Element IC11: Pressure System hazards and controls

1. Outline the specific hazards associated with Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

• A vessel that has contained LPG is nominally empty but may still contain LPG vapour and be
potentially dangerous. Therefore treat all LPG vessels as if they were full
• At very high concentrations when mixed with air, vapour is an anaesthetic and subsequently
an asphyxiant by diluting the available oxygen
• LPG forms a flammable mixture with air in concentrations of between 2% and 10%. It can,
therefore, be a fire and explosion hazard if stored or used incorrectly
• LPG in liquid form can cause severe cold burns to the skin owing to its rapid vapourisation
• LPG is approximately twice as heavy as air when in gas form and will tend to sink to the
lowest possible level and may accumulate in cellars, pits, drains etc.
• Vapour / air mixtures arising from leakages may be ignited some distance from the point of
escape and the flame can travel back to the source of the leak
• Vapourisation can cool equipment so that it may be cold enough to cause cold burns.

2. Identify the four components of a typical vapour compression refrigeration system.

• Compressor
• Condenser
• Thermal expansion valve
• Evaporator.

3. Explain the meaning of `maximum working temperature’ as defined in the The Simple
Pressure Vessels (Safety) Regulations 1991.

'maximum working temperature' means the highest stabilised temperature in the wall of the
vessel under normal conditions of use.

4. List the typical daily inspection requirements of a low-pressure steam boiler

• Observe operating pressure

• Observe water level
• Observe general conditions
• Determine cause of unusual noises or conditions and correct
• Test water column or gauge glass
• Test water condition and perform corrections as necessary
• Record in log.

5. Define `Pressure System’ as contained in the Pressure Systems Safety Regulations 2000.

• A system comprising one or more pressure vessels of rigid construction, any associated
pipework and protective devices
• Pipework with its protective devices to which a transportable pressure receptacle is, or is
intended to be, connected
• Pipeline and its protective devices that contain, or are liable to contain, a relevant fluid,
but do not include a transportable pressure receptacle.

6. List the key components and safety features of pressure systems.

• Bursting discs
• Check valves
 • Fuel cut off/shut off
• Fusible metal plugs
• Level indicators/sensors
• Pressure cut-out or unloading device
• Pressure relief valves
• Safety Valve
• Temperature and pressure gauges
• Water treatment

7. Outline the functions of the following key components of a pressure system.

(a) Safety Valve - Safety valves which would relieve excess pressure when the maximum
safe working pressure of the receiver is attained, or pressure cut-out or unloading device
which cuts off the compressor when the working pressure is reached.

(b) Check Valve - A check valve is essentially a non-return valve to prevent water escaping
from the boiler should the pressure in the feed pipe be less than that in the boiler.

8. Explain the `BLEVE’ phenomenon.

BLEVE stands for Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Cloud Explosion.

The process of a BLEVE is:

1. External heat source heats up the liquid which boils

2. This creates extra vapour pressure inside the vessel
3. Vapour is released via a safety vent
4. External heat source, continues to heat up the liquid which boils
5. With the vapour liquid now released the casing of the vessel heats up
6. Vessel wall will eventually rupture – caused by thermal shock
7. Pressure vessel will explode
Released vapour cloud will come into contact with the external heat source and explode, once
it is within its flammable range.

9. List the mechanisms of mechanical failure in pressure systems.

• Abnormal external loading
• Brittle fracture
• Caustic embrittlement
• Corrosion with internal fluids
• Creep
• Excessive external stress
• Hydrogen embrittlement at welding repairs
• Mechanical fatigue
• Overheating
• Thermal fatigue
• Water hammer

10. Explain how `creep’ can cause mechanical failure in pressure systems.

Within the elastic limits of a material, stress is proportional to strain. When, however, a
material is put under stress near to its elastic limit, it undergoes a process of plastic
deformation, referred to as 'creep'. The extent to which creep acts is dependent upon two
main factors: time and temperature: 'time' as creep is a slow process, and 'temperature' as
 creep can be accelerated by increasing the temperatures. Creep has been known to lead to
the rupture of pressure systems, for example, through fractured steam pipes. It is primarily
controlled by design, in the shape of the components and the choice of materials, for
example, chrome-molybdenum steels have low creep characteristics.

11. List the Information and markings that designers or suppliers of pressure systems should
consider under the Pressure Systems Safety Regulations 2000.

The information and markings will include:

• Corrosion allowances
• Creep life
• Design pressures (maximum and minimum)
• Design standards used and evidence of compliance with national / European /
international standards or documentation showing conformity
• Design temperatures (maximum and minimum)
• Fatigue life
• Flow rates and discharge capacities
• Details of intended contents, especially where the design has been carried
• Materials of construction
• Volume capacities, especially for storage vessels
• Wall thickness.

12. Outline the storage of LPG in:

• Spheres

A sphere is a very strong structure. The even distribution of stresses on the sphere’s
surfaces, both internally and externally, generally means that there are no weak points. Large
volumes of Liquid Natural Gas will often be stored in spheres.

Spheres are used to store low temperature liquids and have the advantage of offering a
reduced exterior surface for a given storage volume compared to all other possible shapes.
However they are expensive to build and cannot be used near or at cryogenic temperatures (-
50° C is the lowest temperature).

• torpedos.

Bulk LPG is often stored in Torpedoes, which are cylindrical shapes with end caps. They are
cheap to build and suitable for low temperature storage, but are not as structurally strong and
can fail under pressure causing the welds of the end caps to fail and thus ejecting them under
pressure. It’s for this reason that the torpedo should never be sited with the end caps facing
any occupied buildings.

13. List the factors that should be considered when planning a suitable maintenance programme
for pressure vessels under the Pressure Systems Safety Regulations 2000.

• Age of the system

• Any previous maintenance history
• Manufacturer's / supplier's instructions
• Operating / process conditions
• Repairs or modifications to the system
• Reports of examinations carried out under the written scheme of examination by the
competent person
• Results of other relevant inspections
• Risks to health and safety from failure or deterioration
• Working environment.