ < E(x) < 1
2
⇒ E(x) = 0
−1
Only integer between 2 and 1 exclusively is 0
1 < 2x < 2
M
2x ≥ 1 ⇒ 2x − 1 ≥ 0
⇒ 0 ≤ 2x − 1 < E(2x) ≤ 2x < 2
⇒ 0 < E(2x) < 2
⇒ E(2x) = 1
Thus, ∀x ∈ [ 12 , 1[ f (x) = E(2x) − 2E(x) = 1 − 0 = 1

(b) RQTS ∀x ∈ R, f (x) ∈ [0, 1[

Let x ∈ R
f (x) = E(2x) − 2E(x)
We have
2x − 1 < E(2x) ≤ 2x ...........................................................................................................(1)
R
Also,
2(x − 1) < 2E(x) ≤ 2x

⇒ −2x ≤ −2E(x) < 2(1 − x) ........................................................................................(2)
TO
(1) + (2) ⇒ −1 < E(2x) − 2E(x) < 2
Therefore, f (x) ∈ N ∩ ] − 1, 2[= {0, 1}
⇒ f (x) ∈ [0, 1]
√
2. Hypothesis: 2 is irrational.
Required to show that
√
x+y 2
x, y ∈ CRQ , x 6= y ⇒ √ ∈ CRQ
1+ 2
i.e p ⇒ q
TU
By contradition, we assume p ∧ ∼ q and we work to arrive at an absurdity.
Assumption:
√ !
x + y 2
x, y ∈ CRQ , x 6= y and √ ∈Q
1+ 2
√ √
x+y 2 x+y 2
√ ∈Q ⇔ ∃q ∈ Q/ √ =q
1+ 2 1+ 2
√ √
⇔ x+y 2 = q+q 2
√
⇔ x − q = (q − y) 2
We now consider 2 cases:

Y
Case 1: y = q:
We thus have x − q = 0 ⇒ x = q = y (absurd)
Since part of our assumption was that x 6= y
Case 2: y 6= q,
We have √ x−q
M
2= ∈Q
q−y
Since x − q, q −
√y ∈ Q and q − y 6= 0
We thus have 2 ∈ Q (absurd)
Hence our supposition was false.
Therefore √
x+y 2
x, y ∈ CRQ , x 6= y ⇒ √ ∈ CRQ
1+ 2

n
n o
3. A = 31n + (−1)
2n , n ∈ N
∗
RQTS A is bounded
i.e ∃M ∈ R∗+ /∀x ∈ A, |x| ≤ M
n
Let x ∈ A, ⇒ ∃n ∈ N∗ /x = 31n + (−1)
2n
R
We have
1 1
∀n ∈ N∗ , 0 ≤ ≤ (7.1)
3n 3
−1 (−1)n 1
and ≤ ≤ (7.2)
2 2n 2
TO
−1 5
(1) + (2) ⇒ ≤ x≤
2 6
⇒ −1 ≤ x≤1
We take M = 1
Therefore A is bounded.
Looking for the supremum and the infimum
First two elements.
n = 1, x = 13 − 12 = −1
6
n = 2, x = 19 + 13
36
TU
13
By intuition, we say our supremum is 36 and we prove this
13
• Let x ∈ A, we show that x ≤ 36
(−1)n
x ∈ A ⇒ ∃n ∈ N∗ /x = 31n + 2n
We consider two cases.
Case 1: n even
x = 31n + 2n
1
n ∈ N∗ and n even ⇒ n ∈ {2, 4, 6, 8, . . .} i.e n ≥ 2
n≥2 ⇒ 3n ≥ 9 and 2n ≥ 4
Y
1 1 1 1
⇒ 0 ≤ n ≤ and 0 ≤ ≤
3 9 2n 4
1 1 1 1 13
⇒ x= n + ≤ + =
3 2n 9 4 36
13
⇒ x≤
36
M
Case 2: n odd
x = 31n − 2n
1
−1 13
For n = 1,x = 6 ≤ 36
1 1 1 1 1 13
For n ≥ 3, x = − ≤ ≤ = ≤
3n 2n |3n {z 33} 27 36
Since n≥3

13 13
• Also, since 36 ∈ A, i.e for n = 2, it follows that 36 is the supremum of A.
−1
We also suppose our infimum is 6 and we prove
−1
• Let Let x ∈ A, we show that x ≥ 6
Case 1: n even
R
1 1 −1
x= n
+ ≥0≥
3 2n 6
Case 2: n odd
1 1
For n = 1, x = 6 ≤ 6
TO
1 1 −1 −1
For n ≥ 3, 0 ≤ ≤ and ≤ ≤0
3n 9 6 2n
−1 1 1 1
⇒ ≤ n− ≤
6 3 2n 9
−1
⇒x≥
6
−1
∴ ∀x ∈ A, x ≥ 6
• Also, −1
6 ∈ A(i.e for n = 1) and since ∀x ∈ A, x ≥
−1
6 , it follows that
TU
−1
6 is the infimum of A
4. B = {x ∈ R∗ , −2 < 2x + 1x < 2}
Investigating whether B is bounded
Let x ∈ B
Case 1: x < 0 Multiplying through by 2x, we have
4x < x2 + 2 < −4x
( Change in inequality since 2x is negative)

•
Y
x2 + 2 > 4x ⇔ x2 − 4x + 2 > 0
√ √
⇔ [x − (2 + 2)][x − (2 − 2)] > 0
√ √
⇔ x > 2+ 2 or x < 2 − 2
| {z }
No solution since x<0
√
M
So x < 2 − 2 and x < 0 ⇒ x < 0

•
x2 + 2 < −4x ⇔ x2 + 4x + 2 < 0

√ √
⇔ [x − (−2 + 2)][x − (−2 − 2)] < 0
√ √
⇔ −2 − 2 < x < −2 + 2

Intersecting both solutions from the separated inequalities, we get

√ √
x ∈] − 2 − 2, −2 + 2[
Case 2: x > 0 Multiplying through by 2x, we have
R
−4x < x2 + 2 < 4x
x2 + 2 > −4x ⇔ x2 + 4x + 2 > 0

√ √
TO
⇔ [x − (−2 − 2)][x − (−2 + 2)] > 0
√ √
⇔ x < −2 − 2 or x > −2 + 2
| {z }
No solution since x>0
√
So x > −2 + 2 and x > 0 ⇒ x > 0
•
x2 + 2 < 4x ⇔ x2 − 4x + 2 < 0
√ √
⇔ [x − (2 − 2)][x − (2 + 2)] < 0
√ √
⇔ 2− 2 < x < 2+ 2
TU
Intersecting both solutions from the separated inequalities, we get
√ √
x ∈]2 − 2, 2 + 2[
Now, we unite the solutions for x > 0 and for x < 0

i.e √ √ √ √
x ∈] − 2 − 2, −2 + 2[∪]2 − 2, 2 + 2[
Therefore, B is bounded since for M = 5, ∀x ∈ B, |x| ≤ M
√
Infimum = −2 − √2
Supremum = 2 + 2
Y
M

My Tutor S1 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

My Tutor S1 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THE ASSOCIATION OF

Under the supervision of NGWASIRI CARLSON 3GTEL

SPECIAL THANKS TO:

• MIKI MIYANG 3GM

• ALEMKENG BRENDA 2MSP

• FRU GERALD 2MSP

Without whom nothing would have been possible

1.1.1 Properties of a Binary Operation

If ∗ is associative, then xn = x| ∗ x ∗ x{z∗ .... ∗ }x

An element e ∈ E is said to be an identity element of E for ∗ if ∀a ∈ E

Theorem: If there exists an identity element, then its unique

By recurrence we can show that

(a1 ∗ a2 ∗ ...... ∗ an )0 = a0n ∗ a0n−1 ∗ ..... ∗ a02 ∗ a01

1.1.2 Types of elements

e.g 0 is absorbant in (ℜ, ×)

4 done By the LATEX team

e.g identity element e ∗ e = e

• Every element has a unique inverse in E

5 done By the LATEX team

⇒ (a ∗ b)−1 = a−1 ∗ b−1

1.3 SUB GROUPS (notation < or ≤)

Proof There are two things to show here

i Show that if H is a subgroup then the conditions hold

6 done By the LATEX team

ii Show that if the conditipons hold, then H is a subgroup

7 done By the LATEX team

1.4 CENTER OF A GROUP

1.5 CENTRALIZER OF A GROUP

If an isomorphism from G to H exist, we say G is isomorphic to H

8 done By the LATEX team

1.7 HOMOMORPHISM OF GROUPS

ϕ(e) = ϕ(eoe) = ϕ(e) ∗ ϕ(e)

h ∗ ϕ(e) = h ∗ ϕ(e) ∗ ϕ(e)

⇒ ϕ(e) is the identity of H

⇒ ϕ(e) = ϕ(aoa−1 ) = ϕ(a) ∗ ϕ(a−1 )

9 done By the LATEX team

iii Let G be abelian and ϕ surjective

ii eH = ϕ(e) ∈ Imϕ since e ∈ G ⇒ Imϕ 6= ∅

Let ϕ(x), ϕ(y) ∈ Imϕ

ϕ(x) ∗ ϕ(y−1 ) ∈ Imϕ

10 done By the LATEX team

ϕ(aob−1 ) = ϕ(a) ∗ ϕ(b−1 ) = ϕ(a) = ϕ(b)−1

1.8 TYPES OF HOMOMORPHISM

Show that f is an automorphism

11 done By the LATEX team

a−1 ∗ a ∗ x ∗ a−1 ∗ a = a−1 ∗ a ∗ y ∗ a−1 ∗ a

1.9 GROUP OPERATING SET

1.12 NORMAL SUBGROUPS

Let H be a subset of the group G. The normalizer of H is defined as N(H) = k ∈ G; kHk−1 = H

Proposition N(H) is a sub group of G

12 done By the LATEX team

1.14.3 Composition of Permutation

13 done By the LATEX team

1.14.4 Inverse Permutation

1.14.5 Cycle of Permutation

14 done By the LATEX team

1.14.7 Parity of a Permutation

ii Even, Since it has an odd number of elements

15 done By the LATEX team

1.14.8 Inverse of Cycle

that is a1 −→ a2 −→ a3 .... −→ ar −→ a1 reversing the arrows to obtain f −1 a1 ←− a2 ←− a3 ... ←− ar ←− a1

4. Let N a non empty set of G.

class of the identity element of G

(a0 ,b0 ) < (a, b) ⇒ a0 ≤ a and 0

g(y)β g(z) ⇒ yαz