System 80 (2019) 95e106

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System
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/system

Motivation to learn Japanese as a foreign language in an

English speaking country: An exploratory case study in New
Zealand
Ryoko de Burgh-Hirabe 1
University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The conceptualization of L2 motivation has largely involved survey-only studies of English,
Received 10 December 2017 a growing global language, in English as foreign language (EFL) contexts. There has been
Received in revised form 1 October 2018 less consideration of languages other than English, such as Japanese. This study aims to
Accepted 4 November 2018
understand the motivation types and learning experiences of Japanese as a foreign lan-
Available online 5 November 2018
guage (JFL) learners in New Zealand, where foreign language learning is neither required
nor widely valued, and where JFL learner numbers have declined at universities. This
Keywords:
small-scale exploratory semester-long study examines different motivational constructs
Motivation
Languages other than English
through qualitative data from an open-ended questionnaires and quantitative data from an
Japanese as a foreign language L2 motivation survey. Analysis of the data indicated that integrativeness was the major
L2 motivational self-system initial reason for choosing to learn Japanese, but as students engaged in JFL learning and
Integrativeness with the L2 community, they developed ideal L2 selves. Positive L2 learning experiences,
often related to intrinsic orientation to learning, sustained their JFL learning. This study
draws a different picture to previous EFL motivation research about future self-images,
showing that different target languages and diverse reasons for learning should be
considered in analyzing L2 motivation.
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

It is widely acknowledged that motivation plays an important role in successful second language (L2) learning. However,
conceptualisation of L2 motivation has been largely based on survey-only studies in contexts where English is taught as a
foreign language (EFL), with less consideration of motivation to learn a foreign language, such as Japanese, in English speaking
countries (Lanvers, 2014). These two contexts and the role of language learning in them differ: while the study of EFL con-
tinues to grow in non-English speaking countries, there is evidence that foreign language learning in English-speaking
countries may be declining. In New Zealand the number of people learning foreign languages, including Japanese, at the
tertiary level has declined in recent years. This seems to be partly due to “the resolutely monolingual ‘English is all we need’
attitude of many New Zealanders” (McGee, Ashton, Dunn, & Taniwaki, 2013, p. II). The decline in Japanese as a foreign
language (JFL) may also be associated with Japan's weakened economic power and the perception of the difficulty of learning
Japanese. Motivation to learn Japanese in this kind of context might differ from motivation to learn English, a global language.

E-mail address: Ryoko.deburgh-hirabe@ara.ac.nz.

1
Present address: Ara Institute of Canterbury, PO Box 540, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.11.001
0346-251X/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
96 R. de Burgh-Hirabe / System 80 (2019) 95e106

Nonetheless, some students continue to study Japanese at the tertiary level. Knowing their attitudes and the goals that
motivate and learning activities that engage them may be useful in engaging and motivating other students. Thus, this study
aims to better understand the motivation types and learning experiences of JFL learners in New Zealand and the construction
of their future selves using the concepts of integrativeness, intrinsic orientation and the L2 motivational self-system.

2. Literature review

Motivation research in L2 learning was dominated by Gardner's socio-educational model (1985), which included inte-
grativeness and instrumentality. Instrumentality refers to the perceived pragmatic benefits of L2 proficiency, unrelated to
desire to get close to the L2 community, such as getting a better job or higher salary. Integrativeness consists of integrative
orientation, which refers to “a sincere and personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other language
group” (Lambert, 1974, p. 98), the essential element of attitude towards the L2 community (Gardner, 1985), and interest in
learning the L2 in order to get closer to the L2 community (Gardner, 2001). In foreign language contexts where there are few
opportunities to establish contact with L2 speakers, exposure to L2 cultural products such as films, videos and music play a
salient role in indirectly familiarising L2 learners with the L2 community and shaping their L2 attitudes (Do €rnyei, Csize
r, &
Nemeth, 2006, p. 15). If learners like the target culture, they are likely to form positive attitudes towards the L2 speakers
(McEown, Noels, & Saumure, 2014). Therefore, in the present study, interest in (popular) culture is regarded as part of
integrativeness.
Research has consistently shown that integrativeness will lead to success in L2 learning. However, Do € rnyei (2009)
questioned its relevance in foreign language contexts where learners did not have regular access to the communities of
the languages they studied, and suggested that integrativeness might be better explained by the learner's own self-concept.
Do€ rnyei adopted Markus and Nurius’s (1986) possible selves, which are experienced as reality, and represent individuals' self-
images of what they might become (possible self), what they would like to become (ideal self) and what they are afraid of
becoming (feared self). These self-images act as future self-guides. Do €rnyei also adopted Higgins’s (1987) self-discrepancy
theory, which assumes that people are motivated to develop their self-concept to match their personally relevant self-
guides (p. 321).
Drawing on these theories, Do € rnyei (2009) proposed the L2 motivational self system (L2MSS). The ideal L2 self refers to
one's self-image of what one would like to become in relation to the L2. For instance, if learners want to be fluent L2 speakers,
they will engage in self-regulated learning behaviour. In contrast, the ought-to L2 self refers to “the attributes that one be-
lieves one ought to possess to meet expectations and to avoid possible negative outcomes” (Do € rnyei, 2009, p. 29). For example,
a student might study an L2 to avoid disappointing parents who expect it. The third component is L2 learning experience,
such as the impact of teachers, curricula, peer groups, and success. Do €rnyei argues that positive learning experiences are
important because not all L2 learners are initially motivated by self-images to learn an L2.
The L2MSS is “a comprehensive synthesis of past research on the main dimensions of language learning motivation”
(Do€rnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p. 79). In this theory integrativeness is reinterpreted in terms of identification with self-concept,
but attitudes to the target language community logically precede it: the more positive the attitudes of L2 learners to L2
speakers, the stronger their ideal L2 selves. In other words, they have an integrative disposition (Do € rnyei, 2009, p. 27).
Instrumentality with a promotion focus concerns hopes and aspirations, such as learning the L2 for career advancement, and
belongs to the ideal L2 self. Prevention-focused instrumentality concerns avoidance of negative outcomes, such as studying so
as not to fail an exam or not to disappoint one's parent, and belongs to the ought-to L2 self (Do € rnyei, 2009).
Do€ rnyei (2009) also compares his theory to Noels’s (2003) research on L2 motivation. Noels identified intrinsic, extrinsic
and integrative orientation types. Do € rnyei maintains that intrinsic orientation is closely related to L2 learning experience.
According to Noels (2001), intrinsic-knowledge refers to the reason for learning the L2 for the feelings of pleasure deriving
from developing knowledge and satisfying one's curiosity, intrinsic-accomplishments refers to the sensation related to
surpassing oneself and mastering a difficult task, and intrinsic-stimulation refers to learning the L2 for the sensation stim-
ulated by doing the task, such as aesthetic appreciation or fun and excitement in the learning task (Noels, 2001, p. 45).
Extrinsic orientation refers to reasons for learning the L2 “instrumental to some consequence apart from inherent interest in
the activity” (Noels, 2001, p. 46). Noels (2003) found that intrinsic and integrative orientation types are interrelated but not
identical constructs because integrative orientation concerns an extrinsic intergroup situation while intrinsic orientation
concerns the immediate learning situation. This view is also supported by Gardner’s (1985) suggestion that integrative
orientation is extrinsic in that people engage in L2 learning in order to achieve goals that are distinct from pleasure in the
learning per se. Learners who enjoy L2 cultural products because they bring them closer to the culture have integrative
orientation but do not have intrinsic orientation unless they also engage in L2 learning for its own sake.
The L2MSS has been used in numerous quantitative studies conducted in EFL contexts (e.g. Taguchi, Magid, & Papi, 2009;
Yashima, Nishida, & Mizumoto, 2017; You & Do € rnyei, 2016). Such studies provide few insights into how possible selves
operate in individual learners, and so may not be particularly useful for teachers seeking to motivate learners. A small number
of qualitative studies have been conducted using the L2MSS to interpret foreign language learners' motivation (e.g. Doiz &
Lasagabaster, 2018; Lamb, 2009). In Sakeda and Kurata's study (2016), 10 JFL students at an Australian university had ideal
L2 selves which were influenced by L2 learning experiences. In Nakamura’s (2016) comparative study of JFL motivation in
Australia and Korea, the ideal L2 selves of JFL university learners in Australia were associated with interest in popular culture,
and positive L2 learning experiences contributed to continuing learning JFL.
 R. de Burgh-Hirabe / System 80 (2019) 95e106 97

There is other published research on JFL motivation in English speaking countries (e.g. Minagawa, Nesbitt, Ogino, Kawai, &
de Burgh-Hirabe, 2018, in press; Kwok & Carson, 2018). They have found that integrativeness plays an important role. Also,
several studies have explored JFL motivation in Asian countries. In Hong Kong, Humphreys and Miyazoe-Wong's mixed
methods study (2007) found that attitudes to the Japanese language, people and cultural products were the top reason for
majoring in Japanese. Nomura and Yuan's narrative study (2018) reported that interest in Japanese popular culture was the
major initial reason to learn Japanese. In Mainland China, a large-scale study (Gao & Lv, 2018; Lv, Gao, & Teo, 2017) explored
JFL motivation despite increasing anti-Japanese sentiments. It was found that the more the learners gained knowledge about
and first-hand experience with Japan, the more their motivation was enhanced. These studies showed that interest in Jap-
anese popular culture stimulates interest in JFL learning and that integrativeness has an influence on JFL motivation
regardless of the geographical, linguistic and cultural distance from the L2 community.
The aforementioned qualitative studies (Nakamura, 2016; Sakeda & Kurata, 2016) suggest how possible selves operate
within JFL learners in Australia. Although New Zealand and Australia are geographically close, their foreign language
learning contexts are different. Little is known about JFL learners in New Zealand, where foreign language learning is not
prevalent. Why do students in New Zealand learn Japanese? This study addresses the lack of qualitative data from JFL
learners in English speaking countries by exploring the orientation types, future self-images and L2 learning experiences of
individual learners.

3. Research questions

This exploratory study aims to answer the following research questions:

1. What initially motivated JFL university students to choose to learn Japanese?

2. What current motivation types did the JFL university students have for Japanese learning?
3. What did the JFL students report about their Japanese learning experiences inside and outside the classroom, and how
were they related to their motivation for learning Japanese?

4. Methods

This study is part of a larger unpublished study that over a three-month period examined JFL university students’ general
motivation to learn Japanese, reported here, and specific motivation to read extensively in Japanese, not reported here.
This mixed methods study mainly adopts a qualitative approach. Maxwell (2005) observes that qualitative research is
especially suited for “understanding something e gaining insight into what is going on and why this is happening, or
answering some question that previous research has not adequately addressed” (p. 21). Since no studies focusing on
individual JFL learners using the L2MSS have been conducted in New Zealand, mainly a qualitative approach has been
taken.

4.1. Research setting and participants

This study was conducted in a university located on the South Island in New Zealand. The university has around
20,000 students. The city has population of around 120,000, making it the fifth largest in New Zealand. There is a small
community of Japanese people in addition to Japanese international students at the university. The Japanese under-
graduate program offers introductory, intermediate, and advanced Japanese language courses, taken as a major, minor, or
for interest, and includes domestic students and international students, mainly from Asian countries. Classes meet four
times a week.
At the beginning of the first semester, the entire intermediate and advanced cohort (n ¼ 69) was invited to participate in
the project. The researcher was the instructor. Sixteen students volunteered to participate, seven in intermediate and nine in
advanced Japanese courses. The profiles of the 16 participants are summarized in Table 1; all names are pseudonyms. Because
their profiles differ from the other 13 participants, the three non-native English speaker students are briefly described here.
Lily was an international student from Hong Kong and aspired to be an English teacher in Hong Kong after graduation. She
became interested in Japanese language and culture by watching Japanese television dramas from the age of 13. Richard, the
oldest participant, was an L1 French speaker. He had lived in New Zealand for a long time and was fluent in English. Richard
had travelled to Japan twice, and was interested in Japanese language and culture and being able to communicate with
Japanese people. Stan, an L1 Chinese speaker, had lived in New Zealand for 10 years since he emigrated from Malaysia at the
age of 11. He had a high level of English proficiency and became interested in Japanese popular culture by watching Japanese
anime from the age of 10. Stan had travelled to Japan three times and had a positive attitude towards Japan (e.g. “awesome
technology”; “kind people”).
The researcher followed institutional ethical procedures to ensure that participants’ rights were protected. A further
caution was taken to prevent them from experiencing any stress or anxiety because the researcher was their teacher. It was
made clear at the time of recruitment and throughout the project that the project had no influence on their course marks.
98 R. de Burgh-Hirabe / System 80 (2019) 95e106

Table 1
Participant profiles.

Name Age Course Major(s) L1

Richard 33 Intermediate Maori studies French
Japanese
Hayley 19 Intermediate Psychology English
Lily 20 Intermediate Linguistics Cantonese
Sean 20 Intermediate Biomedical science English
Sarah 18 Intermediate Law English
Japanese
Emma 20 Intermediate Physiology English
Susan 20 Intermediate Linguistics English
Spanish
Japanese
Tom 21 Advanced Neuroscience English
Ted 31 Advanced Japanese English
David 23 Advanced Law English
Japanese
Ben 20 Advanced Linguistics English
Japanese
Stan 20 Advanced Computer Science Chinese
John 21 Advanced Japanese English
Kirsten 19 Advanced Chinese English
Japanese
Caitlin 19 Advanced Japanese English
Heidi 20 Advanced Linguistics English
Japanese

4.2. Procedures

Data collection was conducted during the first semester at the aforementioned university. The researcher distributed
written questionnaires concerning aspects of JFL learning orientation, motivation and out-of-class learning by email in the
first week, sixth week, and fifteenth week of the semester. In the fifteenth week, their L2 motivational self-system was sought
through a six-point Likert scale survey. The students returned their completed questionnaires by email or in hard copy within
one to two weeks.

4.2.1. Study quality

The trustworthiness of this study was enhanced through multiple mixed method data sets that were collected (Lincoln &
Guba, 1985). Data collection at different times was primarily driven by the other part of the study that investigated change in
motivation to read extensively in Japanese, which also reduced the participants’ fatigue in this study as fewer questions were
asked each time, which may have contributed to more accurate and thoughtful responses.

4.2.2. Written questionnaires and their analysis

Three written questionnaires in which the participants responded to open-ended questions related to JFL motivation were
developed by the researcher (see Appendix A). The questions were based mainly on interview questions used in de Burgh-
Hirabe's study (2011). Written questionnaires were used instead of interviews because they were more time-efficient. Long
and detailed personal accounts were not sought for the purposes of this study, but questionnaires with open-ended questions
allow respondents greater freedom of expression than closed-ended questionnaire items (Do € rnyei & Taguchi, 2009, p. 36).
The first questionnaire contained 13 questions to discover the participants' background information and a prospective
view of students' motivational orientation types because students did not yet have a chance to show effort or have many
learning experiences. The second questionnaire (three questions) focused on the participants’ current state of motivation,
perceptions of how they maintained their motivation, and family influence on their motivation. The third questionnaire (five
questions) included questions for the participants to reflect on their learning effort for the Japanese class and beyond the
classroom. The second and third questionnaires included an open comment question to allow participants to express their
thoughts freely. Unclear responses were resolved by seeking clarification before the subsequent questionnaire, and follow-up
questions were tailored to individual students.
For behavioural and attitudinal questions, participants’ comments were analysed in two stages. In the initial coding,
concepts related to the research questions were underlined and assigned a code that reflected the concept (Ellis & Barkhuizen,
2005). For example, “I wanted to be able to communicate” was underlined and assigned the code want to communicate, “I like
learning Japanese” was assigned the code like learning Japanese, and “my parents … pressured me to continue with Japanese”
was assigned the code family influence. This procedure was repeated until all completed questionnaires were coded. Initial
coding was iterative: when a new questionnaire was coded, the researcher checked codes in previous questionnaires to
ensure that similar concepts were being coded, and codes were revised or added when different concepts were noticed.
 R. de Burgh-Hirabe / System 80 (2019) 95e106 99

After students' comments were coded, the researcher assigned more abstract codes (subcategories and categories) that
subsumed similar concepts from the initial coding (Do €rnyei, 2007). At this level of coding, the researcher drew on her
knowledge of motivational theory by recognizing that the coded student comments had coalesced into patterns which best
€rnyei's L2MSS. Each coded
corresponded to Gardner's integrativeness and instrumentality, Noels' intrinsic orientation, and Do
student comment was categorised using the following categories:

1. Integrativeness, subsuming codes such as interest in (popular) culture, attitude towards the L2 community, and want to
communicate;
2. Intrinsic orientation, subsuming codes such as like learning the L2 (intrinsic-stimulation) and intellectual challenge (intrinsic-
accomplishment);
3. The ideal L2 self, subsuming codes such as desire to live in Japan and becoming fluent in the L2;
4. The ought-to L2 self, subsuming codes such as family influence;
5. L2 learning experience, subsuming codes such as enjoy Japanese class.

To illustrate, several codes such as want to communicate and interest in culture expressed the idea of wanting to interact
with the target language community, and so were assigned the code integrativeness. Becoming fluent in the L2 was categorised
under the ideal L2 self because it expressed the idea of what students would like to become. Family influence expressed the
idea of others influencing the self as captured by the code the ought-to L2 self, while like the Japanese class was categorised
under L2 learning experience. Thus, both inductive and deductive approaches were used to analyze the data (Ellis &
Barkhuizen, 2005).
To ensure accuracy, intrarater reliability (Philp, 2003) of approximately 92% was established when the researcher recoded
approximately 27% of the data seven months later. The discrepancy occurred in some of the comments where coding de-
cisions were difficult to make. For example, the researcher recoded “being able to speak a different language makes me feel
good about myself, because not many people in NZ are bi-lingual” as intrinsic-accomplishment instead of its original code of
self-esteem, which was part of the ideal L2 self category. During the intrarater reliability check, the researcher realized that the
ideal L2 self refers to the future self-images, and there was no evidence to suggest that this student envisaged that. The
researcher recognized that the student enjoyed her sense of competence, and recoded the comment as intrinsic-
accomplishment (Noels, 2001), and categorized it under intrinsic orientation.

4.2.3. L2 motivation survey and its analysis

Another method of data collection used in this study was a survey accompanying the third questionnaire to corroborate
written questionnaire data. A six-point Likert scale survey developed by Taguchi et al. (2009, pp. 74e75) was adapted for the
study. Their survey includes the three components of the L2MSS and other L2 motivation components but for the purposes of
this study, only the criterion measure, the ideal L2 self, the ought-to L2, and L2 learning experience were used (see Appendix B
for sample items):

1. Criterion measures e Ten items assessed the learners' intended efforts toward learning Japanese.
2. Ideal L2 self e Ten items were designed to measure the “L2-specific facet of one's ideal self” (Do€rnyei, 2009, p. 29).
€ rnyei, 2009,
3. Ought-to L2 self e Ten items were design to measure “the attributes that one believes one ought to possess” (Do
p. 29).
4. L2 learning experience e Ten items were designed to measure situation-specific motives related to the immediate learning
environment and experience.

Criterion measures were included to look at the extent to which participants intended to expend their learning efforts and
whether it was associated with self-regulated learning behaviour (out-of-class Japanese related activities) in relation to the
third research question. Survey data were entered into Microsoft Excel worksheets. Answers were coded from 1 to 6, where
1 ¼ Strongly disagree/not at all, 2 ¼ Disagree/not so much, 3 ¼ Slightly disagree/so-so, 4 ¼ Slightly agree/a little, 5 ¼ Agree/
quite a lot, and 6 ¼ Strongly agree/very much. For each individual student, an average score and standard deviation of each
factor were calculated. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were also calculated, using the software R (R Development Core Team,
2014) and the R package 'psy' (Falissard, 2012). Table 2 shows that all four factors had reliability coefficients over 0.70. The
questionnaire was therefore an internally consistent indicator of the L2MSS with this group of participants.

Table 2
Reliability coefficients in the whole sample for each factor.

Factors Alpha
1. Criterion measures .72
2. Ideal L2 self .78
3. Ought-to L2 self .93
4. L2 learning experience .84
100 R. de Burgh-Hirabe / System 80 (2019) 95e106

5. Results

The following sections are organised according to the research questions. For the first research question, qualitative data
will be presented with quantitative summaries of how many participants shared similar views integrated with it. For the
second and third research questions, quantitative data, which provide an overall picture, are presented first, and then
qualitative data, which provide in-depth information, are presented.

5.1. Initial motivation to learn Japanese

Qualitative data indicate that orientation, not the L2MSS, motivated students to choose to learn Japanese.

5.1.1. Integrativeness
The majority of students (13) initially became interested in Japanese because of integrative orientation, through interest in
popular culture (5) and traditional culture or culture in general (4), without it being related to language learning. For instance,
Stan said, “[I] was shown an anime called Ranma ½, … and started liking Japanese anime, and the Japanese songs,” and John
said, “When I was in primary school … me and my best friend at the time became obsessed with Samurai and feudal Japan. I
think my interest grew from there.” Three students' initial motivation concerned personal connections with Japanese people.
Kirsten had a Japanese homestay person who exposed her to Japanese culture and built a strong bond with her when she was
a child. Two students mentioned that their interest grew after they visited Japan. Ben went to Japan on a karate trip when he
was 16. He said, “I loved being able to speak to people there, and my interest grew from that … After I returned, I decided to
learn Japanese because I enjoyed it very much when I was there.” Thus, most students’ initial motivation involved cultural
interest, personal connection with the L2 speakers and positive first-hand experience in the L2 community, all of which are
related to integrativeness.

5.1.2. Intrinsic orientation

Three students chose to learn Japanese due to reasons other than integrativeness. They had little exposure to Japanese
language or culture at the time of selecting the language, and intrinsic orientation played a role. Although Japanese is an
elective in New Zealand high schools, some schools make a foreign language compulsory in the first year. Tom knew Japanese
had a reputation for being a difficult language to learn, and perceived that it would provide challenges that he could rise to,
demonstrating his sense of intrinsic-accomplishment.
The next section explores the reported motivation of the students during the course.

5.2. Motivation to learn Japanese and future self-images during the course

The qualitative data indicated that despite the absence of future self-guides at the outset, positive L2 learning experience
helped sustain motivation for JFL learning, and was often related to students' intrinsic orientation to learning. Ideal L2 selves
developed as students engaged in JFL learning and experienced the L2 community first-hand, and were often related to the
students’ integrative orientation. The ideal L2 selves helped sustain motivation for JFL learning by functioning as future self-
guides.

5.2.1. Connections between orientation types, past L2 experiences and ideal L2 selves
Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics of L2 motivation survey.
The ideal L2 self factor had a high mean value (4.92/6.00), which suggests that the students envisaged themselves as fluent
users of Japanese who could engage in effective communication. However, they did not appear to think that they would
achieve native speaker fluency or would be studying in Japanese-medium courses in a university to a great degree.
Qualitative data suggested that all students except Lily (described below) had ideal L2 selves related to integrativeness.
Unlike the powerful influence of popular culture that other studies suggest, more students in this study were interested in the
L2 culture in general than popular culture. However, as an international student in New Zealand, Lily planned to return to
Hong Kong after graduation and teach English there. Although her ideal L2 self involved English, Lily was interested in
Japanese and its popular culture, saying “I will still learning [sic] Japanese when [sic] I still enjoy learning it.”

Table 3
Descriptive statistics of factors.

Factors Mean SD
1. Criterion measures a 5.01 .48
2. Ideal L2 self 4.92 .54
3. Ought-to L2 self 1.88 .90
4. L2 learning experience 5.47 .50
a
Criterion measures assess the learners' intended efforts toward learning Japanese.
 R. de Burgh-Hirabe / System 80 (2019) 95e106 101

5.2.1.1. Ideal L2 selves. For the other participants (15), it seems natural that their integrativeness, such as interest in culture and
positive attitudes to the L2 community, made them imagine themselves living in Japan. For example, Susan said, “Japanese
language and culture appeal to me and [I] intend to go to Japan.” Many students (10) intended to work there, with teaching
English was the most frequently mentioned job (6). Six students also mentioned the Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET)
Programme, which allows people with a university degree to be assistant language teachers in foreign language classrooms in
Japan. For instance, Ben said, “I would one day like to apply for the JET programme and work in Japan for a while.” Four
students expressed their desire to study in Japan (e.g. “I am considering studying in Japan in the future” [Sean]). Closely linked
to future aspirations of living in Japan were the JFL students' ideal L2 selves as fluent speakers of Japanese. Being able to
communicate with Japanese people was important for the majority of students (9), as represented by John's statement, “I
want to become as fluent as I possibly can.” However, as the quantitative data showed, only three students aimed at a very
high level of proficiency.
As mentioned above, instrumentality with a promotion focus, such as learning an L2 for professional advancement, is
linked to the ideal L2 self. The majority of JFL learners in this study lacked this type of instrumentality. Rather, they perceived
that finding work in Japan was a means to achieve their ideal L2 selves of integrating into the L2 community. To illustrate,
Caitlin, who mentioned the JET programme, said, “I love Japan as a country, and wanting to speak the language comes
naturally as part of that love.” Her comment indicates a high level of integrativeness alongside her plan to work. Two students
wanted to “live there for a short while,” and their career plans were unrelated to Japanese. Only two students’ goals were
related to their professional aspirations (e.g. “I ultimately want to become a translator/interpreter, so I need a native level of
fluency!” [Kirsten]). This finding accords with the quantitative data in that students who did not expect to be highly proficient
also did not link JFL to job promotion, success, or wealth. Thus, for this group of JFL learners, integrativeness seems to have
sparked their ideal L2 selves.

5.2.1.2. Past L2 learning experiences. Part of the L2MSS involves the L2 learning experience, which students do not have
until they are actually engaged in L2 learning. Qualitative data indicate that students (7) who learned Japanese at high
school reported they continued Japanese at university because of their intrinsic motivation: they enjoyed it or did well
(e.g. “I chose Japanese, and enjoyed it so much that I continued to study it through high school” [Caitlin]). They further
developed interest in Japan and positive attitudes to the L2 speakers through trips and exchange programs. To illustrate,
when Tom entered high school he chose Japanese to challenge himself. Four years later, he went to Japan on a school trip,
and the positive experience cemented his commitment to learning Japanese because of “my hospitable and loving
homestay family, who really made me feel like one of their own. … It was from this trip that I started to seriously
consider undertaking a career that would involve Japan.” It can be seen that his positive attitude to L2 speakers was
fostered through integration with his homestay family, and integrativeness was added to his already existing intrinsic
motivation. Both generated synergy resulting in Tom's ideal L2 self, as he became interested in a job in order to facilitate
further integration into life in Japan.

5.2.1.3. Ideal selves as future self-guides. Students’ comments suggest that their ideal L2 selves functioned as future self-
guides. Susan, who was due to go to Japan in the near future, said “thinking about going to Japan motivates me to
keep learning.” John commented, “I think that my end goal for what I want to achieve and become keeps me
motivated.” These comments accord with the L2MSS assumption that learners will be motivated to learn the lan-
guage “because of our psychological desire to reduce the discrepancy between our current and possible future selves”
(Do€ rnyei, 2009, p. 4).

5.2.2. Lack of the ought-to L2 self

In the survey the ought-to L2 self factor had the lowest mean value (below 2.00/6.00), which indicates that this group of
learners were not studying Japanese for the sake of significant others or to avoid possible negative outcomes (see Table 3).
Three students scored somewhat higher (around 3.50/6.00) than others. Of these three, David had Persian and Sean had
Chinese parents. The ought-to L2 self plays a more important role for Chinese and Iranian students, as in these cultures an
individual's success raises the family's prestige and demonstrates students meeting family expectations (Taguchi et al., 2009).
Another student, Tom, scored much higher (5.00/6.00) on items including “Studying Japanese is important to me because an
educated person is supposed to be able to speak Japanese” and “because other people will respect me more if I have a
knowledge of Japanese.” This suggests that Tom's ought-to L2 self reflects the kind of person he believes he ought to become,
rather than avoidance of negative outcomes (Do €rnyei, 2009).
Concepts related to the ought-to L2 self did not emerge strongly from the qualitative data. Almost all students (15) re-
ported that their families had either no influence or provided encouragement and support (e.g. “they encourage me because it
is something that I want to do” [John]). Nearly half of the students' (6) comment suggest that their parents had positive
attitudes to language learning. For instance, Ben wrote, “They like the fact that I can speak another language as it is an op-
portunity they did not have as kids.” Only one student's comment indicate that he may have had an ought-to L2 self. David
wrote, “My parents … pressured me to continue with Japanese because of its many benefits.” However, he also reported his
long strong interest in Japanese history and had a higher mean value (4.90/6.00) in the ideal L2 self, indicating that he was not
primarily driven by a sense of duty imposed by his parents.
102 R. de Burgh-Hirabe / System 80 (2019) 95e106

5.3. JFL learning experiences inside and outside the classroom and their relationship with motivation

In the survey the criterion measures factor had a high mean value (5.01/6.00), which indicates that the JFL learners in the
study were highly motivated learners who intended to expend great effort in their learning of Japanese. The L2 learning
experience factor had the highest mean value (5.47/6.00) (see Table 3). This suggests that the JFL learners found Japanese
learning interesting and enjoyable, and that they liked their Japanese classes to a great extent.
The qualitative data are congruent with the quantitative data. Of the 16 students, most (13) reported working hard on their
course. All students (16) commented that they liked/loved/enjoyed learning Japanese in the course. In one case, John felt the
course was not directly relevant to his needs (communicating with Japanese people), but he still enjoyed it, describing it as
fun. These positive results may be related to the JFL learners being volunteers; a study of whole cohort might yield different
results.

5.3.1. Intrinsic motivation

Students’ comments suggest that JFL learners had positive L2 learning experiences which they associated with intrinsic
motivation. More than half of the students (9) reported that their enjoyment of learning the language and love for Japanese
motivated their learning (e.g. “I am studying something I love. I think it is easier to stay motivated” [Ted]). The Japanese
language had a special appeal to some of the students for being different to other languages (3) (e.g. “I like the different
orthography. Japanese appeals to me more than other Asian languages because I have been exposed to it through friends”
[Susan]), for personal satisfaction (3) (e.g. “I enjoy the happiness of understanding the songs and dramas that I used to watch”
[Lily], for providing a sense of accomplishment through competence (3) (e.g. “being able to speak a different language makes
me feel good about myself, because not many people in NZ are bi-lingual” [Kirsten]), and for being intellectually challenging
(1) (e.g. “I enjoy the challenge of learning Japanese” [Tom]). Thus, the JFL students perceived L2 learning was enjoyable and
satisfying in itself, which contributed to positive L2 learning experiences.

5.3.2. Out-of-class activities as learning tools

Of particular importance is that almost all students (15) reported engaging in out-of-class Japanese related activities. (See
below for the exception.) Listening to Japanese music was the most popular and frequently enjoyed activity, with the majority
(9) doing it regularly (e.g. “Almost every day I listen to Japanese songs while I am studying” [Lily]). Another popular activity
was watching anime, TV dramas and films, with half of the students (8) engaging in this activity on a daily or weekly basis.
Eleven students mentioned that they spoke Japanese with L2 speakers, and six students reported doing so regularly (e.g. “I
met with my Japanese Language Match partner every Wednesday to practise Japanese conversation” [Richard]). Although
students engaged in out-of-class activities mainly for pleasure, most students (13) also valued them as learning tools (e.g.
“knowing song lyrics helps remember the meanings of words” [Caitlin]). The major view was that practising Japanese in
“social” and “real-life” contexts facilitated its acquisition. Thus, the students in this study showed characteristics of auton-
omous learners as they used Japanese for pleasure or interest simultaneously with the intention of learning (Benson, 2011, p.
139). John's comment below indicates a connection among the ideal L2 self, self-regulated behaviour, and intrinsic
motivation:
I feel that through enjoyable activities, it becomes easier to remember new things, because it isn't boring and there can
be some sense of self direction - learning what one wants to learn feels like more of an accomplishment at times, when
there is a clear goal in mind.
Taking control of his own learning gave this student a sense of accomplishment because he had a clear goal.
Student engagement varied among individuals, and one student reported no out-of-class learning. Descriptive statistics
showed that Sarah's ideal L2 self mean value was the lowest (4.20/6.00) among the participants, though qualitative data
suggest that she had strong cultural interest and desire to communicate with the L2 speakers. Sarah seems to have differed
from the participant in Lamb’s (2009) case study who overcame her frustration with classroom learning by doing out-of-class
learning. In contrast, Sarah found Japanese to be her best classroom subject. Perhaps she did not engage in out-of-class
learning because she was satisfied with her classroom performance.

6. Discussion

This study aimed to explore JFL learners' initial and current motivation to learn Japanese, future self-images and L2
learning experiences. This study makes contributions to the literature as it addresses the lack of qualitative research on
motivation to learn foreign languages other than English (LOTEs) and synthesizes different constructs of L2 motivation to
understand JFL motivation. Qualitative data showed that integrativeness played an important role in language choice and that
particularly interest in (popular) culture was a way into JFL learning interest. This accords with recent survey results of New
Zealand tertiary students’ motivation to learn JFL (Minagawa et al., 2018, in press). That study reports that language interest
and cultural interest were the two top reasons for initially learning Japanese. McGee et al. (2013) maintain that in New
Zealand the reasons for choosing Japanese as a subject are related to instrumentality, which is largely influenced by parents.
However, none of the students in this study mentioned instrumentality or being influenced by significant others as an initial
motivation to study Japanese.
 R. de Burgh-Hirabe / System 80 (2019) 95e106 103

With regard to motivation types during the course, quantitative data showed that JFL leaners envisaged themselves as
fluent users of Japanese. Qualitative data revealed that their ideal L2 selves were sparked by integrativeness and developed
through first-hand experiences with the L2 community. This finding supports a suggestion that integrativeness may be
important in foreign LOTE contexts (Kwok & Carson, 2018). This study also showed that instrumentality was not part of their
ideal L2 selves. For most of the students, getting a job was perceived as a means to attain the ideal L2 self of integrating into
the L2 community. This contrasts with studies in EFL contexts that have shown instrumentality as an important element of
the ideal L2 self.
Another important finding is that intrinsic motivation was essential for JFL learners' developing their ideal L2 selves. They
started learning Japanese without future self-guides, but intrinsic motivation enabled them to have positive learning expe-
riences and continue their JFL learning. This continuation provided opportunities to experience the L2 community first-hand,
influencing their ideal L2 selves. This finding accords with other studies on JFL motivation (Nomura & Yuan, 2018; Sakeda &
Kurata, 2016). JFL learners’ ideal L2 selves were constructed through L2 experiences. JFL learners in Mainland China also
developed integrativeness through learning more about and gaining first hand experiences with the L2 community, which in
turn enhanced their motivation to learn Japanese (Gao & Lv, 2018; Lv et al., 2017). However, the ideal L2 self appears to be
qualitatively different between JFL learners in this study and Chinese JFL learners. Chinese JFL learners aspired to own at-
tributes of Japanese people such as politeness (Nomura & Yuan, 2018), whereas the ideal L2 selves of JFL learners in New
Zealand did not have this element.
While this group of JFL learners had clear ideal L2 selves, the ought-to L2 self was weak. The L2MSS assumes that the
ideal L2 self will be motivationally effective if the ideal L2 self and the ought-to L2 self are in harmony. If the student's ideal
L2 self is in conflict with the ought-to L2 self, which is influenced by social context (e.g. social discourse and peer group
norms about the value of L2 learning), the ideal self will not be as effective (Do€rnyei, 2009). It seems that for the JFL learners
in this study, both their classroom experience and their parents' influence were in harmony with their ideal L2 selves. The
lack of influence of social discourse contrasts with qualitative studies about students in EFL contexts who study English
because they either have internalised those discourses or are trying to avoid negative consequences (Kim, 2009; Lamb,
2009). In contrast, New Zealand does not have such strong social discourse in the wider society about the importance of
studying foreign languages.
Quantitative and qualitative data showed that the ideal L2 selves of this group of JFL learners contributed to their
motivational intensity, enjoyment of learning Japanese in class and engagement in out-of-class activities. Additionally,
the synergy of intrinsic motivation and integrativeness appeared to contribute to sustaining JFL motivation. Students
related positive L2 learning experiences to intrinsic motivation, which was often inseparable from integrativeness.
Susan's interest in the Japanese language was related to personal connections with friends. Lily's interest in Japanese
popular culture and personal satisfaction were linked, which is in line with Humphreys and Miyazoe-Wong’s (2007)
study of other Hong Kong university students whose JFL study was motivated by Japanese cultural products. The ma-
jority of the students reported liking both the L2 culture and learning the language when they commented they loved
Japanese. This aligns with the result of the Canadian JFL motivation study (McEown et al., 2014), in which intrinsic
motivation was strongly related to integrative orientation, with over 40% of students' open-ended responses about
intrinsic motivation including integrativeness.
Qualitative data showed that JFL learners, who had intrinsic motivation and integrativeness, also exhibited traits of
autonomous learners as they engaged in out-of-class activities with intention to learn. According to research in educational
psychology, motivation is necessary for learners to seek learning opportunities using self-regulatory strategies, but at the
same time, self-regulation and autonomous learning develop intrinsic motivation (Kormos & Csize r, 2013). McEown et al.
(2014) found that intrinsic motivation predicted L2 learning engagement better, while integrative orientation predicted
community engagement better. As the results indicated, JFL learners’ ideal L2 selves were mainly shaped by integrativeness,
and they enjoyed learning Japanese in and beyond the classroom. Therefore, it makes sense that they had a high level of
intended learning effort and engagement in out-of-class activities.

7. Conclusion

This study is the first to explore motivation to learn JFL in New Zealand by using motivational orientation types
and the L2MSS, and draws a different picture to previous motivation research in EFL contexts about future self-
images. In New Zealand, people generally do not see a need for learning Japanese or other LOTEs to succeed in
their careers or become members of a global society. Rather, integrativeness played an important role in stimulating
JFL motivation. A small number of studies conducted in JFL contexts both in English speaking and non-English
speaking countries have also suggested the importance of integrativeness as a motivational orientation. In this
study an L1 Chinese speaker who studied both English and Japanese had an ideal L2 self involving English, and the
additional language was more related to intrinsic orientation and interest in popular culture. Thus, this study pro-
vides additional support for a view that different target languages and the diversity of reasons for learning should be
considered in analysing L2 motivation (Duff, 2017).
There are pedagogical implications that can be drawn from the findings that are relevant to other foreign languages in
other contexts than New Zealand. The learners in this study developed interest in Japan during overseas experiences, such as
for sports, that sparked interest in learning Japanese. It may be a good idea to increase exchange or field trip opportunities
104 R. de Burgh-Hirabe / System 80 (2019) 95e106

before people start tertiary education in order to create interest in foreign language learning. This study also showed that the
participants had enjoyable JFL learning experiences in and beyond the classroom that sustained their motivation for studying
Japanese. This underlines the need for teachers to create learning environments that keep students motivated, for example by
consulting books on promoting the ideal L2 self (Hadfield & Do € rnyei, 2013) and informing students about non-classroom
activities. Engaging directly with students can also reveal what students enjoy, including affordances provided through
digital technologies for L2 learning (Ushioda, 2011).
The findings of this study need to be considered with caution due to the small number of participants and the fact that
their motivation to participate reflected higher general levels of motivation than the average student might experience. The
qualitative data also indicated individual variations that are inevitable. However, both types of information may help
teachers recognize motivational issues in their own students. Another limitation is that the L2MSS survey was adminis-
tered at the end of the course. Administering it in the middle of the course might have provided a current instead of
retrospective view; however, it would not have included students’ experiences from the second half of the course, which
arguably was more important.
Future research may want to look at how orientation becomes motivation involving effort as well as direction. Perhaps the
ideal L2 self and L2 learning experience work together to increase motivation; perhaps the ideal self supports self-regulated
learning. Large-scale studies on why JFL learners and other foreign language learners discontinue their studies in New
Zealand and elsewhere are also needed to see if such students are differently motivated, or if other factors influence their
decisions. One such study (Olsen, 2017), confirms that the L2 learning experience is crucial for New Zealand foreign language
learners to continue their L2 study, but that non-L2 factors (such as heavy course loads and career prospects) also influence
language study decisions. More studies could confirm the general trend reported here and elsewhere and help us better
understand and promote motivation to learn LOTEs in New Zealand and elsewhere.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments. I would also like to thank
Anne Feryok for her support and Britta Basse for assistance with statistical analysis.

Appendix A. Sample questions in written questionnaires

One

 How long have you been learning Japanese?

 When did you first become interested in Japanese? What age and why?
 What are your reasons for learning Japanese?
 What is your goal for learning Japanese?
 What are your plans after getting your undergraduate degree?

Two

 How much influence does your family (especially parents) have on your studying Japanese?
 How would you describe your present state of motivation for learning Japanese in general? Please state reason(s) why you
think you are in that state.
 How do you manage to stay motivated? Do you have any strategies for dealing with, controlling, or maximising your
motivation during the course of your study?
 Please feel free to make any comments related to the learning of Japanese.

Three

 How much did you enjoy your Japanese classes this semester?
 How much effort did you put into the Japanese course this semester?
 Did you engage in any activities involving Japanese outside class this semester? How important is it to do such things other
than course related work?
 Please feel free to make any comments related to the learning of Japanese.
 R. de Burgh-Hirabe / System 80 (2019) 95e106 105

Appendix B. Sample items in the L2 motivation survey

1. Criterion measures

 I am working hard at learning Japanese.

 I am prepared to expend a lot of effort in learning Japanese.
 I would like to concentrate on studying Japanese more than any other topic.
 I would like to study Japanese even if I were not required.

2. Ideal L2 self

 I can imagine myself living in Japan and using Japanese effectively for communicating with the locals.
 I imagine myself as someone who is able to speak Japanese.
 I can imagine myself speaking Japanese as if I were a native speaker of Japanese.
 Whenever I think of my future career, I imagine myself using Japanese.
 I can imagine myself studying in a university where all my courses are taught in Japanese.

3. Ought-to L2 self

 I study Japanese because close friends of mine think it is important.

 I have to study Japanese, because, if I do not study it, I think my parents will be disappointed with me.
 Studying Japanese is important to me in order to gain the approval of my peers/teachers/family/boss.
 Studying Japanese is important to me because other people will respect me more if I have a knowledge of Japanese.

4. L2 learning experience

 I like the atmosphere of my Japanese classes.

 I find learning Japanese really interesting.
 I always look forward to Japanese classes.
 I really enjoy learning Japanese.
 Would you like to have more Japanese lessons at university?

Appendix C. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.11.001.

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